As  an  intellectual  habit,  the  empirical  attitude  of  mind
is  a  characteristic  of  the  modern  spirit.  It  differs  from
that  which  it  displaced  in  both  aim  and  method.  As  to
aim,  the  natural  world  is  substituted  for  the  supernatural
as  the  object  of  knowledge.  Interest  turns  to  the  con-
tent of  experience,  to  nature  and  man,  as  the  field  of
immediate  concern;  and  there  arise  as  its  product  first
the  physical  and  biological  sciences,  but  later  the  psycho-
logical and  social  as  well.  As  to  its  method,  knowledge
is  conceived  as  an  acquaintance  with  natural  phenomena
and  natural  law.  It  roots  in  reason  and  is  a  progressive
achievement  of  human  intelligence.
This  attitude  is  not  peculiar  to  the  natural  sciences;
it  is  characteristic  of  the  modern  spirit  in  all  its  activi-
ties. As  a  regulative  point  of  view,  it  may  be  described
as  the  conception  of  immanence  in  contrast  with  the
transcendental  habit  of  the  Middle  Ages.  For  the  latter,
interest  lies  in  a  future  life.  The  object  of  knowledge
is  God  or  his  providence,  and  its  source  revelation.    The


98   THE  GENERAL  PROBLEMS  OF  PSYCHOLOGY

relation  of  God  to  the  world  is  that  of  Creator  or  First
Cause.  Moral  judgment  is  grounded  in  authority,  and
its  sanctions  are  external.  Political  sovereignty  is  abso-
lute and  based  on  divine  right.  All  these  fields  intelli-
gence conceives  in  transcendental  terms.  The  object  or
cause,  the  value,  the  authority,  are  represented  as  lying
beyond  the  system  w^hich  their  postulation  affects.
