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On-line version ISSN 2304-8557
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Koers (Online) vol.79 n.4 Pretoria 2014
Post-Reformation Reformed exegesis: Continuity or discontinuity of John Calvin?
Na-Reformatoriese gereformeerde eksegese: Kontinuïteit of diskontinuïniteit van Johannes Calvyn?
Adriaan C. Neele
Jonathan Edwards Centre Africa, University of the Free State, South Africa
Although the Post-Reformation Reformed theologian, philosopher and Hebraist Petrus van Mastricht (1630-1706) praises John Calvin (1509-1564) as one of the best commentators of Scripture, he rarely refers to Calvin's work in his Theoretico-practica theologia and, if he does, he either takes issue or concurs with it. This contribution explores the reception of Calvin's work by Mastricht, focusing on exegetical continuities and discontinuities in their comments on the psalms. It concludes that Mastricht gives more attention to etymological and philological issues of the Hebrew text than Calvin does, and emphasises more than the Genevan Scripture commentator does the doctrine of divine immensity and the Reformed concept of the covenant.
Hoewel die na-Reformatoriese gereformeerde teoloog, filosoof en Hebraïs, Petrus van Mastricht (1630-1706), Johannes Calvyn (1509-1564) as een van die beste eksegete van die Skrif prys, het hy in sy Theoretico-praktica theologia selde na Calvyn se werk verwys. Wanneer dit wel die geval was, het hy daarvan verskil of krities daarmee saamgestem. Hierdie bydrae verken die hantering van Calvyn se werk deur Mastricht, deur op eksegetiese kontinuïteit en diskontinuïteit in hul onderskeie kommentare op die Psalms te fokus. Dit kom tot die gevolgtrekking dat Mastricht meer aandag aan etimologiese en filologiese kwessies van die Hebreeuse teks gee as Calvyn, en ook meer as die Geneefse Bybel kommentator die leer van die Goddelike grootsheid en die Gereformeerde verbondsbeskouing beklemtoon.
Since it has so often been implied that the Reformation was a time of exegesis, virtually without dogma, and the era of orthodoxy was a time of dogmatic system without exegesis, it must be added that at no time before or since the era of orthodoxy was systematic theology so closely wedded to the textual and linguistic work of the exegete.
In this regard, Richard A. Muller (2007:31) in the Dictionary of major biblical interpreters, expertly provides an overview of Scripture commentators of the Reformation and Post-Reformation era, including but not limited to issues of exegetical continuity and discontinuity. Although the number of Post-Reformation studies in general and of John Calvin (1509-1563) studies in particular continue to offer new insights,1 the attention to biblical exegesis in these fields of research differs in various ways. Firstly, though the studies of Calvin and exegesis remain of interest, (see for example: Berthoud 2010:105-22; Cobb 2010:21-36; d'Assonville 2009:378-384, 2010; Engammare 2012:53-72; Handy 2009:79-89; Holdt 2010:215-224; Nicole 2010:1-20; Wilcox 2011:125-30) - the examination of the method and practice of biblical interpretation of Post-Reformation documents awaits a much-needed appraisal.2 Furthermore, as I have suggested elsewhere, the exegetical reflections of the 17th century Reformed theology, in particular, are appraised in one of two ways: either orthodox doctrinal impositions disordered the biblical exegesis, separating praxis from exegesis, or the exegesis of Scripture was directive and determinative for doctrinal and practical theological reflections (Neele 2009). Secondly, though hinted at by Muller (2007:35) the attention to the reception of the exegetical work of Calvin in Post-Reformation works is often overlooked.3 Two possible reasons for this lack of concern can be mention here: the exegetes and theologians of the Post-Reformation Reformed era, in particular, were hindered by the established doctrine and confessions since the Synod of Dordrecht 1618-1619 and, therefore, Calvin's commentaries on Scripture were not consulted.4 In contrast, the 17th century Reformed orthodoxy was so deeply acquainted with Calvin's thought that no specific reference was required. This thought is elaborated by Matthew Poole (1624-1679) - a Bible commentator par excellence, providing specific reasons of the exclusion or limited use of the Genevan Scripture commentator. Calvin's work, Poole asserted, was more a theological and practical than a critically oriented commentary, in particular related to etymology. Furthermore, Poole continued, Calvin's commentary was widely used in other commentaries on Scripture and was consulted by many.5 Here, Poole may have represented the thought of many of the Post-Reformation era: Calvin was not unknown, but was not often mentioned in the works of such commentators as Johannes Cocceius (1603-1669) and Campegius Vitringa (1659-1722), or of theologians such as Francis Turretin (1623-1687). Therefore, when Calvin is cited in Post-Reformation works, one must pay attention to such references.6
Illustrative of this is the Theoretico-practica theologia (hereafter TPT) of Petrus van Mastricht (1630-1706) (see Van Mastricht 1699). Mastricht commends Calvin as one of the best commentators of Scripture for exegesis7 and refers in the TPT to the Scripture exposition of the preacher and teacher of Geneva, Mastricht seems either to concur or to conflict with Calvin's exposition. This article therefore seeks to explore the reception or appropriation of Calvin's work by Mastricht and aims in particular to clarify exegetical continuities and discontinuities, and the relationship between exegesis, doctrine and praxis, if any.
To that purpose I will, first, provide a general overview of the use of Calvin's work in Mastricht's TPT; second, and in particular, I will offer a comparative analysis of some of Calvin's and Mastricht's exegetical insights; and, finally, I will end with some concluding remarks.
Mastricht's use of Calvin's work
Mastricht's TPT was the result of a 33-year project of theological reflection, commenced at Glückstadt in 1666 and completed at Utrecht in 1699 - a culmination of disputations, treatises and other publications. Mastricht, professor of the Hebrew language, philosophy and practical theology, unfolded the enterprise of theology with a fourfold approach: exegesis, doctrine, elenctics and praxis. As such, his work is appraised as a codification of 17th century Reformed Orthodoxy.8 Mastricht cites no less than 150 authors and their works in it, showing for the most part a continuity of the catholicity of Christian theology throughout the ages, including the patristic fathers, medieval sources, and past and present Lutheran and Reformed theologians. In the exegetical parts he frequently resorts to rabbinical commentaries; in the doctrinal sections, primarily to the works of Augustine (for example, Mastricht 16999); in the elenctic sections, to his own work Novitatum cartesianarum gangreena refuting Cartesian thought10; and in the practical sections, predominantly the works of Bernard of Clairvaux.11
Remarkably, among this vast number of references and citations throughout the TPT, the person and works of Calvin are rarely mentioned - that is to say, in a work of 1300 pages with double columns, Calvin's name comes up only 22 times, and only in the discussions of the following loci: prolegomena (4x), God (7x), Christ (7x), and the church (4x).12 Furthermore, the majority of these references to Calvin and his work are found in the doctrinal and elenctic sections of such loci -though primarily mentioned in concert with other Protestant reformers.13 For example, in the prolegomena on the nature of theology, he argues in favour of a systematic approach of the method of theology as found, according to Mastricht, in the works of Zwingli, Luther, Melanchthon, Calvin, Bullinger, Musculus, Martyr, Ursinus and Zanchius. Furthermore, to cite another example, Mastricht refers to Calvin approvingly in his discussion on the historical development and doctrinal formulation of the Trinity, albeit indirectly and through Calvin's debate with the anti-Trinitarians.14 It is predominantly in the exegetical and practical sections of the TPT that one finds Mastricht actually using the works of Calvin. The references are largely restricted to Calvin's Scripture commentaries, although Mastricht (1699) does also refer to Calvin's Institutes of Christian Religion twice,15 and to Psychopannychia once.16 It should be noted, however, that where Mastricht in his exegesis comments on and uses Calvin, the Genevan's name occurs together with those of David Pareus (1548-1622) and Andreas Rivetus (1572-1651) - expositors he does not mention in his recommendation of Scripture commentators.17 In summary, the actual use of Calvin's work by Mastricht is limited: out of the 25 references and citations, he explicitly draws on Calvin's commentary on Psalm 115, the Epistle to the Galatians 3:13, and the Harmony of the Gospels. Two comments are in order here. Firstly, Mastricht's reference to the Harmony of the Gospels is found together with the two references to the Institutes, leaving the strong impression that Mastricht read Calvin's Scripture commentary and his seminal work on Protestant theology concurrently.18 Secondly, the commentary on Psalm 115 is the only work of Calvin which is cited verbatim,19 and is found within the context of Mastricht's discussion of the doctrine of God. It is in this context that Mastricht makes extensive use of the book of the Psalms, which is foundational to his doctrinal and practical exposition of the divine attributes as well the Trinity.
Mastricht and Calvin on the Psalms
With these limitations arising from our survey - that of Mastricht's restricted use of Calvin's work, limited to the Psalms commentary, as well as Mastricht's exegetical insights into the book of Psalms as found in his discussion of theology proper - I turn to a comparative analysis of several texts from the book of Psalms. Although Calvin's commentary on Scripture may seem to differ in genre from Mastricht's systematic theology, it must be noted here that the latter was in fact written for students for the ministry and 'to be used for preaching',20 whereas the former similarly emerged primarily from Calvin's lectures at the Geneva Academy, founded in part for the training of students for the ministry, and was used for his preaching and discussion with preachers at the congregations (Selderhuis 2000). Furthermore, the loci of the Reformed orthodox systema 'arose directly out of meditation on specific texts and issues of Scripture' (Muller 2007:31-32) as distinctly and uniquely is present in the TPT with its fourfold approach to the theological loci.
Mastricht's use of the book of Psalms in the TPT, then, is primarily found in Book Two, entitled de Fide in Deum triunum, which deals with the doctrine of God. Here Mastricht examines psalms 2, 16, 90, 115, 119, 139 and 145, and expounds on and lays a scriptural foundation for, respectively, the doctrines of God the Son, the divine beatitude, eternity, will and affection, righteousness, immensity and omnipresence, and God's infinity and power. Reading Calvin and Mastricht's interpretation of these biblical texts, one observes a contrast and continuity in method and meaning between their exegetical expositions, in part or in whole. A succinct review of several of these expositions illustrates this observation.
Mastricht finds in the second clause of Psalms 16:11, 'Satietas gaudiorum est cum facie tua , the biblical foundation for the divine beatitude or blessedness. He begins by noting that most commentators understand these words as the blessedness of men before God and in the sight of his countenance21 - precisely the main thrust of Calvin's exposition, where he comments that 'the countenance of God, may be understood either of our being beheld by him, or of our beholding him; but I consider both these ideas as included, for his fatherly favor' (Calvin 1989). Mastricht, however, argues that such blessedness is founded on and depends on the divine beatitude, providing exegetical grounds that come from his primarily etymological and grammatical exposition of the text. He observes that the Hebrew words 'fullness of joy' refer to a fullness of divine happiness, delight, perfection and glory.22 In him, that is, in the divine essence, is complete blessedness and, therefore, Mastricht asserts, he is the fountain of all blessedness communicated to his own.23 As such, Mastricht does not differ that much from Calvin, who comments that God's fatherly favour, his blessedness, precedes our blessedness, 'and is the first cause of it'. He continues: 'By this clause David also intended distinctly to express to whom those pleasures belong, of which God has in his hand a full and an overflowing abundance' (Calvin 1989, 4:233). One observes, however, that in the exposition Mastricht moves immediately from the text's words to the divine beatitude, the source of all blessedness, while Calvin makes an opposite move, that is, from the benefit to the benefactor of blessedness, and observes that the psalmist 'testifies that true and solid joy in which the minds of men may rest will never be found anywhere else but in God'. Though their expositions differ in exegetical approach, in which Mastricht carefully delineates the text, their understanding of the meaning of the biblical text appears strongly to concur.
Such nuanced, non-essential differences in the meaning of the text are also found in their exegesis of Psalms 90:1-2 and 145:3. Concerning the former, for Mastricht the words 'of Moses' in the text provide a biblical basis primarily for the doctrine of divine eternity. Calvin's exegesis of these verses points to a dual understanding. He writes: 'Thus the everlastingness of which Moses speaks, is to be referred not only to the essence of God, but also to his providence' (Calvin 1989, 5:462). Mastricht argues that the divine infinite duration is identified in the text in three comparative steps: first, God existed before the mountains were brought forth; second, before the earth was formed - and here Mastricht points out grammatically that the Hebrew word, wat-ts-hö-w-lêl (V7inn), can be in the piel or pual form, meaning an activity in a passive sense, such that the earth was formed by divine action; and, thirdly, before the formation of the world, in particular the beginning of time, meaning that only eternity preceded the creation of the world.24 Thus, whereas both do acknowledge the divine eternity, it is Calvin who places it in the light of God's providence - and with an emphasis on the temporal - while Mastricht stresses the eternal, establishing the eternity of God in the biblical text primarily on a linguistic basis.
In regard to the exposition of Psalms 145:3, both understand this text to reveal the infinite and immense power of God. Mastricht, however, focuses heavily on the Hebrew text and on grammatical analysis,25 whereas Calvin asserts - with a practical dimension - that the text should 'stir up and urge all ... offering to God the praises due to his name' (Calvin 1989; 145, 1-3; CO 32:413), 6:272). Such should be done to his glory continuously, Calvin argues, because of 'the greatness of God as immeasurable . with admiration of the immensity of his power'.
These examples, then, attest to the fact that Mastricht varies in exegetical method of the biblical text but does not differ in meaning all that much from Calvin's understanding of these texts from the book of Psalms. For both the identification of doctrine arises from the biblical text, although Mastricht demonstrates in his text reflection more concern for the exegetical method; for the grammatical and etymological aspects of the text, while the Genevan interpreter directs the reader in his exegesis to a practical application, to the glory of God.
Such exegetical continuity of meaning of the biblical text between Calvin and Mastricht is less prevalent in the following commentary on Psalms 139:7-10 and 2:7-8. Calvin comments on Psalms 139:7-12 as one textual unit, and comments on verses 7-10 together. He notes:
They misapply the passage who adduce it as a proof of the immensity of God's essence; for though it be an undoubted truth that the glory of the Lord fills heaven and earth, this was not at present in the view of the psalmist. (Calvin 1989; 139, 7-10) (CO 32:379, 6:211)
Mastricht, who for the most part follows the same grammatical-analytical textual division as Calvin, focuses here in Psalm 139 on verses 7 to 10, and writes: 'the divine immensity and omnipresence are strongly represented in the words of the text, of which the psalmist gives proof.'26 Thus, whereas for Calvin the psalmist did not have divine immensity in view, Mastricht emphasises that the psalmist provides evidence of this divine attribute - a difference in meaning of the text. Calvin's exposition also focuses on the thrust of these verses; that is, it speaks of divine 'knowledge or inspection' (Calvin 1989:139, 7-10; CO 32:379, 6:211). He comments, 'David means in short that he could not change from one place to another without God seeing him, and following him with his eyes as he moved' (Calvin 1989:139, 7-10; CO 32:379, 6:211). We can infer from this that Calvin alludes to the divine omniscience - an expression he does not use but does describe: 'God's eye penetrates heaven and hell, so that, hide in what obscure corner of the world he might, he [the psalmist] must be discovered by him.' (Calvin 1989:139, 7-10; CO 32:379, 6:211). Mastricht, on the other hand, delineates the clauses into two major parts, where he first observes a double question, and secondly an indication of omnipresence as related to immensity. Concerning the former, Mastricht disregards the understanding that the clause 'Where shall I go from your Spirit?' refers to the third person of the Trinity27 - a thought that is not mentioned by Calvin, but can be deduced when he writes on the same clause that '[b]y the Spirit of God we are not here, as in several other parts of Scripture, to conceive of his power merely, but his understanding and knowledge' (Calvin 1989:139, 7-10; CO 32:379, 6:211) Moreover, for Calvin, such divine knowledge is manifested wherever the psalmist goes, and in particular because of the divine power.
Mastricht follows the same line of argument in his answer to the second question of the text, 'where shall I flee from your presence?' He replies, 'Nowhere' - because of God's knowledge as well as his 'power, work, and essence'.28 However, Mastricht, in contrast to Calvin, continues to expound on the text by noting that the subsequent clauses provide additional explanations not only of the divine omnipresence but also of his immensity.29 According to Mastricht, the psalmist affirms that wherever he goes, from the highest heavens to the depths of the earth - an infinite distance - or wherever he is present, even in the middle of the earth or in the 'uttermost parts of the sea', God is there, not only in his essence or by his knowledge but also, Mastricht explicitly argues, in his providence. Therefore, as a summary he writes: 'God is immense and omnipresence, with his essence and knowledge, with his works coexist in all space and all creatures in space.'30 In other words, Mastricht argues for a divine presence everywhere per essentia. Calvin's exposition of this biblical passage, on the other hand, is directed implicitly to the divine omnipresence, and he reminds the reader with a practical application (Calvin 1989:139:7-10; CO 32:379, 6:211) Mastricht restricts his reading of this passage to exegetical comments in which practical implications, as found in Calvin's interpretation, are absent. Moreover, Calvin's attention to the divine omniscience, which is everywhere present, is continued but extended by Mastricht in the dual focus he sees in the biblical text, namely, on divine immensity and omnipresence.
The question arises, then, what constitutes this difference of biblical interpretation? This enquiry applies specifically to the divergent understanding of Calvin and Mastricht of Psalm 2:7-8. Before attempting to answer this question, I turn to Calvin and Mastricht's exegetical comments on the words of Psalm 2:
I will declare the decree: The Lord had said unto me, you are my son; this day have I begotten you. Ask of me, and I will give you the heathen for your inheritance, and the uttermost parts of the earth for your possession.
Calvin begins by commenting that David, as son of God, 'publishes a decree', or a proof, of his rightful ascension to the throne commanded by God. But, Calvin continues:
this was more truly fulfilled in Christ, and doubtless, David, under the influence of the spirit of prophecy, had a special reference to him ... [and] represented the person of Christ.' (Calvin 1989:2, 7; CO 31: 46, 4:16)
Calvin points out that David was begotten by God, and therefore the words 'I have begotten you' ought to be understood as 'referring to men's understanding or knowledge of it', denoting the time of his enthronement. Though the Geneva interpreter does not deny that these words may apply to Christ as only begotten son of the Father, he notes:
This passage, I am aware, has been explained by many as referring to the eternal generation of Christ; and from the words 'this day', they have reasoned ingeniously as if they denoted an eternal act without any relation to time.
Finally, he asserts that the day of Christ, as the Son of God, is manifested by his coming into the world as well, and in particular on the day of his resurrection. In the subsequent verse, Calvin expounds on the text Christologically, pointing to the mediatorial work of the Son - not only in his kingly authority over the whole world, but in particular in his redemptive work. Calvin writes:
Christ collects the dispersed remnants of his people from all quarters, and in the midst of this wretched desolation, keeps them joined together by the sacred bond of faith (Calvin 1989:2, 7; CO 31:48, 4:19).
This succinct notion of Christ as mediator in Calvin's exposition becomes a central and much-expanded notion in Mastricht's exposition of Psalm 2:7-8.
According to Mastricht, this text declares (1) the divine household or pact (oeconomicum officium), (2) the Second Person of the Trinity, and (3) his office.31 For Mastricht, the (grammatical) analysis of this biblical text then includes a theological notion the covenant of the divine economy, and the Son as 'economicus' (Persona Filii ceu oeconomi). The second person of the Trinity is discussed from the perspective of the speaker and of what is said. The latter then includes a discussion on the sonship, the generation and the inheritage. In addition, the exposition of the generation of the Son is worked out in meticulous detail, as Mastricht discusses who generates; the time of generation, the act of generation; and the generated one, David, a type of Christ. 32 As such, Mastricht takes the entire Hebrew text and breaks it down into individual (identifiable) parts. He then expounds on each part individually and brings it all together in closing. To show the depth of his argument, we will examine Mastricht's treatment of the first part of the biblical text dealing with the Son and the covenant.33 The text (Ps 2:7) begins, according to Mastricht, with the covenant between the Father and the Son, where the Son is introduced in a speaking manner such as 'one finds in the 6th verse, the Song of Solomon and other poetry'. 34 These words can accordingly be understood as a typus, the confirmation of the kingdom to David, and an antitypus, the proclamation of the eternal covenant to Christ. Mastricht assures the reader that the biblical text really speaks of a covenant. He argues that the Hebrew word (höq) (ρπ) constitutes a concilium pacis, or council of peace.35 That it is a divine covenant is based on the word 'la' (7N), which is used instead of 'ta' (ΓΝ). Mastricht notes some of the possible readings. 'Whatever reading one follows,' Mastricht writes, the text indicates the covenant between the Father and the Son (Is 53:10, or Zch 6:10, the council of peace, concilium pacis) by which the Father says, 'You are my Son.' The Christological and covenantal interpretation is obvious. Calvin does attest the former, although he gives a stronger
Davidic interpretation than Mastricht does. Furthermore, for Mastricht the speaker in the text is Yah-weh and should be taken here as a personal and household name of the Father, as 'is confirmed in the text'.36 The question then arises, 'When, did he say?' According to Mastricht, some answer by pointing to Christ's baptism (Mt 3:17) or to the time of the transfiguration (Mt 17:5). However, Mastricht argues that the biblical text points to an eternal stability. Thus, from eternity to eternity is the divine 'now'.37 The saying, Mastricht notes, speaks of the Second Person, as the word relates grammatically to the sonship. Accordingly, one should not follow the vocative reading of Grotius's anti-Trinitarian hypothesis, 'O! my son.'38 No, Mastricht argues, it should be read emphatically:
My son you are! [that is], not by creation, as Adam (Lk 3:38) or angels (Job 38:7), and not by adoption, which belongs to the believers (Jn 1:12; 1 Jn 3:1), but by nature and generation. Mastricht (1699) 126.96.36.199.B.1 (p. 251)
Thus, the second person, generated by the Father, is divine.
Mastricht also counters the Socinians by stating that the one generated ('you') is not ultimately David. He notes that others interpret this 'you' as David, an example of Christ, or as Solomon (2 Sm. 7:14). However, he comments that most interpret the text as speaking about the Messiah as attested to in the New Testament (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5), and that the Son is not spoken of as adopted but as his own (proprio) Son (Rm 8:32; Jn 1:4; 3:16). Mastricht concludes, then, by affirming the divinity of the Son and the personal distinction between the Father and the Son.39
In the second part of the text, Mastricht concentrates on the heritage of 'the nations', that speaks here of a promise in which is made known the lordship of the Mediator resulting from his redemptive work.40
In summary, where Calvin is succinct in his exposition of Psalm 2:7, indicating that the 'decree' points primarily to David as a type of Christ, and to his proof of kingship, Mastricht elaborates extensively on the etymological meaning, establishing the theological interpretation of the decree as a covenant between the Father and the Son - a notion that is absent in Calvin's interpretation. Furthermore, Mastricht's comprehensive explanation of 'begetting', pointing to the eternal generation of the Son, thereby rejecting Grotius's interpretation and the Socinian anti-Trinitarian inclination, is dismissed by Calvin - although Calvin does acknowledge the possibility of such a reading.
Finally, even though both commentators point to Christ as mediator in Psalm 2:8, it is Calvin - and not Mastricht - who includes a practical observation in his exegetical reflection on the text.
In conclusion, the reception of Calvin's work in Mastricht's magnum opus of theology is noteworthy exegetically, both at times differing about the doctrinal meaning of the biblical text. That is to say, on the one hand, that Calvin's interpretation reflects the interweaving of (limited) grammatical-analytical exegetical reflections together with doctrinal and practical comments. Mastricht, on the other hand, shows in his exegesis an almost exclusive focus on the analysis of the text, and diverts the doctrinal and practical inferences to a separate discussion - though not separated from the biblical text and its exegesis. For example, Calvin's practical comment on Psalm 145, directing the reader to the glory of God and considering the divine immense power, is shared by Mastricht - though not in the exegetical section, but rather in the practical section of his discussion of the divine infinity and magnitude. Here he writes, 'the divine greatness is reason for us to glorify and praise God immensely,'41 and provides in a much-expanded passage practical usus for the believer arising from the biblical text. Furthermore, and concerning the exegetical method, Mastricht shows more concern for the Hebrew in the text analysis than what one can find in Calvin's commentary on this text - the consistent and similar division of the clauses of the examined texts excepted. That Mastricht gives more attention to the etymological and philological issues may arise from his extensive Hebrew knowledge and deep acquaintance with the rabbinical commentaries, attested to during his Hebrew and Old Testament professorship from 1667-1677 at the universities of Frankfort an der Oder and Duisburg, as well as following the intensification of Renaissance humanist concern for the original language in Mastricht's time.
These factors may contribute, therefore, to the concluding observation that Mastricht in some cases stands in overall exegetical continuity, in method and meaning, with Calvin - albeit with discernment on Mastricht's part, given that he places doctrinal, polemic and practical reflections arising from the biblical text in distinct sections. However, such factors do not account for major differences as noted in the exegesis of Psalm 139 and, in particular, of Psalm 2. In regard to the former, Calvin clearly rejects the doctrine of the divine immensity, which Mastricht affirms, though both do confirm that the doctrine of omnipresence arises from the text. Is it that Mastricht takes into account the Socinian reading of this psalm by making a distinction between the mode of the divine presence in heaven and the mode of his presence in the grave? Is it against the Socinian understanding that the divine omnipresence results from his power and not from the divine essence? Or is Mastricht concerned with the
Cartesian understanding that 'the divine omnipresence was merely a matter of external operation of power ... failing to distinguish between circumscriptive, definitive and repletive presence'? (Mastricht 1699:124, 2.10.10; Muller 2003:341). Although Mastricht addresses and rejects these Socinian and Cartesian ideas distinctively in the elenctic section belonging to his discussion of the divine immensity and omnipresence, this does not provide an answer as to why Calvin rejects and Mastricht includes the doctrine of immensity as an option in the exegesis. Mastricht notes that the texts implicitly state that the One who is present on high and below, as well as in the midst of the world, is concurrently immense and omnipresent. The proposition of everywhere presentness by inductive reason presupposes and assumes, for Mastricht, immensity.42 This, then, may provide some direction for Mastricht's approach to the biblical text, and as such lays the groundwork for his refutation of the Socinian and Cartesian position. Although his exegetical work forms the basis of his doctrinal, elenctical, and practical reflection of a theological locus, it was shaped by contemporary debates. This may also serve in part as an explanation of the exegetical differences between Calvin and Mastricht on Psalm 2:7-8. Although Calvin and Mastricht share essentially the same Christological interpretation of this psalm - in particular, that of Christ as mediator - it is Mastricht who significantly expands on this thought and explicates the importance of the concept of covenant. This concept is absent from Calvin's exegetical reflection, as is the doctrine of the eternal generation of the Son - a thought familiar to but not shared by Calvin. On this point, Mastricht addresses Grotius's deviant reading of the text, shared by the Socinians, not in the elenctical but in the exegetical section of the locus De Deo Filio.
Mastricht is clear in his guidelines for biblical interpretation: doctrinal differences are not drawn out of the biblical text, unless variant readings give reason for doing so. On the basis of these guidelines he refutes Grotius's anti-Trinitarian hypotheses. In addition to refuting exegetical options on account of their theological implications, Mastricht also expands his exegetical insights, providing a more comprehensive foundation for his theological thought - such as, in Psalm 2, the concept of the covenant. Here the question arises whether the development of covenant theology in the late-sixteenth and seventeenth centuries or, in particular, the Voetian-Cocceian debate on the understanding of the covenant, influenced Mastricht's interpretation of this psalm. Such a possibility may not be excluded entirely, though it must be mentioned that he does not impose the concept of the covenant on the text. On the contrary, he again shows concern for the Hebrew text and consults the Masoretic and Septuagint readings, as well as the Arabic and Ethiopian renderings of the text, and even includes the Targum commentary when formulating his understanding of the Hebrew word höq (ρπ) as 'statue, decree, and covenant economy'. Calvin speaks in this regard only of a 'mutual love which exists between the Father and the Son'. Although there is a notable difference in the exegetical results between Calvin and Mastricht as found in Psalm 2:7-8, Mastricht's interpretation may be formed in part due to theological controversies, but at the same time strengthens the Christological importance of this biblical text - an emphasis that is shared by Calvin as well, but is expounded on further by Mastricht not in the exegetical section, but rather in the doctrinal, elenctical and practical sections.
This brings us to the second concluding remark: Mastricht's exegesis cannot be evaluated without a reading of his doctrinal, elenctical and practical reflections on the theological subject in which consists the interconnectedness of his fourfold approach arising from the text of Scripture - a parallel approach but one that is integrally present in Calvin's commentary on Scripture. The approach suggested here to Mastricht's understanding of the biblical text may contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the reception - or, more precisely, the appropriation - of Calvin by Mastricht than presented so far, a suggestion further supported by Mastricht's parallel reading of Calvin's Institutes and commentaries which has already been noted.
In summary, if Post-Reformation 'systematic theology [was] so closely wedded to the textual and linguistic work of the exegete', then the historical-theological context of the era has to be taken into consideration to note the exegetical continuity and 'discontinuity between Calvin and Post-Reformation Reformed Orthodoxy in the meaning of the biblical text, as shown in the case of Mastricht's TPT - because both doctrine and praxis arose out of the text of Scripture.
The author is grateful for the valuable editorial suggestions offered by Andreas Beck, Evangelische Theologische Faculteit, Leuven, Albert Gootjes, Calvin Theological Seminary, and Kenneth P. Minkema, Yale University.
Competing interests
The author declares that he has no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced him in writing this article.
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Berthoud, P., 2010, 'Jean Calvin, interprète des psaumes messianiques', Théologie Évangélique 9(2), 105-22. [ Links ]
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Burmannus, F., 1671, Synopsis theologize & speciatim oeconomia foederum dei, Cornelius Jacobi Noenardus, Utrecht. [ Links ]
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Calvin, J., 1989, lib. Psalmorum comm, transl. J. King, 22 vols, Baker Bookhouse, Grand Rapids. [ Links ]
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Cobb, D., 2010, 'L'exégèse de Jean Calvin, actualité et spiritualité', La Revue Réformée 61(5), 21-36. [ Links ]
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d'Assonville, V.E., 2009, 'Exegesis and doctrina', in H.J. Selderhuis (ed.), The Calvin handbook, pp. 378-384, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids. [ Links ]
d'Assonville, V.E., 2010, 'Calvin as an exegete of scripture: A few remarks with reference to Calvin research in general', in J. Calvin, 1509-2009: A South African perspective"', In die Skriflig 44(S3), Gerber supplement, S129-S143. [ Links ]
Engammare, M., 2012, 'Jean Calvin exégète humaniste', in B. Boudou & A-N. Pouey- Mounou (eds.), Calvin et l'humanisme: Actes du symposium d'Amiens et Lille Ill (25-26 novembre 2009), pp. 53-72, Droz, Geneva. [ Links ]
Graafland, C., 1993, 'Schriftleer en schriftverstaan in de nadere reformatie', in T. Brienen, K. Exalto, C. Graafland, B. Loonstra, W. van 't Spijker (eds.), Theologische aspecten van de Nadere Reformatie, p. 35, Boekencentrum, Zoetermeer. [ Links ]
Greijdanus, S., 1946, Schrifbeginselen ter Schrifverklaring en Historisch overzicht over theorieën en wijzen van Schriftuitleggingen, Kok, Kampen. [ Links ]
Handy, L.K., 2009, 'Luther and Calvin read Psalm 29', in L.K. Handy (ed.), Psalm 29 through time and tradition, pp. 79-89, Pickwick, Eugene. [ Links ]
Heidanus, A., 1686, Corpus theologies christians in quindecim locos, Johannes de Vivie & Jordanus Luchtmans, Leiden. [ Links ]
Heidegger, J.H., 1700, Corpus theologize christians, David Gessner, Zürich. [ Links ]
H. Henry Meeter Center, n.d., The John Calvin bibliography, viewed 04 January 2014, from http://www.calvin.edu/meeter/publications/calvin-bibliography.htm [ Links ]
Holdt, M., 2010, 'John Calvin and Psalm 110: The Psalm for yesterday and today- Psalm 110', in D.W. Hall (ed.), Preaching like Calvin: Sermons from the 500th anniversary celebration, pp. 215-24, P&R Publishing, Phillipsburg. [ Links ]
Hoornbeek, J., 1689, Theologiae practicae partes duae, lohannem & Guilielmum van de Water, Utrecht. [ Links ]
Huisman, F.W., 2001, Bibliografie van het gereformeerd Piëtisme in Nederland tot 1800, Uitgeverij Op Hoope, Woudenberg. [ Links ]
Muller, R.A., 2003, Post-reformation reformed dogmatics, 4 vols., 2nd edn., Baker Academic, Grand Rapids. [ Links ]
Muller, R.A., 2007, 'Biblical interpretation in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries', in D.J. McKim (ed.), Dictionary of major biblical interpreters, IVP Academic , Downers Grove, p. 31. [ Links ]
Muller, R.A., 2009, 'A tale of two wills? Calvin and Amyraut on Ezekiel 18:23', Calvin Theological Journal 44(2), 211-225. [ Links ]
Neele, A.C., 2009, Petrus van Mastricht (1630-1706). Reformed Orthodoxy: Method and Piety, Brill, Leiden/Boston. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004169920.i-344 [ Links ]
Nicole, E., 2010, 'Calvin interprète de la Genèse', La Revue réformée 61(5), 1-20. [ Links ]
O'Dell Bullock, K., 2002, 'Post-reformation protestant hermeneutics', in B. Corley, S. Lemke & G. Lovejoy (eds.), Biblical hermeneutics: A comprehensive introduction to interpreting scripture, 2nd edn., p. 129, Broadman & Holman Publishers, Nashville. [ Links ]
Poole, M., 1669-1676, Synopsis criticorum aliorumque sacrae scripturae interpretum I: Prsfatio (Ill), S. Flesher, London. [ Links ]
Post Reformation Digital Library n.d., Secondary sources, viewed 04 January 2014, from http://www.prdl.org/secondary.php [ Links ]
Selderhuis, H.J., 2000, God in het midden: Calvijns theologie van de Psalmen, Kok, Kampen. [ Links ]
Van Asselt, W., 2011, 'Quid est homo quod memor es ipsius?' Calvin and Cocceius (1603-1669) on Psalm 8', Church History and Religious Culture 91(1/2), 135-147. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187124111X557818 [ Links ]
Van Mastricht, P., 1666, De optima concionandi methodo paralipomena, Huebneri, Frankfort an der Oder. [ Links ]
Van Mastricht, P., 1699, Theoretico-practica theologia, Thomas Appels, Utrecht. [ Links ]
Van Tellingen, A.E., 2003, 'Het leven en enige aspecten uit de theologie van Petrus van Mastricht 1630-1706', Master's thesis, Faculty of Theology, University of Utrecht. [ Links ]
Wilcox, P., 2011, 'John Calvin's interpretation of lamentations' in R.A. Parry & H.A. Thomas (eds.), Great is thy faithfulness?: Reading lamentations as sacred scripture, pp. 125-30, Pickwick, Eugene. [ Links ]
Wittichius, C., 1671, Theologica pacifica, Boutesteyn, Leiden. [ Links ]
Adriaan Neele
PO Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300
South Africa
Received: 25 Sept. 2013
Accepted: 01 May 2014
Published: 21 Nov. 2014
1. On Calvin studies see for example, H. Henry Meeter Center (n.d.) and on Post-Reformation studies see Post Reformation Digital Library (n.d.).
2. This observation is underscored by (1) the lack of attention given to Post-Reformation biblical interpretation in studies such as Bray (1996); (2) the deficiency of studies of exegesis in the Nadere Reformatie, even while one notices an increase and diversification of studies of this period (cf. Huisman 2001), and (3) 'A full history of biblical interpretation in the 16th century and 17th century remains to be written' (Muller 2007:23).
3. Notable exceptions are: Muller (2009:211-225); Van Asselt (2011:135-147).
4. According to Berkhof (1950:29), 'exegesis became the handmaid of dogmatics and degenerated into a mere search of proof-texts'. Further, as stated by O'Dell Bullock (2002:129), 'the [post-reformation] Scholastics often superimposed their own sets of rationalistic guidelines upon its [the text of Holy Writ] pages, with the result that the simple message was often lost in the search for methodological and doctrinal correctness'; Graafland (1993:35) states: 'We krijgen niet zelden de indruk, dat de leer al lang vastaat, en dat ze alleen nog maar achteraf uit de Schrift moet worden bevestigd. Dat secundaire karakter van het Schrifbewijs is bij Voetius opvallend'; Greijdanus (1946) argued that the development of exegesis in the period 16001750 was further hindered by the strong adherence to the confessions.
5. According to Poole (1669-1676), 'Mirentur forsan nonnulli, in Auctorum catalogo non comparere Joannem Calvinum, Interpretem 1. Ex eo nonnulla, ubiopus suerat, subindè delibavi 2.Calvini Commentaria non tam Critici sunt quam materias Theologicas solidè tractant, & ad praxin accommodant. 3. Ex Calvino pleraque decerpserunt qui post eum scripserunt 4.Calvinum sere omnes in minibus & bibliothecis habent ....'
6. This is especially applicable when Calvin's work is referenced in 17th century academic works. Academic works arising from university lectures and disputations of the early modern era, in general, identified used sources and authors. See, for example, Cloppenburg (1684); Coccejus (1665); Hoornbeek (1689); Burmannus (1671); Cocceius (1701); Heidanus (1686); Heidegger (1700).
7. Mastricht 8: 'Exegeseos adminicula repetantur ... Commentatoribus praestantissimis, cum criticis & verbalibus; tum analyticis ac realibus, Calvino, Piscatore, Polo &c.'
8. See the most recent overviews of the life and work of Mastricht in Van Tellingen (2003) and Neele (2009).
9. For example Mastricht (1699:2.2-7, 10 [2x], 11 [2x], 12-3, 14-6 [3x], 20 [2x], 23).
10. In particular as found in the Theologia pacifica of Christopher Wittichius (1671).
11. For example, Mastricht (1699) 1.1.49 (p.15); 1.2.72 (p. 44); 1.1.2 (p. 51); 1.1.12 (p. 52); 1.1.25 (p. 56); 1.1.55 (p. 64); 2.4.8 (p. 87); 2.8.3 (p. 112); 2.10.8 (p. 123); 2.12.23 (p. 141); 4.30.34 (p. 371); 5.3.29 (p. 430); 5.3.34 (p. 432); 5.3.35 (p. 448); 5.15.22 (p. 584); 6.2.6 (p. 649); 6.15.2 (p. 692); 6.15.25 (p. 697); 6.8.27 (p. 745).
12. Mastricht (1699): exegetical, 5.1.2 (p. 391) (2x); 5.8.1 (p. 476), doctrinal, 1.1.1 (p. 3); 2.24.3 (p. 237); 8.3.30 (pp. 1058-1076) (3x); elenctic, 1.2.33 (p. 31); 1.4.16 (p. 90); 1.26.9 (p. 259); 2.16.25 (p. 174); 5.12.22 (p. 545); 3.9.18 (p. 374); 3.12.31(p. 325); 7.1.27 (p. 775); 7.1.34 (p. 777); practical, 3.9.21 (p. 376); 2.2.25 (p. 73);5.8.20 (p. 483).
13. For example, Mastricht (1699) 7.1.26 (p. 774): 'Quaeritur sexto, an Reformata Ecclesia, ortum suum repetat a Zuinglio, Luthero, Calvino &c?'
14. Concerning the elenctical sections, Mastricht (1699:767-785) makes use of Calvin in his discussion on ecclesiology.
15 .Mastricht (1699) 3.9.21 (p. 376); 5.20.22 (p. 545).
16 .Mastricht (1699) 3.9.8 (p. 374).
17. Mastricht (1699) 5.1.2 (p. 391): 'per semen illud plhquntiaws collective intelligunt Christum cum omnibus suis electis, sic Calvinus, Rivetus, Pareus qui in suo Calvino orthodox see also 5.8.1 (p. 476).
18. Mastricht (1699) 5.20.22 (p. 545): 'Quibus nemo felicius ora obturaverit, quam ipse Calvinus Instit. lib. II. c. 16. §. 12. & in Harmon.'
19. Mastricht cites here Calvin's remarkable account of atheism. Mastricht (1699:73),: 'Imprimis memorandum habet Calvinus exemplum, Comment. in Psal. CXV. 16. Accidit, inquit, nobis coenantibus, in quodam diversorio, ut profanus Dei contemptor, sermones nostros, de spe coelestis vitae, deridens, subinde ludibrium hoc evomeret: coelum coeli Domino, terram autem dedit filiis hominum: illic, repente correptus torminibus, ceperit vociferari, O DEUS! O DEUS! atque, ut erat patulo gutture; sic boatu suo replebat totum coenaculum. Ego, qui in eum severe excandueram, perrexi meo more, stomachose denuncians, ut tum saltem sentiret, non impune Deo illudi; unus è convivis, homo probus & religiosus, sed tamen facetus, tune ait, Deum invocas, an Philosophiae tuae oblitus es? cur non in suo coelo, Deum sinis quiescere?'
20. Mastricht (1699) 'prsefatio': 'Tandem, ut & usum nostrorum, in homileticis pro concione habeas, id unum moneo, ut cautè observes, praedominans argumentum textus tui; tum nostra, per sua capita conferas, ea quae in rem tuam erunt commodissima, arrectis tantum animi viribus, ut Scripturae locorum vim & efficaciam, cüm ad amplificandum; tüm ad demonstrandum, assequaris quantum satis'.
21. Mastricht (1699) 2.23.2 (p. 231): 'Nolim diffiteri, iuxta plerosque interpretes, verba haec capi posse, de beatitudine creaturarum, qua fruuntur coram facie, & ex conspectu faciei divinae'.
22. Mastricht (1699) 2.23.2 (p. 231): 'Beatitudo quae tribuitur: twjmv obwc satietas gaudiorum: ubi obwc copiam notat, plenitudinem, imo & satietatem: quod beatitudo, non uno aliquo bono; sed confluxu omnium perficiatur. Unde etiam twjmv in plurali adiicitur: qua voce & bona illa designantur, quae beatum faciunt; & acquiescentia ac gaudium, ex possessione & fruitione, bonorum istorum oriundum. Utroque significatur, tantam esse in Deo perfectionis & gloriae, copiam, ex tot tantisque attributis oriundam, ut satis habeat, quasi plenus sit, abundet, non tantum ad necessitatem; sed etiam ad laetitiam. Sic ut plus habere non possit, nec habere desideret'.
23. Mastricht (1699) 2.23.2 (p. 231): 'Beatitudinis communicatae, Pn'm'b twmson, amaenitates in dextra tua. Hïc rursus non diffiteor, verba posse usurpari de beatitudine Dei: sed tamen etiam de beatitudine creaturarum participate.
24. Mastricht (1699) 2.11.2 (p. 128): 'Vox llwjt capipotest, vel active in Pihel, sicut Prov. xxv. 23. Deut. xxxll. 18. ut notet, antequam peperisses; vel passive, in Puhal Psal. li. 7. Prov. viii. 24. 25.'
25. Mastricht (1699) 2.9.2 (p. 117): 'Textus habet elogium, seu celebrationem quandam Dei, cuius argumentum est, infinita eius magnitudo. [...] Magnus dicitur lwdg Refertur, vel ad quantitatem, vel ad qualitatem [...] quod infinitus sit: vel magnitudinem [...]. Scil. a magnitudine omnia excedente, seu infinita [...]. Et magnitudinis eius, non est investigatio : rqj Wwia'.
26. Mastricht (1699) 2.10.2 (p. 121): 'Istam Dei immensitatem & omnipraesentiam, graphicè repraesentant verba textus praefixi'.
27. Mastricht (1699) 2.10.2 (p. 121): 'Per Spiritum tuum, nonnullipersonam quandam, a Patre diversam, seu Spiritum S. intellectum volunt... sed nescio, an satis solide; tutius igitur, Deus theologice consideratus, utfit loh. IV. 24'.
28. Mastricht (1699) 2.10.2 (p. 122): 'non de cognitione Dei tantum; aut de virtute & operatione tantum: sed etiam, de ipsa eius essentia'.
29. Mastricht (1699) 2.10.2 (p. 122): 'Declaret & probet merismw seu distributione terminorum, omnipraesentis huius immensitatis, pro triplicidistantiae differentia
30. Mastricht (1699) 2.10.2 (p. 121): '[Q]uibus argumentum, Psaltes praestiturus, providentiae divinae; Dei immensitatem, velut per partes ac terminos, delineat.' Mastricht (1699) iii (p.122): 'Hinc igitur, nil clarius pellucet, quam quod Deus immensus & omnipraesens sit, essentia pariter & cognitione, iuxta ac operatione; coëxistens omni spacio, & omni creaturae in spacio'
31. Mastricht (1699) 2.26.2 (p. 251): 'Proinde " Filium contemplabimur qui sui proswoigraqian & officium ceconomicum, ex pacto ceconomico refert, verbis prsefixis, ex Psalmo 2:7-8.' The following paragraph follows the argument in Neele (2009:255-258).
32 .Mastricht (1699) 2.26.2 (pp. 251-252): '1. Fcedus ceconomicum, inter se & Patrem: Narrabo ipsum decretum ... 2. Persona Filii, ceu ceconomi: Filius meus tu ... a. dicens Jehova ... b. Dictum: Filius meus tu es ... 1. Filiatio hta inb 2. Generatio sterna Pitili Mwih 'na, a. generans ... na, b. generandi tempus ... Mwih, c. generandi actus Pitili, d. genitus 3. Hsereditas a. Stipulatio Patris ceconomica b. Promissio reciproca .... '
33. Mastricht (1699) expounds on the remainder of the biblical text in depth, but we will summarise only his exegetical results.
34. Mastricht (1699) 2.26.2 (p. 251): '1. Fcdus cconomicum Ex abrupto introducitur persona secunda loquens, nempe idem Rex, de quo vers.6 quales sermonum alternationes, non rara sunt, in Cantico, aliisque scriptis Poëticis' This sentence is found verbatim in Poole's commentary, with the reference 'Gej[erusJ'. See Poole (1669-1676).
35. Mastricht (1699): 'qh statutum notat, quod constitutum sit, in seterno consilio Pacis, inter Patrem & se.'
36. Mastricht (1699): 'a. Dicens Jehova ... hic personaliter & ceconomice capitur, pro Patre, sicut passim Ps. 33:6.'
37. Mastricht (1699): 'Dixit, quando? cum ratione decreti, ante omne tempus; ratione exsecutionis in tempore, dixerit, dictat & dicturus sit.'
38. Mastricht (1699) 126.96.36.199.B.1 (p. 251): 'Filiatio hta inb, Filius meus tu, supple es hta hc non est pro Vocativo: O Fili mi, ut Grotius, suis hypothesibus antitrinitariis serviens, volebat.'
39. Mastricht (1699) 2.26.2 (p. 251): 'Ex quo patet, tum Filii deitas; tum distinctio personalis inter Patrem & Filium.'
40. Mastricht (1699) 2.26.2 (p. 252): 'Denotatur dominium Mediatorium, ei, ex redemptione.'
41. Mastricht (1699) 2.9.11 (p. 120): 'infinita Dei magnitudo, argumentum_nobis suppeditat, quo, infinitis laudibus.'
42.Mastricht (1699) 2.10.2 (p. 122): 'Sed &c. Ergo. Praesupposit a evidentia propositionis, assumptionem confirmat Inductione


text:
Our Love Your Shop promotion has been a huge success! Thank you for mobilizing and supporting local yarn shops, they are the lifeblood of our community. The only way to make sure the LYS is here to stay is to support your local shop!
You still have time to enter if you haven't already, sales slips can be dated between November 1st and December 15. Make sure you drop them in the mail before the end of the year. Click the image above for a full page printable flyer your shop can display...let's go out with a bang!
And now, on the eve of the last shopping weekend, we wanted to share some statistics with you.
As of this week...
The knitters and crocheters have spoken! We have received a total of of 864 receipts. The total dollar amount of qualifying merchandise is $62,531!
Average ticket = $73.65
We have received entries from 44 different states and DC. Massachusetts is in the lead with the most entries at 73. Next are Wisconsin (56), California (53) and Michigan (51).
344 stores are represented. Top stores are:
o The Woolpack in Acton, MA (30)
o Webs in Northampton, MA (25)
o Sows Ear in Verona, WI (16)
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Most frequently bought Classic Elite items are:
o Fresco
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You have 5 more days, get out there and buy some yarn!

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Item #1 of 2 THEBLAZE.COM – A Texas man's pregnant wife made it clear she was against having a firearm in their house. However, the husband insisted she learn how to use a gun to protect herself just in case. In fact, it was just a few months ago that he took her out to […]
The saga of Sandra Fluke has taken yet another dramatic twist, with Rush Limbaugh apologizing for calling the lady a "slut".
OK, Rush, manfully done. Sandra Fluke is NOT a slut! She is a liberated, extremely enlightened being of the female persuasion who demands that you and I pay for whatever she chooses to do with HER OWN BODY! Which is only natural and healthy and a mandatory piece of Obamacare. Which you also get to pay for, as part of being an American.
So there.
Somebody named Joe Palazzola wrote on the WSJ Law Blog that "Georgetown Law Gets Behind Sandra Fluke." That's NOT FUNNY, Joe.
On behalf of all good and decent males in these United States, I just want to say how truly hurt and sorry I am that my favorite talk show host, Rush Limbaugh, used such a hurtful and offensive word to refer to Ms. Fluke.
Please accept my sincere apologies, Women of America.
And yes, I will do the dishes. Coming! Right now.
Actually, Ms. Fluke turns out to be a 31 year old feminist Reproductive Rights activist with a Linkedin page showing a "Law Practice" in the "Los Angeles Area." I didn't realize that law school students have law practices, but if she didn't have one before, she will soon, I guess.
But Ms. Fluke is definitely NOT a SLUT.
Modern English has been around since William Shakespeare, but conservatives can no longer use the language. We can't say "ladies," because there are only "women." We can't say "girls," because there are only "pre-adolescents of the female gender." We can't say "slut," because Slut Walks are only for leftists protesting the patriarchal tyranny. We can certainly not use Shakespeare's own words for sexually enlightened women.
Even Obama seized the moment to call Sandra and apologize to her on behalf of all the good people of America for the unbearable insult she received in defense of women's rights.
How did he get her phone number so fast, you ask?
You've got a dirty mind.
This is a sterling moment in American history. It's about time Rush and his male chauvinist porkers learned that lesson!
And just to make sure the nation remembers this moment for a long time to come, I propose that we immortalize Sandra Fluke's heroic stand by adopting the name "fluke" to refer to any and all federally-protected gender-related activities in all liberal categories, including M, F, B, G, L, and T.
This will immensely simplify our language. Instead of "M on M tongue kissing by US Marines in homecoming propaganda photo op" , we can just say "Whoops! 2 Marines just fluked on YouTube!" See how easy this is? Or rather, C, EZ? Imagine how this will make life better for the idealistic children of Occupy Wall Street. Instead of having to use both thumbs to laboriously text Mom "Can't come home tonight, putting my body on the line against the NYPD pigs and fat-cat capitalists" they can just type.
"Fluking! C Y Mom!"
Mom will figure it out.
She's heard it before.
Read More: http://www.westernjournalism.com/fluked-again-a-word-is-born/


text:
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Conservative Chief Whip Francis Urquhart takes the audience under his wing as he baits and tricks his way toward a job as British Prime Minster. The perpetually without comment politician, played brilliantly by Ian Richardson, retains an amused smirk as he calmly destroys anyone blocking his ambition. House of Cards and its two sequels, To Play the King and The Final Cut, are inherently British political dramas of the highest order. Each four-episode series is rife with unpredictable political pawns and back-room corruption. Richardson makes his devilish character extra sleazy while piling on the charm, and the trilogy takes on all aspects of the British government, from Parliament to the Royal Palace.
Urquhart and his Conservative Party back Hal Collingridge (David Lyon) after Margaret Thatcher resigns. A decent if weak-willed Prime Minister, Collingridge is repeatedly undermined by Urquhart, who uses the Prime Minister's alcoholic brother as a weapon and frames a number of influential party members by threatening to expose their sexual and drug habits. The feisty Whip decides to bed a young political reporter (Susannah Harker) so he can spoon-feed her concoctions about the party, which she confuses for an incredible inside scoop. The political backbiting in House of Cards intensifies as the series moves forward, and Urquhart proves willing to do just about anything to oust Collingridge and steal his job.
Richardson is certainly the star of these shows, and this Andrew Davies adaptation veers away from Michael Dobbs' source novels to keep Urquhart in power. The sidewinder plot of House of Cards kicks along as Urquhart commits one gleefully devious sin after another. No Party player, journalist, or addict relative is left untouched in his political game. The writing is excellent throughout, and the cast is stocked with memorable supporting characters, including Michael Kitchen's Prince Charles-esque King and Diane Fletcher as Urquhart's equally ruthless wife, Elizabeth. The early '90s setting is a perfect stage on which Urquhart can perform without being completely undercut by technology. These are simpler times in London, when a politician walks down to a physical bank branch to make a shady money laundering transaction.
House of Cards, which recently got a reboot via Netflix, is the best of the lot, but its two follow-ups are certainly worthwhile. This trilogy reminds me of the The Wire in that it looks at British politics from several angles as it follows Urquhart's career arc. To Play the King sees Urquhart thriving in his role as prime minister - and known by his initials, F.U. - until he has to go head to head with the King in a clash that suggests the inherent strain between the monarch and prime minister in modern England. The series again looks at how the press can be manipulated, and Chapter II apparently caused some backlash with British viewers who found it disrespectful to the Queen.
The Final Cut lands in the twilight of Urquhart's career as he surpasses Thatcher as the longest-serving Prime Minster in modern Britain. The wily leader's spark is waning, as are his feisty asides, and The Final Cut proves more depressing and less entertaining than its predecessors. Urquhart struggles to settle on a legacy, and younger Conservative Party members grow increasingly dissatisfied with his old-school tactics. Too much praise cannot be heaped on Richardson, who creates a true anti-hero in Urquhart. The House of Cards Trilogy is political drama at its most gripping, and it renders bad politics both frightening and enticing.
The BBC has remastered all twelve episodes, and presents the trilogy with 1.33:1/1080p/AVC-encoded transfers that all look quite good. These episodes are never going to look like slick, modern blockbusters thanks to the straightforward production design and traditional film stock used, but the Blu-ray presentations look as good as can be expected. Detail is generally strong, particularly in close-ups, and there's a fair bit of texture and depth to most scenes. Colors are well saturated if intentionally drab, and black crush is only a problem in the darkest scenes. There's a bit of noise and banding here and there, but print damage is completely absent from the transfers.
As you might expect from a television drama, the soundtrack is largely front-loaded. These 2.0 DTS-HD Master Audio tracks are certainly adequate for the material. Dialogue is clean and crisp, with good separation. There's occasional minor hiss but I suspect this is the result of on-set dialogue capture or quick re-dubbing and not a problem with the mixes. Music, effects and dialogue are appropriately balanced, and these mixes are perfectly adequate. English SDH subtitles are available.
BBC's House of Cards Trilogy is a three-disc set, and each four-episode series receives its own disc. The discs are packed in a slim, hinged Blu-ray case, which is wrapped in a matching slipcover. A Commentary from Andrew Davies and Ian Richardson is available on the first episode of each series, and the pair provides decent insight into the making and background of House of Cards. There's quite a bit of dead air on each track, however, which undercuts the impact. Also included is Andrew Davies on "To Play the King" Controversy (8:45/SD), in which Davies discusses the backlash from some viewers that the second chapter insulted the British monarchy. Finally, Westminster: Behind Closed Doors (51:14/SD) is an interesting behind-the-scenes look at the meeting place of the House of Commons and the House of Lords.
The BBC's House of Cards Trilogy is gripping and mischievous; an irreverent, fictional take on British politics anchored by Ian Richardson's wily Francis Urquhart, who goes from backstabbing Conservative Chief Whip to aging Prime Minster over three accomplished seasons. Urquhart's famous non-denial - "You might very well think that; I couldn't possibly comment." - entered the collective lexicon for good reason: Richardson's performance is devilish perfection. The BBC remastered each gripping series for Blu-ray, and the episodes look and sound great. This excellent release merits our highest rating: DVD Talk Collector Series.
William lives in Burlington, North Carolina, and looks forward to a Friday-afternoon matinee.


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Hollaback #Harassmentis
What is Hollaback?
The real motive of street harassment is intimidation. To make its target scared or uncomfortable, and to make the harasser feel powerful. But what if there was a simple way to take that power away by exposing it? You can now use your smartphone to do just that by documenting, mapping, and sharing incidents of street harassment. Join an entire community ready to Hollaback!
Our mission
Hollaback is a movement to end street harassment powered by a network of local activists around the world. We work together to better understand street harassment, to ignite public conversations, and to develop innovative strategies to ensure equal access to public spaces.
Our vision
We envision a world where street harassment is not tolerated and where we all enjoy equal access to public spaces.
What is Street Harassment?
Street harassment is a form of sexual harassment that takes place in public spaces. At its core is a power dynamic that constantly reminds historically subordinated groups (women and LGBTQ folks, for example) of their vulnerability to assault in public spaces. Further, it reinforces the ubiquitous sexual objectification of these groups in everyday life.
Street harassment can be sexist, racist, transphobic, homophobic, ableist, sizeist and/or classist. It is an expression of the interlocking and overlapping oppressions we face and it functions as a means to silence our voices and "keep us in our place."
At Hollaback!, we believe that what specifically counts as street harassment is determined by those who experience it. If you've experienced street harassment, we've got your back!
Why Hollaback matters:
Dedicated to fighting street harassment, Hollaback! has empowered people in over 64 cities and 22 countries internationally to respond through a smartphone/web application. Users are encouraged to speak up when they see harassment by quickly documenting it in a short post (photo optional) and sharing it to a publicly viewable map. Anyone browsing the stories on the Hollaback! maps immediately understands 3 things:
1) If you've been harassed, you're not alone,
2) Street harassment is used to exert control over others by making them feel scared or uncomfortable. It is much more than individuals just acting inappropriately.
3) There are street harassment "hotspots" in most cities often centered around high pedestrian traffic areas.
Hollaback! provides comfort to those harassed, and proof that street harassment is a serious problem warranting a serious response from policy makers.
Why you should Hollaback:
There are two reasons to hollaback: for you, and for the world.
For you: Hollaback! is all about your right to be you: A person who never has to take it or just keep walking, but one who has a badass response when they are messed with. Someone who knows they have the right to define themselves instead of being defined by some creep's point of view. Because none of us are as simple as a list of physical attributes. We have a right to be who we are, not who we are told to be. We have a right to define ourselves on our own terms when we walk out the door, whatever that means that day. That hour. That minute.
Street harassment teaches us to be silent, but we aren't listening. We don't put up with harassment in the home, at work, or at school. And now we aren't putting up with it in the street, either. By holla'ing back you are transforming an experience that is lonely and isolating into one that is sharable. You change the power dynamic by flipping the lens off of you and onto the harasser. And you enter a worldwide community of people who've got your back.
For the world: Stories change the world. Don't believe us? Think about Rodney King, Anita Hill, or Matthew Sheppard. These stories didn't just change the world, they shaped policy.
The internet has given us a new campfire. Each time you hollaback, you are given a king-sized platform to tell your story. Thousands will read it and your story will shift their understanding of what harassment means. Some will walk away understanding what it feels like to be in your shoes, others will feel like they are not alone for the first time or that it's not their fault. Your story will redefine safety in your community?it will inspire legislators, the police, and other authorities to take this issue seriously ? to approach it with sensitivity, and to create policies that make everyone feel safe. Your story will build an irrefutable case as to why street harassment is not OK. A case strong enough to change the world.
But it all starts with the simplest of gestures: Your hollaback.
Share your story >>>
How Hollaback! works
Street harassment is one of the most pervasive forms of gender-based violence and one of the least legislated against. Comments from "You'd look good on me" to groping, flashing and assault are a daily, global reality for women and LGBTQ individuals. But it is rarely reported, and it's culturally accepted as 'the price you pay' for being a woman or for being gay. At Hollaback!, we don't buy it.
We believe that everyone has a right to feel safe and confident without being objectified. Sexual harassment is a gateway crime that creates a cultural environment that makes gender-based violence OK. There exists a clear legal framework to reproach sexual harassment and abuse in the home and at work, but when it comes to the streets?all bets are off. This gap isn't because street harassment hurts any less, it's because there hasn't been a solution. Until now. The explosion of mobile technology has given us an unprecedented opportunity to end street harassment?and with it, the opportunity to take on one of the final new frontiers for women's rights around the world.
By collecting women and LGBTQ folks' stories and pictures in a safe and share-able way with our very own mobile phone applications, Hollaback! is creating a crowd-sourced initiative to end street harassment. Hollaback! breaks the silence that has perpetuated sexual violence internationally, asserts that any and all gender-based violence is unacceptable, and creates a world where we have an option?and, more importantly?a response.
At the core of our model lies the belief that movements start with people telling their stories ? and they succeed with people taking action. Before the Internet age, there was only one mic, one podium, one speaker. But now, thanks to the proliferation of blogging and social media, it is no longer the loudest, wealthiest and most powerful who rule the airwaves: anyone with access to their local library's internet portal can have a voice. At Hollaback!, we leverage technology to bring voice to an issue that historically has been silenced, and to build leadership within this movement to break the silence.
Break the silence: We work with women, girls, and LGBTQ individuals to document in words and pictures, and to literally indicate on a map, where they experienced harassment in public spaces. Doing this provides a forum for individuals to share their experiences and brings attention to this long-ignored issue.
Inspire international leadership: Much of Hollaback!'s power lies in its scalability. To scale effectively, we train young women and LGBTQ leaders throughout the world to use their skills to build a grassroots movement focused on ending street harassment. We train in the application of technology as we also work to ensure that their actions are strategic and high-impact.
Shift public opinion: Our broad-based campaign is designed to reach the public at large by inspiring individuals to take action. We provide educational workshops to schools, universities, and community groups, and engage citizens through traditional and social media.
Engage elected officials: We present collected and mapped data to elected officials and policymakers in areas experiencing high incidences of street harassment and will engage legislators to work with our trained leaders to address street harassment in their communities.
The Growth of the Movement
Since January 2011 Hollaback! has trained over 300 leaders in 71 cities, 24 countries, and 14 different languages to be leaders in their communities, and in the global movement to end street harassment. All of these site leaders approached us (none were recruited) and we were pleased to find that people who traditionally have the least access to traditional power were the most eager to bring Hollaback! home. Our site leaders are:
75% under the age of 30;
50% under the age of 25;
41% LGBTQ; and,
33% people of color.
Before Hollaback! became a nonprofit we scaled the model using only a 25 page start up packet. In May of 2010 when Hollaback! transitioned to a nonprofit we identified that since 2005, 20 Hollaback! sites had launched, but only three remained active. Based on interviews with site leaders of both active and inactive sites, we found that by only providing a start up packet we missed key opportunities to build a cohesive community, provide necessary training and technical assistance, and show the world that we were a united global front against street harassment.
As a result of our findings, we developed a new model that maintained the major strength of our original model ? local leadership and autonomy ? while filling the gaps left by the old model. Starting in January 2011, new Hollaback! leaders take part in an extended launch process, which incorporates shared planning and training activities over a period of three months. As they prepare to launch a Hollaback! blog hosted on ihollaback.org, new local leaders have the opportunity to interact with each other and the Hollaback! team, host in-person launch events and identify, and reach out to potential community partners and media outlets in their communities.
Once launched, site leaders remain active participants in the Hollaback! community, taking part in ongoing efforts to shape the organization's direction and to develop shared resources as they work to establish their blogs into meaningful resources in their communities. In recent months, international Hollaback! leaders have: collaborated to translate Hollaback!'s website into eight languages; developed a shared anti-discrimination policy and values statement; taken part in several shared news stories, including a feature in The Guardian (UK); and used both blogs and social media, such as Twitter and Facebook to cross-promote numerous events, media coverage, and blog posts. In addition, our site leaders receive monthly trainings in everything from rape culture to blogging, managing volunteers, and holding events.
Our leadership training does more than simply tell youth how to lead ? it gives them a real platform from which to do it. It is a unique opportunity for youth to practice their leadership skills in a forum where the opportunities for success are tremendous and include things like obtaining international media attention, leading public discussions, and working with community members and legislators to develop responses to street harassment. Our site leaders bring Hollaback! to life in their own communities through grassroots organizing, and bring hope to women and LGBTQ individuals who experience street harassment daily.
- See more at: www.ihollaback.org/about/#sthash.uTtiByiX.dpuf


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This past weekend, Christians around the world celebrated one of our holiest holi-days: Pentecost. Pentecost, which means "50 days," is celebrated seven weeks after Easter (hence the 50), and marks the birthday of the Church, when the Holy Spirit is said to have fallen on the early Christian community like fire from the heavens. (For this reason, lots of Christians wear red and decorate in pyro-colors. This day is also where the fiery Pentecostal movement draws its name).
But what does Pentecost Sunday have to do with just another manic Monday?
What does a religious event a couple of thousand years old have to offer the contemporary, pluralistic, post-Christian world we live in? I'd say a whole lot. Here's why:
Let me start by confessing my bias. Not only am I a Christian, but I am a Christian who likes fire. I went to circus school and became a fire-swallowing, fire-breathing, torch-juggling-pyro-maniac as you'll see here. So naturally, I like Pentecost.
But what happened at Pentecost runs much deeper than fire and wasn't just about speaking in a charismatic "tongues-of-fire" prayer language, as beautiful as both of these may be.
One of the things that happened at Pentecost was a really diverse group of people understood each other as the Spirit of God fell upon them. It was a divine moment of reconciliation among people from many different tribes and nations and languages -- a reconciliation moment that I would say the world desperately needs today.
To understand what happened at Pentecost, we need to look back to the legendary story of the Tower of Babel -- as it sort of paints the backdrop. After all, Babel is where we derived our 6,000+ spoken languages, according to the Bible. You may remember the old Tower of Babel story from Sunday school, or you may have some Bob Marley tunes ringing in your ears about the fall of Babylon, the region around where the tower fell. Here's a brief synopsis. The story begins by saying, "the whole earth spoke one language" (Gen 11:1). The young human species seemed quite impressed with itself and its limitless power, so the people set out to build a tower to heaven. It doesn't seem so terrible in itself, but the scripture speaks of the tower as an idol of human ingenuity, which they built "to make a name for themselves."
God was not impressed. As the story goes, God topples the tower and scatters the people
Got something to say about what you're reading? We value your feedback!


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NASCAR Crash At Daytona Leaves Fans Injured And Tire In Stands
NASCAR crashes can be pretty vicious but this one definitely makes you think twice about getting good seats. On the final lap of the race there was a huge crash which not only took out most of the racers but also sent debris into the stands. Some fan footage shows some scary action along with a tire that made it through the fence and into the crowd.


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All Products
Standard Fitting Covers
Proto fitting covers included here are short and long radius 90s, standard 45s, and tees. These come in one-piece or two-piece (H) elbows and can be ordered with or without fiberglass inserts. Carved 90s (C-Series) and standard and round end caps can also be found in this category.
Flanged/Reducer Fitting Covers
Reducer and flanged-type 90s, 45s and Tees, are very popular fittings used where flanges or reductions take place. They are always two-piece fittings. Among the parts in this category are concentric cone reducers (CCR) which are used for straight-line reduction, and reducer end caps which can be used for flanged pipe reduction, as well as mechanical grooved reduction.
Mechanical Grooved Fitting Covers
This category is comprised of "V", "G", and "Low Profile" series Victaulic & Gruvlok fitting covers. The "V" series feature innovative step reducer ends that can be custom-fitted at the job site, saving time and money. The "G" series features tapered reducer ends for ease of installation in tight spaces. Our "Low Profile" series provide an even more advanced design to fit in the smallest of spaces and configurations. Also found in this category are the "AGS" Advanced Grooved System featuring the new two-bolt system. A wide variety of fitting covers are available for most standard mechanical grooved pipes.
Specialty Fitting Covers
Specialty fittings cover a wide range of products from P-traps and strainer covers, to flange gate valves and tank head covers. All are designed to help the installers save time. Proto's latest offering is extended-leg fitting covers that are the ideal, low-cost solution for use on pre-insulated piping systems eliminating the need for a "jumper" or metal bands.
Bare Pipe Covers
Designed to fit copper and iron pipe (including screwed fittings) without insulation, these fittings are available in both short and long radius 90s, 45s, and tees. Bare pipe rod covers are also offered and can be found in this section. (Not available in Heavy Duty or EXOD®)
Jacketing/Cut & Curl
Proto jacketing can be used indoors or outdoors. It stays white, with exceptional outdoor weathering. It is the choice for food and drug plants and the petrochemical industry. It can be welded shut for use in food plants. It can be ordered in thicknesses from .010 mil. to .040 mil. and in 35 1/2" or 48" lengths (depending on mil thickness and type of material). Flat sheet and pre-curled lengths (with or without tape) are also available.
To help with the installation process, Proto offers an assortment of adhesives, such as PVC liquid adhesive and ProtoOne caulk, applicators, vinyl tape, and white and stainless steel tacks.


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Kenya: LFA condemns shooting of Mrs. Kuki Gallmann in Laikipia, urges swift restoration of law and order (23.04.2017)
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Posted in Africa, Army, Civil Service, Development, Ethics, Governance, Government, Law, Leadership, Politics, Transparency and tagged 2017 General Election Kenya, Aga Khan Hospital, Aisha Jumwa, Al Shabaab, Al-Shabab, Asiha Juma, Capital Hill Cord HQ, Coalition of Reforms and Democracy, Complaint, CORD, CORD HQ, CORD-K, CS Joseph Nkaissery, Death, Deputy President William Ruto, DP Ruto, Ferdinand Waititu, Florence Mutua, FORD-K, Forum for Reform and Democracy, General Election, Governor Hassan Ali Joho, H.E. Uhuru Kenyatta, H.E. William Samoei Ruto, Hassan Issack, Hate Speech, Hon. Aisha Juma, Hon. Florence Mutua, Hon. Hassan Ali Joho, Hon. Johnstone Muthama, Hon. Joseph Nkaissery, Hon. Junet Mohammed, Hon. Kimaani Ngunjiri, Hon. Moses Kuria, Hon. Timothy Bosire, Hon. William Ruto, IEBC, IGP Boinet, IGP Joseph Boinet, IGP Joseph Boinnet, independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission, Interior CS Hon. Joseph Nkaissery, Isaack Hassan, Johnstone Muthama, Joseph Boinett, Joseph Boinnet, Joseph K. Boinnet, Joseph Nkaissery, Junet Mohammed, Kenya, Kenya National Police of Service, Kenya National Police Service, Kenya Wildlife Service, Kimaani Ngunjiri, Kuki, Kuki Gallman, KWS, Laikipia, Laikipia County, Laikipia Farmers' Association, Laikipia Nature Conservancy, LFA, Martin Evans, Mathew Lempurkel, Moses Kuria, MP Ferdinand Waititu, MP Mathew Lempurkel, MP Sarah Paulata Korere, Muthunga Police Station, Nairobi, National Cohesion and Integration Commission, NCIC, ODM, Orange Democratic Movement, President Kenyatta, Romance, Sarah Paulata Korere, Storm, Timothy Bosire, Tropic Air, Uhuru Kenyatta, Warning, William Ruto, William Samoei Ruto, Wiper Democratic Movement, WPM | Leave a comment


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Item Details
Tales in Verse for Young People ; By Mary Howitt: New Edition
Howitt, Mary Botham
- Format
- Document; Online
- Creator
- Howitt, Mary Botham
- Date
- 1865
- Composition Era
- 19th Century
- 1860's
- Collection
- UVa Text Collection
- Chadwyck-Healey English Poetry
- Copyright & PermissionsRights statements and licenses provide information about copyright and reuse associated with individual items in the collection.
Additional information about rights, reuse of Library materials, suggested citation forms, and related issues can be found on the "Permission to Use Library Materials" page.
- Copyright Not Evaluated
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Here is a recent article I wrote for Southlakemoms.com
I would like to introduce you to my secret weapon for organizing a space - - pegboard. Not only is it relatively inexpensive, but it can also be used in many different areas. Pegboard has long been stereotyped as an organizing tool in Dad's garage used to hold hammers, screwdrivers and rakes. I am here to de-bunk that myth and share with you the many clever and functional uses I have found for this simple and cheap material.
5 Easy Steps for Pegboard Organizing
1. Begin with a piece of pegboard purchased from your local hardware store. Most hardware stores will cut the pegboard to the length you need. It is very important to know the size of the pegboard before going to the store.
2. Paint the pegboard with a semigloss paint of the color your choice.
3. I used 1" x 2" wood strips to frame out the pegboard on the back and secured it with wood glue and small screws. You have to allow some depth for the pegboard and wall so the peg hooks can fit.
4. Secure the framed pegboard to the wall with wood screws into the studs.
5. Add the pegboard hooks and hardware to the front of your pegboard. I like to "map out" where I plan to hang items in advance to ensure optimum use of space. For instance, in my most recent pegboard project, I created zones for my craft supplies. The great thing about pegboard is that it is easy to make a change without having to start over. If you don't like an arrangement, simply reposition your hooks / bins and start over.
Here are some other ways I have used pegboards as organizational tools in my house.
His and Her Closet Organizers covered in fabric. The fabric allowed me to "hide" the use of pegboard and give some style to the piece.
I painted and framed a pegboard for the mudroom to organize my sons school materials. Having been in school now for about 6 weeks, I can tell you that this has been a lifesaver. The other two pegboard projects were for my craft room and closet (jewelry organizer).
I have also made use of small pieces of pegboard to serve different purposes. The black unit is a gaming tower my father and I built. We use this piece in my son's game room to organize his video game controllers. The white unit is in my craft room and holds some of my painting supplies.
I hope that you now see pegboard in a different light and find a use that works for you and your space.


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Hironobu Sakaguchi, the creator of the Final Fantasy series, has been making video games for longer than many of you have been drawing breath. He can't make games forever, though.
Blogging on his studio Mistwalker's site, 47 year-old Sakaguchi has said that upcoming Wii role-playing game The Last Story "might be my last work", as he's poured all of his energy into it.
Were it to really be Sakaguchi's last game, it'd a poignant note to bow out on.
Despite a...moderate reception to 2006's Blue Dragon and a largely positive one for 2007's Lost Odyssey, The Gooch just hasn't been the same since he left Square Enix, where he was the driving force behind many of that company's biggest hits, including Final Fantasy VII.
Then again, it may just be a tease. A deep breath after a long, hard project. This is the guy who came up with "Final" Fantasy, after all!
床にできた虹 [Mistwalker]
UPDATE - Here's the post in English.


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Nitrates and Phosphates and Algae, Oh My!
Part A: Making an Algal Bloom
Microscopic view of tetraselmis algae. Image source: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Because algae and other planktonic species are the primary producers upon which the rest of the marine food chain depends, it is important to understand why algal blooms occur and what effects they have on the surrounding water and marine life. In this part of the investigation, you will make your own algal bloom and test what factors influence the occurrence and duration of the bloom.
- Prepare a "Control" container and a "+ Nutrients" container for your algae samples.
- Label one container with your group number and the word "Control". Label the other container "+ Nutrients".
- Add an equal amount of water to each container.
- Add 3 of drops of algal culture to each container.
- Add 1 teaspoon of liquid fertilizer to the 250 mL of distilled or bottled water and mix well. The use of distilled or bottled water will ensure that you do not contaminate your experiment with trace metals, nutrients, or chlorine found in tap water.
- Using a pipette or eyedropper, decide on a small unit (such as one half or one third of the pipette), that will be your standard base unit of fertilizer. As a class, decide how many units of fertilizer mixture each group with add to their "+ Nutrients" containter. Add the proper number of units of liquid fertilizer mixture to your "+ Nutrients" container. Write the number of fertilizer units you added to the container on the label.
- Take a drop of water from each sample and look at it under a microscope. 10x magnification will be sufficient. Count and record the number of phytoplankton visible in both sample. Have each member of your group repeat this and find the average number of phytoplankton per drop in both the "Control" and "+ Nutrients" containers.
- Place both containers near a window, out of direct sunlight, but where they will receive approximately equal amounts of light and are kept at the same temperature (don't place some containers on a heater and others near an open window).
- Every day or two over the course of 1-2 weeks, make observations (e.g., color, opacity, smell) on the algal cultures in each of the containers. You should also observe one drop of water from each sample and count the number of phytoplankton per drop as you did in Step 3. Carefully record your findings.
- Analyze your findings.
- For each treatment ("Control" and "+ Nutrients"), create a graph to illustrate algal growth (determined by number of phytoplankton cells per water drop) on the y-axis versus number of days on the x-axis.
- Compare your findings to those of other groups using different amounts of fertilizer. Discuss any differences or inconsistencies.
- As a class, create a graph of final cell density versus fertilizer concentration for each nutrient treatment.
- Write a paragraph or two about how algal blooms like the ones in this experiment might occur in lakes and oceans in the real world.
Checking InReflect on the outcomes of the algal bloom experiment.
- Which treatment had the highest final algae cell count?
- What do algae (and other plants) need to grow and survive?
Now that you've seen what an algal bloom looks like on a small scale in the laboratory, let's take a look at what happens on larger scales in the ocean.


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Here you will find a website regularly updated with interesting ideas, information, original free software and tutorials.
Whilst the quantity of internet content has exploded, innovation is stagnating. Where are all the interesting new ideas!? Don't worry, FriedSpace is here to relieve the boredom.top
01 - Jun - 2013 Minor site cleanup.
01 - Jul - 2006 Our site makeover is finally complete. Hope you like the new design.
01 - Jun - 2006 Our new Assembly Language Tutorial is well underway.
25 - May - 2006 We've given our site a makeover. It'll be a few days before we're done, but we hope you find the new layout easier to navigate and more interesting to look at.
18 - Mar - 2006 Module Five of our C Tutorial is underway. It's on graphics programming in C. We'll be using an easy to use graphics library (no Win32 programming is needed). It is called SDL (Simple Directmedia Layer), and it's FAST. We'll be writing a Space Invaders game, in colour!!!! It will all be written in Pelles C.
04 - Mar - 2006 - Added some new websites to the FriedSpace Boredom Breakers page. Enjoy!
03 - Mar - 2006 - Module Four of our beginners C Tutorial is complete. It is a complete machine emulator (it has a microprocessor with its own assembly language which you can program yourself)! This tutorial requires the latest version of Pelles C, which has been released over on the Pelles C website. You know what this means! Module Five is coming soon, and it will teach you how to do graphics in C (see the announcement below for details).
25 - Sep - 2005 - I've included the beginnings of a C Function Reference.
18 - Sep - 2005 - The FriedSpace Boredom Breakers go online. This is a list of websites which are almost guaranteed to always have something interesting or entertaining happening on them and to break your boredom.
10 - Sep - 2005 - The third module of our C Tutorial is complete. In this tutorial you will program a weblog editor! There has been a REALLY long wait due to me moving overseas. The fourth module will hopefully only take two weeks.
31 - Jul - 2005 - Our first free product is added. Sheesh! It's a fully operational
Synthesizer with complete C and Assembly source code. Go get it!
30 - Jul - 2005 - The second module of our C Tutorial is
completed. In this tutorial you construct a fully working Polish Postfix Calculator!
19 - Jul - 2005 - The first module of our C Tutorial appears.
12 - Jul - 2005 - FriedSpace.com goes live on the web!
We hope that you enjoy your FriedSpace.com experience as much as we enjoy cooking it up.
One final word: bring back the 80's!
Postmodernism, nihilism, terrorism, spam and a million other changes in the world, are frying my brain! Enough already. How about some Fried Spaaaaace!!


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We just need more Paulo
106. College Material, page posted 2/17/20
Page 17 of 18
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Building Ecacuated
TALLHASSEE, FL. -- Today, a threatening letter claiming to have a biological weapon was intercepted at the Florida Department of Highway Safety and Motor Vehicles in Tallahassee. Following standard protocol, local, state and federal authorities were notified, and the building was temporarily evacuated until the area is deemed safe to return.
Julie L. Jones, Executive Director of the Department of Highway Safety and Motor Vehicles said, "Out of an abundance of caution, staff worked quickly in executing normal protocols of notifying authorities and clearing
the building to ensure the safety of our employees. Our employees did a great job in identifying a potential
threat – and quickly enacting security measures. The safety of our employees is our top priority, and we will
continue to work with state, local and federal partners to investigate the incident, so we can quickly return to
normal operations."
The letter was intercepted in the records room of the Department, where seven employees were working. Following standard protocol, a hazmat team was deployed to assess and enact measures to ensure the safety of the employees.


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Archive for August 24th, 2009
Monday, August 24th, 2009 at 4:18 pm
About The Gardener Chef
The Gardener Chef is a chronology of my process in creating an organic vegetable, herb and flower garden beginning in the summer of 2009 and beyond. I include pictures of my progress, some narrative of my planning and process, and recipes for the foods I prepare from the harvest.
I also plan to include descriptives of my elders' stories from long ago, my memories of my attempts at gardening as a child, along with new ideas for gardening.
This is an integration of past and present narratives of gardening and serving delicious recipes with the abundant produce.
I welcome your comments and stories, and in sharing these, we can delight in your experience. Enjoy!


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It's a program that costs the city more than $100 million a year, and Mayor Lori Lightfoot says that under Ald. Ed Burke, it was "ripe for corruption."


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