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PER: Potchefstroomse Elektroniese Regsblad
On-line version ISSN 1727-3781
PER vol.15 n.1 Potchefstroom Jan. 2012
Culture, tradition, custom, law and gender equality
MJ Maluleke
Mikateko Joyce Maluleke. Advocate of the High Court; Director in the Gender Directorate; Department of Justice and Constitutional Development (Republic of South Africa). Presentation delivered at the Conference of the South African Chapter of the International Association of Women Judges (SAC-IAWJ) in partnership with the North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus), Faculty of Law, Potchefstroom; LexisNexis; Juta and Do: Gender Directorate entitled "Equal access to Education and Training for Women: Pathway to Decent work for Women", on 12-13 August 2011 at Potchefstroom, South Africa,. firstname.lastname@example.com
Culture is like an umbrella under which some people like to hide from rain, and also to shade themselves from the sun. But sometimes you need to fold it.*
1 Introduction
Traditional cultural practices reflect the values and beliefs held by members of a community for periods often spanning generations. Every social grouping in the world has specific traditional cultural practices and beliefs, some of which are beneficial to all members, while others have become harmful to a specific group, such as women. These harmful traditional practices include early and forced marriages (Ukuthwala as practised currently), virginity testing, widow's rituals, 'u ku ngena' (levirate and sororate unions1), female genital mutilation2 (FGM), breast sweeping/ironing, the primogeniture rule, practices such as 'cleansing' after male circumcision, and witch-hunting.
Despite their harmful nature and their violation of national and international human rights laws, such practices persist because they are not questioned or challenged and therefore take on an aura of morality in the eyes of those practising them.
The purpose of this article is to discuss the impact of culture,3 tradition4 custom5 and law on gender equality. However, before the article discusses that matter it will examine the influence of colonialism6, imperialism7 and apartheid on the African culture, traditions and customs with particular reference to South African culture, traditions and customs. This will include a brief review at what really constitutes African culture, tradition and custom, and what is a colonial or imperial construct which is now regarded as African culture, tradition and custom. It will be argued that the primogeniture rule8 is not an original African cultural principle but a colonial and imperial construct. In our dialogue about the revival of our culture, tradition and customs we need to interrogate what is African and what is a colonial or imperial construct.
The presentation will demonstrate that law reform and development have traditionally focused on reforming state legal institutions to the exclusion of customary legal systems, and that where the courts had an opportunity to develop the customary legal systems they either reinforced archaic customary laws or imposed western ideology. It will show that pre-colonial and pre-apartheid African culture, traditions and customs were based on Ubuntu. It will conclude by showing that harmful traditional practices, as outlined previously, are a violation of women's human rights as guaranteed in the Constitution, perpetuate the inequalities between women and men, and contribute to the extreme poverty that government is trying to eradicate.
2 Background
African culture has experienced rapid change since the colonial invasion. Contemporary African culture is a mixture of traditional elements and alien features. Local African culture was oppressed for many years by white South Africans, who find their cultural roots in western countries. Western cultures tend to be more individualistic and focused on individual achievements and personal interests, whereas African cultures are collectivistic, group-oriented, and concerned with the welfare of their community.
Native law was officially recognised in 1848, but only insofar as it did not infringe on the humanitarian principles of 'civilised society' - understood to be 'white society' in that day.9 The aim was to maintain control over African people. The strategy adopted was to manipulate the way of life through the codification of customary law, as seen from the eyes of the colonisers. Many research reports and scholarly writings have revealed that customary law and its practices have been tampered with. Writers such as Prof Chanock and others argue that:
Although there is the view that colonialists 'invented' customary law as a way to govern natives while under the auspices of paying tribute to their culture and heritage, some other writers have argued that customary law was not so much 'invented' by them, but 'manipulated' so as to conform the actual practices of the natives to their westernized ideals as part of their 'civilizing mission'. These writers prefer to view the colonial influence more as 'imagination', rather than 'invention'.10
However, due to the living nature of customary law, there is one African principle that colonialism and imperialism could not manipulate, i.e. Ubuntu. All Africans, particularly indigenous Africans, will tell you that our parents always taught us about Ubuntu. (It is not clear whether current parents are passing on the baton or not). Ubuntu means, 'I am what I am because of who we all are'. Ubuntu underscores the importance of agreement or consensus.
The overall concept of Ubuntu values people as a community, rather than as individuals. The Zulus and other peoples have a saying, 'umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu, which means a person is a person through other persons. It is a humanistic way of life which holds ethics and morals at the forefront of everything. All African cultural, traditional and customary practices, including those pertaining to women and children, were based on Ubuntu. The following section will look at the international and national legal framework regarding cultural, traditional and customary practices, and gender equality.
3 The international legal framework and the South African Constitution
South Africa is a member of the international community, and since the advent of democracy has ratified, signed or acceded to many treaties, including the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) which was ratified by South Africa in 1996 without a single reservation.11 Given that South Africa also ratified the Optional Protocol on CEDAW, which strengthened existing enforcement mechanisms, South Africa has committed itself to be bound by the provisions of CEDAW and its Optional Protocol.12
Article 2 defines discrimination and includes violence against women as a form of discrimination. Article 16 of CEDAW requires state parties to take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in all matters relating to marriage and family relations. It further obliges state parties to ensure that 'the betrothal and the marriage of a child shall have no legal effect and all necessary actions, including legislation, shall be taken to specify a minimum age for marriage, and to make the registration of marriages compulsory'.
The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women (Protocol to the African Charter),13 article 2(1)(b) provides that state parties must enact and effectively implement appropriate legislative or regulatory measures, including those prohibiting and curbing all forms of discrimination, particularly those harmful practices which endanger the health and general wellbeing of women. It also contains important provisions on reproductive rights, marriage, divorce and inheritance rights, among others.
In addition to the international commitments, the South African Constitution enshrines the rights of all people in South Africa and affirms the democratic values of human dignity, equality and freedom (section 7 of the Constitution), declares its supremacy (sections 1(c) and 2 of the Constitution), and provides that any law or conduct inconsistent with it is invalid.14 The right to equality, including gender equality, is one of the fundamental pillars of the Constitution, and it is enshrined in the Bill of Rights, which is justiciable.
On the other hand, the Constitution also provides for and protects the right to culture (sections 15(3), 30 and 31 of the Constitution) and recognises traditional leadership (sections 211, 212 of the Constitution), which recognition could be interpreted as protecting polygamy as well as related practices such as 'spouse inheritance',15 Ukuthwala16 and other customary practices which have the impact of undermining the constitutional guarantee of gender equality.17 However, the provisions protecting the right to culture explicitly include a qualification stipulating that 'no one exercising these rights may do so in a manner inconsistent with any provision of the Bill of Rights' (sections 30, 31(2) of the Constitution). But what does this mean in practice for a young girl in the rural areas who has to endure many harmful practices in the name of her culture?
Customary practices such as Ukuthwala, virginity testing, widow's rituals, and others are entrenched, and in practice take precedence over equality in the villages where they are carried out. It is therefore questionable whether the constitutional protection of gender equality is making a difference to women living in communities with a strong commitment to traditional norms and practices. These compromises on women's right to equality can thus be interpreted to mean that women, as opposed to men, do not have inherent rights.
In order to support this argument, the following section of this paper explores the impact of the following harmful traditional practices: female genital mutilation (FGM), early and forced marriages (Ukuthwala as practiced currently), virginity testing, widows' rituals, 'u ku ngena' (levirate and sororate unions), breast sweeping/ironing, the primogeniture rule, and practices such as cleansing after male circumcision, witch-hunting, and other practices that impinge on gender equality.
3.1 The Children's Act 38 of 2005
Section 12 of the Children's Act: Social, Cultural and Religious Practices specifically prohibits female genital mutilation and the circumcision of female children. Contravention of this prohibition is an offence which may result in a sentence of a fine or imprisonment of up to 10 years if found guilty.
The Children's Act also protects the privacy, bodily integrity and dignity of children, especially female children, by prohibiting virginity testing with regard to children younger than 16 years of age. Virginity testing may be practiced in relation to children older than 16, on condition that the testing is performed in the prescribed manner and that written consent is given.
3.2 The Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act,2000 (PEPUDA)
The definition of discrimination in PEPUDA was taken as it is from the CEDAW definition of discrimination. Chapter 2 of the Act deals with the prevention, prohibition and elimination of unfair discrimination, hate speech and harassment on any of the prohibited grounds, as set out in the definition of 'prohibited grounds' (which is not a closed list, but all of the 17 prohibited grounds are contained in the Constitution).
Section 8 of PEPUDA provides that the following constitute unfair discrimination:
- Section 8 (a) gender-based violence,
- Section 8(b) female genital mutilation, and
- Section 8(d) any practice including traditional, customary, or religious practice which impairs the dignity of women and undermines equality between women and men, including the undermining of the dignity and wellbeing of the girl child.
This means that all practices such as virginity testing, Ukuthwala and others that are dehumanising young girls are regarded as unfair discrimination by PEPUDA. The rights in PEPUDA can be enforced in the courts; there are specialised courts called Equality Courts where the violation of all these rights can be reported.
3.3 The Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act 32 of 2007 (Sexual Offences Act)
Having sex with a child without her consent following her kidnapping and abduction (Ukuthwala) constitutes rape in violation of the Sexual Offences Act (section 15). Regarding a child, the age of consent is 16; meaning that sex with an under-16 constitutes a sexual offence. Sex with a child that is 12 or below is rape, as a child of that age is legally incapable of consent. The Act also prohibits other sexual activities with children (sections 16 and 17), including sexual grooming (section 18).
Section 17 of the Sexual Offences Act prohibits the sexual exploitation of children by their parents and others. Parents, relatives or others who collude in, or aid and abet, the Ukuthwala of a girl child commit the crime of the sexual exploitation of children. These parents and relatives also face being charged with Trafficking in Persons, under section 71 of the Sexual Offences Act.
3.4 The Recognition of Customary Marriages Act 120 of 1998 (RCMA)
According to the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act, both the bride and the bridegroom must consent to a marriage. The age of consent is 18 years of age.
3.5 The Prevention and Combating of Trafficking in Persons Bill [B7-2010](the Bill)
The Bill prohibits the recruitment, sale, supply, procurement, transportation, transfer, harbouring, disposal or receipt of persons by means of the use of threat, force, intimidation or other forms of coercion; or by abusing vulnerability, for the purpose of exploitation. Parents, relatives and others who hand over a child into a forced marriage for financial or any other type of gain can be prosecuted under section 4 read with section 1 of the Bill.
3.6 The Transkei Penal Code 9 of 1983
Ukuthwala of young girls was also prohibited in Transkei under the Transkei Penal Code. The Penal Code criminalised the abduction and kidnapping of children under 18 years.
3.7 The Domestic Violence Act 116 of 1998
A victim of Ukuthwala may apply for a protection order under the Domestic Violence Act against family members involved in her abduction.
4 Cultural, traditional and customary practices which are harmful to women and children
The revival of traditions, culture and customs, and the practices derived from them, after the demise of colonialism, imperialism and apartheid will definitely require us to enter into a dialogue on the character of our ancestors and what is really indigenous. However, the process should take the context into consideration. Some of the cultural practices that were necessary then are unnecessary now due to development, globalisation and other factors. Some cultural practices that need to be scrutinised are discussed below.
4.1 Virginity testing
Virginity testing is practised mostly in KwaZulu Natal and the Eastern Cape.18 Virginity testing is the practice and process of inspecting the genitalia of girls and women to determine if they are sexually chaste. It is based on the false assumption that a woman's hymen can be torn only as a result of sexual intercourse.19 It is a very controversial practice, both because of its implications for the girls tested and because it is not necessarily accurate.
There are two schools of thought with regards to virginity testing.20 One school of thought submits that it is a form of sex education and it enforces abstinence from sexual activities before marriage.21 Girls are taught not to allow boys or men to take away their pride by having sexual intercourse with them before marriage. It is believed that young women will abstain from sex because they fear being discovered to be no longer virgins (the implication of this fear is what the writer has a problem with). This is a stigma not only for the girl but for her entire family. It is believed that virginity testing substantially reduces the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS, and further, that it reduces teenage and unplanned pregnancies that lead to school dropouts.
The other school of thought (to which the writer ascribes) holds that the intention of the practice of virginity testing might be good, but its flip side is gender bias. It does not treat boy and girl children equally. There are implications for gender equality and human rights as provided for in the Constitution.22 The practice also appears to threaten and objectify girl children so that fathers may get full lobola or bohali on marriage. This school of thought argues that the practice of virginity testing puts the whole responsibility for safe sex, abstinence, and countering the spread of sexually transmitted diseases solely on the shoulders of girls and young women, who are often the victims of gender violence and gender inequality in so many other respects.
Women are expected to maintain a very high level of morality to be married to 'honourable' men who might have deflowered and/or impregnated a string of girl victims, and might possibly even be HIV positive. On the other hand, virginity testing poses a threat of discrimination against girl children who are not virgins (who in many instances may have been raped). The reasons advanced for virginity testing do not focus on prevention and protection.
4.2 Ukuthwala
Ukuthwala is a form of abduction that involves the kidnapping of a girl or a young woman by a man and his friends or peers with the intention of compelling the girl or young woman's family to endorse marriage negotiations. In ancient Africa Ukuthwala was a condoned, albeit abnormal, path to marriage targeted at certain women of marriageable age. It did not involve raping or having consensual sex with the girl until the marriage requirements had been met.
Ukuthwala was not performed, however, with impunity; it incurred delictual liability for the culprit in the form of the payment of a herd of cattle to the father or legal guardian of the girl. Today Ukuthwala involves the kidnapping, rape and forced marriage of minor girls by grown men old enough to be their grandfathers. It contradicts the reasons advanced for practicing virginity testing.
Ukuthwala retards childhood development processes.
- It burdens the girl child with the responsibility of being a wife with a husband and in most instances children and in-laws to serve or look after.
- It is a health hazard, with problems ranging from HIV and other STIs to pregnancy-related complications such as infant and maternal mortality and fistula-related diseases.23
- The social development of the child is stunted as the early marriage and fast-tracking into the adult world skips organic developmental phases. The abducted child is removed from school, and dropping out of school deprives the child of education opportunities, including tertiary education and skills training.
- Early marriage is a symptom of and exacerbates gender inequality. The subordinate position of the girl or young woman is reinforced by the fact that in most of the documented cases the girl children have been forced to marry men old enough to be their parents or grand parents.
- Community development depends on its people; this includes the level of health, knowledge and education, skills and resources controlled by those people. Since Ukuthwala undermines the girl-child's access to these resources it indirectly undermines community development.
- There is a proven link between a lack of education, underdevelopment and poverty. Ukuthwala deprives girl children of opportunities to educate and develop themselves. Furthermore, research indicates that the majority of the girls and young women that are victims of Ukuthwala are from poor families. Their lack of education and underdevelopment, due to Ukuthwala, deepens their poverty and perpetuates the cycle of poverty. In many instances the children born into poverty also tend to be poor. This contributes to the cycle of poverty in the communities, particularly rural communities, where Ukuthwala is rife.
4.3 Ukungena
In terms of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act 120 of 1998 (RCMA), a customary marriage must be negotiated and entered into in accordance with customary law. Customary marriages include polygamous practices. Polygamy includes levirate and sororate unions, although the RCMA is silent about this. As it has been a cultural practice, it is still practised by some communities. If the inheriting of the deceased's spouse is conducted according to the custom of that community, and the widower or widow and the deceased spouse's relatives consent, then that marriage is a valid marriage under the RCMA.
At the International Alliance of Women's 35th Congress held in South Africa in December 2010, women from KwaZulu Natal and the Eastern Cape reported that widows are forced to marry the brother or any male relative of the deceased husband. The widow is required to choose a husband without knowing who she is choosing because she is given a few sticks to choose from, and the stick she chooses will determine who the husband is.
If she refuses to marry one of the men selected, she is banished from her home, and she loses custody and all her inheritance. The consent might therefore be coerced or unduly influenced by family members or the community. If the woman agrees to marry the male relative due to a fear of violence, then the marriage is not valid. But what are the implications for the woman of invalidating the marriage?
4.4 Male circumcision rituals or practices that affect women
Civil society organisations in the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu Natal and Limpopo have been complaining about the ritual of the 'cleansing' of young men who have just completed their circumcision process. The 'cleansing' involves the young men finding a female, perhaps even a widow, and gang raping her to 'cleanse' themselves after this ritual. This is definitely not rooted in Ubuntu. It is a criminal act.
4.5 Widows' rituals
Widowhood is a clearly defined social role for women, that is associated with prescribed institutionalised cultural and religious norms and the concomitant social sanctions if a deviation from the defined social role occurs. However, an altogether different set of norms applies to men upon the death of their wives.24 The Commission on Gender Equality (CGE) conducted an in-depth country-wide study on the experiences of widowhood in different cultures and in different geographic areas in South Africa. The study revealed the following:
- There is large-scale discrimination against widows and widowers, including the imposition of burdens, obligations or disadvantages, and the with-holding of benefits, opportunities or advantages, as well as the regular harassment of widows and widowers in the context of the household, community, state and market-place.
- A woman's status shifts drastically (downward) after the death of her husband in contrast to the widower's status which remains unchanged (including in terms of the administration of the estate).
- A decrease in social status not only has implications for women's livelihood, economic status and quality of life, but also increases their vulnerability to discrimination, abuse, harassment and gender-based violence, as well as their ability to assert ther rights.
- Both women and men experience increased social pressure during widow(er)hood, but in opposite directions: widows are pressured to remain 'loyal' and 'faithful' to their late husbands, and honour their memory, whereas men are often pressured into a quick remarriage, regardless of their readiness or wish to remarry.
- If widows remarry, they rarely do so of their own free will. In some communities widows may be forced into new conjugal relations with a male relative or be forbidden to remarry, even if they wish to do so.
4.6 Witch-hunting violence against women
In his presentation at the CGE Conference, the then Premier of Limpopo, Adv Ngwako Ramahlodi, said that the notion of witchcraft is itself not a new phenomenon in African culture. One would venture to suggest that it is indeed a phenomenon amongst many nations of the world. In our situation our culture recognises witchcraf as one of its main ingredients.25 Thus, for many families, when spring arrives a traditional healer is brought in to strengthen the kraal and all those who dwell in it against any harmful spirits, including those wilfully engineered by witches. The problem with this practice is that it involves violence when one is branded a witch. Most of those blamed for witchcraft are elderly people and women. This practice is rife in Limpopo, and now lately in Eastern Cape and KwaZulu Natal.
Witchcraft violence against women has been a global problem since time immemorial. It was practised in Europe, as described by William Shakespeare in Macbeth. Recently, in 2001 I was in Aarhus, Denmark, and I was invited to the annual celebration of their witches' day. They make a bonfire and burn the dummy figure of a woman on the fire.
I asked my host the following questions:
Question: Why is it a woman who is burned?
Answer: It is women who are witches.
Question: How do you identify and verify that someone is a witch?
Answer: You tie her to a stone and immerse her in the river, and if she dies, she was a witch.
In Ubuntu, old age or grey hair is a sign of wisdom and old people were respected, not abused, discriminated against or burned to death. The main ethical values of Ubuntu are respect for others, including women and children, helpfulness, community, sharing, caring, trust and unselfishness. Morals such as compassion, cooperation and communalism are highly valued and the wellbeing of the whole community is a unified objective.
The patriarchal nature of our societies, as influenced by colonialism and imperialism, explains why elderly women are targeted during witch-hunting. They are weak, defenceless and therefore easy targets. It is criminal, and the perpetrators must face the full wrath of the law.
4.7 Female genital mutilation (FGM)
Female genital mutilation (FGM) is disfigurement that includes cutting of the clitoris. It also includes changing the form of the labia or elongating them, as practiced by Tsonga and Sotho communities. In some societies FGM marks an important rite of passage into womanhood, while others believe it guarantees virginity, curbs female sexual desires, maintains hygiene, prevents promiscuity and increases fertility.26
Whatever the reasons for practicing FGM, the consequences are a health hazard. The practice is normally performed without anaesthesia, using unhygienic methods and instruments. Its consequences include sickness or death due to infection, haemorrhage, blood poisoning.27 This is torture, and the prohibition against torture is contained in s 12(1)(b) of the Constitution, and article 5 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights.
4.8 Primogeniture rule
The primogeniture rule,28 which has just been abolished by the Constitutional Court in the case of Bhe,29 was not a customary law principle but a colonial and imperial construct imposed on Africans. The irony of it is that African males embraced it as their customary principle because it benefitted them; therefore they are the ones who were fighting against its being declared unconstitutional. The primogeniture rule was conceived by the framers of the Natal Code to be one of the main pillars of the 'native law' to their own benefit. It was imposed on Africans in order for the state to be able to litigate against one person rather than to have to join the whole family when the head of the house died.30
The African traditional culture has an almost infinite capacity for the pursuit of consensus and reconciliation, as opposed to being individualistic and competitive. Further, in terms of African culture, there are no orphans because a child is a child of a community in which the child lived. Decision making in the African culture (as expressed in terms of the principle of Ubuntu) is by consensus - productivity is optimised, not maximised, as the case may be in other cultures. Rewards are shared and so is suffering, as opposed to the context of an individualistic culture, where rewards are given according to individual merit and suffering is viewed as a penalty for one's carelessness. Sustainable competitive advantage comes from loyalty to group goals in terms of Ubuntu.
The writer argues that the previous generations were wise and innovative and evolved with the times, and that customary law also evolved in line with the way of life and enlightenment at that time. The case of Mazibuko v Mazibuko31 is proof that African customary laws, practices and the way of life have evolved.
This case involved a suit between two brothers of the deceased; the eldest brother and the deceased's twin brother. The family had given the estate of the deceased twin brother to the surviving twin because they believed that twins are one person. The custom had evolved from the practice of killing one twin to recognising that they are two people as one, and that both can live.
The eldest brother contested that view and won the case at the Natives Commission and at the Natives Appeal Commission. The Native Commissioner's judgment held that the 'custom' of twin succession did not have sufficient longevity to overcome the Code's fundamental principle of primogeniture, since it originated only within the last 50 or so years, while the law of primogeniture had been observed by natives from time immemorial.
The writer agrees with McClendon32 when he argues that the Mazibuko case shows that most of the African participants in 1929 had a very different conception of custom and customary law from that of colonial officials. Rather than something fixed and immutable, they were satisfied that although one practice had been followed 'in the old days', another might be followed now, depending on the context and circumstances.
5 Conclusion
The danger of these harmful traditional practices is that children and adolescents whose rights to personal safety and wellbeing are violated are at increased risk of long-life developmental challenges, HIV infections, and other physical, emotional and social problems. These outcomes compromise national and international development goals, including, among others, the MDG33 goal 1: 'Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger,' and goal 2, which provides for 'Achieving Universal Primary Education' in order to establish 'A World Fit for Children'. The goals on reducing child mortality and improving maternal health are also affected.
The revival of tradition, culture and customs is part of the new national and international identity; however, this revival must be rooted in a way of life based on human rights, democracy and equality for all, and understood from a point of view of Ubuntu. Thus, culture, tradition and customs have to be balanced within the social and legal context of the constitution and provisions of the Bill of Rights.
Commission of Gender Equality Report on Consultative Conference on Virginity Testing; 12-14 June 2000 (The Commission Johannesburg 2000) [ Links ]
Commission on Gender Equality Report on Widowhood (The Commission Johannesburg [date unknown]) [ Links ]
Commission on Gender Equality Report on the National Conference on Witchcraft Violence, 6-10 September 1998 (The Commission Johannesburg 1998) [ Links ]
Commission on Gender Equality Training Manual on Culture, Tradition and Religion, Gender and the Equality Act (The Commission Johannesburg [date unknown]) [ Links ]
Chanock M Law, Custom and Social Order: the Colonial Experience in Malawi and Zambia (Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1985) [ Links ]
Koyana DS and Bekker JC "The Indomitable Ukuthwala Custom" 2007 De Jure 139-144 [ Links ]
McClendon TV "A Dangerous Doctrine? Twins, Ethnography, and Inheritance in Colonial Africa" 1997 Journal of Legal Pluralism 121-140 [ Links ]
Ramphela M "Speech" (Unpublished speech delivered at the National Conference on Witchcraft Violence Thohoyandou Venda 6-10 September 1998) [ Links ]
United Nations Secretary General Report on Violence Against Children (UN Geneva 2006) [ Links ]
Weiner ESC and Simpson JE Oxford English Dictionary 2nd ed (Oxford University Press Oxford 2004) [ Links ]
Register of legislation
Children's Act 38 of 2005
Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996
Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act (Sexual Offences Act) 32 of 2007
Domestic Violence Act 116 of 1998
Prevention and Combating of Trafficking in Persons Bill [B7-2010]
Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act (PEPUDA) 4 of 2000
Recognition of Customary Marriages Act (RCMA) 120 of 1998
Transkei Penal Code Act 9 of 1983
Register of international instruments
African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (1981)
Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (1979)
Millennium Declaration and Millennium Development Goals (2000)
Optional Protocol on the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1999)
Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women (Protocol to the African Charter) (2003)
Register of case law
Bhe v The Magistrate of Khayelitsha 2005 1 SA 580 (CC)
Gumede v President of the Republic of South Africa 2009 3 BCLR 243 (CC)
Mazibuko v Mazibuko Natal Archives, 1 EST 2/1/2/1, Case 60/1929
Register of Internet sources
DifferenceBetween.net [date unknown] Difference Between Colionialism and Imperialism http://www.differencebetween.net/miscellaneous/difference-between-colonialism-and-imperialism/ [date of use 5 August 2011 ]
United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women [date unknown] Country Reports on the CEDAW http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/reports.htm [date of use 5 April 2011]
Wikipedia [date unknown] Colonialism http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialism [date of use 5 August 2011]
Wikipedia [date unknown] Customary law in South Africa http://en.wi-kipedia.org/wiki/Cusomary_Law_in_South_Africa [date of use 5 August 2011]
Wikipedia [date unknown] Primogeniture http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primogeniture [date of use 5 August 2011]
List of abbreviations
CEDAW: Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women
CGE: Commission on Gender Equality
FGM: Female genital mutilation
MDG: Millennium Development Goals
UN: United Nations
UN DAW: United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women
* Ramphela "Speech".
1 Levirate unions occur when the deceased's surviving male relative inherits the widow of the deceased. Sororate unions occur where the widower is inherited by the deceased wife's surviving female relative. The inherited widow or widower becomes the wife or husband to the surviving relative of the deceased.
2 FGM is not just the cutting of the clitoris; it includes disfigurement, and the changing of the form or elongation of the labia as practiced by Tsonga and Sotho communities.
3 Culture is a combination of the ideas, customs and social behaviour of a particular people or society (Weiner and Simpson Oxford English Dictionary).
4 Tradition is the transmission of customs or beliefs from generation to generation; it is a long established custom or belief that has passed from one generation to another (Weiner and Simpson Oxford English Dictionary).
5 Custom is a traditional and widely accepted way of behaving or doing something that is specific to a particular society, place or time; it is things done habitually (Weiner and Simpson Oxford English Dictionary).
6 Colonialism is the establishment, maintenance, acquisition and expansion of colonies in one territory by people from another territory (Wikipedia [date unknown]a en.wikipedia.org).
7 Imperialism means creating an empire, expanding into the neighbouring regions and expanding dominance. Its origins date back to the Romans. It involves political and economic domination of the other (DifferenceBetween.net [date unknown] www.differencebetween.net). Imperialism takes the form of political control and creating economic dependence.
8 The primogeniture rule is the right, by law or custom, of a firstborn to inherit the entire estate, to the exclusion of younger siblings (Wikipedia [date unknown]c en.wikipedia.org).
9 Wikipedia [date unknown]b en.wikipedia.org.
10 Wikipedia [date unknown]b en.wikipedia.org.
11 South Africa ratified the CEDAW in 1996 and presented its first Country Report in 1998. Country reports on the CEDAW are available on UN DAW [date unknown] www.un.org.
12 The Optional Protocol was signed by South Africa on 18 October 2005 and came into force on 18 January 2006.
13 The Protocol to the African Charter was adopted in 2003 and came into force on 25 November 2005 when it received its 15th ratification.
14 The Constitutional Court has reiterated the supremacy of the principle of equality in the face of indigenous law that discriminated against women in several decisions. See Gumede v President of the Republic of South Africa 2009 3 BCLR 243 (CC); Bhe v The Magistrate of Khayelitsha 2005 1 SA 580 (CC).
15 This will be briefly discussed in par 4.4 below. See 'Consent to a customary marriage'
16 The practice of Ukuthwala will be briefly discussed in par 4.4 below. See 'Consent to a customary marriage'. For a detailed discussion of this customary practice see Koyana and Bekker 2007 De Jure 139-144.
17 Section 9 of the Constitution explicitly acknowledges the intersectionality of different grounds of discrimination as prohibited. The Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act 4 of 2000 (Equality Act) recognises patriarchy and discrimination on the grounds of sex and gender as being of such a prevalent and serious nature that it specifically singles out these forms of discrimination for special treatment. In addition to outlawing unfair discrimination, the Equality Act contains provisions which encourage both the public and private sectors to create a nonsexist society.
18 Reports from the KwaZulu Natal Rural Women's Movement and other NGOs in the Eastern Cape.
19 The use of tampons can break the hymen.
20 CGE Report on Virginity Testing 11.
21 CGE Report on Virginity Testing 11.
22 The provisions protecting the right to culture explicitly include a qualification stipulating that 'no one exercising these rights may do so in a manner inconsistent with any provision of the Bill of Rights' (ss 30, 31(2) Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996).
23 These health complications are consistent with the findings of the UN Secretary General's Report on Violence Against Children (2006) and the findings of UN agencies such as WHO, UNICEF and UNIFEM in countries that are bedevilled by forced and early marriages.
24 CGE Report on Widowhood.
25 CGE Report on Witchcraft Violence 1.
26 CGE Training Manual 11.
27 CGE Training Manual 11.
28 The Primogeniture Rule is the right, by law or custom, of a firstborn to inherit the entire estate, to the exclusion of younger siblings.
29 Bhe v The Magistrate of Khayelitsha 2005 1 SA 580 (CC).
30 Chanock Law, Custom and Social Order.
31 Mazibuko v Mazibuko Natal Archives, 1 EST 2/1/2/1, Case 60/1929 quoted by McClendon 1997 Journal of Legal Pluralism.
32 McClendon 1997 Journal of Legal Pluralism 134 the old days', another might be followed now, depending on the context and circumstances.
33 Millennium Declaration and Millennium Development Goals (2000).


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10 Ways to Boost Your Wi-Fi Signal
Check out these quick tips to get the strongest signal from your wireless router, extend and optimize your Wi-Fi coverage, and speed up your surfing.
Browsing slowing to a crawl, the inability to stream, dropped Wi-Fi signals, wireless dead zones—every one of these problems is maddening in a world where getting online has become, for some, as necessary as breathing. Well, maybe not that critical, but important. If the only way you can get decent reception is to be in the same room as your wireless router, these simple tips can help optimize your network.
Distance is the most obvious problem—there is a certain optimal range that the wireless signal can travel. If the network has to cover an area larger than the router is capable of transmitting to, or if there are lots of corners to go around and walls to penetrate, performance will take a hit. Interference is also a big issue, especially for those who live in densely populated areas. Signals from other wireless networks and electronics can impact speeds, as can physical obstructions, such as walls. Many phone systems and other wireless devices can also interfere with signals. This is a good thing to consider when you are shopping for a new phone system—many of them use DECT 6.0 nowadays, which coexists very nicely with standard Wi-Fi networks.
It's also possible the problem isn't interference or other networks. Is there a chance you have unwanted guests piggybacking on your network? You can always look at your router's administrator interface to see how many devices are connected. Or use a network analyzer tool to see if you have unknown machines on your network. If it's an open network, close it. Set up security—preferably WPA2, as WEP isn't as strong—and put in a strong password that's hard for others to guess.
There are many other reasons your connection may be less than ideal. Fortunately, we have some troubleshooting tips to help, and many of them won't cost you a dime.
1. Update Your Router Firmware
Perhaps your router just needs an update. Router manufacturers are always tweaking software to eke out a little more performance and speed. How easy—or how hard—it is to upgrade your firmware depends entirely on your device manufacturer and model. Most current routers have the update process built right into the administration interface, so it's just a matter of hitting a firmware upgrade button. Some models, particularly if they're older, still require you to first find and download the firmware from the router manufacturer's website. It's tedious, but still a good thing to do.
In fact, even if your wireless network isn't ailing, you should just make it a point to update your firmware on a regular basis. You will get performance improvements, better features, and security updates that way. Here's how to access your router's settings.
2. Achieve Optimal Router Placement
Not all rooms and spaces are created equal. The fact is, where you place the router can affect your wireless coverage. It may seem logical to have the router inside a cabinet and out of the way, or right by the window where the cable comes in, but that's not always the case. A wired router can be tucked away, out of sight, out of mind. A wireless router, on the other hand, needs open spaces, away from walls and obstructions. It's not just physical obstructions either; heavy-duty appliances or electronics running in close proximity can impact Wi-Fi performance.
If your router has external antennas, orient them vertically to bump up coverage. Elevate the router if you can. You can mount it on a wall, or put it on top of a shelf or a table to get a better signal. There are plenty of tools to help you visualize your network coverage. Personally, I like Heatmapper, or Editors' Choice inSSIDer for Office, which shows you both the weak and strong spots in your Wi-Fi network. There are plenty of mobile apps, too, such as Netgear's WiFi Analytics.
3. What's Your Frequency?
Take a look at your network's administrator interface, and make sure you have it configured for optimum performance. If you have a dual-band router, you'll likely get better throughput by switching to the 5GHz band instead of using the more common 2.4GHz band. If nothing else, you will likely encounter less interference from other wireless networks and devices because the 5GHz frequency is not as commonly used. Switching is quite simple. See if your router's administrator interface offers 5GHz. If it does, enable it, and set up the network as you would normally.
4. Change That Channel
Ever play with walkie-talkies as a kid? You may remember how if the units weren't on the same channel, you couldn't hear each other. Or if you wound up on a different channel, you could listen in on someone else's conversation on a completely different set. Same thing with baby monitors.
In the same vein, all modern routers are multichannel, so they can switch across different channels when communicating to your devices. You tend to use whatever the router default is, but if neighboring wireless networks are also using the same channel, then you are going to encounter signal congestion. On Windows-based PCs, you can see what channels neighboring Wi-Fi networks are using. From the command prompt (in Windows 7) if you type netsh wlan show all, you will see a list of all wireless networks and the channels being used in your vicinity. At PC Labs, for instance, most of our networks and those of our neighbors are using channels 6 and 11.
Once you know what channels are in use, pick one that's less congested and manually switch your router to broadcast on that channel. You can find this setting in your wireless network's administrator interface. While the interface differs by device and manufacturer, you will generally find the option under the basic wireless settings category.
5. Control Quality
Most modern routers come with Quality-of-Service (QoS) tools to limit the amount of bandwidth that apps use. This is handy if you do lot of video streaming or use Voice over IP (VoIP) often. The last thing you want is to have your video or call quality degrade just because someone is downloading a gigantic video file from Dropbox. You can, for example, specify which applications and services get priority, and set downloaders as lower priority at certain times of the day. Sure, it will take longer to get that file, but everyone else on the network will thank you. QoS settings can typically be found under advanced settings in the network's administrator interface. Some routers may even make it easier by offering a multimedia or gaming setting, so you know those applications will be prioritized.
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6. Don't Rely on Obsolete Hardware
So far, the tips have been about getting the most out of your existing equipment, but if you are running old hardware, you can't expect the best performance. We have a tendency to subscribe to the "if it ain't broke, don't fix it" mentality with back-end devices, especially networking gear. But if you bought your router years ago, you are likely still on the 802.11g standard. There are still even 802.11b routers in the wild. These wireless standards cap at fairly low bandwidths. Thus, all the tweaking we've outlined above won't get you far, when you consider the maximum thoughput for 802.11g is 54Mbps. Compare that with the more modern 802.11n at 300Mbps, and the latest 802.11ac at 1Gbps. Our list of the best wireless routers is a good place to start the search for a faster router.
It's not just the age of your router you should consider. If you bought a PC within the last couple of years, you likely have an 802.11ac wireless adapter, or at least 802.11n, so it should be compatible with newer routers. But if your laptop doesn't have an integrated updated adapter, you can get a USB wireless adapter. In some cases, they may yield better performance than the built-in ones, so if your network router is on 802.11ac, but you are still not getting the kind of performance you expect, look into an adapter. They aren't that expensive, and having one can make a huge difference.
802.11ac Multi User-Multiple Input Multiple Output (MU-MIMO) routers are also starting to hit the market. MU-MIMO routers, like the Linksys EA7500 Max-Stream AC1900 can send and receive multiple data streams simultaneously to multiple devices without bandwidth degradation and require specialized testing with multiple clients, but the clients need to be MU-MIMO compatible.
7. Replace Your Antenna
If your router has an internal antenna, adding an external one would be a good idea, as the latter tends to send a stronger signal. Many router manufacturers sell omnidirectional antennas, which send a signal to all directions, or directional ones, which send a signal in one specific direction. Most built-in antennas tend to be omnidirectional, so if you are buying an external one, it should be marked "high-gain" to actually make a difference. A directional antenna tends to be a better option, since odds are that you aren't experiencing weak spots in your network in every direction. Point your external antenna in the direction of your weak spot, and it will broadcast the signal accordingly. Check your router manufacturer's website for details on how to buy them.
8. Set Up a Wireless Range Extender
Perhaps it's just a matter of room size. All routers are only capable of broadcasting reliably up to a certain distance. Any further, and the signal gets weak. If your wireless network covers a large area, you need a wireless range extender—also known as a wireless repeater or a Wi-Fi expander—to help boost your signal. This is also a good idea if there are thick walls or other physical structures that block signals.
Range extenders looks similar to standard routers, but work differently. For starters, they pick up the existing Wi-Fi signal from your wireless router and simply rebroadcast it. As far as your network router is concerned, the range extender is just another client with an IP address, much like a laptop. Even though it's not a router, you should still use the same rules for figuring out placement; the extender should be close enough to your main network router to pick up a solid signal, but close enough to the weak spot so it can do its job of, well, extending that signal. You don't need an extender that is the same brand or model as your existing router, but you should pick one capable of broadcasting your signal. For example, don't buy an 802.11n extender if your router is on 802.11ac. For more on how to choose and set up an extender, take a look at the Best Wireless Range Extenders we've tested.
9. Upgrade to a Mesh-Based Wi-Fi System?
Range extenders help bring connectivity to dead zones, but usually provide about half the bandwidth you'll get from your primary router. Access points offer more bandwidth, but require a wired connection to the main router. And both solutions typically create a new network SSID that you have to log in to as you move from one area of the house to another. If you want seamless connectivity everywhere in your home, consider a Wi-Fi system instead.
Designed to cover every corner of your home, Wi-Fi systems comprise a few networking components. There's a main router that connects directly to your modem, and a series of satellite modules, or nodes, that you place throughout your house. They are all part of a single wireless network, and share the same SSID and password. Unlike range extenders, which communicate with the router via the 2.4GHz or 5GHz radio bands, most Wi-Fi system satellites use mesh technology to talk to the router and to each other.
Wi-Fi systems often come with user-friendly mobile apps that walk you through the installation process with easy-to-follow illustrated instructions. The app tells you where to place each node for maximum coverage and chooses the best Wi-Fi channel and radio band for optimal throughput performance. Wi-Fi systems are easy to expand and manage using your smartphone, allowing you to disable Wi-Fi access to specific devices with the press of a button and give certain devices network priority without having to log in to a complicated network console. The downside: Wi-Fi Systems aren't cheap, especially if you have a large home, which will require multiple nodes. But if you're in the market for a new router anyway, they might be worth considering as an alternative.
10. Get Into the Guts of Your Router
The adventurous should look at the open-source DD-WRT router operating system. Many major router manufacturers, such as Linksys, Netgear, and TrendNET offer routers that can run DD-WRT. Or you can simply download DD-WRT and install it on any router you have lying around. DD-WRT can ramp up performance and give you access to more advanced networking features including virtual private networking (VPN), security, and granular customization.
For more tips to help speed up your surfing, check out Router Features You Should Be Using and How to Set Up and Configure Your Router. Having problems with even getting or maintaining a signal? Then Tips for Troubleshooting Your Internet Connection is worth a read. Once you've made all the necessary tweaks to optimize your wireless network, test your Internet speed below.
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I have a question regarding pronouncing the medd which is the "Ye" medd with a kasrah before it. When I try to..
Salamun alaykum,
I have a question regarding pronouncing the medd which is the "Ye" medd with a kasrah before it. When I try to pronounce this, the sound is coming from the nose instead of purely from the mouth. I am having trouble fixing my pronunciation of this. Do you have any tips for practising or for ridding myself of this error?
In addition when I try to pronounce the "Ye" medd with a kasrah before it, I notice that I am pronouncing it from the throat, since when I pronounce it there is a pull in my throat. Could you also give tips for practising or how to fix this error?
JazakAllah khair. Wassalam.
Wa alaikum assalaam wa rahmatullahi wa barakatuh.
This is not an uncommon mistake. The easiest way we know of to rid yourself of it is using the articulation point of the voweled -meaning the middle of the tongue and what lies opposite to it from the roof of the mouth, and put pressure on it while also using the empty space in the throat and mouth for the lengthened . This will help focus the sound forward instead of out through the nose.
Another way to get the feeling of when sound is coming out through your nose is to purposely make the come out with a ghunnah (through your nose), then after that, pronounce it without one. Keep alternating between the two for five times, and that should help you to learn to control the air flow out through the mouth instead of the nose.
The way to remove the feeling of a "pull" in your throat is to relax and let the sound come out without exaggerated effort. If you let the sound just come out naturally and make sure you lower your jaw with it and put some pressure on the articulation point of the , there should be no pulling on the throat and insha' Allah no ghunnah.
Wa iyyaakum. Wa assalaam alaikum wa rahmatullah.


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Councilwoman Margaret Wille posted the following chronology of the GMO Ban Legislation in the County of Hawaii on her Facebook site tonight:
Bill 79
May 14, 2013 Public Safety & Mass Transit Committee: Meeting recessed with no action taken to May 29, 2013.
May 29, 2013 Public Safety & Mass Transit Committee: Postponed Bill 79, and motion to amend with the contents of comm. 271.146, to a Special meeting to be held on July 2, 2013 in Kona.
July 2 & 3, 2013 Public Safety & Mass Transit Committee: 2 full days of testimony. Meeting recessed to July 30, 2013; no action taken on Bill 79 (Comm. 271.146 was withdrawn).
July 30, 2013 Public Safety & Mass Transit Committee: Cancelled due to tropical storm Flossie
August 6, 2013 Public Safety & Mass Transit Committee: Bill 79 withdrawn by Council Member Margaret Wille to reintroduce the bill in a cleaner format.
Bill 113
Sept. 4, 2013 Public Safety & Mass Transit Committee: Meeting recessed to Sept 6, 2013; no action taken on Bill 113
Sept. 6, 2013 Public Safety & Mass Transit Committee: Meeting recessed to Sept 23, 2013; no action taken on Bill 113
Sept. 23, 2013 Public Safety & Mass Transit Committee: Experts on subject matter were called to share their expert opinions. Meeting recessed to Oct 1, 2013; no action taken on Bill 113.
Oct 1, 2013 Public Safety & Mass Transit Committee: Motion to amend with the contents of Comm. 393.51. Motion passed. Committee recommends passage of Bill 113, as amended to Draft 2, on first reading. 6 ayes, 2 noes, 1 absent and excused. Moves to Oct 16 Special Council meeting. Councilmembers voting no were Gregor Ilegan and Chairman J Yoshimoto. Councilmember Dennis "Fresh" Onishi was absent..
Oct 15, 2013 Special Council meeting: 4pm – 10 pm public testimony. 10 pm -10:30 pm Council discussion on Bill 113, Draft 2. Meeting recessed until Oct 16, 2013 at 1PM
Oct 16, 2013 Special Council meeting reconvened. Motion to amend Bill 113, Draft 2 with the contents of Comm. 393.68. Motion passed. Council discussed Bill 113, Draft 2 as amended. Bill 113, Draft 2 as amended passed first Council reading with vote of 6 ayes, 2 noes and 1 absent and excused. Motion passed. Committee recommends passage of Bill 113, as amended to Draft 2, on first reading: 6 ayes, 2 noes, 1 absent and excused. Moves to Oct 16 Special Council meeting. Councilmembers voting no were Gregor Ilegan and Dennis "Fresh" Onishi. Councilmember Zendo Kern was absent due to illness. Moves to November 6, 2013 Council meeting for second and final reading.
Communication 394
Discussion and formation of an Ad Hoc Committee relating to Genetically Engineered Crops and Plants. This has been postponed to Call of the Chair because an Ad-Hoc Committee cannot be formed at the same time that Bill 113 is being discussed.
Councilwoman Wille Continued in her next post:
Here is Bill 113 Draft 3, that passed the Council on October 16th. One more reading – on November 6th. I know it is not perfect — but solid enough to survive Kenoi administration's scrutiny and hold up under anticipated legal and state level assaults.
SECTION 1. Findings.
(1) The public trust doctrine is memorialized in the Hawai'i State Constitution, Article XI, Section 1 "Conservation and Development of Resources," and in the Charter of the County of Hawai'i, Article XIII, Section 13-29 "Conservation of Natural and Cultural Resources." Pursuant to the public trust doctrine, our natural resources, including land and water, are entrusted to our care for the benefit of both current and future generations. The county government in its trustee capacity is subject to the precautionary principle and therefore must exercise a higher level of scrutiny in establishing reasonable measures and making appropriate assessments in order to avoid harmful impacts to our public trust resources. The Council therefore recognizes the right of the people and their government to guard against the intrusion of potential contaminants and prevent the contamination of non-genetically engineered crops, plants and lands by genetically engineered crops and plants without having to first wait for definitive science. As the United States Supreme Court made clear in Maine vs. Taylor (1986), the government is not required "to sit idly by and wait until potentially irreversible environmental damage has occurred or until the scientific community agrees on what disease organisms are or are not dangerous before it acts to avoid such consequences." In this context the precautionary principle requires that if a new technology poses threats of harm to human or environmental health, the burden of proof is on the promoter of the technology to demonstrate that the technology is safe, not on the public or governments to demonstrate that the technology is unsafe;
(2) The Council finds that policies relating to agricultural practices are most appropriate to be determined by each county of the State of Hawai'i given the island-by-island variation in customary and generally accepted agricultural practices and opportunities, the variation in topography and land ownership patterns, and in light of the natural geographic ocean barriers that allow for these distinctions.
(3) The Council finds that optimizing a local agricultural policy that promotes non- genetically engineered crops and seeds along with eco-friendly agricultural practices affords the County of Hawai'i a unique economic opportunity to capture a niche market for non-genetically engineered produce, seeds, and meats. Optimizing this opportunity is consistent with the Hawai'i County General Plan (Economic policies 2.2(h)): "Promote and develop the island of Hawai'i into a unique scientific and cultural model, where economic gains are in balance with social and physical amenities. Development should be reviewed on the basis of total impact on the residents of the County, not only in terms of immediate short run economic benefits."
(4) The Council finds it is important to protect the rights of farmers engaged in non- genetically engineered crop cultivation from the uncontrolled spread of genetically engineered organisms and associated pesticides.
(5) The Council finds that an expanded exemption for genetically engineered papaya is reasonable and appropriate because the genetic modification of papaya over the past decade has become so pervasive across this island that restricting cultivation of genetically engineered papaya would be near impossible at this time, the likelihood of genetically engineered cross pollination of papaya is reduced given the customary controlled manner of propagation, and in light of the substantial investment in controlled testing of this one crop over the past decade as the means of choice to address certain papaya diseases.
SECTION 2. Authority. The Council finds that its authority to impose restrictions on the cultivation, propagation, development, and testing of genetically engineered crops and plants to protect public and private property as well as surface waters, vulnerable watersheds, and our Island's coastal waters, is granted to it by:
(1) The Hawai'i Revised Statutes, Section 46-1.5(13), which states: "Each county shall have the power to enact ordinances deemed necessary to protect health, life, and property, and to preserve the order and security of the county and its inhabitants on any subject or matter not inconsistent with, or tending to defeat, the intent of any state statute where the statute does not disclose an express or implied intent that the statute shall be exclusive or uniform throughout the State.";
(2) The Hawai'i State Constitution, Article XI, Section 9 "Environmental Rights," which states: "Each person has the right to a clean and healthful environment, as defined by laws relating to environmental quality, including control of pollution and conservation, protection and enhancement of natural resources. Any person may enforce this right against any party, public or private, through appropriate legal proceedings, subject to reasonable limitations and regulation as provided by law."
SECTION 3. Chapter 14 of the Hawai'i County Code 1983 (2005 Edition, as amended) is amended by adding a new article to be appropriately designated and to read as follows:
"Article __. Restriction of Genetically Engineered Crops and Plants.
Section 14-__. Purpose.
The purpose of this article is to protect Hawai'i Island's non-genetically modified agricultural crops and plants from genetically modified organism cross pollination and to preserve Hawai'i Island's unique and vulnerable ecosystem while promoting the cultural heritage of indigenous agricultural practices. The prohibition of open air cultivation, propagation, development, or testing of genetically engineered crops and plants is intended to prevent the transfer and uncontrolled spread of genetically engineered organisms on to private property, public lands, and waterways.
Section 14-__. Definitions.
As used in this article, unless otherwise specified:
"Genetically engineered" means an organism that has been modified at the molecular or cellular level by means that are not possible under natural conditions or processes. Such means include recombinant DNA and RNA techniques, cell fusion, microencapsulation, macroencapsulation gene deletion and doubling, introducing a foreign gene, and changing the position of genes. Such organisms are sometimes referred to as "genetically modified organisms" or "transgenic organisms." Genetically engineered or genetically modified crops and plants include crops and plants for human consumption or for any other purpose. Genetic engineering does not include modification that consists exclusively of breeding, conjugation, fermentation, hybridization, in vitro fertilization, or tissue culture.
"Open air" means a location or facility that is not enclosed in a greenhouse or in another completely enclosed structure so as to prevent the uncontrolled spread of genetically engineered organisms.
"Person" includes natural persons, partnerships, joint ventures, societies, associations, clubs, trustees, trusts, or corporations or any officer, agent, employee, or any other personal representative thereof, in any capacity, acting either for himself, his heirs, or for any other person under personal appointment pursuant to law.
"Plant pestilence" means a virulent plant disease or infestation that is causing substantial harm to one or more crops or plants.
"Register" or "Registration" means registration by persons engaged in the cultivation, propagation, development, or indoor testing of genetically engineered crops or plants. Registration shall include: the tax map key and the council district of the property or properties; a detailed description of the location on the property where genetically engineered crops or plants are being cultivated, propagated, developed, or tested, which description shall include the size of the location and scope of usage; the name of the owner of the property or properties; the lessee or any other party in control of the genetically engineered plant or crop operation or usage; the type of genetically modified organism or transgenic manipulation used; the produce or products involved; the type, frequency, and customary amount of pesticides, inclusive of herbicides and insecticides, used; a description of any containment procedures employed; and relevant contact information.
Section 14-__. Prohibition.
No person shall knowingly engage in the open air cultivation, propagation, development, or testing of genetically engineered crops or plants.
Section 14-__. Exemptions.
The following persons shall be exempt from the provisions of this article:
(1) Persons engaged in the open air cultivation, propagation, or development of genetically engineered crops or plants, other than genetically engineered papaya, but only in those specific locations where genetically engineered crops or plants have been customarily open air cultivated, propagated, or developed by that person prior to the effective date of this article, provided that those specific locations or facilities are registered within ninety days of the effective date of this article; and
(2) Any person engaged in the open air cultivation, propagation, or development of genetically engineered papaya, whether prior or subsequent to the effective date of this article, provided that each location or facility wherein open air cultivation, propagation, or development of genetically engineered papaya occurs or will occur is registered as provided in this article.
Notwithstanding any other provision of law, these exemptions shall not allow for open air testing of genetically engineered organisms of any kind.
Section 14-___. Emergency exemption.
(a) A person who is engaged in the cultivation, propagation, or development of a non-genetically engineered crop or plant that is being harmed by a plant pestilence as defined in this article may apply to the council for an emergency exemption from the provisions of this article to use a genetically engineered remedy. The council may grant an emergency exemption by way of resolution, provided the council makes an affirmative finding that:
1) The cited plant pestilence is causing substantial harm to that person's crop or plant;
2) There is no other available alternative solution; and
3) All available measures will be undertaken to insure that non-genetically engineered crops and plants, as well as neighboring properties and any water sources, will be protected from contamination or any other potentially adverse effects that may be caused by the genetically engineered organism or associated pesticides.
(b) Any exemption granted pursuant to subsection (a) shall include reasonable restrictions and conditions, including, but not limited to, full compliance with the registration requirements of this article and that the exemption shall expire on a certain day occurring within five years from the date of its issuance. Prior to expiration of the exemption, the council may adopt a resolution to extend the exemption for a specified period of time.
Section 14-__. Registration.
(a) All persons engaged in any form of cultivation, propagation, development, or indoor testing of genetically engineered crops or plants of any kind shall register annually beginning within ninety days of the effective date of this article, and shall pay an annual registration fee of $100 per location, payable to the director of finance. All contiguous land shall be treated as a single location. The director of the department of research and development, or the director's authorized representative(s), shall administer the registration provision of this section.
(b) All persons engaged in non-commercial cultivation or propagation of genetically engineered papaya, in any stage or form, shall be exempt from this section. This registration exemption does not exempt persons engaged in research, development, or testing of genetically engineered papaya.
(c) Pursuant to section 92F-13 of the Hawai'i Revised Statutes, information such as the name of the registrant and the exact location of the genetically engineered crops or plants may be withheld from the public to the extent that disclosure of that detailed information would otherwise frustrate the ability of the County to obtain accurate information.
Section 14-__. Penalties.
Any person who violates any provision of this article shall be guilty of a violation, and upon conviction thereof, shall be sentenced to a fine of up to $1,000 for each separate violation. The person shall be deemed to be guilty of a separate offense for each and every day a violation of this article is committed, continued, or permitted for each location. To the extent permitted by law, the person found in violation of this article shall also be responsible for all costs of investigation and testing, as well as for court costs, including but not limited to witness fees and witness expenses.
Section 14__ . Declaratory and injunctive relief.
A court of competent jurisdiction may hear proceedings for declaratory relief or injunctive relief, or both, for violations or potential violations of this article. To the extent permitted by law, the person found in violation of this article shall be responsible for all costs of investigation and testing, as well as for court costs, including, but not limited to, attorney's fees, witness fees, and witness expenses.
Section 14__. Cumulative remedies.
The provisions of this article are cumulative. Nothing in this article shall affect any other remedy or relief that may be available to any adversely affected person or to the County or other governmental entity.
SECTION 4. If any provision of this ordinance, or the application thereof to any person or circumstance is held invalid, such invalidity shall not affect other provisions or applications of the ordinance which can be given effect without the invalid provision or application, and to this end, the provisions of this ordinance are declared to be severable.
SECTION 5. This ordinance shall take effect upon approval.
_______________, Hawai'i
Filed under: Agriculture, Announcements, Big Island, Environment, Food & Drink, GMO, Hawaii, Health, Politics, Rumors, Security, Sustainable Living | Tagged: Bill 113, Chronology of GMO Ban Legislsation in County of Hawaii, County of Hawaii, Genetically modified organism, GMO, Margaret Wille | Leave a comment »


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Dancing With The Stars Mark Ballas Contributes Song For "Shine On" Charity Album
Mark Ballas along with other musicians and producers have joined forces by producing a charity album that aims to bring hope to children with cancer in Japan and their families. The album is called "Shine On Volume One". Other musicians and producers include Donna Burke, Rob Chiarelli, Gordon Goodwin, and Julian Lennon to name a few. Of the project, Mark said….
"I got involved with the project because two of the Producers on my HurtLoveBox CD were very involved. It started when Michael Becker invited Rob Chiarelli to be a part of the Tyler Foundation project and Rob was excited to co-produce 3 songs with him. Rob then ask me to get involved and I thought the project was important to support ."
Mark sings "The Sun Always Shines". You can read a glowing review on the album and Mark's work at Yahoo Voices which includes a picture of him in the recording studio. If you'd like to help donate to this cause and would like this album for your collection, you can download it at iTunes here: . Here is a link to download "The Sun Always Shines" .


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Writers: Looking for workshops to help you with craft, or maybe a conference where you can pitch your story/book idea? Or maybe you love seeing your work judged against that of others and are always on the lookout for the latest writing contest. We're here to help! This piece is reserved for just that purpose, so we hope you'll check back often to see what's new. (Events are listed by date.) If you have news that you don't see listed here, please let us know!
The Poetry Society of Virginia, which promotes poetry through its five regional chapters throughout the commonwealth, is now accepting entries for its 2014 adult and student contests.
2014 PSV Adult Poetry Contest
This year's contest is open for entries in 33 sponsored categories, including formal or free verse, sonnets, limericks and more, according to the society's website. A total of 85 awards will be presented in amounts from $10 to $250.
Entries must be postmarked by January 19, 2014 (Edgar Allen Poe's birthday) and received by February 1, 2014. Entries received after that date will not be accepted.
Winners will be announced at an awards ceremony and banquet in April 2014 in Charlottesville.
2014 PSV Student Poetry Contest
Students in grades 1 through 12 may enter one of six grade categories, as well as three prize categories: The Poetry Society Prize, The Jenkins Prize, The Virginia Student Prize.
As with the adult contest, entries must be mailed and postmarked by January 19, received by February 1. Winners will be notified in April 2014.
There are no fees or membership requirements for student entries.
Fall Schedule Underway
Fall Schedule Underway
The Muse has classes scheduled for all levels of writers, in all genres -- fiction, non-fiction, screen writing, journaling and more. For details, check out the center's website.


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To honour those who served their country
"In this their finest hour"
Roll of Honour
The Roll is in alphabetical order
[Fa] [Fe] [Fi] [Fl] [Fo] [Fr] [Fu]
Please select the initial letters for the surname
"Keeping the Candle Burning"
Britain at War
'Sandakan - A Conspiracy of Silence' by Lynette Ramsay Silver
'The Last March' by Don Wall
'Kill the Prisoners' by Don Wall
'The Knights of Bushido' by Lord Russell of Liverpool
Commonwealth War Graves Commission
Java Index - Roll of Honour
In Memory of Fred Taylor and John WeedonDesigned and Maintained by Ron Taylor.
To Register please email me as below,with your details & pictures if you have any.
Site Management
[Britain at War] [Roll of Honour] [Atrocities] [Sandakan] [F]


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zshock wrote:While having the pleasure to go to Ferrari World last week. The big one, the mighty one, was closed due to annual maintenance, which was a shock.
To be fair, it is on the park website, and it has been for quite some time as we looked into this prior to our trip. Maybe the ProTip next time you plan your travel is to check with the park to make sure if a major ride you are looking forward to is actually open during your trip? And then if you can re-adjust your travel plans, you can do so when said attraction is back open.


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"These major essays of historical synthesis provide a probing and challenging overview of Jewish history still pertinent to contemporary concerns."
—Robert Alter
"Gershom Scholem earned international renown as a brilliant interpreter of esoteric religious texts as well as a trenchant contributor to many of the central intellectual debates of his day. At a time when apocalyptic impulses are intensifying with the approach of a millennial moment in the Christian calendar, we can only welcome Scholem's soberly presented and scrupulously researched account of their Jewish counterparts."
—Martin Jay, University of California, Berkeley
"Having had the privilege of knowing Gershom Scholem and having learned much from him, I am delighted to see this collection made available once more. I am especially fond of the essay on "Revelation and Tradition," which is vintage Scholem—learned, sharp, witty, and adorned with delightful anecdotes from the Talmud. In juxtaposition with the essay that follows, on Wissenschaft des Judentums, it documents the subtle relationship between rational and nonrational elements in the Jewish tradition, the very relationship that Scholem both described so incisively and embodied so vividly."
—Jaroslav Pelikan, Yale University


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What India can learn from Rahul Dravid.
A doyen of Indian cricket hangs up his boots today after 15 years of service to his country. Where others relied on finesse or flamboyance, he relied on grit and perseverance. "Faith and toil" — the credo of his alma mater — are words that also best epitomize his storied career. In an era that incentives the quest for personal glory in sport above all else, his conduct on and off the field is a reminder that there is something of greater virtue to aspire to, that the idea of service to one's country, even at the cost of personal fame, isn't dead.
There is much that India's young superstars owe to the likes of him. They are standing on the shoulders of giants. An excerpt of his Sir Don Bradman oration in 2011 is a lesson to India's next generation of stars, and more broadly, to the country and its leaders.
One of the things Bradman said has stayed in my mind. That the finest of athletes had, along with skill, a few more essential qualities: to conduct their life with dignity, with integrity, with courage and modesty. All this he believed, were totally compatible with pride, ambition, determination and competitiveness. Maybe those words should be put up in cricket dressing rooms all over the world.
And indeed, on the walls of the corridors of power in New Delhi. Fare thee well, Rahul Sharad Dravid. And thank you for the memories.
Also read: Harsha Bhogle's wonderful tribute to Rahul Dravid.


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Music Department Events
May 18
Voice Showcase Recital
Rick Penning, coordinator; Thomas Bartsch, collaborative pianist
Saturday, May 18th, 2019
7:30 – 9:00 pm / Applebaum Recital Hall
The Spring 2019 Voice Showcase recital.
Sponsored by Music. Contact: Holly Streekstra, x4475
Students, Faculty, Staff, General Public, Alumni, Prospective Students, Families, New Students, Faculty Emeriti


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Gypsy Hoop Earrings – Silver Gardenia
Fall in love with the Birdsong Gypsy Hoop Earring. Sourced on a trip to Delhi, this beautiful bohemian hoop earring is handmade in India from polished brass and alloy metals. You will love the detailed filigree and ethnic patterns which adorn these divine earrings. They've become a staple in our wardrobe as they are so easy to wear, all day with any outfit plus they are lovely and light with a magical sparkle – we love the gorgeous, classic bohemian styling.
Pair them with your Rivoli Dress, a pair of slides and some gorgeous bangles for a simple boho look. They will look equally as good with your favourite jeans, simple tee and a duster. We love that they can basically be worn with anything, adding that bohemian touch.
Earrings also make a great gift for your girlfriends, they come in a beautiful pouch made from recycled saris and we offer free gift wrapping.
Materials & Measurements
Hand made in India from brass and alloy metals. Measuring approx. 60mm in width. Each pair will come in their own gorgeous little pouch made from recycled sari fabric.
Please note that due to the nature of hand made products no two pairs are exactly the same and may vary in size and colour from that pictured. We embrace the beautiful rawness and imperfections of the Gypsy Hoop earrings.
With flowers in your hair and sparkles in your ears any boho babe can take on the world with a great pair of Birdsong gypsy hoop earrings.


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Choose your country:
Find a retailer near you.
Always use Neato Genuine accessories when you need to replace your battery, filters, or brushes.
Unstoppable cleaning that goes the distance.
The Botvac D7 Connected is Neato's smartest, most powerful robot vacuum that adapts to your home for the most convenient and personalized clean. With Neato's most advanced brush system, Ultra Performance Filter, and the best connectivity (including 5GHz Wi-Fi), this clever wonder keeps floors free of dirt, hair, fur, and allergens. The exclusive LaserSmart™ technology maps and remembers your home's unique layout to navigate up to 5000 square feet with greater precision. This means more thorough coverage, 4x faster cleaning, and greater care around furniture, even in the dark. Neato's distinct D-shape design allows the Botvac D7 Connected to get deep into corners and close to walls, unlike round robots. It tackles an entire floor with ease and automatically recharges.
Get clean floors every day, even when you're not home. Start, stop, or pause cleaning sessions with the Neato app for iOS and Android devices. Or control your Botvac D7 Connected with Amazon Alexa, Google Home, Neato Chatbot for Facebook, or IFTTT. Even use your smartphone to view a map of where the Neato robot has been, and set a cleaning schedule.
And only the Botvac D7 Connected lets you set virtual 'No-Go' Lines around places you want the Neato robot to avoid, right from your smartphone.


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The importance of effective information security has been highlighted in
recent months through well publicised data handling failures in a range of
different UK organisational settings. The
Cabinet Office has completed a review of public sector data handling and has
established a comprehensive range of minimum security standards. Consequently,
NHS guidance for the protection of patient information has been extended and
strengthened in order to respond robustly to these requirements.
Download the NHS guidance.
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Lakbay Serbisyo sa Barangay Program at Barangay Mulawin, Naujan, Oriental Mindoro
green striped sleeves (H&M), gray pants (bossini), blue nylon belt (sm), white hi-cuts (fila), rose gold leather watch (giordano), brown messenger bag (marithe francois girbaud)
barangay captain
tita enol to marjohn's plate: "the cat can't jump!"
rain started to pour! HARD!
stopped by at tita enol's for merienda!
dami handa!
dami handa!
at the cheiloplasty mission back at BaTuk!
this is dinner
ang punong abala! at ang Hostes!
only 100+ patients...
yummy spaghetti! thanks tita enol...
TOMORROW: EL going to Batangas and back...


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Blast it, I've been unmasked!
Actually, no big deal. I've posted personal moviegoing anecdotes here, but I've kept my private pursuits and professional activities off this blog because this place is about Mary's Monster. This blog is meant as a resource and, I hope, an entertainment, entirely devoted to all things Frankenstein, and I want to keep it focused.
As it happens, I've won a career award (the official announcement is here... Look for 'Pierre Fournier') and some fellow bloggers have posted about it so, cover blown, I thought I should share the news with you, my friends and readers.
John Cozzoli of Zombos Closet of Horror posted about it here, with biographical links. He's the one who came up with the funny "secret identity" angle. Vince Liaguno of Slasher Speak gave me a shout out, too. Thanks, gentlemen!
And gentlemen aside, it was my friend (?) Max of The Drunken Severed Head who first blew the whistle and posted a fairly recent pic of yours truly. No worries, I'll get even.
So there you go. Now let's get back to Frankenstein.


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Yes, we know: we're late. But we've been busy, honest! It does happen from time to time – don't go thinking that A Day In The Life Of DiS involves us all sitting around, drinking tea, listening to great music and occasionally – but only occasionally – updating this here website. Oh no sir, or madam – it's a lot more complex than that. Why, only this morning we had tea and biscuits.
Excuses dealt, let's press ahead: July was a good month – a surprisingly good month – for new albums. The summer sun might've stayed hidden behind rain-spilling clouds of evil intent (and if you were in a tent things were even worse), but the Recording Industry Powers That Be weren't to know. They lucked it: down came the rain and into the shops went the high-street steppers. A new release for under a tenner? Sold.
But, of course, a bargain does not a good record make, and we'd be only too pleased (as would those Recording Industry Powers That Be, we're sure) if you were willing to shell out upwards of, ooooh, £12.49 for each of these beauties. Get 'em while they're hot, et cetera et cetera. You know the Month In Records drill.
Hob Nobs, you know, retain their crunch remarkably well, even if you leave a packet open for a few days. Crumbly…
Mice Parade
Mice Parade; FatCat
Says reviewer Adam Anonymous: "Fairly without exception, everything about Mice Parade is understated, from the attention-deflecting eponymous title right through to its ever-present plaintive tone. Over the course of six previous albums, it's near enough what eagle-eared listeners have come to expect from the twinkling NYC-birthed project of founding driving force Adam Pierce. Yet Mice Parade have never before been quite this accessible…"
Read the full review here
Stuffy & The Fuses
Angels Are Ace; Sour Puss
Says reviewer Thomas Ferguson: "As the year goes so far, this is the best proof that you don't have to be cloyingly twee to have aggressively drole lyricism and a steady control over deftly executed pop melodies and be able to rock the hell out. Angels are ace, indeed, but this cements Stuffy & The Fuses as being totally ace-core.
Read the full review here
Our Love To Admire; Parlophone
Says reviewer Tom Milway: "With giant gyrating reverberated guitars and a grandiose brass section, this is the sound of a rock band attempting the sweeping gallantry of Sibelius or Tchaikovsky and getting away with it. It represents a phenomenally strong and well-polished album. Interpol have raised the bar once again…
Read the full review here
Ga Ga Ga Ga Ga; Anti
Says reviewer Charles Ubaghs: "Even after more than ten years in existence, Spoon, unlike say the Strokes, are one of those rare bands who, album after album, repeatedly prove themselves capable of successfully building and expanding upon their tensely wound, streamlined take on rock… It's refreshing to see a group that seemingly never falters nor fails to interest with every single release."
Read the full review here
Chrome Hoof
Pre-Emptive False Rapture; Southern
Says reviewer David McLaughlin: "For all their novelty trappings, Chrome Hoof retain a child-like, anything-goes sense of invention that avoids any danger of their appeal being short-lived. Pre-Emptive False Rapture may be crazier than a shithouse rat but the fun, adventure and variation on offer make it one that should be welcome in any open-minded home."
Read the full review here
The Thrills
Teenager; Virgin
Says reviewer Mike Diver: "A few years down the line, this will still sound as refreshingly out of time as it does today, while this year's high-climbers will be faced with a rapid decay of artefacts unlikely to last the distance. Some change, some desperately so; The Thrills' minor tweaks evident here have only steadied their footing and ensured longevity aplenty."
Read the full review here
Tenebrous Liar; Fire
Says reviewer Jordan Dowling: "For the most part, the expanded Tenebrous exhibit enough restrain to offer some truly harrowing material and, whilst some of its content may be patchy, Tenebrous Liar retains enough earth-weary energy throughout to warrant and maintain attention. Even if it never does come completely into focus."
Read the full review here
Fancy Footwork; Vice
Says reviewer Mike Diver: "It helps if you sink a few pints of homebrew prior to playing Fancy Footwork, but if you've the merest semblance of fun in your bones you'll eventually take to it heavily. It's nothing revelatory, nor will it rank as one of the year's finest long-players from an artistic perspective, but who cares? It's F to the U to the N to the buy it now."
Read the full review here
The Strange Death Of Liberal England
Forward March; Fantastic Plastic
Says reviewer Alex Denney: "Much like eccentric forebears British Sea Power, The Strange Death Of Liberal England aim at a peculiarly English sensibility that bypasses all the usual attendant clichés. Providing they don't go and iron all the wrinkles out, TSDOLE have enough character to suggest they can build on this ambitious and occasionally half-digested mix of epic influences."
Read the full review here
Circa Survive
On Letting Go; Equal Vision
Says reviewer Mike Haydock: "On Letting Go could have been trimmed of a song or two, brought down to ten tracks, and still triumphed. But heaven knows which songs would go, because every single one of them warrants repeated listens, secrets crammed into every crevice. In short, this is a masterpiece."
Read the full review here
Paris Motel
In The Saltpetriere; Hotel Records
Says reviewer Rhyannon Rodriguez: "In the Salpêtriére offers an alternative to the throwaway submissions of music industry modernity, which often proposes merely noise pollutants of immediate but superficial pleasures of everyday trends meant to stream through one ear and disappear out the other. Paris Motel bring back the lavish instrumentation of stage production with pervasive cinematic qualities and celebrated showmanship you can instantly recognize and easily surrender to."
Read the full review here


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sodium bicarbonate(redirected from Arm & Hammer Baking Soda)
Also found in: Dictionary, Thesaurus, Medical.
sodium bicarbonateor
sodium hydrogen carbonate,chemical compound, NaHCO3, a white crystalline or granular powder, commonly known as bicarbonate of soda or baking soda. It is soluble in water and very slightly soluble in alcohol. It evolves carbon dioxide gas when heated above about 50°C;, a property made use of in baking powder, of which it is a component. It is also decomposed by most acids; the acid is neutralized and carbon dioxide is given off. The major use of sodium bicarbonate is in foods, e.g., baked goods. It is used in effervescent "salts" and is sometimes used medically to correct excess stomach acidity. It is also used in several kinds of fire extinguishers. Although it is an intermediate product in the Solvay processSolvay process
[for Ernest Solvay], commercial process for the manufacture of sodium carbonate (washing soda). Ammonia and carbon dioxide are passed into a saturated sodium chloride solution to form soluble ammonium hydrogen carbonate, which reacts with the sodium chloride to
..... Click the link for more information. for making sodium carbonatesodium carbonate,
chemical compound, Na2CO3, soluble in water and very slightly soluble in alcohol. Pure sodium carbonate is a white, odorless powder that absorbs moisture from the air, has an alkaline taste, and forms a strongly alkaline water solution.
..... Click the link for more information. , it is more economical to prepare it from purified sodium carbonate than to purify the intermediate. Because the bicarbonate is less soluble than the carbonate, carbon dioxide gas is bubbled into a saturated solution of pure carbonate, and the bicarbonate precipitates out to be collected and dried.
sodium bicarbonate[′sōd·ē·əm bī′kär·bə'nət]
(inorganic chemistry)
NaHCO3 White, water-soluble crystals with an alkaline taste; loses carbon dioxide at 270°C; used as a medicine and a butter preservative, in food preparation, in effervescent salts and beverages, in ceramics, and to prevent timber mold. Also known as baking soda; bicarbonate of soda; sodium acid carbonate.
sodium bicarbonate
a white crystalline soluble compound usually obtained by the Solvay process and used in effervescent drinks, baking powders, fire extinguishers, and in medicine as an antacid; sodium hydrogen carbonate. Formula: NaHCO3


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South African Journal of Education
versión On-line ISSN 2076-3433
versión impresa ISSN 0256-0100
CHIGONA, Agnes y CHETTY, Rajendra. Teen mothers and schooling: lacunae and challenges. S. Afr. j. educ. [online]. 2008, vol.28, n.2, pp.261-281. ISSN 2076-3433.
While many girls who become mothers before completing schooling consider academic qualifications to be very important, they may not be able to succeed academically if the support they need to complete their studies is insufficient. Usually, instead of getting support, the teen mothers endure misunderstandings and pressure. The teen mothers may feel disempowered because they are 'othered' and consequently, they develop forms of resistance which in most cases may foster their failure as learners. Our aim was to find out how much support was offered to these girls to facilitate their schooling, thus making it possible for them to complete their education and become self-reliant. A qualitative research approach was employed to gather information for the study. Teen mothers, their educators, and parents were interviewed to gather information about the girls' schooling situation. The results showed that many teen mothers failed to succeed with schooling because they lacked support to avoid the numerous disruptions to school attendance.
Palabras clave : challenges; othered; schooling; South Africa; support; teenage motherhood.