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Alcohol in the Atlantic
David Carey Jr.
Dating from the earliest times in Latin America, alcohol has played a crucial social, economic, political, and cultural role. Often reserved for politico-religious leaders, alcohol was a conduit through which power flowed in many pre-contact indigenous societies; indigenous drinkways (production, commerce, and consumption habits) were associated with communal ritual events and social prestige. Introduced to the Americas by Europeans, distillation profoundly altered the potency of alcoholic drinks for people who were accustomed to fermentation. Even as the social and cultural practices of alcohol consumption changed over time, alcohol continued to have political and economic implications in the colonial and national periods in Latin America. Fearing that inebriation bred disorder and recognizing that moonshining undercut their own revenues, colonial and national governments alike sought to regulate, if not control, the production, sale, and consumption of alcohol. In nations as diverse as Mexico, Bolivia, Peru, and Guatemala, indigenous women came to play integral roles in the (oftentimes illicit) sale and production of alcohol. A cash nexus for moving labor and land and a crucial component of the economic system by which (often unscrupulous) labor brokers recruited workers, alcohol was a currency of local economies. As a commodity of local, national, and international significance, alcohol shaped the fate of nation-states.
People's class, ethnic, race, and gender identities all played into their access to alcohol. Although a person's choice of libation could define their position, some of the more fascinating histories of alcohol are punctuated with women and men who used alcohol to disrupt social conventions. Through the consumption of alcohol, rituals and ceremonies created and reconstituted community both within and across ethnic groups. Imbibing could also divide people. Even while they sipped their cognacs and brandies, elites portrayed indigenous people, the poor, and other marginalized people getting drunk on moonshine to discount and denigrate them. Often associated with (particularly violent) crime, alcohol was seen as a vice by many and excoriated during temperance movements. Yet defendants across Latin America took advantage of judicial systems that considered alcohol a mitigating circumstance in many crimes. As 20th-century evangelical sects that preached abstinence as the route to wealth and marital bliss grew to unprecedented numbers, traditional healers and biomedical practitioners continued to tout alcohol's medicinal value. In short, alcohol was a marker of social position and cultural identity, a crucial component in community and state building, and a commodity around which different cultural traditions, healing practices, and policing policies developed and evolved.
Architecture in Mexico City, 1940–1980
Kathryn E. O'Rourke
Architecture in Mexico City in the mid-20th century was shaped by rapid economic and urban growth, demographic change, new construction technologies, and politics. Architects adapted modernist idioms and those that evoked historical precedents for new purposes. Key figures who had begun practice earlier in the century, including Mario Pani, Juan O'Gorman, José Villagrán García, and Luis Barragán, designed major new works and strongly influenced the profession, even as a new generation led by Pedro Ramírez Vázquez, Ricardo Legorreta, and Teodoro González de Léon came of age. As they had been since the 1920s, public patrons were the most important clients of modern buildings, which often addressed needs for better housing, education, and health care. The period also saw the rise of modern suburbs and the evolution of the single-family house, as well as the creation of major buildings for increasingly important cultural institutions, especially museums.
As they had in preceding decades, architects used the non-architectural arts, particularly painting, to distinguish their works. The legacy of the Mexican muralist movement was most evident on the facades of major buildings in the new University City, where the influence of international modernist planning principles was also striking. In 1968 Mexico City hosted the Olympics, for which architects, planners, and designers created a network of buildings and images that functioned interdependently to present Mexico as cosmopolitan and historically rooted in its indigenous history. Sprawl and pollution worsened in the 1970s, as the capital came to be dominated by buildings that were not designed by architects. While some observers questioned the relevance of architecture in the face of seemingly unstoppable and uncontrollable growth, talented young architects responded with buildings notable for their monumentality, mass, and sophisticated engagement with historical types.
The Autonomous Department of Press and Publicity (Departamento Autónomo de Prensa y Publicidad)
Ana Laura de la Torre
The Autonomous Department of Press and Publicity (DAPP) created by Lazaro Cardenas's administration responded to the need for a fixed ideological framework that would allow for the construction of a modern, prosperous, and politically unified nation based on the Six-Year Plan. The materials produced by the DAPP designated collective identities; defined relations between the government and its enemies, rivals and allies; preserved and molded past memories, and sought to project fears and hopes into the future. The department used a variety of mass media technology to produce messages with the aim of controlling criticism of the regime, shaping public attitudes, generating a collective "us," and effecting change in the thoughts and actions of the public. The continuous use of the media was a response of the Cardenista administration to the constant rejection that its public policies generated, either because they affected particular economic interests or because they were considered as an affront to the way of thinking of various social sectors, particularly those identified with Catholicism. President Cárdenas and his associates perceived that they were a besieged and criticized administration, both inside and outside the country. Hence, they deemed it essential to start up a strong propaganda apparatus in order to reverse the opposition and generate supporters. Its creation is framed by the efforts taken by various governments during the 1930s that viewed propaganda as an effective tool for producing political consensus, generating feelings of national unity, and changing public habits.
Digital Resources: The José Guadalupe Posada Collection at the Ibero-American Institute
Ricarda Musser
Gender and Sexuality in Brazil since Independence
Sueann Caulfield and Cristiana Schettini
Over the past forty years, increasing attention to gender and sexuality in Brazilian historiography has given us a nuanced understanding of diverse ways in which women and men in Brazil's past experienced patriarchy, racism, and other forms of oppression. As gender historians have shed light on how racialized and patriarchal gender and sexual roles have been reconstituted in different historical contexts, empirical studies in the field of social history have focused primarily on the historical agency of women, particularly non-elite women, who lived within or pushed against the confines of prescribed gender roles. Pioneering histories of sexual minorities have accompanied this trajectory since the 1980s, although this subfield has grown more slowly.
A few nodal themes help to explain transformations in gender relations during each of the major periods of Brazil's social and political history. Under the empire (1822–1889), honor is the entryway for analysis of gender and sexuality. Gendered standards of honor were critical tools used to mark class and racial boundaries, and to traverse them. Historians of the imperial period also stress the centrality of gender to the social, cultural, and economic networks built by members of various occupational, familial, and kinship groups. During the First Republic (1889–1930), the focus shifts to state vigilance and social control, together with debates over modernization of sexual and gender norms, particularly regarding urban space and prostitution. In the Vargas era (1930–1945), patriarchy and racialized sexuality formed the core of intellectual constructions of the nation's history and identity, at the same time that homosexuality and women's and worker's rights generated intense debate. A new emphasis on domesticity emerged in the context of developmentalism in the 1950s, helping to spur a reaction in the form of the counterculture and sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s. The dictatorship (1964–1985) went to great lengths to suppress challenges to gender and sexual norms as part of its broader strategy to demobilize society and repress oppositional political movements. These challenges reemerged in the 1970s, when feminists and sexual minorities gained much greater visibility within a new wave of social movements.
The 1988 constitution articulated these movements' aspirations for social justice and equality through its foundational principal of human dignity. Significant legal changes followed over subsequent decades, including recognition of equal labor rights for domestic and sex workers, affirmative-action policies, and the legalization of same-sex marriage, in 2011. Despite notable setbacks, the momentum toward gender and sexual equality at the start of the 21st century was remarkable. This momentum was halted by the political coup that ousted the first woman president in 2016. The anti-feminist mood that accompanied the impeachment process underscored an overarching theme that runs through the historiography of gender and sexuality in Brazil: the centrality of gender to the major legal and political shifts that mark the nation's history.
Immigration and National Identity in Latin America, 1870–1930
Michael Goebel
Although on a lesser scale than the United States, southern South America became a major receiving region during the period of mass transatlantic migration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Even as the white elites of most Latin American countries favored European immigration in the late 19th century, since in their eyes it would "civilize" their countries, it was the temperate areas closely tied into the Atlantic economy as exporters of primary products that received the bulk of European laborers. Previously scarcely populated lands like Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil thus witnessed massive population growth and in some ways turned into societies resembling those of other immigration countries, such as the United States and Canada. This article concentrates on lands where the overwhelming majority of migrants headed, although it also briefly deals with Latin American nations that received significantly fewer newcomers, such as Mexico.
This mass migration lastingly modified identity narratives within Latin America. First, as the majority of Europeans headed to sparsely populated former colonial peripheries that promised economic betterment, migration shifted prevalent notions about the region's racial composition. The former colonial heartlands of Mexico, Peru, and northeastern Brazil were increasingly regarded as nonwhite, poor, and "backward," whereas coastal Argentina, São Paulo, and Costa Rica were associated with whiteness, wealth, and "progress." Second, mass migration was capable of both solidifying and challenging notions of national identity. Rather than crossing over well-established and undisputed boundaries of national identities and territories, migration thus contributed decisively to making them.
Internment of Japanese and Japanese Latin Americans During World War II
Selfa A. Chew
The lives of Latin American Japanese were disrupted during World War II, when their civil and human rights were suspended. National security and continental defense were the main reasons given by the American countries consenting to their uprooting. More than 2,000 ethnic Japanese from Peru, Panama, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, El Salvador, Mexico, and Nicaragua were transferred as "illegal aliens" to internment camps in the United States. Initially, US and Latin American agencies arrested and deported male ethnic Japanese, regardless of their citizenship status. During the second stage, women and children joined their relatives in the United States. Most forced migration originated in Peru. Brazil and Mexico established similar displacement programs, ordering the population of Japanese descent to leave the coastal zones, and in the case of Mexico the border areas. In both countries, ethnic Japanese were under strict monitoring and lost property, employment, and family and friend relationships, losses that affected their health and the opportunity to support themselves in many cases.
Latin American Japanese in the United States remained in camps operated by the Immigration and Naturalization Service and the army for the duration of the war and were among the last internees leaving the detention facilities, in 1946. At the conclusion of World War II, the Latin American countries that had agreed to the expulsion of ethnic Japanese limited greatly their return. Some 800 internees were deported to Japan from the United States by the closure of the camps. Those who remained in North America were allowed to leave the camps to work in a fresh produce farm in Seabrook, New Jersey, without residency or citizenship rights. In 1952, immigration restrictions for former Latin American internees were lifted. Latin American governments have not apologized for the uprooting of the ethnic Japanese, while the US government has recognized it as a mistake. In 1988, the United States offered a symbolic compensation to all surviving victims of the internment camps in the amount of $20,000. In contrast, in 1991, Latin American Japanese survivors were granted only $5,000.
Japanese Immigration to Brazil
Mieko Nishida
Japanese immigration to Brazil started in 1908 as a replacement for European immigrants to work for the state of São Paulo's expanding coffee industry. It peaked in the late 1920s and early 1930s, in the face of growing anti-Japanese sentiment in Brazil. The Japanese migrated to Brazil in mandatory family units and formed their own agricultural settlements once they competed their colono labor contracts and became independent farmers. Under Getúlio Vargas's nationalistic policies, a 1934 immigration law severely limited the entry of the Japanese. Strict legal restrictions were also imposed on them during Vargas's Estado Novo (1937–1945). Japanese immigration was eventually terminated in 1942. Then the number of Japanese immigrants reached 188,986. At the end of the war, the Japanese were sharply divided among themselves over the defeat of Japan, and Sindō Renmei's attacks on other Japanese factions terrified the nation of Brazil. Having given up their hope of returning to their homeland, the Japanese and their descendants began to migrate on a large scale to the cities, especially São Paulo City. Japanese immigration resumed in 1953 and peaked in 1959–1960. A total of 53,657 postwar immigrants, including many single adult men, arrived in Brazil before 1993. By 1980, the majority of Japanese Brazilians had joined the urban middle class, and many were already mixed racially. In the mid-1980s, Japanese Brazilians' "return" labor migrations to Japan began on a large scale, due to Brazil's troubled national economy. More than 310,000 Brazilian citizens were residing in Japan in June 2008, when the centenary of Japanese immigration was widely celebrated in Brazil. But the story does not end there: the global recession soon forced unemployed Brazilians and their Japanese-born children to return to Brazil.
Public Health in Mexico, 1870–1943
Claudia Agostoni
The prevention of communicable diseases, the containment of epidemic disorders, and the design of programs and the implementation of public health policies went through important transformations in Mexico, as in other Latin American nations, between the final decades of the 19th century and first half of the 20th century. During that period not only did the advances in medical science make possible the identification and containment of numerous contagious diseases; it was also a time when the consolidation of formal medical institutions and their interaction with both national and international actors contributed to shape the definitions and solutions of public health problems. Disease prevention strategies were influenced by medical, scientific, and technical innovations and by the political values and commitments of the period, and Mexico experienced profound and far-reaching political, economic, and social transformations: the apogee, crisis, and downfall of the long Porfirio Díaz regime (1876–1910), the armed phase of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920), and the period of national reconstruction (1920–1940). Thus, during the period under consideration, and alongside the consolidation of an official medical apparatus as an integral part of public power, the promotion of public health became a crucial element to reinforce the political unification and the social and economic strength of the country.
Women, Politics, and Media in Uruguay, 1900–1950
Christine Ehrick
In the first half of the 20th century, Uruguay was a relatively educated, democratic, and politically progressive South American country, and women there used old and new media for professional and political ends. Radical, Catholic, and liberal feminist women all utilized print media to promote their views and build support for their respective causes in publications aimed at both female and general audiences. Anarchist feminist María Collazo, for example, edited an important publication, La Batalla, from 1915 to approximately 1927. By the late 1920s, radio was an emerging mass medium, and women activists, journalists, and others sought to make their voices heard, literally and figuratively, on its airwaves. Starting in 1935, those airwaves included Radio Femenina, the first all-woman format radio station in the Western Hemisphere. One of the voices heard on Radio Femenina was Dra. Paulina Luisi, Uruguay's leading feminist activist, who became a powerful voice of both the Socialist Party and the politics of the Popular Front in the late 1930s and early 1940s.


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Wyoming Seminary College Preparatory School
Tyler Ponte, of Pepperell, has been named to the Dean's List for the fall 2012-13 academic term. Ponte, a junior, is the son of Mr. and Mrs. Albert Ponte of Pepperell.
Pomfret School
Carl Ellerkamp, of Groton, was recently named to the Honor Roll for the fall term at Pomfret School. Carl is a member of the class of 2015.
Marietta College
Peter Lundstrom, '16 of Pepperell, has been named to the Fall 2012 Dean's List. Lundstrom, a graduate of Bishop Guertin High School, is majoring in Petroleum Engineering at Marietta.
Rochester Institute of Technology
Mary Ahern, of Ayer, a third-year student in RIT's College of Health Sciences and Technology, made the Dean's List for the Fall 2012 quarter.
Casey Satran, of Harvard, Mass., a first-year student in RIT's College of Applied Science and Technology, made the Dean's List for the Fall 2012 quarter.
Jaynah Mistry, of Pepperell, a second-year student in RIT's College of Health Sciences and Technology, made the Dean's List for the Fall 2012 quarter.
Gettysburg College
The following first-year students were awarded Presidential Scholarships:
Danielle Graham, of Groton
Brendan Nash, of Groton
Emmanuel College announces Spring 2012 Dean's List
Danielle M. Christy, of Ayer
Harrison R. Powell, of Harvard
Groton youth earns Boston College High School honors
Bennett Andrew Marston '14, of Groton, achieved High Honors for the Fourth Quarter at Boston College High School.
2012-2013 Who's Who Among Students in American Universities and Colleges
Adam Gray, of Pepperell, who is a history major at West New England University.
Bowdoin College, excellence in scholarship
Bowdoin College held its annual Sarah and James Bowdoin Day ceremony to honor those undergraduates who distinguish themselves by excellence in scholarship.Those students who are designated Sarah and James Bowdoin Scholars are in the top (highest GPA) 20 percent of each class for the previous academic year.
The following Sarah and James Bowdoin Scholars are from your area:
Hannah Arrighi, of Groton
Matthew Rasmussen, of Groton
Nichols College Dean's List with High Honors
Michelle Gardner, Ayer.
University of New Haven
Stephanie Roberts, of West Townsend, graduated with a B.A. in Psychology.
University of Massachusetts Spring 2012 Dean's List
Marci Luibil, of Pepperell
Jacqueline Coyle, of Pepperell

subset: commoncrawl


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Sometimes you just have to take a win any way you can get it. That was the case Saturday afternoon for Virginia Tech in rainy Blacksburg, Virginia. The Hokies found a way to knock off upset-minded Marshall in triple overtime, 29-21. It was anything but pretty.
Virginia Tech needed a late touchdown in the fourth quarter to tie Marshall after not scoring since the first quarter of the game. Logan Thomas had another rough performance but led the Hokies to the tie with a short pass to Willie Byrn. The game would go to overtime after Marshall for some reason opted to hold on to timeouts at the end of the fourth quarter rather than preserve some time for a potential drive. Once the game got to overtime, kicking woes would be seen on both sides.
Virginia Tech walk-on kicker Ethan Keyserling missed on a 50-yard attempt after the Hokies offense moved backward on the first overtime possession. Marshall would have their first field goal attempt blocked. In the second overtime Virginia Tech forced Marshall quarterback Rakeem Cato to lose a fumble, nearly resulting in a fumble return fat guy touchdown walk-off win. Instead the Hokies would miss another field goal attempt by Keyserling.
In the third overtime Virginia Tech finally put a score on the board with a short touchdown run by Thomas. The Hokies picked up a two-point conversion, as required starting in the third overtime of a game. Virginia Tech got away with what appeared to be a pass interference on a third down throw to the end zone for Marshall, and the final pass to the end zone fell right through the hands of Davonte Allen to end the game.
Virginia Tech is now 3-1 but they have looked awfully shaky getting there. The offense failed to do much throughout the bulk of the game but they came through in the end when absolutely needed. Virginia Tech also had two turnovers but they forced three on defense. If there is one thing we can say about Virginia Tech it may be that they remain very much a question in the ACC Coastal Division.


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Bartlesville, Okla. — Nichole Tate led four home players in double figures in Oklahoma Wesleyan's battling 64-54 win over Kansas Wesleyan in the OKWU Classic on Saturday night.
The Lady Eagles once again started slowly and found themselves trailing 32-29 at the first half whistle, before rallying to outscore the visitors 35-22 in the second half to take the victory.
Tate shot 6-of-14 from the field to finish the game with 14 points. The sophomore also had seven rebounds on the night.
Courtney Backward scored 13 points, three rebounds and three assists, while Megan Jones had 11 points and Kayla Oleman ended with 10.
The Lady Eagles have also won four in a row and are 4-1 on the season.
Mark Molder's side will next face Friends University on Tuesday night – a time that handed OKWU its only defeat of the season in the year opener.


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Grocer Jimbo's Opens New Store at Westfield Horton Plaza
Wednesday, October 16, 2013
San Diego-based Jimbo's Naturally is opening a new store at Westfield Horton Plaza, the fifth location for the natural-foods grocer.
Company leaders said a formal opening for the new 28,000-square-foot store in downtown San Diego was planned for 11 a.m. Oct. 16, following a ceremony being attended by company, city and mall officials. The new store employs approximately 100 people.
The location, on the Westfield Group mall's second level near Nordstrom, is the first full-service natural foods grocery store to open in the downtown area, officials said. The store has a specialized "cartveyor" system installed as part of its escalator, allowing shoppers to move carts between Levels 2 and 4 of the mall.
The store has 85 "preferred" Jimbo's parking spaces on Level 4 of the mall's G Street Garage. Operators said it is the first grocery store in San Diego to be certified under a rating system for retail commercial interiors, overseen by the U.S. Green Building Council's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design program.
Jimbo's, with headquarters in Carmel Valley, sells locally grown and organic produce, along with other natural foods, deli and bakery offerings, and health and beauty aids. It was founded in 1984 by CEO Jim "Jimbo" Someck.
— SDBJ Staff Report


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A $25 investment in 1963 for extra-fat insulation batts was the smartest decision Harold Orr has ever made.
Almost five decades ago, the man behind Canada's respected R-2000 program hired a Saskatoon contractor to build a modest 1,100-square-foot bungalow for him, his wife, Mary, and a young family that would eventually grow to include four sons, four daughters and a number of foster children.
It was a full house, but also a warm one that operated on a slim budget.
"I don't remember exactly what I saved that first year, but it was at least $25. Now I estimate I save $400 to $500 a year on heating with natural gas," says the 80-year-old internationally recognized environmental engineer.
Orr is the principal brain behind the Saskatchewan Conservation House, an 1,800-square-foot two-storey built in Regina in 1977 by a team of leading energy professionals. It was the first R-2000 home built in North America and it was crafted from suggestions Orr made to the organizing committee the year before — 13 years after he customized his family's three-bedroom bungalow.
A respected graduate of the National Research Council in Ottawa and then the NRC's Saskatoon offices, Orr was asked for suggestions but cautioned against offering anything experimental or crazy. He came back with a seven-point building plan that became the blueprint for the Conservation House and, later, Canada's successful R-2000 program.
Even more important, his recommendations were, and remain, the foundation of sweeping changes to green the building code, which was just updated this month in four provinces — Ontario, Nova Scotia, Manitoba and British Columbia.
There are some differences between the 2012 building code changes and his own green menu:
- Orr suggested no basement, because they were too expensive to insulate and prone to water leaks.
- Most of the windows should be on the south side of the house to capture the warmth of the sun and limited to smaller dimensions on the east, north and west side of the home to prevent heat loss.
- Shutters would be less expensive than opting for triple-glazed windows and do the same job of saving energy, he reasoned.
- Finally, walls should be 12 inches thick to accommodate extra insulation and there should be 20 inches of insulation in the roof.
The Conservation House created a furor among a concerned minority of environmental leaders who wanted to create an energy-efficient home in the years following the OPEC oil crisis in the '70s. Oil prices that almost tripled in two months, from $3.56 a barrel in October 1973 to a record $11.65 by January 1974.
A year later, the Danes built a zero-energy house in Lyngby, Denmark, that utilized some of Orr's R-2000 components and operated on less than $40 a year.
Americans were going in similar green directions, pushing R-2000 standards and super-insulated homes, while sliding away from stingier passive solar-heated homes because they were more expensive to build.
Orr used many of the same R-2000 building techniques in retrofitting older homes, turning energy gobblers into energy misers.
Yet the drive to build more R-2000 homes and homes with environmental benefits crashed when the price of oil tumbled from $32 a barrel in 1982 to $11 a barrel in '86, prompting then U.S. president Ronald Reagan to slash funding to innovative energy-saving programs.
There were similar spending cuts by former Conservative prime minister Brian Mulroney, including trims to NRC staff and programs, prompting Orr to take a buyout when he was 55.
In Saskatoon, Orr continues to consult in the energy sector and continues to pocket energy savings based on the $25 investment in extra-fat insulation batts. His brick bungalow cost $13,890 at the time. He spent an extra $500 for brick siding, another $100 on operating windows to allow summer breezes to cool the inside of the home and another bit of money for a second, smaller bathroom on the main floor.
Before finishing the basement — adding two bedrooms, a family room and a bathroom — Orr personally installed a tight vapour barrier to keep out moisture and keep in heat. "I didn't trust the contractor to do a good, tight job. So I did it with a friend from work on the weekend."
Over the years, the Orrs have replaced the original windows with triple-glazed models containing low-E argon gas, traded wooden slab doors for insulated metal options and upgraded the furnace.
But those fat insulation batts, which improved the R-7 factor up to R-10, are still in the walls, paying back dividends far better than any mutual fund.
In fact, a mathematician might say Harold Orr's $25 investment and lower energy bills have more than recouped the price tag of his Saskatoon home.


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Welcome to the B.E.A.C.H. Homeschool website!
Welcome to the B.E.A.C.H. Homeschool website!
As a true Body Encouraging All Christian Homeschoolers, we are a networking, resource-sharing, loving support group located on the Gulf Coast in lower Baldwin County, Alabama.
Through all volunteer support, we create educational and fun opportunities for our children to enrich their home school experience. We offer field trips, a 4-H club, physical education, enrichment classes, some academic classes, social gatherings (including a high school formal event) and parent support.
For more information regarding membership, please read our B.E.A.C.H. Guidelines and the Publicity Notice. Be sure to check out our Leadership Teams so you can see how our group operates. Then click the "Request Membership" tab located at the top of the page and make sure you agree with our policies. If you are in agreement with us and would like to join the B.E.A.C.H. group, fill out and submit the Request Membership form. We realize that home schooling is a calling and may not be a right fit for everyone; but if you decide to home school, we are here to help, and look forward to meeting you. If you have additional questions that our site does not address, please email the Administrator at firstname.lastname@example.com.
Train up a child in the way he should go: and when he is old, he will not depart from it.
Prov. 22:6


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Store: VitaSprings.com – Online Health Supplement Shop
Coupon Code: SP15 – Use Coupon
Expiry: 2012-02-29
Details: Probiotic Fiber, 60 Capsules, Health Plus. Probiotic Fiber is a symbiotic, meaning the probiotics and prebiotics work synergistically for greater benefits. Probiotic Fiber is part of the Colon Cleanse Max Line which focuses on the entire digestive system. Probiotic Fiber contains L. Acidophilus, B. Longum, L. Plantarum, inulin, burdock root, arabinogalactan bark, oat bran, psyllim, rice bran, apple pectin, hemicellulasees, beta-glucanase, xylanase, pectinase, phytase fennel seed, cardamom seed, and slippery elm bark. Buy this product and you can Get and Extra 15% OFF: Health Plus Probiotic Fiber.
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Use it on your own Luck.


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No sir mister dope fiend, no fish today!
The Daily IKN email digest, get all daily posts sent to you next day (& no ads)
The Friday OT: Alabama 3; Hypo Full of Love (the 12 Step Plan)
No sir mister dope fiend, no fish today!
No more CUM shots!
Oh man, I laughed when I saw this today
VANCOUVER, Dec. 2, 2016 /CNW/ - Copper Mountain Mining Corporation (TSX: CUM) (the "Company" or "Copper Mountain") announces the change of its TSX ticker symbol. Effective Tuesday, December 6, 2016, Copper Mountain Mining Corporation's new TSX symbol will be CMMC.
The Cusip number for Copper Mountain shares will remain unchanged. Outstanding stock certificates are not affected by the ticker symbol change and do not need to be exchanged.
About Copper Mountain Mining Corporation
The Silver Range Resources (SNG.v) 2016 Northern projects review
I don't own Silver Range Resources (SNG.v) stock (yet), but I have a lot of respect for Mike Power and with that in mind, I want to put this in front of your face...
...the company's 2016 Northern projects review, published yesterday. Youtube here. H/T reader C.
In The IKN Weekly this Sunday...
...the main event will be a long answer to a simple question: Red Eagle Mining (R.to) buy, hold or sell?
Minera IRL: To blanket-answer...
...a whole bunch of mails received last night and this morning which, quite rightly, ask the paraphrased question "what now?", this post cannot go into details but we can say that now the cancerous tumour has been removed we will finally have a board of directors who will work in the interests of shareholders (for the first time since the untimely demise of Courtney). We may not get a news release this week, but rest assured there's a lot of good and productive work going on in the background right now. A few days of patience will do us all well, this company is finally back on the right track.
I can also report that the local subsidiary of Minera IRL Ltd, Minera IRL S.A., is very very happy to have got rid of the parasite board of cowards who were sucking the company dry because they knew IRL was about to be sold down the river by Coward Weyrauch but had to keep quiet. The culture of fear that board installed has now been lifted, they will now be able to work with the mothership company.
Hopefully, this wraps up my last ever post on Minera IRL. As the company will now become far more transparent and shareholder-friendly, there will be no need to get the necessary information from a pissant loudmouth blogger. Thanks for all your help, fellow shareholders. We can chalk this one up as a tiny victory for doing mining the right way.
Minera IRL: Trio of cowards update
Board of DirectorsPursuant to the articles of association of the Company (the "Articles"), each of the five directors of the Company in office prior to the AGM were proposed for election/re-election at the AGM.
- Prior to the AGM, each of Mr Julian Bavin, Mr Derrick Weyrauch and Mr Robert Schafer withdrew their consent to stand for election/re-election and as such the resolutions relating to such directors were not put to the AGM. Accordingly, each of Mr Bavin, Mr Weyrauch and Mr Schafer are no longer directors of the Company.
- The resolutions to elect/re-elect each of Mr Francis O Kelly and Mr Gerardo Perez were put to the AGM.
- The resolution to elect Mr O Kelly was not passed and as such Mr O Kelly is no longer a director of the Company.
- The resolution to elect Mr Perez was passed and as such Mr Perez remains the sole director of the Company.Pursuant to the Articles, Mr Perez has authority to appoint further directors. The minimum number of directors with which the board can make substantive decisions is three, so Mr Perez intends to appoint an additional two or more directors as soon as practicable.Other resolutionsThe resolutions to accept the financial statements of the Company for the year ended December 31, 2015 and to appoint PKF Littlejohn LLP to be the auditor of the Company for next year were passed.The resolutions to adopt new articles of association and granting the directors the authority to allot up to 115,567,514 ordinary shares without the application of the Company's pre-emptive rights described in Article 6.1 of the Articles did not pass, and will not be put into effect.
Now that Continental Gold (CNL.to) has got its EIA...
...McEwen Mining (MUX) can make its formal buyout bid.
An ah wudda gotten away with it too...
...if it wasn't for you meddlin' kids an' that dawg.
(guess which company has news?)
Posting will be light...
...on the blog this Wednesday. For secret reasons.
Catching up with GLD bullion inventory levels
HudBay (HBM.to) (HBM) and the big boot forward
TORONTO, ON--(Marketwired - November 28, 2016) - HudBay Minerals Inc. ("Hudbay" or the "company") (HBM) (HBM) today announced that it is offering US$1.0 billion aggregate principal amount of senior notes in two series, including a series of senior notes due 2023 (the "2023 Notes") and a series of senior notes due 2025 (the "2025 Notes" and, together with the 2023 Notes, the "New Notes"). The aggregate principal amount, interest rate and other terms of each series of the New Notes will be determined at pricing and are dependent upon market conditions and other factors.Hudbay also announced today that it is commencing an offer to purchase for cash (the "Tender Offer") any and all of its outstanding US$920 million aggregate principal amount of 9.500% senior notes due 2020 (the "Existing Notes") on the terms and subject to the conditions set forth in an offer to purchase and consent solicitation statement dated November 28, 2016 (the "Offer to Purchase").
continues here
Minera IRL: Ahhh, you gotta read this one!
Right here, and here's the full paste-out:
LIMA, PERU, Nov 28, 2016 (Marketwired via COMTEX) -- LIMA, PERU--(Marketwired - Nov 28, 2016) - Minera IRL Ltd ("Minera" or "Company") (bvlac:MIRL) wishes to refute certain unsubstantiated statements made publicly by IKN Blog and others.The statement, "Peruvian shareholders believe that the newly constituted board is still trying to usurp the company and pave the way for a below market value sale or to enable themselves to take a significant position in the company," has no basis whatsoever. The Board's sole interest is in getting the Company relisted and shareholder value restored, and has acted diligently to restore trading on the Canadian and Peruvian exchanges and is awaiting final regulatory approval to rescind the "cease trade order." The Board is also arranging a procedure for UK shareholders to trade their shares on the CSE, such that no shareholder in the Company will be prejudiced by the interim arrangements.The Company maintains that the blog statement that the one-time owners of the Ollachea licences - RT - are "attempting to steal the Ollachea project" is a fantasy designed to destabilize the social licences with the Ollachea Community and mislead shareholders. Management is entirely convinced that RT has no interest in the Ollachea mine, since it contains resources well below that company's threshold for investment, and RT is known to want to divest their Minera shares once the Company is approved for trading. Furthermore, RT has not communicated with the Company regarding internal matters, and has not influenced the Board's decisions in any way.Finally, the Company vigorously denies that there is any discord between the Board and local management, who are doing an exemplary job in difficult circumstances, both with the Corihuarmi mine and realization of the Ollachea project. The Board and Management are united in their dedication to advance the interests of the Company for the benefit of all stakeholders.
"The statement, "Peruvian shareholders believe that the newly constituted board is still trying to usurp the company and pave the way for a below market value sale or to enable themselves to take a significant position in the company," has no basis whatsoever."
"The Board is also arranging a procedure for UK shareholders to trade their shares on the CSE, such that no shareholder in the Company will be prejudiced by the interim arrangements."
"...the Company vigorously denies that there is any discord between the Board and local management"
Good news to report
Chart of the day is...
Minera IRL: This letter...
Dear Sirs
Minera IRL LimitedI am writing in relation to the annual general meeting of the Company to be held on 30 November 2016 at 900-885 West Georgia Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6C 3H1 (the "AGM") at which 9 resolutions (the "Resolutions") are to be proposed for consideration by the shareholders of the Company (the "Shareholders").The content of this email may carry implications for the Board of Directors of the Company (the "Board"). I therefore recommend that the contents of this note are reviewed carefully.I would note the following points:
- The Company is incorporated in Jersey. Accordingly, the Board and the Chairman of the AGM (the "Chairman") are obliged to conduct the AGM in accordance with Jersey law. The Courts of Jersey will have jurisdiction with respect to any matter brought before them with respect to the AGM.
- I understand that, as a matter of Jersey law, neither the Board nor the Chairman has the discretion to: (i) postpone, adjourn or otherwise delay the AGM (except in very limited circumstances); or (ii) withdraw and/or (except in very limited circumstances) alter the Resolutions or the terms of the business to be considered by Shareholders at the AGM. I further understand that any attempt by the Board or the Chairman to take such action will be unlawful and may give Shareholders certain rights to challenge any such action in the Courts of Jersey and otherwise may give rise to certain rights and remedies against the Company and/or the Board personally.
- In addition, I understand that failure to hold an annual general meeting by 31 December 2016 may give rise to criminal liability on the part of the relevant members of the Board personally and/or the Company pursuant to the Companies (Jersey) Law 1991 (as amended) as failure to provide Shareholders with the opportunity to challenge and question the Board at the AGM is seen as a serious breach of corporate governance under Jersey law.
- This reflects that it is a key principle of Jersey law that Shareholders are entitled to receive full notice of the matters to be considered at the AGM and to have an opportunity to exercise their votes in that respect on the basis that general meetings of the Company are the principal means by which Shareholders may legally exercise influence over the Company. To deny Shareholders this opportunity would cut across key principles of shareholder rights and corporate governance and would likely not be legally sustainable.
- I therefore notify the Board that I expect and require the AGM to proceed in the manner prescribed and implied by the AGM notice. Any attempt to vary, alter, delay or adjourn any Resolutions at the AGM or the AGM itself will be seen and treated as a serious breach of shareholder rights.
- Therefore, I expressly reserve any and all rights to challenge or make any claim against the Company and/or members of the Board personally (as the case may be) in relation to any such matters. The Board in particular should be aware that to the extent that any claim must as a matter of law be made against the Company, the Company may in turn be entitled to recourse against members of the Board personally. In addition, the Board may be liable for a breach of the articles of association of the Company directly or under a derivative action.I would be grateful if you could ensure that each member of the Board receives a copy of this note.
The IKN Weekly, out now
Minera IRL: A short segment from IKN393, out later today
2) The board of directors of Minera IRL are meeting tomorrow Monday to decide whether to postpone the AGM. If they do, they will have a maximum of two weeks to re-schedule (it must take place within one calendar year of the last AGM or EGM and if memory serves, that is December 14th latest date). If they decide to postpone it means only one thing, that they know they're losing the AGM vote and will desperately try to save their hides with some sort of Hail Mary play in the two extra weeks, potentially releasing the now overdue drilling results from Ollachea and spin-marketing with those, potentially trying to convince Rio Tinto to vote actively, potentially attacking yours truly personally. Maybe even because they want to get an extra month's salary and find reasons to draw a few extra fat consultancy fees before getting booted out. So at this point I recognize that there's a chance that the AGM is delayed for a couple of weeks, we'll find out tomorrow. If it happens, just add it onto the pile of self-serving and corporately expensive decisions this board has made, but it would also be the strongest signal possible that they are losing and we are winning.


text:
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The TFT Developer Kit 1 for Stellaris M3 gives you a jump start in developing graphical user interfaces on TFT displays using an LM3S9B95 microcontroller and the BASIC programming language.
It bundles the mikromedia for Stellaris M3, a stylus for its touchscreen, a 2GB microSD card with adapter, a license key for the Visual TFT design software, and a USB license dongle of the mikroBASIC for ARM integrated development environment.
The board measures 81.15 × 60.45 mm (3.195 × 2.38 inches). All unused microcontroller pins are available via pads along the sides of the board (header pins are provided loose). These allow you to add on mikromedia shields (see options below).
A color user manual and code examples are included. The board comes pre-programmed with a fast USB HID bootloader, so you won't have to spend a penny more on external programmers. If you do want to, pins pads are available for installing a JTAG header compatible with the mikroProg for Tiva (previously called mikroProg for Stellaris).
The system is powered by your PC via USB. Simply plug in the USB cable and the TFT display will turn on automatically. It also can be battery powered.
Each compiler license includes free upgrades and tech support for the lifetime of the product. The software features a Live Update service so you can get new features and improvements instantly.
The compiler is designed to be smart and efficient, so you can rely on it to do the hard work. It features SSA optimizations that can reduce your code size up to 40 percent.


text:
B.A.Major in Communicative English
In Kolkata
3 Years
Questions & Answers
Ask a question and other users will answer you
Course programme
Admission to undergraduate programmes is based on student's performance in the 10+2 final examination.Counselling of applicants seeking admission to different programmes is undertaken by the faculty of respective departments to assess wheather the applicant's aptitudes and future aspirations are in tune with the course of study sought for.
Rani Birla Girls' college was established in July 1961 as an undergraduate arts college affiliated to the University of Calcutta by the Hindusthan Charity Trust in the memory of Rani Jogeshwari Devi Birla to serve as a women's educational institution to impart all round education to its students in a progressive, enlightened ambience. The present day Modern High School at 78, Amir Ali Avenue, Kolkata used to house this College on the top floor of its building. Despite being in its nascent stage, Rani Birla Girls' College outshone itself in all spheres of academics, a tradition which has continued unbroken till date. The insistence on the 3Ds-Discipline, Diligence, and Dedication ensures that students emerge from the four walls of the institution not only as graduates but as confident, mature and well-equipped individuals.
In 1979,due to space constraint,the campus of Rani Birla Girl's College shifted to its present day address on Shakespeare sarani.Since then the number of students enrolled in the College has multiplied manifold.It has always managed to come out on top of all difficulties and hazards faced by it.It has retained its academic atmosphere with special emphasis on the all round development of the students.The most special characteristic of this college is the co-ordinated team-work of the teaching staff with the students,which helps to bring about a special teacher-student bonding and hightened academic excellence.


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Timbuktu was rocked by a wave of revenge attacks on Tuesday on communities perceived to have collaborated with the Islamists during their 10-month occupation of the city.
Malian soldiers meant to bring security to the famous trading outpost in northern Mali stood by and watched as crowds looted premises belonging to Touareg and Arab traders. French forces, which had led the recapture of Timbuktu, stayed outside the city at the airport. Meanwhile, hundreds of people swarmed into the closed-up shops on the main street, smashing padlocks and stripping the stores.
"These shopkeepers were the militants, they were supporting al-Qaeda," said Alou Toure who, seconds before, had been hammering the padlock of an electronics store with a heavy club. "They looted everything from us so now we get our revenge."
The army could do little to stop the crowds, said Malian Captain Cheikme Konate, who said that residents had lost their fear of soldiers. "We cannot shoot. I don't want them to say the army came to kill us."
Weapons and ammunition were found in some of stores, fuelling rumours that the Islamists who fled at the weekend were planning to retake the city. Many ethnic Touaregs and Arabs have also left Timbuktu, fearing a wave of revenge attacks after members of their community started last year's rebellion against the central government.
One Touareg local who stayed behind – a veteran of former Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi's army – said that Mali's problems were about racism as well as religion. "This crisis is about revenge between Mali's different ethnic groups. The biggest problem is the racism, which is in our heads and will take a long time to cure."
The riots in Timbuktu and unrest in other recaptured towns, such as Gao, have been a reminder that a second, more complicated phase of the war in Mali awaits. Less than half of the 7 000 foreign troops promised to stabilise the country have been deployed.
Humanitarian fallout
Meanwhile, there is concern about a critical shortage of funding for the humanitarian fallout from the conflict, with only 1% of the budget needed for the next year so far pledged. A senior UN official in Mali, Hadorn Max, said that $370-million would be needed to feed, shelter and provide medical services to the more than 400000 people displaced during the past year. "With the focus on military action, we are concerned that humanitarian needs will be forgotten," he said.
Earlier this week, with the retaking of Timbuktu, it was unclear who was celebrating what. Dazed Malian soldiers, just through the city gates, were mobbed on the back of trucks by women and children dancing to the chant of "Vive la France, Vive le Mali!"
After 10 months of dour Islamist occupation, everyone wore the brightest colours they could find. The men at a café erupted in their own gleeful shouts, charging up the dusty street, fists pumping in the air. On Monday, Timbuktu's day of liberation, Mali had just scored the goal they needed to reach the quarterfinals of the African Cup of Nations. This was the first match anyone had been allowed to watch since Mali's fabled desert city was placed under fundamentalist sharia law last April. It was too much for one of the older men. Dressed from head to foot in France's Tricolore, he slumped on to a chair, overwhelmed by emotion.
What many residents were already calling a "nightmare" was brought to an end when 250 French paratroopers dropped out of the moonlit sky on Monday night at the northern gate to the city. At the same time, a French armoured column blocked the southern gate. By Monday morning it was clear that most of the Islamists had left. Locals said that many of them had left in a convoy of pick-up trucks at the weekend.
"Not a shot was fired," said a French infantry colonel who led the operation. The veteran of the war in Libya revealed that the real fighting had taken place in the six days preceding the paratroopers' assault. Using Puma attack helicopters and flying missions, they had swept the surrounding desert and riverine marshes for militants and their vehicles. The aim of the operations had been to avoid the prospect of a firefight amid the warren of alleys that make up Mali's Unesco World Heritage site.
At the airport outside the city, another French colonel, Paul Geze, said Timbuktu had been secured but warned that some militants may have remained behind, "hidden among the population".
Some angry residents had already started looting houses where the militants of the Malian-led Islamist group Ansar Dine and fighters from al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (Aqim) had stayed. All that remained of the Aqim Islamic police headquarters, in the premises of the old bank, was a black sign cemented into the wall. Residents said that rough justice – based on a Wahhabist interpretation of Islamic law – had been meted out. Inside the banking hall a few scattered chairs and an upturned table showed the haste of their departure.
The recapture of Mali's most famous city followed the pattern that has emerged in the fortnight since French forces intervened to stop an Islamist advance through the centre of this vast West African country.
Despite the blood-curdling warnings issued by the three main Islamist groups – Ansar Dine, Aqim and the Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa – they have avoided an open confrontation with a better-equipped Western army.
The rapid advance has surprised many observers, with one diplomat in the capital, Bamako, saying it had gone "faster than expected". It has also bred pride and confidence among the French command, with one senior officer calling it a "fabulous adventure". Flying low and fast over the desert plain outside Timbuktu, a French infantry commander, who declined to give his name, said: "I don't think many armies in the world can do what we've done in 10 days."
Other officers were more cautious, acknowledging that many militants have retreated into the desert and mountains where their local know-ledge and experience may give them a better chance of hitting back in the second phase of guerrilla attacks that experts expect will follow.
Praise songs
There was little sign of caution on the streets of Timbuktu. People emerged from behind mud-and-wattle walls to sing praise songs for their liberators. Others offered thanks to French President François Hollande.
A former tour guide, Ibrahim Traore, said his city had come close to dying and that tourism income had dried up entirely. Mohamed Ibrahim Traore, a shopkeeper whose store has been closed for months, said that women were happy "because they don't have to put on the veils on their face".
"Today we got our liberty back," the 36-year-old said. "Every Malian deserves their liberty. The French army and the Malian army have given this."
For some, the liberation came too late. The Islamists carried out their final execution last Thursday, shooting a resident who had tried to slow their retreat by stealing petrol from their fuel dump outside the city. Timbuktu's mayor, Ousmane Halle Cisse, who has had to remain in Bamako in recent months after making repeated appeals for an international intervention to remove his city's occupiers, said that important manuscripts had been burned in the final week of Islamist rule.
The full extent of the damage to the city's treasure trove of hundreds of thousands of manuscripts is still to emerge.
A sense of isolation in Timbuktu has increased with the electricity cut off and the cellphone network down, preventing all but satellite connections with the outside world. A black banner declaring sharia law still flew in the wind at one of the city gates. It will soon be removed but the full cost of northern Mali's descent into extremism will take months, if not years, to be properly understood.
Ancient manuscripts are safe, says researcher
Timbuktu has housed documents from Africa's post-colonial history for centuries. In 1973 the Malian government created the Ahmed Baba Centre to house the collection, which was to be transferred to a new building opened with South African backing in 2009.
This is the building that news reports said had been burnt down last weekend. And it is a story that Timbuktu's ousted mayor, Ousmane Halle, corroborated when he told the Associated Press: "They torched all the important ancient manuscripts. The ancient books of geography and science. The history of Timbuktu, of its people."
Susana Molins Lliteras, a researcher at the Tombouctou Manuscripts Project in Cape Town, said the reports are wrong and the manuscripts appear to be safe. "The television reports show that the library is intact, and with very little damage to the inside. It looks the same as the last time I was there [in December 2011]," she said.
There were only a few manuscripts in the new library to start with, as the process of transferring the collection of 40 000 manuscripts had only recently started, she said. "The majority of the documents were still in the old building. And before the [information] blackout we knew these had not been touched."
This building was left alone last year when the rebels arrived and most of the research team fled to the capital, Bamako. The rebels turned the new building, with its air conditioning, into their headquarters.
The researchers did manage to hide hard drives with some of the digitised manuscripts and others took manuscripts when they left. "The problem is we will only know more when it is safe enough for the researchers to return," said Lliteras.
Private collections should also be safe, she said. These contain about 200 000 manuscripts and seem to have escaped the attentions of the rebels.
The New Yorker also reported that these collections were safe because Islamist rebels had not entered private homes for fear of being "polluted".
Mahmoud Zouber, Mali's presidential aide on Islamic affairs, confirmed to Time magazine that the documents are safe.
"They were not burned. They were put in a very safe place," he said. – Sipho Kings


text:
If you've saved up some Clubcard vouchers then you can the tablet even cheaper. A promotion called Clubcard Boost lets you use vouchers for double their regular value meaning you can get the Hudl for £60, or free depending on how you look at it.
Budget tablets tend to feel cheap, plasticky and flimsy but the Hudl is well-made and has a nice soft touch finish on the rear. It's designed to be used in landscape mode but there's nothing stopping you operating the device in portrait.
Despite the budget price, the Hudl has, we have to say, a reasonable specification - much better than we expected.
The Hudl has a 7 in screen matching the Nexus 7 and Kindle Fire. It's got a resolution higher than the iPad mini and great viewing angles. On the downside, it's occasionally unresponsive and lacks brightness.
There's only one model of the Hudl which comes with 16 GB of storage but the tablet has a microSD card slot for adding more.
The quad-core processor copes fairly well with its job. Navigation around the OS is nippy enough if not lightning fast.
Browsing the web and playing games is reasonable but nothing more.
The Hudl is equipped with cameras on the front and rear. However, results from both are low quality and the tablet has problems focusing. See also: The top 10 best tablets: What's the best tablet you can buy in 2013?
Android 4.2.2 Jelly Bean is almost vanilla but Tesco had added a few of its own bits and pieces. Preloaded widgets give first time users a helping hand and other things like your Clubcard status at a glance. These can, of course be removed if they're of no use to you.
Alongside the regular android navigation buttons, T icon give you access to Tesco's services such Blinkbox and Clubcard TV. A handy micro-HDMI port means it's easy to watch content on your TV.
Importantly, Tesco allows full access to the Google Play Store to purchase and download content – unlike the Hudl's key rival, Amazon's Kindle Fire range.
Those wanting to share the tablet will benefit from Jelly Bean's option to create multiple user accounts.
We found battery life about average for a tablet this price. Depending on how many users are sharing it, the Hudl is likely to last a few days.
The Tesco Hudl is a budget tablet with a nice design and good build quality. Key specifications are better than the price tag suggests, especially the high quality 7 in screen. A microSD card slot and Micro-HDMI port are two reasons to opt for the Hudl over Google and Amazon alternatives. We award four stars and our recommended award. See also: iPad mini vs Tesco Hudl tablet comparison review: should you buy a Tesco Hudl tablet or an iPad mini?


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Buddhism according to scholars (older version)
Search for "Buddhism_according_to_scholars_(older_version)" on Wikipedia • Wikimedia Commons • Wiktionary • Wikiquote • Wikibooks • MediaWiki • Wikia • Wikitravel • Google • Amazon • Recent NY Times
- This article contains significant unique material and should not be replaced by an imported or updated Wikipedia article. Read more...
- For criticism see Criticism of Buddhism according to scholars (older version)
- See also Buddhism; and History of buddhism according to Wikipedia.
- 1 India
- 2 Theravada
- 3 East Asia
- 4 The Tibetan tradition
- 5 Buddhism in the modern world
- 6 Notes
- 7 References
The Buddha
"Buddha" is a title, meaning "Awakened". His (family) name was Gautama, in its Sanskrit form, or Gotama in Pali. His own native dialect would have been different from both. Sources dating from around 100 BC give his personal name as Siddhattha (Pali; Sanskrit Siddhartha). There is now a more or less established, [1] though not final,[2] consensus among specialist historians for a death date around 400 BC. The traditional site of his birthplace was marked by a commemorative pillar in the 3rd century BC, and this was rediscovered by archaeologists in the 1890s, in a piece of territory that had been transferred to Nepal in 1860. Historians accept that he existed, taught, and founded a monastic order, but regard most details of his traditional biographies as questionable.[3] The teachings were written down only centuries later. However, certain teachings are found with such frequency throughout the early texts that most historians conclude that he must have taught at least something of the sort.[4]
Early teachings
The central teachings of early Buddhism can be summarized as rebirth, karma and the "Four Noble Truths".[5]
After death, beings normally start a new life, beginning from conception. These lives can be of various sorts, later systematized as 5 (in Theravada) or 6 (in Mahayana) realms:
- human beings
- animals
- ghosts
- gods
- hell inmates
- (in Mahayana) demons
Theravada believes a new life follows immediately after death, but Mahayana that there is an intermediate state.
The doctrine of karma holds that one's actions, words and thoughts produce moral results. If one acts well, one experiences pleasant results; bad actions produce unpleasant results. These results may appear in the same lifetime or a subsequent one.
"Four Noble Truths" is the usual translation. There are two different views among historians as to the original meaning. One view, which became the traditional Buddhist view quite early, is that "Truths" is a rather misleading translation: these are "things" rather than statements, "realities" rather than "truths".[6] The four are suffering, its cause (craving), its cessation (nirvana) and the path going to that cessation, namely the eightfold path: right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness and concentration. According to the other interpretation, adopted by some modern Buddhist teachers, the four are indeed "truths", statements: life is suffering; its cause is craving; its cessation, nirvana, can be brought about by the cessation of the cause; and this can be done by following the eightfold path. These were the advanced teachings for those ready for them.[7]
According to the scriptures, a council was held shortly after the Buddha's death, at which his teachings were collected. Historians regard this as greatly exaggerated, if not fictitious.[8] A "second" council, placed by the scriptures of different schools 100 or 110 years later, is generally regarded as historical, though the date is uncertain. It was held to resolve a dispute about monastic discipline, the main point being whether monks were allowed to accept money. It was agreed they were not, and in theory this remains the rule to this day, though it is often ignored in practice.
At some point after this the monastic order split into two, the Theravada and Mahasanghika. Both the date and the cause of the split are uncertain. Subsequent splits produced, according to tradition, 18 schools. However, about twice as many names are included in the various traditional lists of 18 schools. Although some are thought to be alternative names for the same schools, it is agreed that the number is conventional. Only 4 of these schools were particularly important in the main parts of India: Theravada, Mahasanghika, (Mula-)Sarvastivada and Sammitiya. The last 2 derive from splits within the Theravada. The relation between Sarvastivada and Mula-Sarvastivada is unclear, but no source mentions them as existing at the same place and time. In the far north-west, and in Central Asia, 3 other schools were important: Dharmaguptaka, Mahisasaka and Kasyapiya.
In the 3rd century BC, Buddhism received a great boost from the patronage of the Emperor Ashoka. A third council held during his reign has usually been regarded by historians as a purely Theravada affair held after their separation. However, it has recently been argued that the first schism occurred after this, and that this was a third general Buddhist council.[9] It is too early to say whether this argument will be accepted by historians generally. There is disagreement among scholars over whether certain Indian inscriptions should be interpreted as saying that Buddhist missionaries were sent to various Western kingdoms in the 3rd century BC.[10]
In this period, there was a great strengthening of the devotional strain that had probably been present from the beginning. There was also a further development of analytical ideas, in the form of the abhidharma.
The origins of Mahayana are unclear, historians giving quite a variety of different pictures. Some form of it certainly existed by the 2nd century AD, when a few of its texts were translated into Chinese, but it may well not have become a fully fledged separate movement for some centuries. Nowadays, Buddhists identify themselves as belonging to either Theravada or Mahayana.[11] The term means great way or vehicle.
The most important aspect of Mahayana is the path of the bodhisattva. Early Buddhism distinguished between the Buddha, who discovered the truth for himself and then taught it to others, and his disciples, who learnt it from him. A third category, the paccekabuddha, who discovers the truth for himself but does not teach it to others, is also mentioned occasionally in the early literature. From quite early on, there were stories of the Buddha's previous lives, and by about 100 BC these were regarded as examples of his following the path of the bodhisattva, then understood as one practising for attainment of Buddhahood. It is not clear when some people actually started practising this path, but it became part of traditional Buddhism as an option, which it remains in Theravada today.
Gradually, some of the followers of this path developed new teachings that eventually brought them into conflict with traditionalists. They sometimes became quite derogatory about them, calling them Hinayana, which means inferior way or vehicle. They came to encourage everyone to follow the bodhisattva path, rather than just leave it as an option. Most of them eventually held that in fact everyone would eventually become a bodhisattva. They argued that delaying one's own liberation for the sake of helping others was a necessary manifestation of compassion. This involves a change in the meaning of the term "Buddha". The earlier idea of a Buddha as someone who discovers the truth for himself and then teaches it to others is incompatible with the idea of everyone becoming a Buddha: one cannot have all teachers and no pupils.
They also developed new doctrines about the nature of the Buddha. Whereas most of the early schools held that he was a human being who attained awakening in his historical life, Mahayana came to believe that that life was a mere illusion, created by a celestial Buddha, awakened ages before, for the purpose of helping beings. This was taught in the Lotus Sutra, one of the most important Mahayana scriptures. There, the Buddha says that he had attained awakening ages before, and that he would live for ages more. He then immediately goes on to say that his lifetime is infinite. This led to two different schools of interpretation, according to which of these two statements is taken literally, and which is regarded as mere rhetorical flourish. If the Buddha's lifetime is indeed infinite, as is generally held in the Tibetan tradition, then one must simply try to become a Buddha as quickly as possible, in order to be of most help to beings. However, if it is only finite, even if extremely long, the possibility is there that one might do more good by remaining in the world for as long as there are beings needing help, presumably for ever, than by spending a finite time as a Buddha. Some Indian and Chinese[12] texts do in fact hold that one can, or even should, do precisely this. Thus the original meaning of a bodhisattva as someone on the path to Buddhahood has changed.
The classical literature summarizes the path of the bodhisattva in terms of the development of "perfections". The standard Mahayana list, probably inherited from one of the early schools, has six: generosity, morality, acceptance, exertion, concentration and wisdom. Theravada has a somewhat different list of ten, though the classical Theravada commentator Dhammapala holds the two lists to be equivalent.
The perfection of wisdom, in particular, is the subject of a large body of Mahayana scriptures, which teach that all things are "empty", a concept that has been subject to a wide variety of interpretations, both among Mahayana Buddhists and among modern scholars.
An important practical concept in Mahayana is that of "skilful means". The Mahayana used this to explain the differences between their teachings and those of early Buddhism. The Lotus Sutra explained that the Buddha taught people what would benefit them. Thus he taught early Buddhism, the Four Noble Truths and so on, to those who were not ready for Mahayana.[13] Later, new forms of Mahayana made similar claims about earlier ones, while the earlier ones responded by making the same claims in reverse. So, for example, some later Mahayana scriptures claimed that in fact emptiness was not the ultimate truth; rather, the ultimate reality was mind. This was developed into a detailed philosophical tradition, known as Cittamatra (mind only) or Yogacara, in opposition to a similar tradition, known as Madhyamika (middle way), teaching emptiness. Each held the other to be merely skilful means.
All major East Asian and Tibetan traditions regard Madhyamika as a higher truth than Yogacara, though only the Tibetan tradition regards it as the highest truth, and even there there are disagreements on its interpretation. In modern China, all schools are regarded as equally valid.
Some centuries after Mahayana, a movement developed called originally Mantrayana, and later Vajrayana. A Tibetan classification of Indian Buddhist teachings considers it the third yana, after "Hinayana" and Mahayana, and this classification has been adopted by historians. It emphasizes various ritual, yogic or magical practices as a more rapid path to awakening. Some elements of this sort of thing were present even in early Buddhism, and continue in modern Theravada, but much was added and expanded over the centuries. The latest phase of development of Vajrayana involved sexual yoga.
Decline, disappearance and revival
Over the centuries, Buddhism declined in India, for a variety of reasons. The relative contributions of Hindu and Muslim persecutions and internal decadence remain a matter of debate among historians. By the time of the British conquest, Buddhism had virtually disappeared, except in some small areas adjacent to Buddhist countries.
Buddhism survived because, before it disappeared in Template:Flag, it had spread from there in three directions:
- to Ceylon (Template:Flag)
- via Central Asia to Template:Flag
- to Template:Flag
These were the origins of the three main branches of present-day Buddhism, covered in the sections below. They were established respectively in the periods of dominance of the three yanas, and are likewise respectively dominated by them, but not exclusively. Each includes elements of all three yanas.[14]
Since 1956, there has been a substantial Buddhist revival in India, mainly among Untouchables.
Theravada, also known as Southern Buddhism, is a conservative tradition, and remains generally closest to early Buddhism.[15]
Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
Theravada Buddhism was established in Ceylon in the 3rd century BC. Mahayana ideas and practices were later imported as well, leading to a conflict lasting about a millennium between the Theravada Mahavihara and the Mahayana Abhayagiri monastic schools. Eventually, in the 12th century, they were "voluntarily" reunited under King Parakramabahu. Mahayana texts were suppressed, though some elements were adopted.
The Pali Canon, the scriptures of Theravada, were written down from oral tradition in the last century BC. Its native name is Tipitaka, meaning three baskets, from its divisions:
- Vinaya Pitaka, on monastic discipline
- Sutta Pitaka or Suttanta Pitaka: discourses by the Buddha and others
- Abhidhamma Pitaka, higher teaching
This is only the Theravada version. Each of the early schools had its own version. Most of the Sarvastivada version survives in Chinese, and parts of a number of others in various languages. Comparison shows that most of the first two pitakas were shared, but the different versions of the Abhidhamma were different texts, not versions of the same, though they use a common methodology.
An Indian monk named Buddhaghosa working in Ceylon, probably in the 5th century, played the central role in codifying the traditional Theravada interpretation of the teachings. He edited and translated from Old Sinhalese into Pali the traditional commentaries on much of the Canon.
He also compiled the Visuddhimagga, the standard compendium of the teachings. This is in 23 chapters. Chapter 1 deals with morality. Like the book as a whole, it is almost entirely monastic. The five precepts for lay people are mentioned briefly but not even listed. Chapter 2 covers 13 optional extra strict practices, of which 2 are stated to be suitable for laity: eating one meal a day, and eating from a single vessel.
Chapter 3 explains the preliminaries to meditation, and briefly surveys the different types of samatha (calm) meditation. There are 40 of these, which are dealt with in detail in Chapters 4-11. Once one has developed this, Chapters 12 and 13 explain how one can use it to develop various psychic powers.
Chapters 14-17 are concerned with doctrine, giving detailed expalnations, often in abhidhamma terms, of various doctrines such as the Four Noble Truths. This is to serve as the soil in which wisdom grows, its roots being morality and concentration (this latter closely related to samatha). Chapters 18-22 detail the stages of vipassana (insight) meditation, leading up to the attainment of liberation. Finally, Chapter 23 describes the advantages of this liberation.
In the 16th century, the Portuguese conquered the coastal regions of the country and persecuted Buddhism. It went into a decline, and the monastic ordination died out. It was eventually restored at the third attempt, from Thailand in 1753. The monastic order is currently organized in four independent groups, separated mainly on caste lines.
South-east Asia
It is not clear when Buddhism first arrived in South-east Asia. Its culture, in time, included a mixture of Hinduism and various forms of Buddhism. In the first centuries of the 2nd millennium, Theravada was established as the religion of Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos. Mahayana and Vajrayana influences survived. From the 15th century on, Burma took the lead in the detailed study of Abhidhamma. Between 1954 and 1956, an ecumenical council representing all five Theravada countries took place in Rangoon. It recited an "official" edition of the Canon, though in practice the other countries use their own editions. In Cambodia, until the Khmer Rouge virtually destroyed organized Buddhism, large quantities of Vajrayana-type practices survived, which are thought to have been widespread in Theravada generally until modern times.
East Asia
East Asian Buddhism, also known as Eastern Buddhism, is much more diverse than the other two branches.
Buddhism was introduced into China in the 1st century AD, and the first texts were translated in the 2nd. As the Chinese invented printing centuries before its appearance in the West, a large quantity of Buddhist literature, both translations of Indian texts and original Chinese works, were printed in the 10th century, five centuries before Gutenberg's Bible.
Various Indian schools of Buddhism were introduced into China, but these were progressively replaced by native Chinese schools. The basic attitude of Chinese Buddhism remains Mahayana, and its monastic discipline is that of the Dharmaguptaka. Indian doctrinal schools are still studied.
The two main Chinese doctrinal schools are Hua-yen (Huayan) and T'ien-t'ai (Tiantai). They share the basic idea of Buddha-nature, which originated in India, but never developed a fully elaborated philosophical system like Madhyamika and Yogacara there. In China it developed two. In its origins, it referred to the teaching above that everyone will eventually become a Buddha. This became a doctrine that one's ultimate reality is that of a Buddha. In China, this was sometimes extended from sentient beings to everything in the universe. The distinctive Hua-yen emphasis is on the mutual interpenetration of all things.
After a persecution of Buddhism in the 9th century, these two doctrinal schools, along with the Indian schools, declined and died out as separate schools, though their ideas remain very influential. Chinese Buddhism came to be dominated by two practice schools: Pure Land and Ch'an (Chan; better known under its Japanese name of Zen).
The Pure Land tradition is based on three scriptures. Two of these are Indian, one of them translated into Chinese in the 2nd century AD, while the third may well have originated in China. The description of the Pure Land is modelled on the even older description of a palace in an early text found in the Pali Canon. However, archaeological evidence, or rather the lack of it, suggests there was never a significant Pure Land movement in India. It really took off in Central Asia, and became a distinct "school" in China. It must, however, be remembered that Chinese schools were never independent institutions, but rather always coexisted within a united monastic order. It proved to be the most popular form of Buddhism in East Asia[16] (indeed, it is the most widespread form of Mahayana[17]).
Texts are found from early times, including some in the Pali Canon, prophesying the decline of the teaching. The Pure Land school held that this had already gone so far that few, if any, would be capable of following the Buddhist path. Fortunately, the celestial Buddha Amitabha had created a Pure Land in which he could grant rebirth to his devotees, and in which the conditions were favourable to the practice of the path.
The Chan school traces its origins to the shadowy figure of Bodhidharma, who probably arrived in China early in the 5th century. Later sources, continuing to the present day, give lists of teachers through whom the Chan/Zen teaching was transmitted, with a list of 20-odd Indians leading up to Bodhidharma, and then Chinese and others following. The earlier portions of these lists, up to some time after Bodhidharma, are partly fictitious. Chan stresses the importance of personal transmission of the teaching. It uses meditational techniques that try to bypass conceptual thinking.
Between the 9th and 16th centuries, Chan monasteries adopted Pure Land practice in addition to their own. It came to be generally accepted that, in this age of decline, the chances of attaining awakening on one's own were slim, and virtually everyone used Pure Land practice as an "insurance policy". At one time, most monks were Chan practitioners, and even today their successors still identify themselves as having a Chan teaching lineage. However, the actual practice of Chan declined over the centuries. It survived in a small number of monasteries in the early 20th century, but was killed off by Communism. It is quite popular in Taiwan.
North Vietnam was part of the Chinese empire from ancient times, and Chinese Buddhism was imported there. Later, a basically Chinese form of Buddhism spread through the whole country apart from a Theravada region next to the Cambodian border. In modern Vietnamese Buddhism, monastics and educated lay people identify their Buddhism as mainly Thien (Zen), but with elements of Pure Land and Vajrayana. The religion of most ordinary people is mainly Pure Land. The Vietnamese have never been particularly interested in the Chinese doctrinal traditions.
The various schools of Chinese Buddhism were introduced into Korea from the 4th century onwards. Unlike in China, they became separate organizations. However, over the centuries, they were reunited, and from 1941 all traditional forms of Korean Buddhism have been part of a single organization, though the legal formalities were not completed until 1962. This is called Chogye, after a traditional Son (Zen) school, indicating its official Zen affiliation. Its actual practice is a combination of various traditions, but mainly Son and Hwaom (Hua-yen). This combination of Zen and doctrinal study is unusual: in China, Vietnam and Japan, Zen traditionally rejected doctrianl study, though not usually scriptural study. After the Japanese invasion in 1894, a Japanese style of Buddhism, with married clergy, was introduced. This survives as a small separate denomination called Taego.
Buddhism was introduced to Japan from Korea in the 6th century. The early schools were of Indian origin except for Kegon (Hua-yen). Some of these still survive, but are small. The most important Japanese school historically, though now fairly small, was Tendai (T'ien-t'ai). It continued its parent school's tradition of advocating a balance between different elements, which it "updated" by including elements of Pure Land and Chan, for example. An important innovation was its founder Saicho's advocacy of abandoning the traditional monastic discipline. China had already developed a practice of following monastic ordination with the taking of bodhisattva vows, with a special code of discipline. Saicho (also known as Dengyo Daishi) advocated going straight to this stage without monastic ordination. The Emperor authorized this a week after Saicho's death in 822. It was in time adopted by all except the very small Ritsu school. For the time being the rule of celibacy was retained, and enforced by law. The law was repealed in 1872, and all major denominations quickly abolished their own celibacy rules. Nowadays most Japanese clergy are married.
A larger school founded about the same time was Shingon, which was based on middle-period Vajrayana teachings transmitted from India via China. The sexual yoga of late Vajrayana was not included in it. Although this school is quite large, the three largest branches of Japanese Buddhism were all founded later, in the 12th and 13th centuries, and all by Tendai clergy. They all reacted to the concept of the decline of the teachings by simplifying them in various ways, basically by selecting one element of the Tendai mix.
One of these was Japanese Pure Land. The larger of its two main present-day branches, Jodo Shinshu, holds a more radical form of Pure Land doctrine: Amitabha grants people faith, by that faith alone they are reborn in the Pure Land, and at the instant of that rebirth they become Buddhas.
Japanese Zen is in two branches, whose founders travelled to China and practised under diferent teachers.
The largest school in present-day Japan is Nichiren, named after its founder. It emphasizes devotion to the Lotus Sutra, the principal scripture of Tendai.
The Tibetan tradition
Also known as Northern Buddhism. Buddhism was introduced into Tibet in the 7th century. Over the following centuries, large quantities of teachings were introduced from India. Tibetan Buddhism came to be dominated by the fully developed late Vajrayana. Its philosophy is primarily Madhyamika, and its monastic discipline Mula-Sarvastivada. It spread to the Mongols from the 13th century on, and a migrating Mongol tribe setteld it in Europe in the 17th century.
Buddhism in the modern world
In modern times, Buddhism has been influenced by Western ideas, including the ideas of earlier generations of Western scholars about Buddhism itself.[18] A new style of Buddhism has evolved, alongside traditional forms, that has been variously called Buddhist modernism, Modern Buddhism, Protestant Buddhism, reformist Buddhism etc. It often claims to be a return to the "original" teachings of the Buddha, free of "superstition" etc. It is this style of Buddhism that has made significant numbers of converts in the West.[19]
An issue that offers interesting parallels with Christianity is the ordination of women. The order of nuns died out in Theravada. It was never introduced to Tibet. It survives to the present day in China, Korea & Vietnam. In recent times the Dalai Lama has authorized Tibetan Buddhist women to receive ordination in traditions that have it. In Theravada, the head of the Dambulla chapter of the Siyam Nikaya in Ceylon has carried out hundreds of ordination ceremonies for nuns in the last few years, but the governing council of Burmese Buddhism has declared that there can be no valid ordination of nuns in modern times. A decree of the Supreme Patriarch of Siam issued in 1928 banning female ordination remains in force.[20]
On most estimates there are around 350,000,000 Buddhists in the world.[21]
- ↑ Gethin, Sayings of the Buddha, Oxford World Classics, 2008, page xv
- ↑ Keown & Prebish, 2007, page 107
- ↑ Buswell, 2004 (Volume One), page 352
- ↑ Mitchell, 2002, page 34
- ↑ Harvey, 1990, page 32
- ↑ Buswell, 2004, page 296; Gethin, Foundations of Buddhism, page 60; [1]
- ↑ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, 1990, p. 47; {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=book }}, pages 393f
- ↑ Buswell, 2004, pages 187f
- ↑ Buddhist Studies Review, volume 25, number 2, pages 210-31
- ↑ Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, 2nd ed, 2006, pages 135f
- ↑ Keown, Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 1996, page 11
- ↑ Cook, Hua-yen Buddhism, Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977, pages 110f
- ↑ Harvey, 1990, p. 92
- ↑ Robinson et al, Buddhist Religions, 5th ed, Wadsworth, 2004, page xxi
- ↑ Gethin, Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 1998, page 1
- ↑ Shaw, Introduction to Buddhist Meditation, Routledge, 2009, page 208
- ↑ Clarke & Beyer, The World's Religions, Routledge, 2009, page 86
- ↑ Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 28.2 (2005), page 302; Williams, 2005, volume I, page xxix; Buswell, 2004 (Volume One), page 164
- ↑ Keown & Prebish, 2007, page 286
- ↑ See the article on Theravada nuns in Buddhist Studies Review, 24.2 (2007)
- ↑ statistics from adherents.com
- Buswell, Robert E., ed, 2004: Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Macmillan, 2 volumes
- Harvey, Peter, 1990: Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press
- Keown, Damien, & Charles S. Prebish, ed, 2007: Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Routledge
- Mitchell, Donald W., 2002: Buddhism, 1st edition, Oxford University Press
- Williams, Paul, ed, 2005: Buddhism, Routledge, 8 volumes


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Chocolate fondant
A gooey prepare-ahead dessert that's perfect for entertaining - it's all a matter of timing...
Nutrition and extra info
- Can be frozen uncooked
Nutrition: per serving
- kcal581
- fat40g
- saturates21g
- carbs52g
- sugars30g
- fibre0g
- protein9g
- salt0.55g
- 50g melted butter, for brushing
Butter is a dairy product made from separating whole milk or cream into fat and…
- cocoa powder, for dusting
- 200g good-quality dark chocolate, chopped into small pieces
Dark chocolatedahk chok-o-let
Dark chocolate means the shiny, dark-reddish brown treat produced from the cacao bean, theobroma…
- 200g butter, in small pieces
Butter is a dairy product made from separating whole milk or cream into fat and…
- 200g golden caster sugar
- 4 eggs and 4 yolks
The ultimate convenience food, eggs are powerhouses of nutrition packed with protein and a…
- 200g plain flour
- Caramel sauce (see 'Goes well with') and vanilla ice cream or orange sorbet, to serve
The sun-dried seed pod of a type of climbing orchid, vanilla has an inimitable soft, sweet…
First get your moulds ready. Using upward strokes, heavily brush melted butter (use 50g in total) all over the inside of the pudding mould. Place the mould in the fridge or freezer. Brush more melted butter over the chilled butter, then add a good spoonful of cocoa powder into the mould. Tip the mould so the powder completely coats the butter. Tap any excess cocoa back into the jar, then repeat with the next mould.
Place a bowl over a pan of barely simmering water, then slowly melt 200g good-quality dark chocolate and 200g butter, both chopped into small pieces, together. Remove the bowl from the heat and stir until smooth. Leave to cool for about 10 mins.
In a separate bowl whisk 4 eggs and 4 egg yolks together with 200g golden caster sugar until thick and pale and the whisk leaves a trail; use an electric whisk if you want. Sift 200g plain flour into the eggs, then beat together.
Pour the melted chocolate into the egg mixture in thirds, beating well between each addition, until all the chocolate is added and the mixture is completely combined to a loose cake batter.
Tip the fondant batter into a jug, then evenly divide between the moulds. The fondants can now be frozen for up to a month and cooked from frozen. Chill for at least 20 mins or up to the night before. To bake from frozen, simply carry on as stated, adding 5 mins more to the cooking time.
Heat oven to 200C/fan 180C/gas 6. Place the fondants on a baking tray, then cook for 10-12 mins until the tops have formed a crust and they are starting to come away from the sides of their moulds. Remove from the oven, then leave to sit for 1 min before turning out.
Loosen the fondants by moving the tops very gently so they come away from the sides, easing them out of the moulds. Tip each fondant slightly onto your hand so you know it has come away, then tip back into the mould ready to plate up.
Starting from the middle of each plate, squeeze a spiral of caramel sauce – do all the plates you need before you go on to the next stage.
Sit a fondant in the middle of each plate. Using a large spoon dipped in hot water, scoop a 'quenelle' of ice cream.
Carefully place the ice cream on top of the fondant, then serve immediately. Repeat with the rest of the fondants.
Recipe Tip
9 puddings for 8 guestsIf you are making the fondants for a dinner party I would advise you cook one extra as an 'insurance policy' that you can test for doneness. If everything goes according to plan I'm sure there will be no shortage of guests wanting second helpings.
Recipe Tip
VariationsOnce you have mastered the fondants it's very easy to adapt their flavour. For a boozy version add a generous splash of Baileys to the melted chocolate. You can also make a chocolate and orange version by adding the finely grated zest of 1 large orange and an optional splash of orange liqueur.
Recipe Tip
Tins or ramekins?As we make the fondants in such great volumes in my restaurants we use disposable 150ml aluminium muffin tins, but ramekins work just as well. The cooking times I have given here are for ramekins but if you want to use the muffin tins then 10 mins in the oven will be fine.