As  already  stated,  such  combinations  have  been  formed  in  order  to  meet
pressing  commercial  demands,  and  they  have  not  only  been  encouraged
but  sanctioned  by  State  and  national  legislation.
The  reduction  in  through  rates  which  has  followed  the  formation  of
such  combinations  has  already  been  noticed  in  considering  the  subjects
of  competition  and  the  pooling  or  api  orticnment  of  traffic.
"  Through  rates"  on  railroads  are  also  influenced  and  regulated  by
the  competition  of  water-lines  and  of  rival  markets  both  in  this  country
and  in  foreign  countries.  For  instance,  the  rate  on  grain  from  Chicago
to  ^ew  York  is  influenced  by  the  price  of  grain  at  Odessa,  as  well  as  by
the  cost  of  its  transportation  from  Odessa  to  London.  The  economies
of  transportation  are  also  largely  in  favor  of  "  the  low  rate  for  the  long
haul,"  in  all  cases  where  the  quantities  to  be  moved  are  large  and  sup
ply  a  considerable  part  of  the  business  of  the  road  engaging  in  the
traffic.
To  a  great  extent  these  commercial  and  economic  conditions  have  had
the  effect  of  eliminating  the  value  of  distance  as  an  element  of  the  cost  of
transportation,  the  tendency  being  constantly  towards  a  parity  of  freight
charges  as  well  as  of  prices.
But  the  great  reductions  in  through  rates  resulting  from  railroad  wars
were  the  cause  of  most  unjust  discriminations  as  against  local  rates.
The  same  causes  produced  very  marked  discriminations  in  favor  of  cer-
tain cities  as  against  their  competitors  in  commerce;  causing  wide-
spread dissatisfaction  and  complaint  in  various  parts  of  the  country.
These  evils  have,  however,  been  greatly  abated  and  in  many  instances
have  entirely  ceased,  since  the  railroads  have  turned  from  an  attitude  of
hostility  towards  each  other  to  one  of  amity  under  apportionment
schemes.
