Generate audio data using VAE+GAN

Question: I am trying to train a VAE+GAN model to generate sounds produced by honeybees. I build my model by slightly modifying this tutorial, which aims to generate new MNIST images. Since my data are 1D signals, I apply STFT to the input to generate image-like features whose height is time and width is frequency. However, the total loss quickly goes to inf or nan just after a few steps(~10). Any idea why? What is the legit way of using VAE+GAN model to generate audio data?
Answer: If you are applying the Short Time Fourier Transform (STFT) , then your data are more likely to look like a spectrogram, where the "height" is frequency and the "width" is time.
The..."legit" way to train an autoencoder type of network so that it learns to generate periodic-like sounds is to "teach" a bank of oscillators to "fire" in a predefined pattern. This "pattern" is what the VAE will "learn" from the training dataset.
By applying the STFT, you are segmenting your time into $N$ bins, where $N$ depends on the length of your STFT "window". Consequently, the STFT "window" also determines your frequency resolution. If you choose a low $N$, you will get very good temporal resolution but very poor frequency resolution too and therefore, this is a design choice.
Once you apply the STFT, you get the equivalent of a spectrogram. Taken a bit more liberally, the spectrogram gives you this information. Only that, in the case of the spectrogram, the "keyboard" is rotated 90 degrees clockwise (in a spectrogram the vertical axis is frequency and high pitch is upwards, while the horizontal axis is time with positive time extending to the right).
Every one of the keys is an oscillator. If you scan the spectrum at a given "time window" $t_n$ within a sound file and you find a high amplitude in that frequency then the key is "pressed" (the oscillator is active). Of course, the other parameter is how hard is the key pressed (amplitude).
So, your auto-encoder has to learn to predict the sequence by which it has to activate the oscillators and at what amplitude, in order to generate the sounds your are after.
This is the bigger picture. The "detail" to look for here is that the output of the STFT is $\mathcal{C}$omplex and you really need it to be to be able to take into account the phase that these oscillators are firing with respect to each other. Otherwise, you will be getting a baseline error below which your model would not be able to optimise any more.
More generally, I think that you would benefit from a little bit of background on speech (or music) generation by looking into what a vocoder is and how does it work, Prony's method by which signals can be synthesized from damped sinusoids (This is the closest to the piano analogy), speech synthesis and of course, the STFT and spectrogram links from above.
Hope this helps

Generate audio data using VAE+GAN


How to resolve Invariant Violation: `new NativeEventEmitter()` requires a non-null argument. when using react-native-track player with expo workflow?

Question: I am trying to build a track player in react native. I am using an expo managed workflow. I installed react-native-track player dependency using npx expo install react-native-track-player.
Further, I am starting a dev build using expo dev client with the command npx expo run:ios
I get following exceptions once I try to start the app on the ios simulator:
 ERROR  Invariant Violation: `new NativeEventEmitter()` requires a non-null argument., js engine: hermes
 ERROR  Invariant Violation: "main" has not been registered. This can happen if:
* Metro (the local dev server) is run from the wrong folder. Check if Metro is running, stop it and restart it in the current project.
* A module failed to load due to an error and `AppRegistry.registerComponent` wasn't called., js engine: hermes
› Stopped server

We encounter this issue, even before registering the playback service, which leads me to believe that the issue is not caused by my code.
I am using following versions:

"react-native-track-player": "^4.0.1",
"expo": "^49.0.0",

And IOS version 17.0.1.
We already tried installing the pods with
cd ios && pod install

Answer: Pls check your app name it should be the same as in the app.json file.
Comment: this is not the issue. I found this relating question: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/77601213/react-native-track-player-missing-native-module-on-ios
Answer: The issue was that the generated podfile was faulty.
It was missing the line registering the react-native-track-player pod.
To solve the issue I wrote a expo config plugin:
const { withDangerousMod, withPlugins } = require('@expo/config-plugins');
const fs = require('fs');
const path = require('path');

async function readFile(filePath) {
    return fs.promises.readFile(filePath, 'utf8');
}

async function saveFile(filePath, content) {
    return fs.promises.writeFile(filePath, content, 'utf8');
}

module.exports = (config) => withPlugins(config, [
    (config) => {
        return withDangerousMod(config, [
            'ios',
            async (config) => {
                const filePath = path.join(config.modRequest.platformProjectRoot, 'Podfile');
                let contents = await readFile(filePath);

                const podLine = "pod 'react-native-track-player', path: '../node_modules/react-native-track-player'";
                contents = contents.replace(new RegExp(podLine, 'g'), '');

                const insertPosition = contents.indexOf('post_integrate do |installer|');
                if (insertPosition === -1) {
                    throw new Error("Couldn't find the position to insert the pod line.");
                }

                contents = contents.slice(0, insertPosition) + podLine + '\n' + contents.slice(insertPosition);

                await saveFile(filePath, contents);
                return config;
            },
        ]);
    },
]);

and then added the plugin to app.config.json
    plugins: ["./plugins/withPodfile"],


How do I install Google Gadgets?

Question: how to install google gadgets in ubuntu 11.10? Any ppa s available? .Source code is available on their website how to package it?
If it is not packaged yet ,how can i build it from source code?
Comment: I do not believe it is packaged for Upuntu 11.1 as yet: https://launchpad.net/ubuntu/oneiric/+source/google-gadgets
But screenlets may be able to use google gadgets
Comment: This project looks dead - last upload Jan 2010 (http://code.google.com/p/google-gadgets-for-linux/downloads/list)
Comment: google stopped support for it, but old sourcecode is still availble
Answer: As a compilation exercise, it is just about possible to force google-gadgets to compile - however I'm doubtful whether google-gadgets for the desktop is useful since Google themselves has discontinued support
Thus this answer will give you enough pointers to achieve this under 11.10:

How to compile:
Install the prerequisites:
sudo apt-get install build-essential bzr autoconf libtool

sudo apt-get install build-essential zip flex desktop-file-utils shared-mime-info zlib1g-dev libgtk2.0-dev libxml2-dev libdbus-1-dev librsvg2-dev libcurl4-gnutls-dev libgstreamer-plugins-base0.10-dev network-manager-dev libqt4-dev libstartup-notification0-dev libltdl-dev libqt4-dev

get the source
cd ~/Downloads
bzr branch lp:googlegadgets
cd googlegadgets/

to generate something to compile
sh autotools/bootstrap.sh
./configure

to compile
Now - this isnt straightforward since there is various parts of the code that dont compile in 11.10.
Thus it is interative - fix and then run make.  Repeat this until it fully compiles.
The files to edit are:
gedit ggadget/gtk/single_view_host.cc &
gedit ggadget/dbus/dbus_utils.cc &
gedit extensions/gst_video_element/gadget_videosink.cc &
gedit extensions/linux_system_framework/network.cc &
gedit extensions/linux_system_framework/wireless.cc

To take a purist approach - you'll need to replace the code with 11.10 equivalents.  Taking the blunderbuss approach ... I just commented out the various sections, or where an int variable needs to be assigned - just assigned it a value of 0.
Obviously - just commenting out code will leave these areas non-functional - I'll leave that to an interested person to investigate the 11.10 equivalents...
Use the make error to comment out the relevant sections ( 'C' comments are /* ... */ and // ...)
to install
sudo make install

to run
export LD_LIBRARY_PATH=$LD_LIBRARY_PATH:/usr/local/lib
gg-qt &

How do I install Google Gadgets?


how to add an initial view in Xcode4 for iPhone app

Question: My game app presently has a single ViewController and XIB for playing game.
I added a new ViewController and XIB for the initial (bootup) view.
How do I get the app to boot into this initial view?   I can't figure it out.
FYI, the initial screen is for nice, welcome graphcs and a couple of setup controls.
Comment: http://stackoverflow.com/questions/11697747/how-to-present-a-splash-login-view-controller-using-storyboards
Answer: in your appDelegate's function
<code>- (BOOL)application:(UIApplication *)application didFinishLaunchingWithOptions:(NSDictionary *)launchOptions
{

 //DesiredStartUpViewController is the class which u wanna call at start up
 DesiredStartUpViewController * yourDesiredViewController = [[DesiredStartUpViewController alloc]initWithNibName:@"YourDesiredViewController"];

 UINavigationController *navigationController = [[UINavigationController alloc]initWithRootViewController:yourDesiredViewController];

 [self.window setRootViewController:navigationController];
 [self.window makeKeyAndVisible];

}
</code>
Answer: Go to Project settings choose target. Then click "Summary" and you have to set splash screen below.It will show as the loading screen.


JWT verify signature

Question: I've got a jwt base64 encoded payload and a public certificate. I am able to decode the payload in apex but having hard time validating the signature. Its header has the algorithm RS256. How do I do this in APEX?
Comment: It helps to generate the payload by signing but not the other way round. My requirement is to decode and verify the signature.
Comment: Have you tried using this library https://github.com/salesforceidentity/jwt/blob/master/JWT.apex
Answer: As of now the Apex Crypto Class doesn't support the verify method.
https://developer.salesforce.com/docs/atlas.en-us.apexcode.meta/apexcode/apex_classes_restful_crypto.htm
And most of the examples found are for CallOuts.

JWT verify signature


Entity framework Association in conceptual model for one to many relationship

Question: I have two entity CUSTOMER and ORDER..there is one to many relation from CUSTOMER to ORDER where CustomerID is primary key for customer and foreign key in ORDER..now I want to add customer name property from CUSTOMER entity in ORDER entity...I have copied this property and paste it in ORDER table and have added CUSTOMER table and map this property to the CUSTOMER table's same property..but when i trying to validate it vs giving me a Error that is

3024: Problem in mapping fragments starting at line 239:Must specify
  mapping for all key properties (ORDER.OrderID) of the EntitySet ORDER
Answer: That is not possible in mapping. You cannot add property from Customer table into Order entity this way. Mapping properties from multiple tables to the same entity has very strict rules and it is not possible for this case.
You can expose customer's name in your Order class without defining it in the mapping. Create partial part of Order class and add custom computed property (non mapped):
public partial class Order
{
    public string CustomerName
    {
        get
        {
            // Customer is navigation property to Customer entity
            return Customer.Name;
        }
    }
}

This will require loading Customer with your Order (eager loading) or using lazy loading. Also this property cannot be used in Linq-to-entities queries.
Comment: thanks a lot for your reply...i think you are telling about code-first approach...but i am doing database first approach and trying to do it in designer mode...if there is no any solution of this in db first i ll go for code-first
Comment: No I'm describing database first approach as well. Designer is not for defining all properties you need in your classes. Designer is only for defining mapping and mapping has its strict rules which you have violated by defining property in `Order` entity which is not mapped to `Orders` table.


How do you implement seeking using the AudioStreamer sample application as a base?

Question: I need to play some audio streaming contents on iPhone, but there are some options and problems I can't solve:
1. http://cocoawithlove.com/2009/06/revisiting-old-post-streaming-and.html
It is a library provided by Matt Gallagher, but I saw the Limited scope, and I would play
a single song, not a radio station.
2. Suggestion from zonble
NSURL *URL = [NSURL URLWithString:@"http://zonble.net/MIDI/orz.mp3"];
NSData *data = [NSData dataWithContentsOfURL:URL];
AVAudioPlayer *player = [[AVAudioPlayer alloc] initWithData:data error:nil];

But I need streaming for each "single song".
3. Using MPMoviePlayerController to wrapper.
Since the Class update new method, and
@interface MyAudioStreamer : UIViewController {
    MPMoviePlayerController *mp ;
}

instead of [self addSubview:mp.view] I use my own xib file to implement play and
stop methods, but in this case, I have no idea to implement seekForward or seekBackward.
Is there any good idea to do AudioStreamer?
==== Update ====
after google 'AVPlayer' ,i used 3. Using MPMoviePlayerController to wrapper. to implement a auidoStreamer-like player ,there is something to share :
1.'playbackDidFinished' state
there're 2 conditions : a song did finished and play next song or a song interrupt by   user press stop or exception, i used enum to filter my state.
2 multi-task playing your song in background
reference from https:// devforums.apple.com/message/264397
and if iOS SDK update, the solution might be changed because method would be diplicated. so i suggest to read library provided by Matt Gallagher.
anyone who konws when the library have no codec match download item (for example, my item encode by .AAC 128-bit and the library not support or at most .AAC 64-bit), what happen would the player be ?
Answer: You can either parse the icy meta data yourself, or if you're using iOS 4.0 you can playback using an AVPlayer and observe the timed metadata to discover the song boundaries and titles.


positioning of neck pickup on guitars

Question: Is there a particular reason why neck pickups on guitars are often placed exactly where an open string harmonic is found ? Years ago I suffered from 'lost harmonics' till I realised that the one directly over the neck pickup won't sound if only that pickup is on. It was trying to pick up the part of the string that was NOT vibrating !Switch another pickup on, and the same harmonic can be heard.
Answer: Yes, pickups are places to take advantage of string harmonics. In addition to additional harmonics, there are harmonic deadspots that you would want to avoid as well.
Comment: This is one reason why 22-fret guitars sound different than 24-fret guitars. With a 21 or 22-fret neck, it's possible to position the neck pickup in the "sweet spot" for certain harmonics on the open strings. With a 24-fret neck, the pickup has to be positioned away from the position where those harmonics are the richest.
Comment: thanks for the input, but if they're placed where the harmonic happens, surely they won't pick it up. My point entirely.
Comment: Placing a pickup at the 24th fret location only nulls out the *even* overtones (e.g., 1/2, 1/4, 1/8 and so on). All of the odd ones remain. THAT is why it sounds different.
Answer: A "harmonic" on a guitar is a note played by gently touching a vibrating string at the node point of some overtone, and doing this mutes all the overtones you'd hear from the full length string that don't share this node.  So you're asking if there's a reason why neck pickups seem to be placed under the node point of an overtone for an open string, or really, are neck pickups placed under the node for a low-order overtone?
This is a good question, because if so the chosen location mutes one of the overtones most responsible for the definitive timbre for six of the most commonly played notes on a guitar.  The short answer is yes because there is no location for a neck pickup--especially a single coil--that is not under a node, or so close to a node that it may as well be under a node.
Here's a graphic from the Wikipedia Guitar_harmonics page illustrating node locations for harmonics of increasing order (the nodes are where the lines cross):

and here's another graphic from the same source showing where these nodes fall relative to the fretboard (touchdown points are nodes, peaks are anti-nodes):

From the second illustration you can see that the amplitude/volume of the various anti-nodes (where an overtone is loudest) varies the most at 1/2 and 1/4 the length of the fretboard, and varies the least as you get closer to the bridge or the nut.  In other words, the overtones are going to be highly uniform over the bridge pickup, and heavily colored around the neck pickup, emphasizing some overtones at the expense of others.  Anywhere you locate it, there will be a tradeoff.
Comment: Thanks. My point is that at any node, theoretically, the vibration of an open string will be less, if not at all. So why would the location for a pup be exactly under a node rather than between two, which from the graphics is entirely possible.
Comment: You can select a point that is technically not exactly under a node for orders 2, 3, or 4, yes but the vertical distance between the curves at any point represents an audible imbalance.  At the bridge pickup--your point of reference--the curves are all very close together, so in comparison the neck pickup is always going to have one or more overtones that are so dwarfed, they may as well be a node.
Answer: On my strat, the neck pickup is on a node when fretted open, 5th fret, 8th, 12th...
This is not an accident.
The fundamental note dominates giving the wonderful bluesy sound

positioning of neck pickup on guitars


monotone convex interpolation using QuantLib

Question: I have one yield curves for EUR6M and I want to produce EUR3M using a parallel shift to EUR6M curve.
I can just add spread in 6M curve. I am facing problem that my EUR3M curve will have many more expiry nodes then 6M because my spread has many more points. I want to interpolate my spread and 3M curve during addition in 6M curve. I want to use monotone convex interpolation in QuantLib python. Can someone advise me how to use this interpolation function in python using quantlib?
Answer: Not sure why you would want this because you have quotes for EUR6M and EUR3M directly (Swap vs 3M and 3M  Futures).
Also not sure, why you would have more nodes for the 3M since both swaps and basis swaps are quoted with maturities in years.
Anyway, here is an example that might be helpful:
<code>import QuantLib as ql
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

spreads = {
    '1Y': 11.1,
    '2Y': 9.3,
    '3Y': 8.5,
    '4Y': 7.9
}

X = [ql.Period(tenor).length() for tenor in spreads]
Y = [v for v in spreads.values()]
plt.plot(X, Y, marker='o')

X_3m = np.arange(1, 4.25, 0.25)

i = ql.CubicNaturalSpline(X, Y)
plt.plot(X_3m, [i(x) for x in X_3m])
</code>
Comment: Many Thanks for your reply.


Why are all voicings of a 5/3 chord written the same way?

Question: A G major chord in root position is named 5/3 because of the intervals above the bass, but if I move the 3rd and 5th around up higher through the octaves, those intervals change but the chord is still called a 5/3 chord. If I play a G chord in open position, why doesn't naming include the intervals contained in the chord?
Comment: A guess: the notation began as a shorthand for continuo players to let them know which intervals above the bass to play, but left the actual voicing to the performer. It was not intended to be exact in the way you're suggesting. One can easily imagine that convention carried over into the use of the same notation as an analytical tool. Put another way, 5/3 is only intended to express the chord inversion, not the specific voicing.
Comment: This is not unique to root position triads. Any chord can be voiced in a variety of ways. Think of them like modern chord symbols. A G7 doesn't have to be G B D F from bottom to top.
Comment: @Aaron indeed if they wanted it to be exact they'd just have written it out on a second staff.
Answer: When the figured bass notation was widely used, voicings were put to the player. The bass was usually written and the figures indicated the roots above the bass; then in more modern times, the figures were added to Roman Numerals (and sometimes note letters or even root numbers) but these are interpreted as intervals above the root rather than the bass. The voicing is still left up to the performer.
When writing in Baroque figured bass notation, I'd denote a C chord in root position as a C bass note and the figures 53 (written vertically). A C chord in first inversion would consist of a bass note E and the figures 63. (In either case, the 3 could be omitted and actually, both the 5 3 omitted for a root position chord; it saves time, ink, and sand).
When I write out something more modern (mostly Latin or big band styles or country), I write the root letter and the figured bass numbers over the root. So a C chord in root petition is C or C53 and a C in first inversion is C63. The voicing is still u[ to the performer.
Either way is fine and can be deciphered by context.
Comment: With reference to the second paragraph: the third and fifth are implied, so the actual baroque figured bass notation for a root-position C major chord is a C with no figures, and for a first inversion chord an E with only a _6._  You say they "could" be omitted but they were in fact omitted so consistently that if one were to see a figured bass that did not omit them one might wonder what was wrong with it.
Answer: Different voicings DO still include the 5 and 3, just displaced by one or more octaves.
You're falling into the trap of expecting too much from chord names.  They're pretty good at describing the harmonic function of a chord, but they aren't full notation.   That's why we also HAVE full notation!
You never actually see '5/3'  in a chord name.  Root position is assumed, unless told otherwise.
(@Bennyboy1973 makes a good point.  You'd see it after a cadential 6/4.)
Comment: I believe you're likely to see it in a cadence:  G6/4-G5/3-C
Answer: This is rooted in figured bass, which was really something like modern chord naming.  You could spread a Major 9th chord over the entire keyboard, but that doesn't change the notes that make up the chord.
A C in the bass with a 53 written over it means that the other notes you need are those a 3rd and a 5th above C.
Answer: Figures like 5/3 are abstractions. The don't really tell you exactly what intervals are above the bass. In effect the figure tells you the chord tone identity (like root, third, fifth, etc.) of the bass.
The figures give you the intervals above the bass for a hypothetical close position voiced chord. So, for example, in the key of C major, with an E in the bass, and the figure of 6/3, we would have a hypothetical chord of E in the bass with a diatonic third above the bass (a G) and diatonic sixth above the bass (a C.)
The actual voicing of chord tones G and C, the number of them and their octaves, as well as the possible duplication of the E in the upper voices above the bass is not specified by figured bass!

why doesn't naming include the intervals contained in the chord?

If the figure gave the exact number of voices and intervals it would essentially be another form of notation, a sort of tablature instead of staff notation. Instead the figures are just a short hand notation.
The original purpose of figured bass was to help keyboard players improvise harmonic filler in the upper voices with the right hand. From the composer's point of view they didn't care about the exact voicings they just needed the right chord qualities for the filler. The main focus of the composition was the bass and the melody. Figured bass was just for the filler.
That business about improvised accompaniment is mainly from the Baroque era. If you aren't familiar with it, look at Baroque solo sonatas like Corelli's violin sonatas. The compositions are just treble with ornaments and bass with figures. Players were expected to improvise and the keyboard player improvised complete harmonies with their right hand from the figures.
In modern times when figures are used with Roman numeral harmonic analysis - like for example I6 V4/3 I - it reflects the fact that such analysis is mostly concerned with chord roots, chord inversions, and the bass line. The melodic aspect of the upper voices doesn't have an impact on the harmonic analysis.
If you want the specific parts to play above a bass, you either need staff notation or some kind of tablature rather than short hand figures.
Answer: Because the numbers actually don't tell you where every note is in the chord, it simply says which note is on the bass voice. It's a piece of important information for harmonical analysis, but you don't need the actual arrangement of the chord for that analysis, you only need the bass.
Comment: So it DOES represent the inversion, but not the position or voicing.   Inversion is about the bass note.
Comment: Welcome to MSP. You were probably downvoted because your answer is inaccurate. The numbers do represent the inversion but not the position of the notes. You can edit your answer if you wish.
Comment: Yep, exactly. Historically it was used to tell the performer which chord is intended over the note of the basso continuo written in the score.
Comment: Yes, that's a common reason for downvoting!   Strangely, not the only one.  Downvote wrong answers, upvote ones you consider particularly good.  Best to leave the rest alone.
Comment: Sorry, I noticed later that I wrote something different from what I was thinking. Thanks!


Relationship between three entities in Doctrine

Question: I have Doctrine setup with all my tables in my database, and working properly.
I have those three entities: Users, Groups and News
There is a many-to-many relationship between Users and Groups. (I put my users in groups)
There is also a many-to-many relationship between News and Groups. (I give access to a News item to a few Groups)
Database Schema:

I want to get the News that a given User has access to.
Is there an efficient way to do this in Doctrine?
EDIT: I should add that I already had the solution nailed down with a straight SQL query before I started to use Doctrine, I want to know the Doctrine way to do this.
Answer: This thread explain the issues about many to many relationships in doctrine.
many-to-many relationship in doctrine
This blog post explain how to handle such events.
http://melikedev.com/2009/12/09/symfony-w-doctrine-saving-many-to-many-mm-relationships/


In 'The Hobbit: AUJ', why is Gandalf submissive in Saruman's presence?

Question: In The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey movie, Gandalf appears particularly subdued/submissive in Saruman's presence during their meeting at Rivendell. Why is this so? Is it simply because Saruman is of the White, while Gandalf is a Grey or does he already suspect that something's amiss and purposely appears so. Subsequent dialogue sees Saruman rebuking Gandalf for trying to sneak around and do things without his knowledge.
Comment: Easy answer - Jackson taking liberties again.
Comment: Dats his boss, B
Answer: Saruman is Gandalf's superior in hierarchy twice over, as leader of the Istari as well as head of the White Council.
Interestingly, the latter post was offered first to Gandalf but refused by him (a source of jealousy for Saruman). It seems Gandalf actually prefers not taking a leading role.
Comment: @Eureka --- 'He [Saruman] is the chief of my order and the head of the Council' (The Shadow of the Past). I think that by 'my order' Gandalf means the Istari.
Comment: Unfinished Tales:
"Only two came forward; Curumo [Saruman] and Alatar. Curumo was chosen by Aulë among "his" Maiar, and Alatar was sent by Oromë. Manwë asked where Olórin [Gandalf] was... Manwë said that he wished him to go as the third to Middle-earth. Olórin answered that he thought himself too weak for such a task, and added that he feared Sauron. Then Manwë said that that was all the more reason why he should go, and he commanded him to go as the third. There Varda broke in and said "Not as the third," and Curumo remembered that." - Unfinished Tales
Comment: Is the last part really true? If I remember correctly, Gandalf first refused to go at all because he "feared Sauron and not having enough strength to face him". Manwe then said that "that was all the more reason for Gandalf to join". So Gandalf was "chosen as the last, but not the least" (Yavanna or Nienna?) of the five, which caused Saruman's jealousy. (I can't check the sources right now)
Comment: @IanThompson Indeed... My bad, I had completely forgotten this mention, thanks for finding it.
Comment: Saruman is not the leader of the Istari, either: He was only the first (with Radagast) to come to Middle-Earth and the more flashy, talkative one. The Valar did not impose any hierarchy among the Istari, and indeed each of them used his own methods and only seldom met another Istari, much less several.
Comment: @mort This is an indication of power (and knowing himself and his fallings better), not of formal hierarchy. Indeed, this indicates that their arrival order is not an indication of their rank.
Comment: Note also that Saruman's open scorn and rebukes to Gandalf are part of the Tolkien narrative. There are several accounts of the council and the Istari in Unfinished Tales, but they all agree generally that Saruman would speak harshly to Gandalf.
Answer: I'm not so sure the behaviour you interpret as being submissive (or subservient is probably a better term) is actually that at all. Gandalf seems more sheepish to me at being caught assisting a bunch of Dwarves and a Hobbit in some weird and wonderful adventure that Saruman neither knows about nor approves of.
Saruman, being head of the White Council, perhaps doesn't feel that a fellow member of the White Council should be wasting his time with such trivial things.
I also think there's an element of Saruman imposing his authority as the supposed Head of the White Council, particularly when Galadriel had preferred Gandalf be given that role.
Tolkien also stated that Saruman knew that Gandalf possessed the greater power and wisdom and disliked him for it.
Comment: @Oldcat I have more power than a twelve year old, but if said child whaps me in the face with a 2x4 as I round a corner they can easily imprison me in a locked room.  I'm not saying you're wrong, just that your justification for the assertion isn't necessarily valid.
Comment: Wisdom, maybe, but Saruman had more power before Gandalf became the White Wizard.  Otherwise he would not have been able to imprison Gandalf in Orthanc in FOTR.
Comment: There was nothing said in the books about trickery being used to imprison Gandalf.  In fact, he needed to use outside aid to escape when he was unbound and on the rooftop.
Answer: Saruman the White was the chief Istari; That I think would refer to Gandalf's Order which he clearly stated himself that Saruman was leader of, also the fact that Gandalf was made the White after Saruman's betrayal (The White Wizard status must have been superior to the grey.) I believe there was jealousy from the very start of when the Istari came to Middle Earth, Saruman jealous of Gandalf being gifted an elvish ring as to Saruman getting one. Then the fact that Galadriel wanted Gandalf to be head of the white council (Saruman's Position in the White Council) lead to Saruman holding a future grudge - more hate against Gandalf and now Galadriel.
I always liked Saruman better than Gandalf, so I probably am being slightly biased. But I always thought that Gandalf was little fearful of Saruman. He seems to have a lot of respect for Saruman when Saruman treats him terribly.
Answer: Saruman was the head of the Istari, Gandalf's ascension to the white was after his fight with the Balrog; after Saruman had been exposed as working with Sauron. At the time of the Hobbit, Gandalf is aware that a ring of power is involved but not which, and Saruman is still pretending that this is all paranoia on Gandalf's part. The Istari are outside of the normal run of things. Check the Silmarillion for a fuller understanding.
Answer: As has been mentioned, Saruman was both head of the Order of Istari(wizards) and head of the Council of the Wise(also known as 'the White Council').
Plus, this is in Medieval times, so formality and manners were tighter and accepted more widespread than nowadays. Even when Gandalf arrived with Thorin's Company to Rivendell and greets Elrond as 'My friend' he bows his head as he does it, as deferential respect, etc.
Comment: Again, if you think LotR is medieval times, you need to study more medieval history. The formality and manners you mention are 19th century England: it's the world that was disappearing as Tolkien was growing up.
Answer: In the books even though Gandalf respects and acknowledges the position of Saruman he isn't as submissive towards him as you'd think. The relation between Istari are more like collegues, each appears to have different specialty (Saruman is the one more learned, he also studies arts of the enemy to counteract agaisnt them, which ultimately proves to be his downfall, also he always tried to experiment, expand his understanding of things and influence like when he dares to use palantir of Orthanc, as Gandalf says ,,Perilous to us all are the devices of an art deeper than we possess ourselves", while the Istari are Maiar in disguise it seems their full knowledge and power is dimmed, even their memory of Aman so they would focus on mission, they are forbidden from using their power to subjugate races of Middle Earth, they must act as councillors and guides to them, inspiring the inhabitants of to oppose Dark Lord themselves:
,,now their emissaries were forbidden to reveal themselves in forms of majesty, or to seek to rule the lives of Elves and Men by an open display of power. "
,,For it is said indeed that being embodied the Istari had needs to learn much anew by slow experience, and though they knew whence they came the memory of the Blessed Realm was to them a vision from afar off, for which (so long as they remained true to their mission) they yearned exceedingly. Thus by enduring of free will the pangs of exile and the deceits of Sauron they might redress the evils of that time." Unfinished Tales.
So as a full not restricted divine beings their knowledge and skill would be evidently greater maybe much greater than mortals or elves could ever achieve, but in Middle Earth they had to start anew, lessened in a way), Radagast though he was more distracted from his direct mission by fascination with animals and plants of Middle Earth (he was in origin one of the Maiaric servants of Yavanna after all) still he significantly contributed to the cause, he acted at times as a sort of a spymaster of the White Council, gathering news and passing them around for operatives :), Gandalf well his specialty is harder to place, he appears to be like a stereothypical wandering wizard, at time he acts like a councillor, court wizard for various kings, he travels around much more than Saruman and Radagast combined (though we know that at one point Saruman before setting his home in Isengard under permission of Ruling Steward of Gondor, too was wandering about the lands he even went to far East/lands of Rhun together with two Blue Wizards/Ithryn Luin but only he returned to the westlands, Saruman also spent a long time studying hoards of books and scrolls from libraries and archives of Minas Tirith) but he solves problems of those who would ask him for help, doing various plans and orchestrating their fulfillment, real strategist.
This division of labour of sorts, would definitely require the large dose of independence of them inide the Order but still retaining hierarchy, the White Council was more formal body but it was helding meetings from time to time and many of the Wise or Eldar elf-lords too had their influence there and here Saruman would have greater power residing over meetings, providing info on the discussed matters that others lacked (especially about the Rings of Power and secrets of their making that few even of elves remembered), he would be really important and so his pride would grew but it does not appear that Gandalf felt especially subjected to Saruman's will, Grey Wizard was more humble and could consider Saruman's greater knowledge superior in certain matters to frequently discuss it with him but their known conversation on the council's meeting shows that Gandalf wasn't at all daunted by Saruman or would allow him to overly control him. It is seen clearly that Gnandalf had this independent streak and certain issues cause that Saruman's jelousy towards him was constantly growing up until his full betrayal:
,,Saruman soon became jealous of Gandalf, and this rivalry turned at last to a hatred, the deeper for being concealed, and the more bitter in that Saruman knew in his heart that the Grey Wanderer had the greater strength, and the greater influence upon the dwellers in Middle-earth, even though he hid his power and desired neither fear nor reverence. Saruman did not revere him, but he grew to fear him, being ever uncertain how much Gandalf perceived of his inner mind, troubled more by his silences than by his words. So it was that openly he treated Gandalf with less respect than did others of the Wise, and was ever ready to gainsay him or to make little of his counsels; while secretly he noted and pondered all that he said, setting a watch, so far as he was able, upon all his movements.
It was in this way that Saruman came to give thought to the Halflings and the Shire, which otherwise he would have deemed beneath his notice. He had at first no thought that the interest of his rival in this people had any connexion with the great concerns of the Council, least of all with the Rings of Power, For indeed in the beginning it had no such connexion, and was due only to Gandalf's love for the Little People, unless his heart had some deep premonition beyond his waking thought. For many years he visited the Shire openly, and would speak of its people to any who would listen; and Saruman would smile, as at the idle tales of an old land-rover, but he took heed nonetheless."
,,Yet in truth Saruman's spying and great secrecy had not in the beginning any evil purpose, but was no more than a folly born of pride. Small matters, unworthy it would seem to be reported, may yet prove of great moment ere the end."
There is also a bit about their strained relations:
,,Now because of his dislike and fear, in the later days Saruman avoided Gandalf, and they seldom met, except at the assemblies of the White Council. It was at the great Council held in 2851 that the "Halflings' leaf" was first spoken of, and the matter was noted with amusement at the time, though it was afterwards remembered in a different light. The Council met in Rivendell, and Gandalf sat apart, silent, but smoking prodigiously (a thing he had never done before on such an occasion), while Saruman spoke against him, and urged that contrary to Gandalf's advice Dol Guldur should not yet be molested. Both the silence and the smoke seemed greatly to annoy Saruman, and before the Council dispersed be said to Gandalf: "When weighty matters are in debate, Mithrandir, I wonder a little that you should play with your toys of fire and smoke, while others are in earnest speech."
But Gandalf laughed, and replied: "You would not wonder if you used this herb yourself. Yon might find that smoke blown out cleared your mind of shadows within. Anyway, it gives patience, to listen to error without anger. But it is not one of my toys. It is an art of the Little People away in the West: merry and worthy folk, though not of much account, perhaps, in your high policies."
Saruman was little appeased by this answer (for he hated mockery, however gentle), and he said then coldly: "You jest, Lord Mithrandir, as is your way. I know well enough that you have become a curious explorer of the small: weeds, wild things and childish folk. Your time is your own to spend, if you have nothing worthier to do; and your friends you may make as you please. But to me the days are too dark for wanderers' tales, and I have no time for the simples of peasants."
Gandalf did not laugh again; and he did not answer, but looking keenly at Saruman he drew on his pipe and sent out a great ring of smoke with many smaller rings that followed it. Then he put up his hand, as if to grasp them, and they vanished. With that he got up and left Saruman without another word; but Saruman stood for some time silent, and his face was dark with doubt and displeasure." Unfinshed Tales
Gandalf gave quite fitting notion about Saruman's ways, but still he had trust in him:
,,I might perhaps have consulted Saruman the White, but something always held me back.'
'Who is he?' asked Frodo. I have never heard of him before.'
'Maybe not,' answered Gandalf. 'Hobbits are, or were, no concern of his. Yet he is great among the Wise. He is the chief of my order and the head of the Council. His knowledge is deep, but his pride has grown with it, and he takes ill any meddling. The lore of the Elven-rings, great and small, is his province. He has long studied it, seeking the lost secrets of their making; but when the Rings were debated in the Council, all that he would reveal to us of his ring-lore told against my fears. So my doubt slept - but uneasily. Still I watched and I waited." Fellowship of the Ring
,,'But at the western edge of Mirkwood the trail turned away. It wandered off southwards and passed out of the Wood-elves' ken, and was lost. And then I made a great mistake. Yes, Frodo, and not the first; though I fear it may prove the worst. I let the matter be. I let him go; for I had much else to think of at that time, and I still trusted the lore of Saruman." Fellowhsip of the Ring
"Who told you, and who sent you? " I asked.
' "Saruman the White," answered Radagast. "And he told me to say that if you feel the need, he will help; but you must seek his aid at once, or it will be too late."
'And that message brought me hope. For Saruman the White is the greatest of my order. Radagast is, of course, a worthy Wizard, a master of shapes and changes of hue; and he has much lore of herbs and beasts, and birds are especially his friends. But Saruman has long studied the arts of the Enemy himself, and thus we have often been able to forestall him. It was by the devices of Saruman that we drove him from Dol Guldur. It might be that he had found some weapons that would drive back the Nine." Fellowship of the Ring


How to control the size of a .iso image

Question: Is there anyway to control the size of an ISO image when creating it from a CD without having to compress it? I'm trying to make a bootable ISO image.I'm  using ImgBurn to make a win7 image from a CD
Comment: I'm using ImgBurn to make win7, but I'm trying to keep the door open for other sotware and windows releases
Comment: I found this - http://superuser.com/questions/100940/how-to-compress-an-iso-file I'm used to Mac, which would use a compressed .dmg format rather than .iso, but I don't think that's an option for Windows
Answer: No. The iso format is uncompressed. If you want a smaller iso, put less data in the image.
For a Windows 7 image, there are some tools to reduce what components are included in the image such as nLite, which I have used to slipstream drivers, updates, and service packs into an image. The developer seems to have a more updated release called NTLite. A quick search has shown there are howto guides like on howtogeek that uses another tool I haven't used before. But if you want a standard image, possibly including some additional drivers, or more recent updates included, no the image will only be bigger.
Comment: Would you suggest any tools for me? Any tutorials?
Comment: @SamIbraheem added a couple of links to my answer
Comment: [RTSevenLite is good for reducing image size](http://www.softpedia.com/get/System/Boot-Manager-Disk/RT-Seven-Lite.shtml)

How to control the size of a .iso image


What was the Early Church's position on Purgatory?

Question: I like to look at views that the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Church share. One of those views that they don't share is purgatory. This got me thinking. Is there any evidence that the Early Church accepted or held purgatory?
Comment: Related: https://christianity.stackexchange.com/questions/42718/did-augustine-believe-in-purgatory this can be used to build a case that the early Church did in fact believe in purgatory.
Comment: Are you asking about views which are vaguely or generically compatible with anything remotely purgatory related, or about views specific to distinctively Roman Catholic teachings on the topic ? I ask this because, as you are probably aware, there is a significant overlap between the doctrines of the two churches on the afterlife.
Answer: I use only one Catholic source for this answer, beginning with the eschatological aspect which had to be formed first, gives the history of the doctrine, then explains some of the differences that arose. I will stop long before it details elements brought into play by the Reformation as the question is limited to the early Church position.

"Only the idea of the eschatological as such... makes it possible to
conceive a condition which has its special theological significance
precisely 'in the end'... The eschatological situation of believing
humanity, characterized by finality of decision, also includes the
personal life of those dead who, as part of the world - like the
Church itself - can only attain their complete fulfilment gradually
and in the midst of distress and affliction, because of their
condition, which is marked by the concupiscence resulting from
sin. The doctrine of purgatory therefore forms an essential part of a
systematic Christian eschatology conscious of its own
presuppositions." (Encyclopedia of Theology - a Concise Sacramentum
Mundi, Edited by Karl Rahner, p1318-2, article by Elmar Klinger)

I have put in bold italics a critically important point, upon which the entire doctrine of purgatory seems to depend. Once Catholicism had its particular eschatology of end times largely in place, then the idea of purgatory could be added, completing presuppositions within eschatological presuppositions.  Now, I hasten to add that this is how it looks to me, as a non-Catholic. My answer, however, does not depend upon my interpretation, and I fully expect Catholics to disagree with it. Yet it needs to be flagged up as providing a bit of a question-mark as to whether the first Century Church could have had a position on purgatory, when the word never occurs in the New Testament. It would be helpful if a knowledgeable person could track down the first written use of the word 'purgatory' in early Church circles.
Another point I would add, before resuming quotations, is that there might be a danger of conflating the eventual glory of the Church in her marriage with the Lamb, and the idea of humans having to work their way towards becoming the Bride of Christ whilst in an 'intermediate state' (of purgatory) outside of heaven. Again, this raises a question-mark as to whether the first Century Church could possibly have held such an idea about the deceased working towards eventual salvation and glory, given they do not state that in the N.T. Now I quote regarding the second Century:

"Justin and Tertullian still shared this perspective [in the
N.T.,about Sheol, and the 'fire' of faith at the Last Judgment] in the
2nd century and teach that the dead are waiting 'in the grave' for the
consummation. Irenaeus took a dynamic view of this state (Adv.
Haer., IV, 31, 7: PG, VII, cols. 1103-4), and Origen in the
framework of his universal eschatology (apocatastasis) worked out a
doctrine of a particular purification for each individual, (In Lucam
Hom., XXIV: PG, XIII, cols. 1864-5: baptism of the spirit takes
place in the baptism of fire), and thus developed in germ the
doctrine of purgatory. Nevertheless, until the 4th century the idea
of the direct combination of purgatory and judgment prevailed without
exception." (Ibid., pp1318-9)

The part I have put in bold indicates that the germ of the doctrine of purgatory could be found in the writings of Origen (A.D. 185 - 254).

"In the West, however, Augustine emphasized that all the just (not
only the martyrs) immediately attain the vision of God and do not have
to wait for the end in some indeterminate place. The eschatological
process thus essentially includes an individual element. As a result,
the doctrine of purgatory is detached from that of the universal
eschaton. The reference to 1 Cor 3:12-15 lost its direct application;
the purifying 'fire' of the judgment - Augustine himself still
hesitates - becomes the ignis purgatorius, and now appears as an
actual indeterminate realm for man in death." (Ibid. p 1319)

Then the article moves on to the Middle Ages and various Councils before pointing out the differences that arose between the Latins and the Greeks:

"... Benedict XII's definition (D 530-1), had to be explained in
face of the Greeks, for on the basis of their tradition they contested
the existence of the fire of purgatory and any immediate retribution
after death (D 535). ...But because the Greeks regarded the
universal last judgment as the only consummation, they could only
attribute relative importance to the decision regarding each
individual. For them, as had been the case in Sheol, the good and
wicked were still essentially in the same place. For there was only
one fire, that of the Last Judgment. In that regard, the saints were
already purified (and in the exceptional case even the damned);
nevertheless all (D 535, including Mary and the apostles) had to
undergo the final judgments (Mansi, XXXI A, 485-94, especially 488).
The Greeks, therefore, could accept, though with reservations, the
dogma of the particular judgment after death (D 693), also the
doctrine of the poenae purgatoriae (D 464, 693). They could not
accept a separate fire, for they regarded it as an Origenistt doctrine
of a fire in which all were saved. On this basis they formulated the
Church's doctrine at Lyons and Florence in collaboration with the
Latins."

Concluding Summary:  There is nothing in the writings of the first Century sciptures to indicate any idea of purgatory, let alone state a 'position' on it. The germ of the idea seems to form with Origen (early third century) and develops. The differences between the Latins and the Greeks comes in the last quote.
Comment: Regarding the word 'purgatory' in early Church circles: the word is of course the 'tory' (place appropriate for the activity) of the Latin 'purgare', 'to purify'. The word itself is not particularly important to the doctrine.
Answer: What was the Early Church's position on Purgatory?
The Early Church is generally reckoned by church historians to begin with the ministry of Jesus (c. 27–30) and end with the First Council of Nicaea (325). It is typically divided into two periods: the Apostolic Age (c. 30–100, when the first apostles were still alive) and the Ante-Nicene Period (c. 100–325). This is the window I will try to limit myself to.
It seems that the doctrine of the Early Church on Purgatory was not yet defined, yet many Early Church Fathers believed in the doctrine of Purgatory or at least accepted it's possible existence.
The Fathers of the Church and other contemporary theologians spoke of purgatory quite frequently. See Tertullian, Cyprian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Gregory of Nyssa, John Chyrsostom, and Ambrose and Augustine. Augustine himself believed that purgatory was real, but didn't believe the matter was settled.

The Early Church Fathers on Purgatory - Catholic/Orthodox Caucus
The Early Church Fathers believed in purgatory and prayers for the dead.
Clement of Alexandria

The believer through discipline divests himself of his passions and passes to the mansion which is better than the former one, passes to the greatest torment, taking with him the characteristic of repentance for the faults he may have committed after baptism. He is tortured then still more, not yet attaining what he sees others have acquired. The greatest torments are assigned to the believer, for God's righteousness is good, and His goodness righteous, and though these punishments cease in the course of the expiation and purification of each one, "yet" etc. (Patres Groeci. IX, col. 332 [A.D. 150-215]).

Origen

If a man departs this life with lighter faults, he is condemned to fire which burns away the lighter materials, and prepares the soul for the kingdom of God, where nothing defiled may enter. For if on the foundation of Christ you have built not only gold and silver and precious stones (I Cor., 3); but also wood and hay and stubble, what do you expect when the soul shall be separated from the body? Would you enter into heaven with your wood and hay and stubble and thus defile the kingdom of God; or on account of these hindrances would you remain without and receive no reward for your gold and silver and precious stones? Neither is this just. It remains then that you be committed to the fire which will burn the light materials; for our God to those who can comprehend heavenly things is called a cleansing fire. But this fire consumes not the creature, but what the creature has himself built, wood, and hay and stubble. It is manifest that the fire destroys the wood of our transgressions and then returns to us the reward of our great works. (Patres Groeci. XIII, col. 445, 448 [A.D. 185-232]).

Abercius

The citizen of a prominent city, I erected this while I lived, that I might have a resting place for my body. Abercius is my name, a disciple of the chaste shepherd who feeds his sheep on the mountains and in the fields, who has great eyes surveying everywhere, who taught me the faithful writings of life. Standing by, I, Abercius, ordered this to be inscribed; truly I was in my seventy-second year. May everyone who is in accord with this and who understands it pray for Abercius (Epitaph of Abercius [A.D. 190]).

Tertullian

That allegory of the Lord [Matt. 5:25-26] . . . is extremely clear and simple in its meaning . . . [beware lest as] a transgressor of your agreement, before God the judge . . . and lest this judge deliver you over to the angel who is to execute the sentence, and he commit you to the prison of hell, out of which there will be no dismissal until the smallest even of your delinquencies be paid off in the period before the resurrection. What can be a more fitting sense than this? What a truer interpretation? (The Soul 35 [A.D. 210]).

The faithful widow prays for the soul of her husband, and begs for him in the interim repose, and participation in the first resurrection, and offers prayers on the anniversary of his death (Monogamy 10 [A.D. 213]).

We can also read in the annals of the martyrdom of

St. Perpetua - 3rd century martyr
An African Latin-speaker like Tertullian, her memoirs were documented during her incarceration. At about A.D. 203  she writes ...

"I saw a vision of Dinocrates going out from a gloomy place, where also there were several others. He was parched and very thirsty, with a filthy countenance and pallid color; the wound on his face that he had when he died. This Dinocrates had been my brother after the flesh, seven years of age, who died miserably with disease. For him I had made my prayer; and between him and me there was a large interval, so that neither of us could approach to the other.   And I knew that my brother was in suffering, but I trusted that my prayer would bring help to his suffering; and I prayed for him every day until we passed over into the prison of the camp, for we were to fight in a camp show. Then I made my prayer for my brother day and night, groaning and weeping, that he might be granted to me.  Then, on the day that we remained in fetters, this was shown to me: I saw that that place which I had formerly observed to be in gloom was now bright; and Dinocrates, with a clean body, well clad, was finding refreshment. He went away from the water to play joyously, after the manner of children; and I woke from this vision. Then I understood that he was translated from the place of punishment." (Acts of the Martyrdom of Felicity and Perpetua, Chapters iii-x)

Prayers for the dead were known to ancient Jewish practice, and it has been through this that Christianity may have taken its similar practice from its Jewish heritage. In Early Christendom, prayer for the dead is attested since at least the 2nd century, evidenced in part by the tomb inscription of Abercius, Bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia (d. c. 200). Celebration of the Eucharist for the dead is attested to since at least the 3rd century.

Touching manifestations of this belief are found on the walls and tombs of the Catacombs. The souls of the departed are recommended to the holy Martyrs, near whom their bodies are buried. The object of the prayers is: peace and refreshment ("refrigerium" occurs innumerable times); the feeding of them by the "Ichthys," the light of the dead. The departed themselves are represented as requesting the intercession of the living faithful. On one on the tombstones of the catacombs, now in the Lateran Museum, a husband declares that he set this inscription for his beloved wife Lucifera " in order that all brethren who read it may pray for her, that she may reach God."
The whole series of invocations and acclamations preserved to us in those ancient Christian inscriptions undoubtedly bears the character of real prayers by which the living intended to help their departed brethren in the after life. The very requests for peace and refreshment, for admission amongst the Saints, etc., contained in the inscriptions of the second and third centuries, presuppose the conviction that the good desired for the departed souls will be granted to them by God in response to the prayer of the faithful. The petitions for the departed addressed directly to God, as found in the inscriptions of the second and third centuries, can be understood only on this supposition.
Scholars have proved that the many pictures in the Catacombs refer to Purgatory. One states,

"The faithful prayed for the dead, entreating God to protect their souls, as He protected Daniel in the lion's den, the three young men in the furnace, Noe in the ark, and Susanna against the two elders. With the same intention, and in order to invite the visitors of these subterranean cemeteries to pray for the dead, these biblical figures were depicted near the sepulchres - Daniel and Noe in the hypogeum of the Flavii as early as the first century, and all four together at the beginning of the second century in the Capella Greca."

On the earliest epigraphical and sculptural documents of the Catacombs, the saints appear as the protectors of the Poor Souls, who are recommended to their intercession. -The Early Church Fathers and Historical Archaeological discoveries referencing Purgatory.
Comment: Tertullian believed that souls were confined to the "prison of hell, out of which there will be no dismissal until the smallest even of your delinquencies be paid off in the period before the resurrection."?  Is purgatory in hell?  Did he believe hell was not a permanent inescapable consignment?
Comment: The actual source linked to the quote would help.  Tertullian for example understood Abraham's bosom as a holding place prior to the last day, rather than as some additional purification necessity.  IOW, until Christ, heaven was not open.
Comment: @MikeBorden That is why I said  "many Early Church Fathers believed in the doctrine of Purgatory or at least accepted it's possible existence." Many does not mean all. Augustine recognized a divergence of thought on the subject, yet believed.
Comment: AB reception of the souls of Abraham's children, even from among the Gentiles (since he is "the father of many nations," which must be classed amongst his family), and of the same faith as that wherewithal he himself believed God, without the yoke of the law and the sign of circumcision. This region, therefore, I call Abraham's bosom. Although it is not in heaven, it is yet higher than hell,4846 and is appointed to afford an interval of rest to the souls of the righteous, until the consummation of all things shall complete the resurrection of all men with the "full recompense of their reward."
Answer: Polycarp who was a disciple of John and Philip the apostles and who was bishop of Smyrna circa 150 CE explained there is no such thing as purgatory.

I [Polycarp] exhort you all, therefore, to yield obedience to the word of righteousness, and to exercise all patience, such as ye have seen [set] before your eyes, not only in the case of the blessed Ignatius, and Zosimus, and Rufus, but also in others among yourselves, and in Paul himself, and the rest of the apostles. [This do] in the assurance that all these have not run390 in vain, but in faith and righteousness, and that they are [now] in their due place in the presence of the Lord, with whom also they suffered. For they loved not this present world, but Him who died for us, and for our sakes was raised again by God from the dead.
Polycarp Letter Chapter IX  (bold mine)

For them, to die in Christ was to be present with Christ.  This teaching of course follows scriptural.

Therefore we are always confident, knowing that, whilst we are at home in the body, we are absent from the Lord: (For we walk by faith, not by sight:) We are confident, I say, and willing rather to be absent from the body, and to be present with the Lord. 2 Corinthians 5:6-8

The earliest church had no concept of purgatory, which is the idea of an additional step of purification before the saved may enter into the presence of the Lord.

1030 All who die in God's grace and friendship, but still imperfectly purified, are indeed assured of their eternal salvation; but after death they undergo purification, so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of heaven.
1031 The Church gives the name Purgatory to this final purification of the elect,
-CCC-

So, to answer the OP, it depends on the time frame to which refers the question.  The earliest believers taught that to die in Christ was to awake in Christ immediately.  Subsequently, and apparently apart from, the idea of purgatory, prayers for the dead, and indulgences arose in the church.
Comment: One may argue anything, but Polycarp is not expecting all to be martyrs (earthly suffering).  Instead, in chapter one, he affirms to the Philippians, "In whom, though now ye see Him not, ye believe, and believing, rejoice with joy unspeakable and full of glory;"342 into which joy many desire to enter, knowing that "by grace ye are saved, not of works,"343 but by the will of God through Jesus Christ."  IOW, you are by grace saved, not of works, which some may argue is martyrdom.
Comment: One could also argue that their earthly suffering, explicitly mentioned in the text, along with their faithful and righteous life, also mentioned therein, eliminated the need for postmortem purgatory.
Comment: There is more than one kind of martyrdom (Romans 6:6, Galatians 2:20, 5:24, 6:14); as such, it seems inconclusive.
Comment: To be in purgatory is certainly to be "in the presence of the Lord". It is, of course, the fire of the Lord's love that is so effectively purifying.
Comment: That's not to say that Polycarp is referring to souls in purgatory, as he doesn't seem to be referring to the entirety of Christians here, but rather to a specific group of individuals.


Ignoring certain xml lines when merging

Question: We are using git through sourcetree for a project involving HP UFT object repositories.
In our object repository files there is a date line, which is not automatically handled by git, so every time two repositories are merged we basically need to pick which date we want to keep. The date itself is never used and is not needed, and there is a date for every single object in the repository(~50 for each xml) so this is an annoying task.
Is there a way to make git ignore the date line? It doesn't matter if the date stays the way it was instead of being updated. Alternatively have git always overwrite the old date with the new date. It looks like this (norwegian date):
<qtpRep:LastUpdateTime>6. mai 2014 12:03:22</qtpRep:LastUpdateTime>

The object repository files are xml files created/updated through UFT which means that the code is autogenerated, hence the continous update of dates within these files.
Answer: You could use a clear content filer in a .gitattributes file in order to

(From Pro Git Book)
That would allow, automatically on git add, to set the element <qtpRep:LastUpdateTime> content to a fixed value instead of the auto-generated one.
*.xml     filter=fixedDate

git config --global filter.fixedDate.clean cleanDate

The script declared in the "clean" fixedDate filter, here cleanDate, can parse the content of the file being added, and replace the date by a fixed one.
That script and the .gitattributes can be stored and distributed in the same git repo, but the filter needs to be activated by all users in order to be used consistently across all cloned repos.
Answer: (How do I write complete comments? All I managed to do with comments on stackoverflow was to write a single continous line of text.)
I created a repository and added a file called .gitattributes with a single line:
*.xml filter=fixedDate

Then I ran the following in windows cmd:
git config --global filter.fixedDate.clean 'perl -pe "s/\\\$Date[^\\\$]*\\\$/\\\$Date\\\$/"'

This only returned the git config options. So I assume it ran correctly? Or does git return the options instead of an error message?
I then pushed an .xml file with the following content:
$Date: 123$

The file was pushed normally with no changes to the contents.
The explanation on http://git-scm.com/docs/gitattributes didn't really help much.
Comment: That filter would be applied on a `git commit` only. If you just push, it won't clean anything. Try to add everything again and commit, as in http://stackoverflow.com/a/1511273/6309 or http://stackoverflow.com/a/15646791/6309.
Comment: I did commit, I was not aware that I could push without commiting so I didn't mention it.
Comment: Ok, try a new commit, to see if the file is changed then (and if it is, then do a `git push`)

Ignoring certain xml lines when merging


How to access NSMutableArray given an object in it

Question: If I am given an object that I know is in an NSMutableArray, how can I access that NSMutableArray and the index of the object in that NSMutableArray?
Comment: `int idx = [array indexOfObject:theObject];`
Answer: Not directly.     You would, at least, need references to all possible arrays the object might be in.   With that, you could ask each for objectAtIndex:.   If the return value is not NSNotFound, the object is in the array.
Of course, that is potentially slow and a sign of bad design.
One solution would be to have a reference from your object to the array.   This will work, but you need to makes sure the circular reference doesn't cause a leak.
Answer: You can use the function indexOfObject:(id)object on the array and pass your object as the argument to receive the index.
For instance, let your array be NSMutableArray *array and the object be id obj.
Then, int index = [array indexObObject:obj];


rails guard looking for spec folder but there is no spec folder

Question: This is the first time, I'm trying BDD and testing, I'm trying things by seeing tutorials and my problem is I found that guard is looking for spec folder as defined in its guard file,
but there is no spec folder, I have test folder instead.
when I run
guard
it tries to load spec folder but there is no spec folder. is it okay to edit the guard file to look for test folder instead of spec folder?
Am I supposed to do rspec install?
rails g rspec install
Could not find generator rspec.
my gem file
source 'https://rubygems.org'

gem 'rails',     path: '/home/phanindra/rails'
gem 'journey', git: 'https://github.com/rails/journey.git'
gem 'arel',      git: 'https://github.com/rails/arel'
gem 'activerecord-deprecated_finders', git: 'https://github.com/rails/activerecord-deprecated_finders'

gem 'sqlite3'

# Gems used only for assets and not required
# in production environments by default.
group :assets do
  gem 'sprockets-rails', git: 'https://github.com/rails/sprockets-rails'
  gem 'sass-rails',   git: 'https://github.com/rails/sass-rails'
  gem 'coffee-rails', git: 'https://github.com/rails/coffee-rails'

  # See https://github.com/sstephenson/execjs#readme for more supported runtimes
  gem 'therubyracer', platforms: :ruby

  gem 'uglifier', '>= 1.0.3'
end
gem 'rb-inotify', '~> 0.8.8'
gem 'jquery-rails'

# Turbolinks makes following links in your web application faster. Read more: https://github.com/rails/turbolinks
gem 'turbolinks'

group :test, :development do
  gem 'cucumber-rails', :require => false
  gem 'database_cleaner'
  gem 'rspec'
  gem 'spork'
  gem 'guard'
  gem 'guard-rspec'
  gem 'launchy'
end

# To use ActiveModel has_secure_password
# gem 'bcrypt-ruby', '~> 3.0.0'

# Build JSON APIs with ease. Read more: https://github.com/rails/jbuilder
# gem 'jbuilder'

# Use unicorn as the app server
# gem 'unicorn'

# Deploy with Capistrano
# gem 'capistrano', group: :development

# To use debugger
# gem 'debugger'

my guard file
# A sample Guardfile
# More info at https://github.com/guard/guard#readme

guard 'rspec' do
  watch(%r{^spec/.+_spec\.rb$})
  watch(%r{^lib/(.+)\.rb$})     { |m| "spec/lib/#{m[1]}_spec.rb" }
  watch('spec/spec_helper.rb')  { "spec" }

  # Rails example
  watch(%r{^app/(.+)\.rb$})                           { |m| "spec/#{m[1]}_spec.rb" }
  watch(%r{^app/(.*)(\.erb|\.haml)$})                 { |m| "spec/#{m[1]}#{m[2]}_spec.rb" }
  watch(%r{^app/controllers/(.+)_(controller)\.rb$})  { |m| ["spec/routing/#{m[1]}_routing_spec.rb", "spec/#{m[2]}s/#{m[1]}_#{m[2]}_spec.rb", "spec/acceptance/#{m[1]}_spec.rb"] }
  watch(%r{^spec/support/(.+)\.rb$})                  { "spec" }
  watch('config/routes.rb')                           { "spec/routing" }
  watch('app/controllers/application_controller.rb')  { "spec/controllers" }

  # Capybara features specs
  watch(%r{^app/views/(.+)/.*\.(erb|haml)$})          { |m| "spec/features/#{m[1]}_spec.rb" }

  # Turnip features and steps
  watch(%r{^spec/acceptance/(.+)\.feature$})
  watch(%r{^spec/acceptance/steps/(.+)_steps\.rb$})   { |m| Dir[File.join("**/#{m[1]}.feature")][0] || 'spec/acceptance' }
end

by following the answer on Could not find generator rspec:install.
I have added rspec-rails to my gem file and did bundle install, then rspec generator worked and it generated spec folder.
But it does not have any folders like fixtures or acceptance or functional etc in test folder!!
Answer: according to the official document(https://github.com/rspec/rspec-rails#install), I think you should run :
# not: rails g rspec install
rails generate rspec:install

to generate the "spec" folder and "spec/spec_helper.rb" file and other related stuff.
Answer: Try adding the Rails Rspec gem to your gem file:
group :development do
  gem 'rspec-rails'
end

run bundle install then rails generate rspec:install


Sheet comparisons in Excel where content is mostly text

Question: I've got a a document that entails recommendations for my place of business, specific to site (we own several smaller facilities) with several sheets. The first is a full, all-inclusive list. The columns include site location, type of recommendation (very general), actual recommendation, detailed recommendation, and observations. The detailed and observations may not be filled in for each row, but they all have site, type of rec, and actual rec. If the same rec occurs for multiple sites, I added the recs together and deleted the duplicate on a second page. Now, they want me to compare the master list and the second, consolidated page, and determine which rows have been sent over, and which are still left that haven't been included on the final page. I can't sort exclusively by actual rec because some sites have the same actual rec with several different detailed recs nested underneath it. I've thought of trying an IF function or a VLOOKUP, but I can't quite nail down a good way to compare the two pages. They're about 700 and 500 rows respectively, so manually comparing would be very difficult. Can anyone help with a formula that would compare the two pages and display whether or not they exist in the second page? Thanks for any help you can give.
Comment: Without concrete examples, the only way to answer is for someone to invent a spreadsheet, which won't match yours, and solve that different problem, which may not have the conditions and constraints you face.  A good answer would be hard within the intended scope.  jrichall invested a lot of time trying to develop an answer for you.  If that doesn't answer your question, it illustrates the point.  If it does, consider accepting it (or a better one if one is posted), by clicking the checkmark next to it.  That will indicate that the question is solved, and award a little rep for the effort.
Comment: Was it something I said? Haha.
Answer: There are probably other ways to accomplish this, but here's an option. You might be able to use a COUNTIFS function. However, that will only let you search by 3 criteria.
If you're saying every record has Site, Type, and Actual Rec, then you might be able to search with those three criteria.
Here's a screenshot of something I threw together:
On your master list, create a new column titled "Copied" (or whatever you want.) In cell F2 I entered the following formula:
<code>=IF(COUNTIFS('Duplicates removed'!A:A, A2, 'Duplicates removed'!B:B, B2, 'Duplicates removed'!C:C, C2)>=1, "Duplicate", "")
</code>
The COUNTIFS function matches your criteria by a range. In this case, the first criteria is "Site", or A2 on the master list. It is searching for matches in Sheet "'Duplicates removed'!A:A" which is the corresponding column of sites on the sheet where the duplicates have been removed. B2 matches Type and C2 matches "Rec". >=1 tells COUNTIFS that you want to find entries that are greater than or equal to 1 (you may have multiple entries on your reduced sheet). "Duplicate" returns what the cell will display if a match is found. Change this to your liking. "Copied" "Done" etc.
Hover over the bottom right of Cell F2 until the cursor turns into a black cross. Click and drag down to copy the formula into every row on your sheet.
To get the formatting to show which rows have been copied, you'll use conditional formatting.
Select Cell A2. Then go into conditional formatting, click on "new rule", then select "Use a formula to determin which cells to format". In the "Format Values Box" type <code>=$F2="Duplicate</code>and replace the cell and phrase with what matches your needs. Then click on "Format" and choose your cell shading.

To apply the formatting to you're whole table, go to "Manage Rules" in conditional formatting, and click on the cell selector next to the "Applies To" field.

Click on the top right of your table and drag it to select all of your information. This should highlight all the rows where the Copied column indicates the info was copied.
Hope this helps. Try changing your criteria around in the formula to best match your data.
*Note - based on what you're doing, a database would be more efficient than excel. A DB would assign a unique ID number to each entry, which would make it much easier to search and manage duplicate entries. I manage a database of about 12,000 (and growing) records. I have a column in the table where I can enter "Duplicate" ID numbers. If an entry closely matches a previous entry, I enter the former ID number into the duplicate field. It makes it easy to find which submissions are recurring issues, but just running a query to match the original idea number against the duplicate field.


How to configure Hive libraries in Maven - POM.XML

Question: We would like to run automated Hive jobs (short running ones) thru Maven/JUnit. Reviewed details at site: http://mvnrepository.com/artifact/org.apache.hive. But could not find the specific configuration that should be used in Maven pom.xml to use Hive libraries. Appreciate suggestions for this configuration. Thanks.
Answer: You can follow this link to create junit test for hive.
https://groups.google.com/a/cloudera.org/forum/#!topic/cdh-user/ENSVdtuZmIA
But to test DSE hive, you need find a way to start an embedded DSE server as a hadoop node and  hive client setting when you setup a test case. DSE is close source, so I am not sure when we will disclose how to start an embedded DSE server and set hive client


How can I achieve 1:1 ratio for macro on my phone with 12 MP camera?

Question: I have been using two lenses of 15× from different brands, to obtain a 30× magnification , but Still for smaller insects I am unable to capture all the details in macro. Is it possible to achieve 1:1 ration ? What should I do to achieve it ?
Comment: Can you explain more what you've tried and what you want to do.  If 30x is insufficient, I don't see how 1x (1:1) would be an improvement.  Example photos would be helpful.
Comment: Are you photographing live insects in the field or preserved specimens?
Answer: For 1:1 macro, your distance from the lens should be the same as your focal length.  Which is typically about 5mm or so, requiring a lens with 200 dioptres of strength.
But you probably would be fine if it were not 1:1 macro as such but only 1:cropfactor .  It would still require an unusually strong lens.  At some point of time, one just has to accept that a phone is not a tool for everything.
Answer: In most of the cases you can't archive 1:1 ratio because:

Size of the phone sensor is ~ 4x6mm and insects are bigger (1:1 mean
to project entire object 1:1 on the sensor)
You need to control aperture and be able to use narrow one to get
big depth of field
When use narrow aperture effect of diffraction decrease details
You need to use fast shutter speed because insects move fast

And at the end please think about the fact most of lens manufactures sell such lens for 500 to 1000 USD/euro (and this is the price of lens, you also need a camera)
Answer: In the digital world it makes more sense to measure how many pixels of sensor correspond to a given physical size (which is easy to measure by shooting a ruler as close as possible):

On my APS-C camera a "macro" lens with the 1:1 ratio covers a 22mm field of view with 5472 pixels, so this is about 249 pixels/mm.
On my phone, using the 48Mpix mode, the field of view at closest focus is 80mm but since it spans 8000px this is 100px/mm. With a 2.5x magnification I would get the same as with my DSLR.

This said, pixel density isn't the only thing that matters, lack of distortion and noise are important too.
Using the magnification factor (1:1 or else) is however a good indication of how difficult the picture is. To reach 1:1 on your phone you will have to take in account:

low light (how good is the camera sensor),
a very shallow depth of field (can you do manual focus?). You can compensate using "focus stacking" but this requires a focusing rails.
camera shake (which means a camera stand and a remote control),
alignment of the add-on lens with the built-in lens


Rectangular form of a complex number?

Question: Why does rectangular form serve as an accurate description of a complex number? Why not $a * bi$(multiplication) or another operation? Why does addition describe the relationship between the real part and complex part? For example, polar form describes the relation on a imaginary and real plane. What concept is rectangular form based on?
Comment: I don't really understand how to answer this question. One answer might just be "this is how complex numbers are defined" but I imagine that won't do. What kind of answer are you looking for?
Comment: @QiaochuYuan I am looking for some kind of basis of the relationship. Most math relationships are based on something - some kind of concept or fact. Like I mentioned above polar form is based on its position on the real and imaginary planes. How was this specific formed arrived at?
Comment: @Farhad: Why don't you think writing a complex number as $a+bi$ describes it on the plane? The real part of the complex number, namely $a$, is the "$x$-coordinate", and the imaginary part $b$ is the "$y$-coordinate".
Comment: @ZevChonoles But when coordinates are written, they are separated by a comma not addition. For example on the Cartesian plane, if I was referring to the point $X$, I would describe its position through (x-coordinate, y-coordinate). If $a$ was the x-coordinate and $b$ the y, why isn't the form $(a,bi)$?
Comment: @ZevChonoles Thanks! Do you mind reposting the comment as an answer?
Comment: @Farhad: No problem, I've moved my comments to an answer.
Answer: You have $\mathbb{R}$ which is a field, i.e. you can add and multiply, and every nonzero elements has a multiplicative inverse.
Now you want to somehow have square roots for all real numbers. So you include (this can be done properly, but it's not the point here) another "number", that we call $i$ and has the property that $i^2=-1$.
Now you still want to have a field; in particular you want to add and multiply, and so you need to make sense of expressions of the form $a+bi$. But it turns out that
$$
\mathbb{C}=\{a+bi:\ a,b\in\mathbb{R}\}
$$
is already a field, i.e. the smallest field that contains both $\mathbb{R}$ and $i$.
Answer: Reposting some comments as an answer:
Writing a complex number as $a+bi$ does describe it on the plane - the real part of the complex number, namely $a$, is the "$x$-coordinate", and the imaginary part $b$ is the "$y$-coordinate".
Your comments indicate that you're used to writing vectors, or points on a plane, with coordinates like $(a,b)$. But one can just as easily decide to express a vector as a sum - you've probably seen expressions like
$$v=a\hat{\imath}+b\hat{\jmath}+c\hat{k}$$
for example. This is just an alternative way of writing
$$v=(a,b,c)$$
because
$$\hat{\imath}=(1,0,0)$$
$$\hat{\jmath}=(0,1,0)$$
$$\hat{k}=(0,0,1)$$
and thus
$$a\hat{\imath}+b\hat{\jmath}+c\hat{k}=a(1,0,0)+b(0,1,0)+c(0,0,1)$$
$$=(a,0,0)+(0,b,0)+(0,0,c)=(a,b,c)$$
It's the same idea with complex numbers. Think of $1$ as shorthand for $(1,0)$ and $i$ as shorthand for $(0,1)$. Then
$$a+bi=a\cdot 1+b\cdot i = a(1,0)+b(0,1)=(a,b)$$
Answer: "What concept is rectangular form based on?"
On the concept of vectors I guess.
Imagine that you have to walk through some city where there are pavement blocks of two different sizes and you can't express size of one of them by size of another - you can't compare them. Next lets assume that you walk some distance on the pavement blocks of the first kind, say x pavment blocks and than some distance on the pavement of the second kind - say y pavement blocks. Now if you were to answer question what is the distance of your walk you can only say that you had walked x pavment blocks of the first kind and y of the second. This is the sketch of the idea behing rectangular description. The real axis is one kind of pavment blocks and imaginary axis the second kind.

Rectangular form of a complex number?


Is there any positive temperature from which superconductivity ceases?

Question: From what I understand about superconductivity, it is due to a coupling between Cooper pairs and phonons. At the absolute 0, there is no phonon, so I assume superconductivity cannot exist at that temperature. But for superconducting materials, is it possible to find a positive temperature below $T_c$ below which superconductivity ceases? If not, why not? If so, was it found for any material yet?
Comment: *"At the absolute 0, there is no phonon, so I assume superconductivity cannot exist at that temperature."* That is not correct. At absolute zero, there are no thermally activated phonons, but there are still phonons induced by the motion of the electrons themselves.
Answer: Based on BCS theory, the phonon-mediated interaction is given by
$$V(\bf{k},\bf{q})\sim \frac{1}{(\epsilon_{\bf{k}}-\epsilon_{\bf{k}-\bf{q}})^2-(\hbar\omega_{\bf{q}})^2}$$
No matter how small $q$, and hence $\omega_{\bf{q}}$ is, we can always find $\bf{k}$ near the Fermi surface to make the energy difference as small as we like, and in fact the difference can be made strictly 0. As a consequence, the interaction can be made effectively attractive, leading to the Cooper instability.


How can I contact a professor after few months?

Question: I have written Professor X (Australia) for a Ph.D. position with my CV (in June) and he asked for 3 reference names in return. I sent it. As I did not write him seeing any advertisement so I waited.
Meanwhile, I got busy with my own project and published two of my articles in highly reputed journals in these last three months.
I did not get any response from Professor X yet. Should I write him back asking if he's still interested in me? Is it ok if I send him the links to my recent articles?
Comment: _As I did not write him seeing any advertisement so I waited._ - I don't understand.  Are you saying he/his department don't have any positions for PhD students at this time?
Comment: yes, but he's a big shot, department head. We have known each other for the last 3/4 years. I mean at first, I wrote him for a masters thesis once, then I could not join him due to my visa issue.
Answer: I would actually turn it around a bit.

Dear Professor X
We corresponded most recently a few months ago. I am still
very interested in working with you toward a PhD if it can be made to happen. I haven't been idle in the interim. Following are links to my two most recent published articles.
Please let me know if there is anything that I can do now to make this a reality.
Thank you ...

Rather than ask if they are interested, just say that you are interested as well as active.
Answer:
How can I contact a professor after few months?

I would recommend writing a short, concise, email. There are other questions on this site where you might find advice for writing such an email.

Meanwhile, I got busy with my own project... I did not get any response from Professor X yet.

It is possible that your professor has also been busy and has other things on his mind.

Should I write him back asking if he's still interested in me?

If you are still interested in working with him, then yes.

Is it ok if I send him the links to my recent articles?

There should be no harm in including the links, but it might be good to phrase it in a way that requires no obligation on the part of the professor. Something as a progress update ("since we last corresponded, I have published this and this...") might be okay, but I would avoid asking him to read anything in particular.


French-language Baroque Music Suggestions

Question: I have found Bach's vocal works to be a fun way to supplement learning German. I am also learning French, and I have tried looking for such works with French libretto but I have been unable to find any as Baroque-era French (sacred) pieces tend to be in Latin. I'm aware that there are some Romantic-era pieces such as Bizet's Carmen, though I much prefer the Baroque style. I would prefer sacred pieces, though I'm open to any suggestions!
Comment: Hi! I'm french and a little dubious about the methodology, the only opera in french I saw in concert (maybe more modern than what you ask for, may have been Debussy) I was barely able to understand one complete sentence :D. Maybe it was partly due to manierism from the singers, but the french language has evolved a lot since baroque times, and the pronunciation went through radical changes (for exemple accent 200 ago years was very similar to canadian or belgium, an accent fench people now mock). Will not go through history of the language, but even for written it has changed a lot
Comment: @Kaddath I was going to make the same point; most languages have changed a lot over 400 years. It's not unlike learning English from Shakespeare: not a bad idea as enrichment, but not a great idea as a primary means. I had a hard time translating some early-17th-century Italian and German.
Comment: Thanks for the comments @Kaddath and @AndyBonner! I've considered this point, though I think it isn't much of an issue as I'm mostly interested in reading 19'th century literature anyway, so I don't think this is too different from studying the modern language.
Answer: Protestantism in French speaking parts tended to be more on the Calvinist side of things rather than Lutheran, accounting for your observation.  There are definitely collections of French-language metrical psalms, but not a lot of elaborate sacred cantatas as in the Lutheran tradition.
There is, however, a lot of French baroque opera, in contrast to the relative dearth of German-language opera in the baroque period.  Recommendation questions are frowned upon here, but start with Lully and Rameau and the others on Wikipedia's chronological list.
Another more focused source of names would be those found in the article on French opera, including Charpentier and Campra.


Black and decker drill won't stop spinning

Question: As soon as I plug my drill into the mains it starts spinning slowly but won't stop completely which isn't ideal when trying to use it, how can fix it?? Could it just be some dust has got into the trigger or something?
Comment: could be dust in the trigger, or the trigger could have some sort of electrical damage.
Comment: A picture or model number would help, as we're all guessing below ;)
Answer: My old B&d drill had a small knob on the front of the trigger. When it as screwed in (turned clockwise) it would pull the trigger in. If yours has this function try rotating the knob counter clockwise. As other have stated it is possible that debris is in the switch. Try to manually pull the switch out and see if it stopped spinning.
Comment: It would be helpful to note that the small knob is a speed control/trigger lock.
Comment: Was it speed control as well? I've had that before and got something similar on a Bosch, though on that the lock is separate.  Certainly worth a fiddle
Answer: Quick test to see if it's just got a bit dusty/clogged.
Unplug, press & fully release the trigger rapidly a dozen or so times.
If that doesn't make any difference whatsoever, then replace the switch mechanism - $£€ 25-30 - better safe than sorry.
If it does make a difference, even if not completely cure it, then invest in a can of contact cleaner - $£€ 5-10 - Don't spray with power connected, allow plenty of time to evaporate before re-connecting. You may need to disassemble to reach the switch properly.
(I'm assuming this is a variable resistance, slow-start of some sort. If it's not, just replace the switch.)
Comment: My "inadvertently engaged" is because the lock isn't always obvious, or may be of no interest to the OP - my jigsaw has one that I never use, but if I use the saw left-handed the inside of the knuckle at the base of my index finger engages it, and being mechanical, it stays engaged when turned off at the wall.  This is also a good reason to ensure the tool is held/positioned safely before applying power
Comment: +1 I suspect the trigger lock, which many drills have and is always (IME) mechanical, is damaged, full crud, or inadvertently engaged.  Squeezing the trigger should release it.  An air duster can into the housing near the switch might be worth a shot (or several) before dismantling or using contact cleaner.
Comment: Of course, B&D isn't known for being the highest quality or highest priced brand on the market. The cost of repair parts may well quickly exceed the cost of replacement. That's not to say that there is anything wrong with a B&D product - they're suitable for purpose, they may just not last as long as a more expensive brand.
Comment: @FreeMan another brand that used to be good and solid (decades ago) but can't be assumed to be any more.  Spares may or may not be available for that model
Comment: Presumably if it had some obvious mechanical lock/speed setting the OP would have tried that first… I'm assuming single squeeze trigger, no lock, no dial.

Black and decker drill won’t stop spinning


count the number of words in a set

Question: Consider the words obtained from the alphabet $\{a,b,c\}$, we require that for each $b$ in the word, the number of times that $a$ appears before $b$ should be greater or equal to the number of times that $b$ appears, and the number of times that $a$ and $b$ appear before $c$ should be greater or equal to the number of times that $c$ appears.(For example: $aaabb$ and $aabccc$ are allowed, but $abb$ and $aabcccc$ are not allowed). How to count the words in terms of length?
Comment: These could be called modified [Yamanouchi words](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_word)
Comment: When you say "number of times $a$ appears before $b$", do you mean you count occurrences of $ab$?
Comment: No, we just count the times that $a$ appears before $b$, they need not to be adjacent, like $"aaacbbcacb"$ is allowed because $a$ appears more times than each $b$, and $a$ and $b$ appear more times than $c$
Answer: Consider such a word $w$ of lenght $n$. It is easy to see that the letters $a$ and $b$ in $w$ form a truncated Dyck word: if the number of letters $a$ is $i$ and the number of letters $b$ is $j\leq i$, then there are $\frac{i-j+1}{i+1}\binom{i+j}{j}$ such truncated Dyck words. Similarly, if we replace in $w$ each $a$ or $b$ with the same letter $c'$, then the resulting word over $\{c',c\}$ is a truncated Dyck word; if the number of letters $c$ is $k\leq i+j$, then the number of such truncated Dyck words is $\frac{i+j-k+1}{i+j+1}\binom{i+j+k}{k}$.
Hence, the number of distinct words $w$ of length $n$ equals
$$\sum_{i+j+k=n\atop i\geq j,\ i+j\geq k} \frac{i-j+1}{i+1}\binom{i+j}{j} \frac{i+j-k+1}{i+j+1}\binom{i+j+k}{k} $$
$$=\sum_{j=0}^{\lfloor n/2\rfloor} \sum_{i=\max\{j,\lceil n/2\rceil - j\}}^{n-j}
\frac{(i-j+1)(2(i+j)-n+1)}{(i+1)(i+j+1)}\binom{n}{i,\ j,\ n-i-j}.$$
For numerical values and references, see OEIS A151266. It also shows connection with walks in 2D lattice, where words correspond to points $(\#a-\#b, \#a+\#b-\#c)$ with nonnegative coordinates, and thus appending a letter $a$, $b$, $c$ to a word corresponds to steps $(1,1)$, $(-1,1)$, $(0,-1)$, respectively.
Comment: Thank you! This is a great explanation. Actually the connection you pointed out is my original question, and I just tried to solve it using words counting. (If you consider the endpoint and the length of path, the number of times that each step appear is fixed, only order matters. Since I want the path to stay in the first quadrant, there are those restrictions of words)

count the number of words in a set


How to remove the responsive code from the Twenty Twelve theme

Question: I have been looking all over for a answer on this but i cant find one. I know for twenty eleven it was as simple as removing some css. But i cant for the life of me figure out how to make the twenty twelve theme in wordpress 3.5 non responsive. Anyone know how ?
Comment: Can you please explain, why you want it out? I can't think of a reason.
Answer: The responsiveness of the theme is localized in the media queries.
Open the style.css file, and look for
 /* =Media queries
 -------------------------------------------------------------- */

Simply delete all the lines until
/* =Print

And it should remove the responsive functions of the theme
Comment: i did that there is more too it this time
Comment: What do you want exactly to remove ? If you don't want your site to adapt himself to the device, you should replace all `rem` or `%` by `px` in `style.css`. But that will be painfull :p
Answer: Rather than backwards engineer twentytwelve, you could choose the styles that you like from it and apply them to 2011 as a child theme.
Answer: simply remove all the code related to media queries.


Kitchen Aid classic, speed difference between level 8 and 10

Question: I have one simple question. I have bought Kitchen Aid classic. When I have tried to run it, I didn't notice any difference in speed between level 8 and 10. Is it normal or it is broken?
Comment: There's no way to tell from here if this is a fault in the mixer or a limit in your ability to perceive speed differences between quite fast and somewhat faster than that.
Answer: The difference between 8 and 10 is small on a Kitchen Aid, but measurable in most cases. I tell the difference by pitch, which gets slightly higher on 10 than 8. However, if you are mixing a thick mixture there may be almost no difference in speed or pitch at all.
A simple way to tell for sure is to run the machine with no attachments. Use a stopwatch and count the number of rotations in a 30 second period on speed 8 and then on speed 10. There will be more rotations on speed 10 than 8 if the mixer is working properly.
If you aren't getting a speed difference between 8 and 10 then there is some sort of problem with it. A common issue with old mixers is the grease inside breaks down and thickens, there could also be a problem with the motor or the variable resistor which controls the speed. None of those are impossible to fix but it's always a good idea to start with re-greasing.


What type of images can be created from cameras built using cambits?

Question: Basically I am not very much knowledge in Photography. But I want to know What type of images can be created from cameras built using cambits?
Answer: A Cambits camera can only be used if it is connected to a computer. Think of it as a high tech webcam for your computer. It can create almost any kind of image but is restricted by the fact it must be connected to a computer. It is still in development and may never be commercially viable.
This video explains how it can be used:   Cambits: A Reconfigurable Camera