22.  Despotism,  in  some  form,  appears  to  be  the  government  natural
to  the  condition  of  man  in  a  rude  state  of  society ;  but  it  never  fails
to  be  resisted,  with  the  advance  of  intelligence  and  civil-    CAUSES  OF
ization.     In  feudal  times  its  forms  in  France,  and  in  THE  DKVEL-
Western  Europe  generally,  were  three ;  the  hierarchy,  °™pREADNt
the  nobility,  and  the  corporations.     The  first  was  based     OF  FREE
on  the  absurd  claim  of  divine  right ;  and  the  Church  PRINCIPLES-
arbitrarily  governed  the  consciences  of  men  because  mankind  were  igno-
rant.    The  second  was  based  on  the  necessity  of  mutual  aid  and  protec-
tion against  domestic  enemies ;  and  the  third  on  the  plea  of  the  im-
portance of  encouraging  and  protecting  industry  by  fraternal  associa-
tions.    These  classes,  long  distinct,  had  many  contests  with  each
other,  as  one  or  the  other  strove  to  acquire  more  than  its  share  of
authority  over  the  people ;  but  as  the  latter  gradually  emerged  from
a  state  of  serfdom,  and  lost  their  veneration  for  their  oppressors,  a


830  PHILOSOPHY   OF  HISTORY.  [PART  IIL

new  organization  was  effected,  and  society  became  divided  into  two
parties,  often  antagonistic, — the  privileged  few  and  the  laboring
many.  The  former  at  first  obtained  the  mastery,  and,  dividing
among  its  members  the  spoils  it  had  won,  gave  to  the  nobility  the
monopoly  of  the  soil,  to  the  clergy  the  immense  property  that  had
been  confided  to  it  in  trust,  and  to  the  corporations  all  the  profits  of
industry.  Monarchy  also  lent  its  aid  to  centralize  in  the  hands  of
one  individual  the  power  wielded  by  many  rulers.  But  with  the
dawnings  of  free  inquiry  the  people  strove  for  emancipation.  At
first  the  Reformation  exposed  the  unjust  pretensions  of  the  hierarchy :
science,  in  the  writings  of  the  economists,  put  forth  the  claims  of
equality:  literature  gave  freedom  to  thought;  humanity,  in  the  works
of  Voltaire  and  Rousseau  and  their  co-laborers,  claimed  exemption
from  unnecessary  suffering ;  and  finally  liberty  demanded  for  the
people  equal  political  rights  and  privileges  with  their  oppressors.
