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ICSE English Language Previous Year Question Paper 2009 Solved for Class 10 ICSE Paper 2007 Answers to this Paper must be written on the paper provided separately, You will not be allowed to write during the first 15 minutes. This time is to be spent in reading the question paper. The time given at the head of this Paper is the time allowed for writing the answers. Attempt all four questions. The intended marks for questions or parts of questions are given in brackets [ ]. You are advised to spend not more than 35 minutes in answering Question 1 and 20 minutes in answering Question 2. Question 1: (Do not spend more than 35 minutes on this question.) Write a composition (350 – 400 words) on any one of the following: (a) Recall a remarkable event of social importance in your city or locality. Give a little of its background, the event as it occurred, and its impact on the lives of people. (b) Cinema, both entertains and educates the masses. Express your views either for or against this statement. (c) Siblings often grow up side by side in families; yet have very different life experiences. If you have one or more siblings and feel that your lives have differed significantly, write an essay explaining the reasons and the effects of such differences. (d) Relate an incident or write a short story which has as its central idea ‘advice not taken’. (e) Study the picture given below. Write a story or a description or an account of what it suggests to you. Your composition may be about the subject of the picture or may take suggestions from it; however, there must be a clear connection between the picture and your composition. (a) The Jessica Lai murder case sparked off a wave of controversy and protest all over the country. This case was an open and shut case as the murderer had been identified many years ago. Still nothing was done about imprisoning him and bringing justice to Jessica’s family members. The people of my city Delhi tried to do something about this case. They knew very well that “Justice delayed is justice denied.” Hence they thought of reminding the country of this unpunished murder case. It was well known that several years had passed since the murder and yet the killers were roaming scot-free. A group of about twenty people, including the family members of Jessica Nal began a silent journey. They walled towards India Gate with lighted candles. As they marched towards it many people began to join them. People used their cell-phone to send SmS’s to others whom they knew. Within hours the crowd of people grew into hundreds. They marched in total silence. Some of the people were singing inspirational songs. Soon the Doordarshan was also intimated. Other news channels like Aaj Tak, Zee News and NDTV also appeared on the scene in no time. Soon the journalists were covering the entire incident. The peace-marchers kept their candles upon the gate in a very calm and composed manner. A photograph of Jessica was kept amidst hundreds of these burning candles. The soft golden yellow light of these candles fell upon the dead girl’s face and lit it up with a heavenly beauty. The T.V. Channels then began to interview some of the family members. They spoke in soft hushed tones but were firm in their demand of justice. Pamphlets were distributed the next day together public opinion in their favour. This unique march left a deep impression upon everyone’s mind. In fact this method of drawing public attention to any important issue has become very popular now. Many months later when the issue of reservations came up, the young doctors and students took up the same method of protest. This was a remarkable event of social importance in my city Delhi. It had left a deep impact on the hearts and minds of the people. Now people do not have to shout slogans or resort to violence in order to raise their voice against any issue. (b) Cinema is an extension of our lives. It takes us into a world where we forget ourselves for a couple of hours. I surely agree that cinema both entertains and educates us. The basic purpose for which the silent black and white “Harishchandra” or the first talkie “Alam Ara” was created in India was to provide a new source of entertainment to the people. As the cinematic reels begin to unfold before us, the masses in large numbers, we relax, let loose our problems mid quietly gaze at the unfolding of a story before us. The movies make us experience those pleasures which we may never ever have a chance to favour in real life. In this manner “reel life is quite different from real life.” We climb Mount Everest, we dive into the deep seas admiring the under-water flora and fauna, we go back into history and meet great people from the past, we even step into the future with the help of various scientific inventions, and feel the pulse of the times. If this is not education then what is? Cinema takes us to exotic locations all over the world. We visit remote areas of Mexico and Chile, we go for a jungle Safari in the game-reserves of Africa, we gaze with wonder at the mammoth pyramids of Egypt, we peep into the lives of the tribals. All this is much more interesting than going through thick encyclopaedias. This definitely adds to our general knowledge. Cinema as an entertainer has a very wide appeal. The movies made in Bollywood are shown not only all across our country but all over the world. The entertainment tax collected by the cinema is in crores. The song and dance sequences, the sale of music cassettes and C.D.s all go to prove how popular film music is. It surely entertains both the rich and the poor alike. When a person is mentally and physically tired, he looks forward to a good entertaining movie at the end of the weekend. People not only see a good movie once, but go there several times to see it. Why do they go there repeatedly? Obviously to get entertainment. Thus there is no doubt that movies both educate and entertain. Siblings! Brothers and sisters! Oh God! how I wish at times that I was the only child of my parents. I would be the only apple of their eye, the sole recipient of their love and affection. I would not have to share my room, my study, table, my cupboard, my clothes etc. with my siblings. Most of all there would be no fights in the house! I do admit that what I have written is a purely selfish account of my desires. May be I am an attention seeker. But, speaking honestly it would be a very lonely life without my elder sister. Although genetically we are the same but as far as our temperament goes, we are poles apart. The reasons for these differences can be traced to interesting roots. My sister is elder to me by six and a half years. When I was born, she became my second mother. She loved playing with me like a doll, she helped to feed me, she changed my nappies and can you imagine that she even gave me a bath. It is a different matter that once she nearly drowned me in the bath tub as I slipped away from her fingers and refused to be “a well-behaved younger sibling.” This perhaps is the reason why even now she continues to mother me. When we go out of town we share our suitcase. It is she who lays out my clothes, footwear, my accessories neatly upon the bed as we get ready for the day. It is she who puts away the dirty clothes in a separate bag. It is she again who unpacks as well as re-packs our bags on leaving. Being Pampered in this manner, I have reaped full benefits of being the younger sibling. Perhaps this is what which has made me a carefree irresponsible child. I continue to strew things around in my room. I do not share any trace of the love for cleanliness and tidiness which my elder sister displays. My study table is littered with books, while hero is neatly organized. When going out, she takes a few minutes to get ready while I take ages to decide what to wear. Even when it comes to handling money, she controls the purse strings, keeps an account of each paisa spent while I tend to lose money constantly. She speaks softly and gently whereas I, the brat of the family screams and shouts. She likes to watch the Discovery Channel while I am glued to the MTV. She is fond of traditional dresses, whereas I go mad over western clothes. Even in the choice of music, our tastes vary diametrically. The effects of such differences are to be seen clearly in our personalities. While my sister is a typical example of what an elder sister should be, I have remained a true specimen of a younger sister even carefree, disorganized and dependent upon my elder sibling for many things in life. (d) “Advice not taken” Like alf mothers, my mother too is a firm believer of the dictum that “Advice given day and night shall set your child right.” So whether it is six in the morning or twelve at night, I can never escape from her constant showers of advice. Some of them make sense some don’t. Now when the chance to travel independently from Agra to Goa came my way I was ecstatic. I looked forward to the adventure of my first solo train journey. As my packing began, so did her advice, “Don’t forget your medicines,” “Don’t trust strangers on the way,” “Never get off the train till you reach Goa” etc. etc. The train journey started off on a pleasant note, the weather was fine and I secured a window seat. I was fully furnished with snacks, water, soft drinks and my novel to read. Sitting across me was an extremely polite family. They had two teenaged daughters who kept me good company. We talked, shared our views about this and that. We joked and ate our lunch together. Time flew as one station passed another. We commented on the kind of people who came in, giggling and cracking jokes at their expense. Mr. and Mrs. Bhargava and their two charming daughters Neha and Supriya kept me good company. At night I went up to the upper birth. Neha helped me to climb up to it and everytime I had to come down, I would call for her assistance. “Such helpful people!”, I thought with joy. Finally the Madhgaon station, just short of the Goa Central came. We packed our f bags and got ready to bid each other goodbye. My uncle was to receive me at the station. I got down and looked all around but there was no trace of him. Mrs. Bhargava suggested that I should leave my bags with them at the platform and then go in search for my uncle. May be he was waiting for me at the exit gate. I quickly took their advice and sauntered off to the main entrance and exit gates. For about ten minutes I continued my search till at last I spotted him, hurrying towards me with apologies for being late. He was surprised to see me empty handed. I told him that my two travelling bags were on the platform with my fellow passengers taking care of them. We walked to the spot where I had left them. Now it was my turn to be surprised. There was no trace of either the Bhargavas or my bags. I had been royally duped. It was then that my mother’s advice sounded in my ears, “Neelu, don’t trust strangers whom you meet on the way.” I wish I had taken that precious advice. (e) Picture Composition The race-course was filling up. The cheerful crowds, fashionably dressed men and women and the green grounds before them made it a perfect picture. A voice on the loudspeaker began to request the people to take their seats. I had gone along with my elder brother to the Mahalaxmi Race Course at Mumbai. I was quite a sportsman myself though horse racing was quite a new event for me. I had heard wild stories of people betting on horses and becoming millionaires in a day. I had in my heart of hearts always wished that I could also be a lucky winner some day. My elder brother seemed shocked when I told him that I wanted to bet all my pocket money on the horses that day. He felt I was taking quite a risk. But something inside me compelled me to go ahead with my plan. At last I convinced my brother and betted my collected amount of Rs. 5000/- on the horse named “Thunder”. The pistol was fired in the air, the jockeys were ready on their steeds and then the electronic gates opened out flowed the riders and their horses. They wore attractive colours and their horses showed their rippling, muscles and shining bodies. I wondered just how many hours of endless training, patience, skill and effort was behind the horsemen and their animals. I cheered wildly and shouted with all my might when I saw Thunder. As the minutes rolled by, three other horses whose numbers were 25, 36 and 14 began to lead. The riders were thorough professionals and the animals were extremely well bred. They soon left behind the entire lot of animals. My spirits fell, I thought I was about to . lose all my patiently gathered pocket money. I thought of the sacrifices I had made to gather this amount. The lead continued and only four and a half minutes were left for the race to be over. I was tensed and prepared to go. Just when I had reached the exit gate I heard the voice on the microphone. It said, “And now, wonder of all wonders, number 36 has stumbled upon the obstacles, number 14 is also lagging behind and did you ever guess that number 9, Thunder is taking a lead.” I could not believe my ears? I ran to my brother and held his hand as we both saw Thunder, my lucky horse number 9 winning the race. Question 2: (Do not spend more than 20 minutes on this question). Select ONE of the following: (a) One of your grandparents has completed one hundred years of age. Write a letter congratulating him/her, expressing gratitude, praise and admiration for the way he / she has lived his / her life. (b) A company has been marketing spurious medicines behind claims that its product could be effective in preventing the avian flue or other forms of influenza. W. ite a letter to the Drug Controller General of the Directorate of Health Services, examit. ing the claim of the company and explaining the harm these kind of claims could cause. (a) D-37, LajpatKunj 14th May, 2007 The Drug Controller General Directorate of Health Services New Delhi: 1100049 Subject: Exposing the sale of spurious medicines I am writing this letter on behalf of numerous residents of Agra. I would like to draw your attention to the recent advertisements published in our daily local newspaper “Amar Ujala” and “Dainik Jagran”. There is a pharmacentical company called “Miracle Cures” which is behind these advertisements. According to these advertisements the Avian-flu or Chicken-gunia as it is popularly called and other kinds of influenza can be cured within seven days after taking a regular dose of this medicine. They claim that it is a miracle which has no parallel in the world of medicine. Those who have taken these tablets have a different story to tell. They say that these medicines are very expensive. A complete course for a week costs about Rs. 1500. To add to these there are some tonics and vitamin supplements which cost another Rs. 600. So the total amount comes to about Rs. 2100. This is a significant amount for an average man. The section of people who are being fooled the most are the ignorant farmers. This medicine company has done much propaganda in the villages, distributing pamphlets and offering lucky draws and surprise gifts to those who buy the complete course of these medicines. The doctors of the town say that these tablets are absolutely fake. They only suppress the symptoms and cause damage to our nervous system. Some patients have even complained of shivering, convulsions and fits after eating these medicines. We make a serious and sincere appeal to you to please take charge of the situation. Get these tablets tested and expose the racket of spurious medicines. We will took forward to a speedy and favourable response from your side. (b) 23-A, Kamla Nagar 14th May, 2007 My dearest Grandma, Please do accept my heart-felt congratulations on this very special day, your birthday. Just imagine you have completed a century grandma, you are hundred years old! All my friends join me in conveying our birthday wishes to you. I am sorry that I am unable to be home on this grand day. Had it not been for my Engineering entrance exam, tomorrow, I surely would have been there with you. Grandma I would like to express my gratitude for all that you have done for me through all these years. Looking back on all these years I still remember the many happy hours we spent together. Remember, you never slept in the afternoons and kept busy with some craft or the other. During my 6th standard at school you helped me to complete my S.U.P.W. projects. Do you remember how patiently you taught me to hold my knitting needles? I still have that multicoloured muffler which you and I made together. I have preserved it for its memories attached to you. I am also very thankful to you for inspiring me to create beautiful objects out of waste material. I still take pleasure in creating paper machine boxes, small dolls made of old stocking, doll’s furniture made out of match boxes and what not! Some of my friends really wonder from where I learnt all these things and who was my brilliant’teacher. When I told them it was you, they were filled with admiration. Even my first cooking-lessons were taken by you. During my tenth standard, I had taken home-science and you helped me to learn the various recipes by demonstrating r them. Not only I but many of my friends owe their culinary skills to you. Let me take this opportunity to admire the manner in which you have lived your life. You faced many critical phases in your life. Grandpa’s death when you were just thirty five, the illness of my maternal uncle and the economic crisis at home. All these did not deter you. You still remained calm and positive. Perhaps your deep faith in God has also helped you to withstand all these difficulties. Once again, do accept my regards and best wishes on this memorable day. I will try to come and meet you as soon as possible. With love and regards, Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions that follow: The boy was idling in the market-place on the look out for mischief. All at once he saw it beckoning him. Workmen had been slating the church spire, and their ladders stretched invitingly from earth to steeple. All children like scrambling up to high places to see if the world looks any different from an apple tree or a stable loft. Over and above his love for climbing, Michael had a longing to do things that had never been done before. As he gazed at the spire, crowned r by a golden ball and weather-vane, an idea crept into his mind—he would be the first person in flushing to stand on the golden ball beneath the weather-vane! He glanced around. No one waslooking; Michael began to swarm up the ladder. At the top of the tower there rose a slated spire crowned by a golden ball and weather-vane. At last Michael found himself squatting on top of,the ball, holding on by the vane. Presently he heard workmen moving below. He did not pper over or speak. He was not going to be hauled down before flushing had seen him. Tfhe voices died away and Michael sat resting. At last he felt ready to startle the town. He pulled himself to his feet, and keeping tight hold of the weather-vane, managed to stand on top of the ball. It was well that he had a cool head and iron nerves. Someone must have cast a casual glance up at the vane and seeing his little figure, cried out. In a minute or two Michael was delighted to see the market-place full of people who had rushed out of their shops and houses to gaze at the dizzy sight. It was splendid to have all those eyes and hearts glued upon you! But Michael did not intend to stay there until he was fetched down, to be handed over to his father and cuffed before the crowd. After a while he prepared to descend of his own free will. He leaned over the ball. The ladder had gone. The workmen had taken it away! A sudden feeling of sickness and giddiness came over Michael. He mastered it. To wait for rescue was a humiliating end to his escapade. He would come down alone, even if it cost him his life. The spire at the base of the ball was only half slated, and Michael saw some hope of gaining a foothold on the old part. He clasped his arms round the top of the ball and let his body swing down; he was just able to feel the first slate with his toes. Those toes were shod with iron toe-caps, for Michael was hard on his shoes. Michael kicked with his marmoured toes till the slate crashed and fell in; then he got a foothold on the wooden laths beneath. He rested for a minute, with aching arms and a stiff body. He must change his grip on the ball, which was too big to slide his arms down; he must get clear of it, and somehow grasp the spire beneath. One false move and he would be hurled to death on the cobbles below. Slowly he began to slide his hands together at the top of the ball, and then downward over its bulging face. Every inch was packed with peril; every inch pushed him backward towards death. It seemed to him that he would be too weak to hold on when the time came for him to grasp the spire. But at last the steady, deadly creeping of his fingers brought him to a point where he could bend forward. With a sudden snatch he caught the base of the ball. The next moment he was kicking out a stairway in the old tiles and swarming swiftly down. He reached the foot of the spire, lifted the trapdoor of the tower, ran down the steps, and was caught by his father in the organ loft. (a) Three words from the passage are given below. Give the meaning of each word as used in the passage. One word answers or short phrases will be accepted: - startle (line 15) - casual (line 18) - grasp (line 37) (b) Answer the following questions briefly in your own words: - What was Michael doing in the market-place? What attracted his attention? - What did Michael long to do? What did he plan to do to accomplish this? - How did Michael display‘a cool head and iron nerves’? - Which sight filled Michael’s heart with delight and why? - Why did Michael not wait for rescue? - Use the word ‘face’ (line 40) in a sentence of your own such that it has a different meaning from that it carries in the passage. (c) With close reference to the last five paragraphs of the extract and in not more than 60 words, trace Michael’s descent from the top of the ball to the foot of the spire. (d) Give a title to your summary in 3 (c). State a reason to justify your choice. - Michael was just passing his time in the market place, idling around looking for something naughty to do. Suddenly he saw long ladders resting on the ground, reaching up to the church spire. - Michael was looking for some mischief. On seeing the spire of the church, crowned by a golden ball and weather vane, an idea entered his mind. He wanted to be the first person in this town of Flushing to stand on the golden ball beneath the weather vane. - Michael managed to stand on top of the golden ball, holding on to the weather vane. This required much courage and therefore he showed that “he had a Cool head and iron nerves.” - The sight of people rushing out of their shops in the market place and crowding below to watch him standing on top of the church, made Michael extremely delighted. - Michael did not wait for rescue because that would have been a shameful end to his brave act. He decided to come down alone even if it cost him his life. - The principal said to me, “If your attendance is less than seventy percent then you must face the consequences.” (d) “A Narrow Escape” is the title of the summary. It was a very narrow or dangerous escape as Michael could have died at any step. (a) In the following passage, fill in each of the numbered blanks with the correct form of the word given in brackets. Do not copy the passage, but write in correct serial order the word or phrase appropriate to the blank space. Example: (0) am convinced. I (0) ………. (convince) that my father (1) ………… (remember) by all those who value integrity. He (2) ………… (be) a man of learning and also saw to it that he (3) ……….. (teach) his pupils with passion and patience. He, at times (4) ……….. (use) to lose his temper, but that was because he always (5) ………….. (want) his pupils to learn and learn well. As a person, he was honest and simple. His greatness (6) ……….. (lie) in the fact that he (7) ………. (have) a pure heart, devoid of malice. Such a man is always valued and (8) ………. (be) very rare to find. (b) Fill in the blanks with appropriate words: - Truth always prevails ………. the long run. - Sujata stood ……….. the river and saw the ship pass by. - She took some money ………… her father to buy a video game. - Shilpa gave me a rare gift ………. my birthday. - Deepak was very upset ……….. me. - Michael is longing ……….. meet me. - It has been a long time ……… I met my sister. - The worker asked ………. his wages. (c) Join the following sentences to make one complete sentence without using and, but or so. - John gave me the novel. John wanted me to review it. - Debjani received my note. She sent her reply within a week. - Raja is a great footballer. He is also popular. - Jennifer saw that I was confused. She came to my rescue. (d) Re-write the following sentences according to the instructions given after each. Make other changes that may he necessary, but do not change the meaning of each sentence: - Anne paid a heavy price for her recklessness. (Begin : It …………..) - No sooner had Ram narrated the story than hfe was praised. (Begin : Hardly…………..) - Tanuja is a very friendly girl and is always cheerful. (Begin : Besides………….) - They had to put off the garden party because of the heavy rain. (Begin : The heavy………….) - Margaret said to me, “Please do not forget to meet me tomorrow”. (Begin : I was…………) - Inspite of my warning Dev, he ignored me. (Begin : Though…………) - The business talks failed because neither side was willing to compromise. (Begin : Since…………) - They were very afraid and so they could not speak. (Begin : Being…………) - will be remembered - John wanted me to review the novel which he gave me. - Debjani replied to my note within a week. - Raja is a popular, great footballer. - Jennifer came to my rescue when she saw that I was confused. - It was a heavy price which Anne paid for her recklessness. - Hardly had Ram narrated the story when he was praised. - Besides being a very friendly girl, Tanuja is always cheerful. - The heavy rain made them put off the garden party. - I was told by Margaret not to forget to meet her the next day. - Though I had warned Dev yet he ignored me. - Since neither side was willing to compromise the business talks failed. - Being very afraid, they could not speak.

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By Sadru K. Hassam In order to simplify the understanding of the underlying socio-economic factors of the Fatimid Caliphate, this article will first examine separately the North African Period (909-969 A.C.) and then the Egyptian Period (969-1171 A.C.) in a chronological sequence. Each of these periods had its own set of socio-economic factors, the major being that the Fatimids were a Shiite minority ruling over the Sunni majority. Throughout the Fatimid period, the Sunni Abbasids were the main political rivals and during the North African period there was also a clash of interest in the Mediterranean trade with the Christian Byzantine Empire. Even though the Fatimid rule attempted to be fair to all most of the time, it did not seem so to the majority, especially in times of famine and economic hardship. THE NORTH AFRICAN PERIOD (909 – 969 A.C.) The first four Fatimid Imams, al-Mahdi, al-Qaim, al-Mansur and al-Muiz consolidated their rule in North Africa politically, economically and militarily. But Ismailism, a creed of the Fatimids, which was essentially religious and philosophical, could not be disassociated from political and social movements at the same time and since the Ismailis were in minority ruling the majority of the Sunnis who had been nominally under the Abbasids, they were bound to face opposition. In North Africa, the political and religious opposition came mainly from Sunnism which itself was weakened by the split between Malikism and Kharidjism especially in its Ibadi and Sufri forms. The other opposition came from the Berbers. There were two main rival groups, the Zenata in the West and the Sanhadja in the East. The latter included the Kutama, who initially had supported the Fatimids, but later on revolted, especially after the execution of Dai Abu Abdulla al-Shii for high treason. The first years of the Fatimid rule in North Africa were therefore spent in overcoming these opponents and consolidating their rule. In theory all the lands in North Africa were supposed to be nominally under the Abbasids, but in reality the Muslim dynasties like the Aghlabids, whom the Fatimids had overthrown, the Idrisids of Fez in Morocco, the Umayyads of Spain and the dissident Kharidjites in North Africa were virtually independent. These became the closest rivals of the Fatimids, but were eventually overcome. In the Mediterranean, there was a clash of interests in Genoa, Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia between the Christian Byzantine Empire and the expanding Fatimid Caliphate. After several encounters between the navies of the two contending empires, a peace treaty was signed in 967 A.C. between the Fatimids and the Byzantines. The Fatimids were also able to hold their own against all the other political opponents because of their powerful army and navy, but in order to sustain these, the state in North Africa had to have a strong economic base. When North Africa was conquered, it was in flourishing conditions mainly because of the development of town life. The northern strip of North Africa which has the Mediterranean type of climate is fertile. It was not agriculture alone that was the mainstay of the economy of North Africa, but the transit trade between Southern Europe and the Trans-Sahara trade that encouraged the growth of town life. For, to the Arabs and the Berbers, unlike to the Romans before them, the Sahara and the lands to the south were not terra incognita. In fact the Sahara was criss-crossed with several camel caravan routes which carried the trade between North Africa and the black Africa. Gold, kola nuts and other tropical products from the grasslands of West Africa were exchanged for the goods from North Africa and Europe, and also for rock salt from the desert which was in short supply in these grasslands. It was through this trade that Islam had penetrated into these regions of Africa, where a number of African Kingdoms like Ghana, Mali, Songhay and Kanem-Bornu flourished until their decline after the European penetration of West Africa. The Fatimids in North Africa benefited from the North African agriculture and local trade, as well as from this transit international trade with the ports of Southern Europe in the Mediterranean and the overland Trans-Saharan trade. North Africa for them then became a prosperous base for the conquest of Egypt, but they were successful only after they had consolidated their rule at home, extended their sway westwards to the Atlantic and had come to terms with the Byzantines by signing a peace treaty with them in 967 A.C. In 969 A.C. Gazi Jawhar, the Commander-in-Chief of the Fatimid forces, conquered Egypt from the Ikshidid rulers after making a two-pronged attack from the land and the sea. For the next two centuries Egypt came under the Shiite Fatimid rule. THE EGYPTIAN PERIOD (969-1171 A.C.) It should be remembered that three previous attempts to conquer Egypt had not been successful, but, as a result of these campaigns, the Fatimid forces gained much experience. This eastern policy of the conquest of Egypt was pursued by careful planning in the practical aspects and psychologically, by skilful propaganda. The internal chaos in Egypt, which was ravaged by famine also helped. The consolidation of the Fatimid rule in North Africa, their peace treaty with the Byzantine Empire and the effective generalship of Gazi Jawhar were the other factors which resulted in the conquest of Egypt. The main problem in Egypt arose from the fact that the Fatimid dynasty was Shiite ruling over the majority of the Sunnis, who apparently did not really mind because, on the whole, the rule was fair and just, and there was no attempt to force Ismailism upon them. As soon as Egypt was conquered, the name of the Abbasid ruler was dropped in Friday khutba, but the mention of Fatimid name was introduced gradually, in order not to upset the Sunni sentiments. Under the Fatimids, the Christians and Jews, known as dhimmis in Islam, were relatively better off, for they could be promoted to the highest posts in the Empire. Merit and ability, rather than religion, were the criteria for selecting one for high office, but at times this tolerance towards the dhimmis was not looked on with favour by the Sunnis. The other social problems were the result of racial rivalries especially in the army among the Berbers (Maghribi), the Turks, the Daylamis (Masharika), the Armenians and the Sudanese. These men, introduced into the Caliphate as praetorian guards for the Caliphs at different times, later on became undisciplined, unruly and jealous of each other. Sometimes they stirred rebellions into the streets and were powerful enough to cause the downfall of ministers. They were one main reason why the Caliphs, after the wafat of Imam Mustansirbillah, became ineffective rulers. There was also a class struggle between the prosperous bourgeois classes and the distressed working masses which had an outlet in various political movements, civil disobedience, revolts and civil war. The bourgeoisie always sided with the caliphal government, but the other classes opposed it especially in Syria, which had suffered from the shift of trade routes. Syria’s silk industry declined and there was much unemployment and great discontent. Revolutionary movements of the lower classes allied itself with the Bedouin revolts in Palestine, which had to be suppressed, but by 1092 A.C. the Fatimids lost their control over Syria which, with Palestine, was divided among the different Bedouin chiefs. Students of Islamic history more or less agree that the Fatimid regime conducted what may be loosely termed a liberal economy policy, and that the rulers of 10th-12th century Egypt intervened in the Egyptian economy to a minimum degree. Goitein, maintaining that the Fatimid period “was one of relative tolerance and liberalism, if compared with the preceding and, in particular, the following periods,” also stresses the “comparatively little interference by the [Fatimid] governments in the trade of their subjects.” Ashtor tells us that “a striking feature of the Fatimid regime was freedom of enterprise,” and that “all sectors of the economic life were free – crafts, industry and trade.” Staffa asserts that “the [Fatimid] government made no attempt to impose strict control over the economy… In the middle of the eleventh century in the reign of Hazrat Imam Mustansirbillah, the flourishing period of the Fatimid caliphate ended. Apart from the constant fighting between the Turkish and Sudanese troops, the country suffered a terrible famine, caused by a low Nile which lasted for seven years from 1066 to 1072 A.C. This brought about an economic and social catastrophe. For, during these long years of famine and civil wars, many peasants left their villages and went to live in the towns. This crisis was a turning point in the demographic history of Egypt. Depopulation became the most important phenomenon in Egypt’s social history. Despite these socio-political problems, famines, disturbances and rebellions, Fatimid Egypt, on the whole, enjoyed prosperity in general because of good administration and sound financial apparatus. The picture will become more balanced if we look at the multifarious economic activities during the whole of this period. The prosperity which the Fatimids enjoyed in North Africa and the experience of sixty years of rule there helped the Fatimids to be in a strong position in Egypt. Despite the economic hardship in the last days of the Ikshidid rule in Egypt, the country, as a whole, had greatly prospered since the times of the Tulunids. Unlike the Abbasids, the Tulunids did not allow the produce of Egypt to contribute to the prosperity of peoples elsewhere. In other words, the Egyptains themselves profited from their own labour and this gave a great boost to the agriculture of Egypt. Then, for a short period, the country reverted to Abbasid rule, but the Ikshidids established themselves as a semi-autonomous dynasty until they were overthrown by the Fatimids. The revenue for the Fatimid Caliphate was derived from customs dues, trade and taxes. The dinar used as currency was almost hundred percent pure gold, mainly because the Fatimid rulers came with great amount of gold from North Africa. The trans-Saharan trade routes had remained open to them and after the conquest of Egypt gold was also obtained from the Nubian mines. The purity of the gold dinar was one of the striking features of Egypt’s economy down to the end of the Fatimid rule. In order to pay for the expenses of the government administration, the army and the institutions of learning, the Fatimids had to increase the taxes levied by their predecessors and to impose new ones. The finances were managed mostly by the Christian Copts. The Fatimids farmed out the land-tax and the other taxes against a fixed sum. Any surplus revenue obtained was the profit of the tax farmers . Ikta (estates) were granted to any private undertakers by public auction against a sum comprising the rent and the taxes. These estates were allotted for four years. The Fatimids established a vast network of trade and commerce, with Egypt as the focal point of trading activities that extended as far as Spain in the west and India in the east (and beyond the Muslim regions as well). Describing the markets in Fatimid Cairo, Nasir Khusraw writes: “I estimated that there were no less than twenty thousand shops in Cairo… Every sort of rare goods from all over the world can be had there: I saw tortoise-shell implements such as small boxes, knife handles, and so on. I also saw extremely fine crystal, which the master craftsmen etch most beautifully… I saw the following fruits and herbs, all in one day: red roses, lilies, narcissus, oranges, citrons, limes and other citrus fruits, apples, jasmine, basil, quince, pomegranates, pears, melons of various sorts, bananas, olives, myrobalan, fresh dates, grapes, sugarcane, eggplants, fresh squash, turnips, radishes, cabbage, fresh beans, cucumbers, green onions, fresh garlic, carrots, and beets… In Old Cairo they make all types of porcelain, so fine and translucent that you can see your hand behind it when held up to the light. From this porcelain they make cups, bowls, plates, and so forth…They also produce a glass so pure and flawless that it resembles chrysolite, and it is sold by weight.” This remarkable economic vitality led to the development of complex administrative and financial systems comprising a number of diwans, ministries or departments, including the diwan al-insha’ (the chancery of state), and the diwan al-amwal (ministry of finance). Agriculture has always been important for Egypt. Egypt is the gift of the Nile without which Egypt could become part of the Sahara desert. River Nile enriches the soil and sustains agriculture in the Nile valley and the Nile delta. During the Fatimid period numerous crops like wheat, barley and a variety of vegetables were cultivated. Wheat was not sufficient and had to be imported. The chief industrial crops were flax, sugar-cane, dye-plants, animal-fodder and, to a lesser degree, cotton. The production of soft-wood was inadequate for ship-building and had to be imported from Venice. There were times when the river failed to rise enough. At such times dams and canals were neglected and thus agricultural production suffered. Severe draughts, in the reign of Hazrat Imam Mustansirbillah, led to widespread famines which resulted in the depopulation of the countryside. “A striking feature of the Fatimid regime was the freedom of enterprise. All sectors of economic life were free-crafts, industry and trade. The government interfered in the trade in victuals only so far as it had to in order to guarantee the supply of wheat to the big towns”. This freedom of enterprise encouraged industry and trade, both internal and external. Weaving was encouraged by the cultivation of flax. Silk was manufactured in Cairo. This led to the decline of the Syrian silk industry which led to the unemployment of many people in Syria who then took part in the revolts there. As mentioned earlier, local wood was not sufficient and had to be imported from Venice for shipbuilding, for Egypt has always been short of wood. In the Pharaonic period wood had to be imported from the highlands of Lebanon. The Fatimid period is famous for its glass and crystals. Glass industry flourished in Fustat and Alexandria. Pottery, ceramics and mosaic were also manufactured in Egypt. Metal work, iron and copper-making were the other industrial activities. Work in ivory and leather were the main craft industries. Oil was extracted from vegetable and sugar from sugar-cane. Both these were also refined. Industry also benefited from the pomp of the Fatimid court and by the liberal distribution of gifts and garments. Paper-making and work in leather was encouraged by the need for manuscripts and writing paper in the institutions of learning like the Al-Azhar and Dar-al-Hikma. In his Safarnama, Nasir Khusraw mentions about the luxury industries which flourished. The ‘guilds’, the development of which the Fatimids encouraged, not only improved the quality of the goods produced, but also to some extent improved the industrial relations between the owners and the workers. The lowest paid workers, however, were not happy with their wages and in times of famines and disturbances they used to join the riots. The inflation caused mainly due to the influx of gold, hit the working classes much more whilst the bourgeois classes profited from it. Trade, both internal and external, thrived. The Fatimids carried on commercial relations with many countries. There was no discriminatory tariffs against Christians and Jews. Both these communities were active in trade. The Geniza documents further testify that the Jews were active in trade. In the Mediterranean, the sea-borne trade was carried on with Constantinople, Amalfi, Genoa, Pisa, Venice, Sicily, North Africa and Spain. There was also much trade with Nubia, Sudan and West Africa. These countries bought spices, cloth and other Egyptian products and sold commodities which Egypt lacked e.g. wheat, iron, wood, silk, wool and cheese External trade with India was carried on via the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea in merchant ships. In fact, the Red Sea supplanted the Persian Gulf as the main trade route from India to the Mediterranean. This shift of sea-trade route, the control of the Hejaz – Yemen land-route, the establishment of two states in Multan and Mansura in India and the establishment of the Alamut State in the last quarter of the eleventh century may have forced the Abbasid Caliphate into economic doldrums. From the above detailed examination of the socio-economic factors in the Fatimid Caliphate, we may conclude that it was the economic strength of the empire that enabled the Fatimids to pay for the intellectual, artistic and cultural achievements and also sustain the socio-political problems and the natural disasters. This economic strength also enabled them not only to challenge the Abbasids, but also weaken them economically. This strength combined with the liberal philosophy also enabled the Fatimid Caliphate not only to rule Egypt for nearly two hundred years after the conquest, but also usher in the most glorious period in Egypt’s long history. A Social and Economic History of the Near East in the Middle Ages by E. Ashtor, Collins (1976), pp. 80-83 ibid, pp. 202-207 Quote on Fatimid Economy excerpted from “Fatimid Grain Policy and the Post of the Muhtasib” by Boaz Shoshan published in the International Journal of Middle East Studies, May 1981, Volume 13, Number 2, pages 181-189 A Social and Economic History of the Near East in the Middle Ages by E. Ashtor, Collins (1976), pp. 126-131 ibid, pp. 192-195 Description of the Cairo market excerpted from Nasir Khusraw’s Safarnama (Book of Travels). A Social and Economic History of the Near East in the Middle Ages by E. Ashtor, Collins (1976), pp. 183 An Interpretation of Fatimid History by Bernard Lewis, see Colloque International sur l’Histoire du Caire published by the Ministry of Culture of the Arab Republic of Egypt. 1. Fatimids by M. Canard, see The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol II, pp. 850-862 2. The Nature of Fatimid Achievement by Gustav E. Von Grunebaum, see Colloque International sur l’Histoire du Caire. Article adapted from “The Socio-Economic Aspects of the Fatimid Caliphate” by Sadru K. Hassam, published in Ilm, Volume 8, Numbers 2 and 3 (December 1982 – February 1983).

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John Galsworthy OM (14 August 1867 – 31 January 1933) was an English novelist and playwright. Notable works include The Forsyte Saga (1906–1921) and its sequels, A Modern Comedy and End of the Chapter. He won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1932. - The world's a fine place for those who go out to take it; there's lots of unknown stuff in it yet. I'll fill your lap, my pretty, so full of treasures that you shan't know yourself. A man wasn't meant to sit at home... - A Man of Devon (1901) - The Forsytes were resentful of something, not individually, but as a family; this resentment expressed itself in an added perfection of raiment, an exuberance of family cordiality, an exaggeration of family importance, and — the sniff. Danger — so indispensable in bringing out the fundamental quality of any society, group, or individual — was what the Forsytes scented; the premonition of danger put a burnish on their armour. For the first time, as a family, they appeared to have an instinct of being in contact, with some strange and unsafe thing. - The Man of Property (1906) Volume I of The Forsyte Saga - "To take life," went on the old man in a voice which, though charged with strong emotion, seemed to be speaking to itself, "was the chief mark of the insensate barbarism still prevailing in those days. It sprang from that most irreligious fetish, the belief in the permanence of the individual ego after death. From the worship of that fetish had come all the sorrows of the human race. … They did not stop to love each other in this life; they were so sure they had all eternity to do it in. The doctrine was an invention to enable men to act like dogs with clear consciences. Love could never come to full fruition till it was destroyed." - Fraternity (1909) - Justice is a machine that, when someone has once given it the starting push, rolls on of itself. - Justice, Act II (1910) - When Man evolved Pity, he did a queer thing — deprived himself of the power of living life as it is without wishing it to become something different. - Letter to Thomas Hardy (27 March 1910) - Life was to be lived — not torpidly dozed through in this queer cultured place, where age was in the blood! Life was for love — to be enjoyed! - The Dark Flower (1913) - It isn't enough to love people because they're good to you, or because in some way or other you're going to get something by it. We have to love because we love loving. - A Bit O' Love (1915) - Only love makes fruitful the soul. The sense of form that both had in such high degree prevented much demonstration; but to be with him, do things for him, to admire, and credit him with perfection; and, since she could not exactly wear the same clothes or speak in the same clipped, quiet, decisive voice, to dislike the clothes and voices of other men — all this was precious to her beyond everything. - Beyond (1917) - Love! Beyond measure — beyond death — it nearly kills. But one wouldn't have been without it. - Beyond (1917) - Love of beauty is really only the sex instinct, which nothing but complete union satisfies. - Saint's Progress (1919) - "I cannot explain. There are things that I can't make clear, because you are wilfully blind to all that I believe in. For what do you imagine we are fighting this great war, if it is not to reestablish the belief in love as the guiding principle of life?" Laird shook his head. "We are fighting to redress a balance, which was in danger of being lost." "The balance of power?" "Heavens! — no! The balance of philosophy." Pierson smiled. "That sounds very clever, George; but again, I don't follow you." "The balance between the sayings: 'Might is Right,' and 'Right is Might.' They're both half-truth, but the first was beating the other out of the field. All the rest of it is cant, you know. And by the way, sir, your Church is solid for punishment of the evildoer. Where's mercy there? Either its God is not merciful, or else it doesn't believe in its God. - Saint's Progress (1919) - Summer — summer — summer! The soundless footsteps on the grass! - Indian Summer of a Forsyte (1918) - I don't know much about morality and that, but there is this: It's always worth while before you do anything to consider whether it's going to hurt another person more than is absolutely necessary. - In Chancery (1920); Third part of The Forsyte Saga - Public opinion's always in advance of the law. - Windows, Act I (1922) - The value of a sentiment is the amount of sacrifice you are prepared to make for it. - Windows, Act II (1922) - Writing not long ago to my oldest literary friend, I expressed in a moment of heedless sentiment the wish that we might have again one of our talks of long-past days, over the purposes and methods of our art. And my friend, wiser than I, as he has always been, replied with this doubting phrase "Could we recapture the zest of that old time?" I would not like to believe that our faith in the value of imaginative art has diminished, that we think it less worth while to struggle for glimpses of truth and for the words which may pass them on to other eyes; or that we can no longer discern the star we tried to follow; but I do fear, with him, that half a lifetime of endeavour has dulled the exuberance which kept one up till morning discussing the ways and means of aesthetic achievement. We have discovered, perhaps with a certain finality, that by no talk can a writer add a cubit to his stature, or change the temperament which moulds and colours the vision of life he sets before the few who will pause to look at it. And so — the rest is silence, and what of work we may still do will be done in that dogged muteness which is the lot of advancing years. Other times, other men and modes, but not other truth. Truth, though essentially relative, like Einstein's theory, will never lose its ever-new and unique quality — perfect proportion; for Truth, to the human consciousness at least, is but that vitally just relation of part to whole which is the very condition of life itself. And the task before the imaginative writer, whether at the end of the last century or all these aeons later, is the presentation of a vision which to eye and ear and mind has the implicit proportions of Truth. - Preface to Villa Rubein and Other Stories (1923) - Looking back on the long-stretched-out body of one's work, it is interesting to mark the endless duel fought within a man between the emotional and critical sides of his nature, first one, then the other, getting the upper hand, and too seldom fusing till the result has the mellowness of full achievement. One can even tell the nature of one's readers, by their preference for the work which reveals more of this side than of that. - Preface to Villa Rubein and Other Stories (1923) - If you do not think about the future, you cannot have one. - Swan Song (1928) Pt. II, Ch. 6 - A man of action forced into a state of thought is unhappy until he can get out of it. - Maid in Waiting (1931), Ch. 3 - There's just one rule for politicians all over the world: Don't say in Power what you say in Opposition; if you do, you only have to carry out what the other fellows have found impossible. - Maid in Waiting (1931), Ch. 7 - One's eyes are what one is, one's mouth what one becomes. - Flowering Wilderness (1932), Ch. 2 - There are things worth being loyal to, surely. Coffee, for instance, or one’s religion. - Flowering Wilderness (1932) Vague Thoughts On Art (1911) - Art is that imaginative expression of human energy, which, through technical concretion of feeling and perception, tends to reconcile the individual with the universal, by exciting in him impersonal emotion. And the greatest Art is that which excites the greatest impersonal emotion in an hypothecated perfect human being. - I paused, watching the swallows; for they seemed to me the symbol, in their swift, sure curvetting, all daring and balance and surprise, of the delicate poise and motion of Art, that visits no two men alike, in a world where no two things of all the things there be, are quite the same. - Art is the one form of human energy in the whole world, which really works for union, and destroys the barriers between man and man. It is the continual, unconscious replacement, however fleeting, of oneself by another; the real cement of human life; the everlasting refreshment and renewal. For, what is grievous, dompting, grim, about our lives is that we are shut up within ourselves, with an itch to get outside ourselves. And to be stolen away from ourselves by Art is a momentary relaxation from that itching, a minute's profound, and as it were secret, enfranchisement. The active amusements and relaxations of life can only rest certain of our faculties, by indulging others; the whole self is never rested save through that unconsciousness of self, which comes through rapt contemplation of Nature or of Art. - Art is the great and universal refreshment. For Art is never dogmatic; holds no brief for itself; you may take it, or you may leave it. It does not force itself rudely where it is not wanted. It is reverent to all tempers, to all points of view. But it is wilful — the very wind in the comings and goings of its influence, an uncapturable fugitive, visiting our hearts at vagrant, sweet moments; since we often stand even before the greatest works of Art without being able quite to lose ourselves! That restful oblivion comes, we never quite know when — and it is gone! But when it comes, it is a spirit hovering with cool wings, blessing us from least to greatest, according to our powers; a spirit deathless and varied as human life itself. - I cannot help thinking that historians, looking back from the far future, will record this age as the Third Renaissance. We who are lost in it, working or looking on, can neither tell what we are doing, nor where standing; but we cannot help observing, that, just as in the Greek Renaissance, worn-out Pagan orthodoxy was penetrated by new philosophy; just as in the Italian Renaissance, Pagan philosophy, reasserting itself, fertilised again an already too inbred Christian creed; so now Orthodoxy fertilised by Science is producing a fresh and fuller conception of life — a love of Perfection, not for hope of reward, not for fear of punishment, but for Perfection's sake. Slowly, under our feet, beneath our consciousness, is forming that new philosophy, and it is in times of new philosophies that Art, itself in essence always a discovery, must flourish. Those whose sacred suns and moons are ever in the past, tell us that our Art is going to the dogs; and it is, indeed, true that we are in confusion! The waters are broken, and every nerve and sinew of the artist is strained to discover his own safety. It is an age of stir and change, a season of new wine and old bottles. Yet, assuredly, in spite of breakages and waste, a wine worth the drinking is all the time being made. - Perfection, cosmically, was nothing but perfect Equanimity and Harmony; and in human relations, nothing but perfect Love and Justice. And Perfection began to glow before the eyes of the Western world like a new star, whose light touched with glamour all things as they came forth from Mystery, till to Mystery they were ready to return. This — I thought is surely what the Western world has dimly been rediscovering. There has crept into our minds once more the feeling that the Universe is all of a piece, Equipoise supreme; and all things equally wonderful, and mysterious, and valuable. We have begun, in fact, to have a glimmering of the artist's creed, that nothing may we despise or neglect — that everything is worth the doing well, the making fair — that our God, Perfection, is implicit everywhere, and the revelation of Him the business of our Art. - Is not the training of an artist a training in the due relation of one thing with another, and in the faculty of expressing that relation clearly; and, even more, a training in the faculty of disengaging from self the very essence of self — and passing that essence into other selves by so delicate means that none shall see how it is done, yet be insensibly unified? Is not the artist, of all men, foe and nullifier of partisanship and parochialism, of distortions and extravagance, the discoverer of that jack-o'-lantern — Truth; for, if Truth be not Spiritual Proportion I know not what it is. Truth it seems to me — is no absolute thing, but always relative, the essential symmetry in the varying relationships of life; and the most perfect truth is but the concrete expression of the most penetrating vision. Life seen throughout as a countless show of the finest works of Art; Life shaped, and purged of the irrelevant, the gross, and the extravagant; Life, as it were, spiritually selected — that is Truth; a thing as multiple, and changing, as subtle, and strange, as Life itself, and as little to be bound by dogma. Truth admits but the one rule: No deficiency, and no excess! Disobedient to that rule — nothing attains full vitality. And secretly fettered by that rule is Art, whose business is the creation of vital things. - Only out of stir and change is born new salvation. To deny that is to deny belief in man, to turn our backs on courage! It is well, indeed, that some should live in closed studies with the paintings and the books of yesterday — such devoted students serve Art in their own way. But the fresh-air world will ever want new forms. We shall not get them without faith enough to risk the old! The good will live, the bad will die; and tomorrow only can tell us which is which! - The seeing of things as they really are — the seeing of a proportion veiled from other eyes (together with the power of expression), is what makes a man an artist. What makes him a great artist is a high fervour of spirit, which produces a superlative, instead of a comparative, clarity of vision. - What is creative instinct, if not an incessant living sympathy with Nature, a constant craving like that of Nature's own, to fashion something new out of all that comes within the grasp of those faculties with which Nature has endowed us? The qualities of vision, of fancy, and of imaginative power, are no more divorced from Nature, than are the qualities of common-sense and courage. They are rarer, that is all. - Men fall, roughly speaking, into two flocks: Those whose intelligence is uninquiring in the face of Art, and does not demand to be appeased before their emotions can be stirred; and those who, having a speculative bent of mind, must first be satisfied by an enlightening quality in a work of Art, before that work of Art can awaken in them feeling. The audience of the realist is drawn from this latter type of man; the much larger audience of the romantic artist from the former; together with, in both cases, those fastidious few for whom all Art is style and only style, and who welcome either kind, so long as it is good enough. - He is but a poor philosopher who holds a view so narrow as to exclude forms not to his personal taste. No realist can love romantic Art so much as he loves his own, but when that Art fulfils the laws of its peculiar being, if he would be no blind partisan, he must admit it. The romanticist will never be amused by realism, but let him not for that reason be so parochial as to think that realism, when it achieves vitality, is not Art. For what is Art but the perfected expression of self in contact with the world; and whether that self be of enlightening, or of fairy-telling temperament, is of no moment whatsoever. The tossing of abuse from realist to romanticist and back is but the sword-play of two one-eyed men with their blind side turned toward each other. Shall not each attempt be judged on its own merits? If found not shoddy, faked, or forced, but true to itself, true to its conceiving mood, and fair-proportioned part to whole; so that it lives — then, realistic or romantic, in the name of Fairness let it pass! Of all kinds of human energy, Art is surely the most free, the least parochial; and demands of us an essential tolerance of all its forms. Shall we waste breath and ink in condemnation of artists, because their temperaments are not our own? - I sat, just watching the moon creep up, and hearing the thin, dry rustle of the leaves along the holly hedge. And there came to me this thought: What is this Universe — that never had beginning and will never have an end — but a myriad striving to perfect pictures never the same, so blending and fading one into another, that all form one great perfected picture? And what are we — ripples on the tides of a birthless, deathless, equipoised Creative-Purpose — but little works of Art? Moods, Songs and Doggerels (1912) - Come! Let us lay a lance in rest, And tilt at windmills under a wild sky! For who would live so petty and unblest That dare not tilt at something ere he die; Rather than, screened by safe majority, Preserve his little life to little end, And never raise a rebel cry! - Errantry, St. 1, Moods, Songs and Doggerels (1912) God save the pennon, ragged to the dawn, That signs to moon to stand, and sun to fly; And flutters when the weak is overborne To stem the tide of fate and certainty. That knows not reason, and that seeks no fame — So! Undismayed beneath the serried clouds, Raise up the banner of forlorn defence — A jest to the complacency of crowds — Bright-haloed with the one diviner sense: To hold itself as nothing to itself; And in the quest of its imagined star To lose all thought of after-recompense! - Errantry, St. 4 - 5 Over the River (1933) - The beginnings and endings of all human undertakings are untidy, the building of a house, the writing of a novel, the demolition of a bridge, and, eminently, the finish of a voyage. - Ch. 1 - Religion was nearly dead because there was no longer real belief in future life; but something was struggling to take its place — service — social service — the ants' creed, the bees' creed. - Ch. 11 - Everything known before it happens; and headlines twice the size of the events. - Ch. 27 - How to save the old that's worth saving, whether in landscape, houses, manners, institutions, or human types, is one of our greatest problems, and the one that we bother least about. - Ch. 39 Quotes about John Galsworthy - In fact, the real problem with the thesis of A Genealogy of Morals is that the noble and the aristocrat are just as likely to be stupid as the plebeian. I had noted in my teens that major writers are usually those who have had to struggle against the odds -- to "pull their cart out of the mud," as I put it -- while writers who have had an easy start in life are usually second rate -- or at least, not quite first-rate. Dickens, Balzac, Dostoevsky, Shaw, H. G. Wells, are examples of the first kind; in the twentieth century, John Galsworthy, Graham Greene, Evelyn Waugh, and Samuel Beckett are examples of the second kind. They are far from being mediocre writers; yet they tend to be tinged with a certain pessimism that arises from never having achieved a certain resistance against problems. - Colin Wilson in The Books In My Life, p. 188

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In 2010, Newsweek ran the cover story ‘Creativity in America: the Science of Innovation and how to Re-ignite our Imaginations’. The article inside, by Po Bronson and Ashley Merryman, claimed that students in the United States are becoming less creative as shown by Torrance test scores, a metric developed in the 1950s. The cause, the authors suggest, might be too much TV and too little time for creativity at school. The solution? To turn to neuroscience. Teaching experts should develop tasks to encourage children to practise moving from left to right hemisphere thinking during the school day. The authors call on readers’ fears of national decline by pointing out that in other nations, notably Britain, Australia, and China, creativity is part of the national school curriculum. But not so in America. The premise is clear: only by engineering creative thinking at schools can America deal with the coming economic and environmental challenges. ‘The problems we face now, and in the future, simply demand that we do more than just hope for inspiration to strike’ (Newsweek 19 July 2010: 49). Schoolchildren’s imagination, or more specifically the lack of it, is here presented as a public problem (Addelson 1993; Marres 2005). It is a concern for the future: for American predominance, for the global environment, for economically productive invention. The solution presented (as well as the measure of failure) is ‘scientific’. Imaginations have been counted in Torrance tests and will be improved by linking left and right brain hemispheres more frequently in classroom practice. Here is another way the public problem of imagination is presented: If we want this generation of children to make a difference, then we have to teach them to think outside of what have been the formal parameters that we generally take as real. They need to see the world from a whole other point of view, because they’ve got a lot of fixing to do. So to be able to see economics from a new perspective; to be able to see how to deal with the world’s waste; to deal with social and cultural boundaries in a new way, so that things like terrorism […] just would not make any sense […] It’s about finding new ways to deal with this world as it is, and I don’t think my generation has any longer any capacity for that – otherwise I reckon we’d be doing it (Author interview with teacher, Steiner School, 15 June 2007). These are the words of Shirley, a teacher of nine-year-olds at a Steiner school in Melbourne, Australia (above and in what follows referred to simply using the pseudonym ‘Steiner School’. Other schools are referred to using similar terms). She also sees imagination as the solution to future crises – of economics, environments, and human conflicts. But her practices of imagination, as we shall see, make no mention of the brain’s hemispheres. Her students’ imaginations are made by storytelling, by deep emotional links to myths, and by concentrated reproductions of mental images. Imagination is given as a solution to our collective problems. It can also be told as a solution to our personal problems. As another teacher put it, I have come to understand the role of imagination is about being able to see endless possibilities and providing myself and others with different thinking of the possibilities and imagining, and understanding that if you can imagine yourself doing something you’ve got a greater chance of actually achieving it (Government School, author interview with teacher, 29 May 2007). We could say that different people think about imagination differently. They can see it as a matter of brain function, or emotional connections to visual images, or providing oneself with a new path in life. But we should not rest there. I will argue that imagination does not simply look different from different perspectives. Rather, different imaginations are made though different practices: The kids play a game each day at lunchtime; most of the class are involved in some way. They have gathered a bunch of sticks and made it into a little house, or sometimes it’s a boat, or an animal’s den. Each child has an animal name, one they have invented or been granted. As they play they take on roles – cooking, building a fireplace, adventuring along the fence line – that they do alone or with others. One girl is on the outs. They said she can play, but that she has to be wombat. Lumbering old wombat, and while she wants to play she doesn’t want to be wombat. Nevertheless, she goes and gets pine needles from the other side of the playground to make a bed, and when she lays them in a soft, prickly pile at the back of the house, the others are interested. They lie down with her. This girl is a skilful user of imagination: turning pine needles into a bed, and her wombat self into a cosy, sleeping thing. By doing so, she also re-makes – for now at least – her relationships with her peers. Imagination in this game is obviously being done with materials (pine needles), words and labels (wombat), bodies (that adventure and lie down), and social relations (children first at odds and now lying together). The imagination children use here could not be separated from these material things; it could not stand alone as some pure imagination. These events are not just happening in someone’s mind, and if they were, nothing in this girl’s social world would change. The materiality of imagination can be obvious in play, and less obvious in a classroom lesson. But, I will argue, it is important that we work to see that in classrooms too, imagination is done. Key to this book is the understanding that imagination is not an abstract, ephemeral, mental object. Minds have a lot to do with imagination, of course. But so do bodies (that play, draw, speak, write, and touch) and so do other more mundane objects (pens and papers, huts and hoops, books and audiovisual materials). Imaginations are practised, they are done by embodied minds and clever bodies, with other bodies, and with stuff that is physically present, remembered, or fantasised. Imaginations might be habits: patterns that minds and bodies have done before. Or they might be newly improvised, blending people and materials in novel ways. Some imaginative practices might be praised by teachers and/or peers, while others might be ignored or hidden or told to stop. Each imaginative practice will make certain things possible and other things not possible. Teaching philosophies are at least partly about these possibilities: what we want possible for children to be able to do and to think in their future. Teachers working at different kinds of schools, in different communities of parents, with different curricula, and with different understandings of what children are, have different teaching philosophies. Their values and aspirations for children vary, and they seek to achieve these, in part, by mobilising children’s imaginations. What is imagination in Steiner practice and in practices at a special school? How important is it? What is it most importantly for? How is imagination done differently than, say, at a Catholic school? The children I worked with were aged eight, nine, and ten, in grade four classrooms (or grade three/four classrooms). Their classrooms were in Melbourne, Australia. Each was in one of five schools with a specific teaching philosophy, a social community, and a set of needs. One was at a Steiner school. These are run in accordance with the ideas (as they are now interpreted) of Rudolf Steiner, a late nineteenth-century philosopher and spiritualist. Another was at an ‘independent’ school, one that does not have to follow government curriculum on account of collecting running costs from parents as well as the government. In this case the fees were high, and most parents correspondingly wealthy. A third classroom was at a government school, or one run by state government money and with state government curriculum. The fourth school was for children with low IQs and assorted cognitive disorders. This ‘special’ school was located in the low-income outskirts of Melbourne. The final school was likewise in a low-income area but was primarily for the children of Catholic families. Each of these schools, and these classrooms, had different goals for what children should ideally become. These goals are linked in complex ways to the community of parents, to the educational tradition of the school, and to the ideas of the individuals who work there. Along with all these differences, in each classroom imagination was being done differently. I say ‘done’. This shows a concern with materiality and practice I share with the theoretical world of Science and Technology Studies (STS), and more specifically a corner of that world. STS is a very divided discipline, as shown, among other things, by various uses of the apparently shared word ‘ontology’ (see Van Heur et al. 2012; and Woolgar et al. 2012). The community of STS scholars I see myself as part of have worked hard to show us materiality in practice in various places: scientific labs, hospitals, fish farms, markets, schools, and more (Latour 1988; Callon 1998; Mol 2002; Sørensen 2009; Law 2012). In all these places, people use materials in particular ways and these ways generate particular objects. These objects may be multiple. Some may be standardised and some may be ‘othered’. Each set of practices has implications, whether it be for people, fish, diseased legs, or knowledge cultures. Each has implications for how things could be done in the future. In this type of STS work, we are given analyses of how things are done now, what multiple objects are generated by this doing, and hopefully, space is made for things that might be otherwise lost, sidelined, or terminated. It is important, I think, to point out that this is not a form of relativism. By this I mean that it is not saying that different people see the world differently. This, as Helen Verran points out, would be to continue to assume that there is a ‘real world’ at the base of all our experiences that can, nevertheless, be seen differently. She calls this a ‘foundationalist’ assumption that moves us hardly further than universalism from belief in a single, real, true knowledge. Both universalism and relativism assume a separation between knower and world that can only be bridged inadequately by our representations of it (Verran 2001: 31–36). Good knowledge about the foundational world, whether in universalist or relativist modes, would be that which came closest to representing the world. Verran presents instead a metaphysics that tells the ‘real’ as multiple and emergent in practice. Knowers, that is to say, exist in ‘communities of practice [that are] creative and generative’ (Verran 2001: 29). Objects and knowledge could not be made just any way, because how the real is made is constrained by the physical, material, and social locations of knowers. This means that our options for understanding, and for other acts in practice, are always ‘more than one, but this does not mean they are fragmented into being many’ (Mol 2002: viii; from Strathern 1991: 35). ‘Good knowing’ in this new metaphysics is not a question of which representations come closest to the ‘real’, but of what enables knowers to best intervene in the world. This is a notion of knowing that Ian Hacking articulates nicely. He says [r]eality has to do with causation and our notions of reality are formed from our abilities to change the world [...] We shall count as real what we can use to intervene in the world to affect something else, or what the world can use to affect us’ (1983: 146). Our question then becomes one that feminist philosophers, among others, have tackled. What are ‘good’ ways of intervening in the world? The ‘good’ cannot be something we can define as fixed and for always, because ‘goodness’ will emerge from responses to whatever is going on. Kathryn Pyne Addelson, for example, calls human lives ‘passages of discovery and creation’ and is interested in how we might most ethically follow them (Addelson 1994: 1). In this picture, morality and ethics are not fixed already, waiting for the analyst to define or uncover, but rather emerge ‘out of people’s interactions [...] moral explanation (and the categories of explanation) are constructed in social interactions’ (Addelson 1991: 83). What Verran, Addelson, and others give us, then, is an ontology (that the real is generated in practice), an epistemology (that we know when we are able to act effectively with other agents and materials), and an ethics (that good knowing means acting in better, rather than worse, ways for other agents and materials). This is what I will call a non-foundational or relational way of understanding, a relational metaphysics. This has implications for what good research and writing will look like, and we shall see this soon. But first, a couple of quick examples might help this make sense. First, Verran. She tells a story in her 2001 Science and an African Logic of teaching maths teachers in Nigeria. As part of her job, she helped design and observe maths lessons in Yoruba classrooms. There she was confused. The lessons that went as she had designed them often failed to engage the students. They were unable to grasp the subject matter of maths. But when teachers left the script and did the lesson ‘wrong’, they seemed to teach the children effectively. She gives us an example of two lessons on length done by measuring the students’ heights. The first used a metre ruler to measure, a way of understanding extension that is commonplace in Western settings. But this only generated confusion. The second used small cards with string wrapped round and round. The children engaged cheerfully and effectively, even though this seems like the wrong way to think about extension. So, Verran wondered, how to explain this? She could explain this as relativism – that Western and Yoruba mathematics see the world differently. Then the ethical response would be to respect the Yoruba teaching and give them resources to sometimes move into Western mathematics. Students could then switch between the two depending on their needs. But this would reinforce the gap between Yoruba and Western knowledge, and habits and people. Better, she argues, as well as closer to the empirical experience, to value moments when Western and Yoruba knowledge-making practices are done in new ways, generating new combined knowledges (Verran 2001: 1–29). We can also look at the work of Annemarie Mol, who has long been concerned with human bodies and how they are made in multiple ways in medical practices (Mol 2002; Mol and Law 2004; Mol 2008). In a recent piece (2012), she takes this interest into the world of Dutch dieting advice. When dieticians give advice about ways to lose weight they appeal to different ways we practise what bodies are. Are they unruly pleasure seekers that need to be disciplined by a rational mind? This body would be done by counting calories. Or are they ancient machines long evolved to desire what is bad for their modern instantiations? These bodies should be done by limiting sugar and fat. Or are they part of a culture where plates have traditionally been divided one way and should be divided another? These bodies should be done by putting more vegetables and fewer carbohydrates on plates. These ways of understanding and doing bodies are what Mol calls ontonorms (a word mixing ontology and normativity), though she is careful to say that this term is not a theory. As she explains it, ‘“ontonorms” is a methodological tool. My hope is that it may sensitise us to materialities and issues of good and bad at the same time’ (2012: 381, italics added). As we shall see later, we might call a tool like this a ‘sensitising concept’ (Blumer 1954). The kinds of questions we should ask with ontonorms are about politics, about what is good and bad for bodies, and what might be better. She gives us the alternative mode of dieting by ‘enjoying your food’. Bodies, food, and their relationships are re-imagined here, positively, making space for a new way of doing ‘good’ bodies. These two authors give us possibilities: different ways to value mathematical practices and new imaginaries for doing ‘good’ eating. They are possibilities that exist with and against other possibilities, ones that we are more familiar with: dividing Yoruba from Western mathematics, and diets based on conventional advice about counting calories, allowing only occasional treats, and rearranging your plate. There are conventional imaginations too, or better and worse ways of talking about and doing imagination. The call to do imagination by closing your eyes and picturing something is likely familiar to readers. So too, the imagination where you make something creative in drama or in art. Or the imagination where you put yourself into another person’s shoes and walk around. I will show how these imaginations are done in primary school classrooms, because they are being done there and they are important and interesting. But I do not jump from these conventional imaginations to ask a conventional question about what imagination ‘really is’, because as I will argue, imagination is enacted in multiple practices. I don’t ask questions about what is necessary for a practice to count as imaginative, nor do I claim that some imaginations are more ‘imaginative’ than others. This is to say that I do not do a type of philosophy that searches for essences (see Warnock 1976; White 1990). Nor am I interested in what goes on in minds as imaginative tasks are done. This counts me out of psychology and philosophy of mind (see Kosslyn 1994; Frawley 1997; Currie and Ravenscroft 2002; McGinn 2004). Nor am I concerned with the (important) question of access to education and to powerful knowledge (Moore and Muller 1999; Moore and Young 2001; Young 2008. For an extended discussion, see Macknight, 2011a). I want to tell about the multiple possibilities for doing imagination that I see in classrooms. What about other ways of perspective-taking, seeing ‘with’ and ‘for’ otherness? What about imagination to help relationships make sense and work? What about imagination for making connections between disparate pieces of information? What about the imaginations ethnographers themselves use to make definitions, to make classes and categories, and for doing ethical analysis? These possible imaginations are ones I will describe as being done in practice, by teachers, by students, and by ethnographers. They are generated in practice, in relation to various materials, shaped by people with complex and varying notions of what is and what should be. Locating and Writing I was already interested in primary schools’ imaginations when I noticed a concern with the lack of imagination in young people. I had first become interested in imagination being used in an Australian primary school curriculum from the 1930s. There it was done as a particular type of empathy in the hope this would prevent a future world war. After this failed, a new curriculum was written in the 1950s that used imagination in quite different ways to teach children to identify with their fellow Australians. This was an imagination of networked relations (see Macknight 2007, 2008, 2010). So I knew about imaginations in Victorian primary schools from a specific past. I knew about the profound levels on which imagination was to work: in forming identities, moralities, and futures. But I did not know about how imagination was being done now – in this specific time and place. So I set out to learn. To get to one school, I walked. Two were close enough that I rode my bike, and two were so far I caught a suburban train. Surrounding the schools were (variously) an arts precinct, a leafy park, a private boys’ high school, well-maintained suburban houses, a set of scummy shops, and a tract of newly developed homes near a strip mall. Obviously, but easy to forget, these schools are physically located in place and in time. Their physical location links to their social location: communities of parents with various amounts of money, various values and ambitions for their children, various visions of what ‘good’ education is. They were also located in more subtle ways. Each counted itself into an educational tradition, selectively reiterating values and practices that lead backwards into the past. We find out something of the educational tradition they belong to by asking about their funding structures and the fees they charge, by reading the documents they prepare for parents, and by noticing whether the children wear blazers, or polo shirts, or no uniform at all. To most Western observers the fact that a child calls their teacher by their first name will locate the school in a progressive educational tradition, while a child calling their teacher ‘sir’ will do the opposite. The state makes itself present here too, in various guises, appearing as curricula content, modes of assessment, and forms of professional development. The state is here in the very buildings it has fully or partially funded, the pay of teachers, child-to-teacher ratios, and many other things. In each school, too, is the world (mostly the European and American world), brought by ‘international’ educational and psychological theories. This is research and theory that teachers have been taught at university or training college, that they read in curricula, and learn in professional development courses. So these classrooms are located in Melbourne and, at the same time, they are located in the Western traditions of educational policy, funding, and practice. They are local and global in very concrete ways (Hastrup and Fog Olwig 1994; Mol 2004). They can be made both local and global in another way too. I can choose to write about the classrooms in local terms, focusing on the particular children and teachers I meet, and on the ways they operate. And I can write in analytic terms, taking the children and teachers out of their particular places and telling them in relation to theories developed in North America and Europe, by educationalists, sociologists, psychologists, and myriad others. Children and teachers can be told as related to each other or to analytic frames. The ‘local’ then is not just a place or a set of people and practices, but also a way of writing. Likewise the ‘global’ is not a place, certainly not a place that just encompasses the local, but a way of relating and telling. In this book, I try to locate classrooms as both local and global, particular and general. Using a personal voice is part of this strategy. It is for reminding readers that it was ‘I’ who was there, really there, sometimes confused, sometimes excited. I will not hide behind the language of objective fact because if we listen to feminist epistemologists, objective facts are situated ones. They are seen from the bodies we, of necessity, inhabit (Haraway 1988; Alcoff and Potter 1993; Harding 2004 ). Moreover, there is no such thing as knowing except from the position of a body. Using the first person, ‘I’, is for resisting the easy forgetting that it takes work to turn the empirical into the analytical, the specific into the general, and that this work too could be done differently. The world, knowledge, and knower are not separate in practice, but are only separated in the ongoing work of analysing and representing. Writing is part of this ongoing separation work, and therefore texts are part of the way academics practise in the world. Taking a broad interest in social science methods, John Law argues against the rigidity of accounts of method that insist that there are correct ways to research and write about the world. Instead he advocates ‘methods that are quieter and more generous’ (Law 2004: 15). According to Law, we need methods that remember that we come to know by being human participants in human worlds that are not governed by rules for knowing some assumed ‘out there’ from a distance. Nor, likewise, should there be any single correct way to write because to write is to communicate specifics of what it is like to be here or there. As he puts it, ‘method does not “report” on something that is already there. Instead, in one way or another, it makes things different. The issue becomes how to make things different and what to make’ (Law 2004: 143). Working and writing in this way is not part of the reflexive turn of the 1980s, described as the navel-gazing of the self-centred scholar (Pinch 1988; for a more positive take, see Ashmore 1989; Ashmore and Woolgar 1988). Instead, it is a way to remember that knowledge is always located in bodies and that writing is not simply reporting. Moreover, it is a way to give symmetry to my accounts: if the nature of imagination is that it is performed and if teachers and children are performing imagination, then so too are ethnographers. Ethnographers, like teachers and children, should be described as having the capacity to perform imaginations in multiple ways. In the book that follows, I present five ways to practise imaginations which I see as distinct. Each is important in a particular classroom, but this is not to say that it is the only imagination being done. Nor is it to say that there are no other ways of doing imagination beyond these five. I present these five, and each to a chapter, for two reasons. One is the simple need for coherence and tidiness. Multiplicity, complexity, mess – all exist in practice, but in practice, as we all know, it can often be difficult to work out what is going on. The second reason to present five distinct imaginations is to be of assistance to practitioners: teachers, parents, others who work with children, educational theorists, curriculum designers, ethnographers, and anyone else who may wish to explore the possibilities of their own imaginative practice. As such, I present the five imaginations as ‘sensitising concepts’. Taking this term from Blumer (1954), I wish to point out, as he did, the difference between ‘definitive’ and ‘sensitising’ concepts: A definitive concept refers precisely to what is common to a class of objects, by the aid of a clear definition in terms of attributes or fixed bench marks […] A sensitising concept lacks such specification of attributes or bench marks […] Whereas definitive concepts provide prescriptions of what to see, sensitising concepts merely suggest directions along which to look […] They rest on a general sense of what is relevant (1954: 7). As I worked to discern imagination in its multiplicity, I tried very hard not to have a preconceived notion of what imagination is. When I went into classrooms I didn’t know what I would see, and I tried to notice imagination in its broad and multiple doings. Obvious were times when teachers or children said the word ‘imagination’. What practices were they labelling for me? I also used the teachers’ own accounts of their values to guide my analysis. To take them seriously is to do justice to their ambitions for the children they devote their days to. Obvious too were the moments that puzzled me, times when connections were made that I simply didn’t really follow. This happened, for example, when children showed me workbooks that said their fingers were like the stars. How was imagination mobilised for this to make sense to children? (Verran 1999). But these were not the only practices I saw as important. I also worked to notice things that happened repeatedly, patterns and clumps of practices that seemed to have to do with imagination. If, for example, the teacher wrote a starter sentence on the board for creative writing each day, and each day forbade certain subjects and words, then each day in creative writing imagination was simultaneously mobilised and constrained in very particular ways. In observing and taking part in these classrooms, being attentive to the work being done, the words used, the surprises felt, and the habits reiterated, and then working as an analyst shaping and presenting this text, I have tried to catch something of how imagination is being taught and done in different ways. I have also looked for careful ways of describing the differing imaginations which I have encountered and write about, so as to do justice to this ethnographic material while also generating a collection of imaginations which might be helpful for others. In other words, my types are tools, sensitising concepts to help us notice and know. It just happens that we – teachers, children, myself, and hopefully readers – feel comfortable to call all these sets of practices ‘imagination’. It is interesting, this, and shows again the useful vagueness of language that it can hold so many practices together. This book tells several interlinked stories. All of them are set in primary schools in Melbourne, Australia, and at desks shortly afterwards. All concern the imagination of teachers, children, and ethnographers. And all are part of an attempt to show ways of enacting imagination in classrooms and considering how ‘good’ imagination and ‘good’ teaching might be done in non-foundational or relational ways. One string holding the book together is contained in the figure of the imaginative ethnographer. This ethnographer is learning to do ethnography in classrooms, looking always at the practices that make real and commonplace what we normally think of as an abstract mental category. She is learning to watch and listen and categorise, to think and imagine, in new ways. She is learning to work with non-foundational terms and begins the tricky work of managing categories as contingent outcomes. These are the stories I start with. They are about how ethnographers and the rest of us think about classrooms (and other research sites), about data analysis, and about definitions. They are about how to reimagine these things so that we might become better about thinking and acting in classrooms, doing analysis, and defining imagination. These first chapters frame and explain the more empirically focused chapters in part two. I hope that people who are interested in theory and in doing ethnography might really enjoy these first chapters, but skipping straight to the second part and returning to part one is always an option. So these first three chapters ask what thinking with a relational metaphysics might mean for how social researchers think about their own knowledge practices. First, I wonder about how to re-conceptualise the object of our knowledge. What are social groups, or more specifically, what are classrooms? I suggest that they can be usefully understood both as units that nest within other, larger units, and as ordered and ordering assemblages. I use the notion of ‘classed and classing bodies’ to point out that students, teachers, and researchers are part of ongoing processes of classifying each other and the world more generally. In chapter two, I think about definitions: how we define imagination and how we think about definitions themselves. I argue that we generally think of meaning as something fixed and singular, where we might better think of it as being multiple because it is done in practice. Meanings, I say, are conglomerations of our practices, sticking together in particular ways because of our backgrounds, our beliefs and aims, and our work. We will see this through how our five teachers talk about what imagination is. Next I extend these questions to wonder about the practice of classifying research materials: in this case the pictures children drew for me under the heading of ‘a time I used my imagination’. I argue here that researchers’ analytic practices are bodily and habitual. But with their bodily imagination a researcher can find new ways of ordering their information and this makes for different theoretical claims. I suggest that these claims should be assessed not in terms of truth, but in terms of ethics. Putting materials into different orders, after all, does not change their truthfulness, but it does change the work our accounts might do in the world. This again is to make a link between how we know and how we live. I do not claim to have the solution to the public problem of teaching imagination as if there were only one for all times and places. But I do have my stories about how imagination is framed and developed with children in practice, and I have claims to make about which are better and worse for living in the world as I envision it to be. This is done through the order of chapters in part two. I begin with stories of what I name as ‘representational imagination’ being done at a Steiner school. This imagination is foundational by its nature, encouraging children to form pictures in their minds of the ‘really real’, then find ways to make physical copies of these pictures. Deep within these practices is the platonic divide between the real world and human knowing of it. This divide also lies deep in our understandings of what ethnographic truth and ethics are. I explore how we might aim beyond representation in the conclusion of this chapter. I then move in chapter five to a high-fee-paying independent school, where imagination seems to be done as ways to perform oneself as an imaginative and humorous person. Children are to act imaginatively, but not imaginatively in just any way they like. For all creative performers, I suggest, some form of discipline is required. This can be discipline of time, bodies, sounds, or creative processes. Discipline is essential if imagination is to transform things in the ways intended. We turn next to the imagination practised at a middle-class, suburban, government school. Here, children are taught to take the perspectives of others in ways I initially assumed were intended as empathetic. I gradually noticed, however, that children were not successfully seeing the world with the eyes, or from the shoes, of others. Moreover, I gradually came to realise that the teacher was not aiming for this limited form of perspective-taking, but for something broader and more flexible. This is an account of the range of ways we can do and think about perspective-taking. This moves us beyond a relativist stance that says there are multiple views of the world that we can jump between. Instead we are working towards a relational account of imagining, an account that is extended in the chapter that follows. In this seventh chapter we focus on a classroom at a special school for low-IQ students. Here, where children are described as dangerously self-involved, imagination is practised as ways of relating oneself to others. These are techniques by which children are to recognise that others have hopes and needs. Imaginative scenarios are used to show children that by imagining together more can be achieved. It is in the practices of imaginatively interacting (even at the low levels achieved by these students) that we begin to find relational imagining being done. In the conclusion, we move from practices of imagining that aim primarily at social knowing and living to those that aim for conceptual knowing. Starting with the practices of the teacher at a Catholic school in a low-income area, here we look at imagination as making connections between pieces of information. We then ask what habitual modes of connection-making look like at the other four schools. Again this is a story that moves us from foundational to relational types of knowledge-making, though now the knowledge in question is more conceptual than social. This is a conclusion that shows how we might imagine as relational thinkers. I return to questions about the future in the afterword. There I wonder what the stories I tell might do in the world. I wonder about how the multiple imaginations I describe are related and how we might imagine relationships between multiple imaginations. I wonder about what parts of my account might travel best with my readers. It is a conclusion too, but in a more reflective mode. The stories I tell are personal and imaginative, but at the same time they are as real as my abilities to notice and communicate can make them. I hope that from reading these stories, or some of them, readers might notice their own performances of imagination, and those of the people around them, and wonder afresh what they mean for good knowing and good living in the future.

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A genetic test examines the genetic information contained inside a person's cells, called DNA, to determine if that person has or will develop a certain disease or could pass a disease to his or her offspring. Genetic tests also determine whether or not couples are at a higher risk than the general population for having a child affected with a genetic disorder. Some families or ethnic groups have a higher incidence of a certain disease than the population as a whole. For example, individuals from Eastern European, Ashkenazi Jewish descent are at higher risk for carrying genes for rare conditions that occur much less frequently in populations from other parts of the world. Before having a child, a couple from such a family or ethnic group may want to know if their child would be at risk of having that disease. Genetic testing for this type of purpose is called genetic screening. , a baby's cells can be studied for certain genetic disorders or chromosomal problems such as Down syndrome . Chromosome testing is most commonly offered when the mother is 35 years or older at the time of delivery. When there is a family medical history of a genetic disease or there are individuals in a family affected with developmental and physical delays, genetic testing also may be offered during pregnancy. Genetic testing during pregnancy is called prenatal diagnosis. Prior to becoming pregnant, couples who are having difficulty conceiving a child or who have suffered multiple miscarriages may be tested to see if a genetic cause can be identified. A genetic disease may be diagnosed at birth by doing a physical evaluation of the baby and observing characteristics of the disorder. Genetic testing can help to confirm the diagnosis made by the physical evaluation. In addition, genetic testing is used routinely on all newborns to screen for certain genetic diseases that can affect a newborn baby's health shortly after birth. There are several genetic diseases and conditions in which the symptoms do not occur until adulthood. One such example is Huntington's disease. This is a serious disorder affecting the way in which individuals walk, talk and function on a daily basis. Genetic testing may be able to determine if someone at risk will in fact develop the disease. Genetic testing may take on new emphasis in the near future as genetic research continues to advance. In April 2003, the Human Genome Project announced completion of mapping the entire human genetic makeup. The project identified more than 1,400 disease genes and completed study of the ethical, legal, and social issues raised by this expanded knowledge of human genetics. As knowledge expands and scientists discover more methods to identify and treat various diseases, people will face more difficult decisions about their own genetic information. In fact, the amount of genetic testing was increasing internationally in 2003, especially for rare diseases. Some genetic defects may make a person more susceptible to certain types of cancer . Testing for these defects can help predict a person's risk. Other types of genetic tests help diagnose and predict and monitor the course of certain kinds of cancer, particularly leukemia and lymphoma. Because genetic testing is not always accurate and because there are many concerns surrounding insurance and employment discrimination for the individual receiving a genetic test, genetic counseling should always be performed prior to genetic testing. A genetic counselor is an individual with a master's degree in genetic counseling. A medical geneticist is a physician specializing and board certified in genetics. A genetic counselor reviews the person's family history and medical records and the reason for the test. The counselor explains the likelihood that the test will detect all possible causes of the disease in question (known as the sensitivity of the test), and the likelihood that the disease will develop if the test is positive (known as the positive predictive value of the test). Learning about the disease in question, the benefits and risks of both a positive and a negative result, and what treatment choices are available if the result is positive, will help prepare the person undergoing testing. During the genetic counseling session, the individual interested in genetic testing will be asked to consider how the test results will affect his or her life, family, and future decisions. After this discussion, the person should have the opportunity to indicate in writing that he or she gave informed consent to have the test performed, verifying that the counselor provided complete and understandable information. Genes and chromosomes Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a long molecule made up of two strands of genetic material coiled around each other in a unique double helix structure. This structure was discovered in 1953 by Francis Crick and James Watson. DNA is found in the nucleus, or center, of most cells (Some cells, such as a red blood cell, don't have a nucleus). Each person's DNA is a unique blueprint, giving instructions for a person's physical traits, such as eye color, hair texture, height, and susceptibility to disease. DNA is organized into structures called chromosomes. The instructions are contained in DNA's long strands as a code spelled out by pairs of bases, which are four chemicals that make up DNA. The bases occur as pairs because a base on one strand lines up with and is bound to a corresponding base on the other strand. The order of these bases form DNA's code. The order of the bases on a DNA strand is important to ensuring that we are not affected with any genetic diseases. When the bases are out of order, or missing, our cells often do not produce important proteins which can lead to a genetic disorder. While our genes are found in every cell of our body, not every gene is functioning all of the time. Some genes are turned on during critical points in development and then remain silent for the rest of our lives. Other genes remain active all of our lives so that our cells can produce important proteins that help us digest food properly or fight off the common cold The specific order of the base pairs on a strand of DNA is important in order for the correct protein to be produced. A grouping of three base pairs on the DNA strand is called a codon. Each codon, or three base pairs, comes together to spell a word. A string of many codons together can be thought of as a series of words all coming together to make a sentence. This sentence is what instructs our cells to make a protein that helps our bodies function properly. Our DNA strands, containing a hundred to several thousand copies of genes, are found on structures called chromosomes. Each cell typically has 46 chromosomes arranged into 23 pairs. Each parent contributes one chromosome to each pair. The first 22 pairs are called autosomal chromosomes, or non-sex chromosomes, and are assigned a number from 1-22. The last pair are the sex chromosomes and include the X and Y chromosomes. If a child receives an X chromosome from each parent, the child is female. If a child receives an X from the mother, and a Y from the father, the child is male. Just as each parent contributes one chromosome to each pair, so each parent contributes one gene from each chromosome. The pair of genes produces a specific trait in the child. In autosomal dominant conditions, it takes only one copy of a gene to influence a specific trait. The stronger gene is called dominant; the weaker gene, recessive. Two copies of a recessive gene are needed to control a trait while only one copy of a dominant gene is needed. Our sex chromosomes, the X and the Y, also contain important genes. Some genetic diseases are caused by missing or altered genes on one of the sex chromosomes. Males are most often affected by sex chromosome diseases when they inherit an X chromosome with missing or mutated genes from their mother. TYPES OF GENETIC MUTATIONS. Genetic disease results from a change, or mutation, in a chromosome or in one or several base pairs on a gene. Some of us inherit these mutations from our parents, called hereditary or germline mutations, while other mutations can occur spontaneously, or for the first time in an affected child. For many of the adult on-set diseases, genetic mutations can occur over the lifetime of the individual. This is called acquired or somatic mutations and these occur while the cells are making copies of themselves or dividing in two. There may be some environmental effects, such as radiation or other chemicals, which can contribute to these types of mutations as well. There are a variety of different types of mutations that can occur in our genetic code to cause a disease. And for each genetic disease, there may be more than one type of mutation to cause the disease. For some genetic diseases, the same mutation occurs in every individual affected with the disease. For example, the most common form of dwarfism, called achondroplasia , occurs because of a single base pair substitution. This same mutation occurs in all individuals affected with the disease. Other genetic diseases are caused by different types of genetic mutations that may occur anywhere along the length of a gene. For example, cystic fibrosis , the most common genetic disease in the caucasian population is caused by over hundreds of different mutations along the gene. Individual families may carry the same mutation as each other, but not as the rest of the population affected with the same genetic disease. Some genetic diseases occur as a result of a larger mutation which can occur when the chromosome itself is either rearranged or altered or when a baby is born with more than the expected number of chromosomes. There are only a few types of chromosome rearrangements which are possibly hereditary, or passed on from the mother or the father. The majority of chromosome alterations where the baby is born with too many chromosomes or missing a chromosome, occur sporadically or for the first time with a new baby. The type of mutation that causes a genetic disease will determine the type of genetic test to be performed. In some situations, more than one type of genetic test will be performed to arrive at a diagnosis. The cost of genetic tests vary: chromosome studies can cost hundreds of dollars and certain gene studies, thousands. Insurance coverage also varies with the company and the policy. It may take several days or several weeks to complete a test. Research testing where the exact location of a gene has not yet been identified, can take several months to years for results. Types of genetic testing Direct dna mutation analysis Direct DNA sequencing examines the direct base pair sequence of a gene for specific gene mutations. Some genes contain more than 100,000 bases and a mutation of any one base can make the gene nonfunctional and cause disease. The more mutations possible, the less likely it is for a test to detect all of them. This test usually is done on white blood cells from a person's blood but also can be performed on other tissues. There are different ways in which to perform direct DNA mutation analysis. When the specific genetic mutation is known, it is possible to perform a complete analysis of the genetic code, also called direct sequencing. There are several different lab techniques used to test for a direct mutation. One common approach begins by using chemicals to separate DNA from the rest of the cell. Next, the two strands of DNA are separated by heating. Special enzymes (called restriction enzymes) are added to the single strands of DNA and then act like scissors, cutting the strands in specific places. The DNA fragments are then sorted by size through a process called electrophoresis. A special piece of DNA, called a probe, is added to the fragments. The probe is designed to bind to specific mutated portions of the gene. When bound to the probe, the mutated portions appear on x-ray film with a distinct banding pattern. Indirect dna testing Family linkage studies are done to study a disease when the exact type and location of the genetic alteration is not known, but the general location on the chromosome has been identified. These studies are possible when a chromosome marker has been found associated with a disease. Chromosomes contain certain regions that vary in appearance between individuals. These regions are called polymorphisms and do not cause a genetic disease to occur. If a polymorphism is always present in family members with the same genetic disease, and absent in family members without the disease, it is likely that the gene responsible for the disease is near that polymorphism. The gene mutation can be indirectly detected in family members by looking for the polymorphism. To look for the polymorphism, DNA is isolated from cells in the same way it is for direct DNA mutation analysis. A probe is added that will detect the large polymorphism on the chromosome. When bound to the probe, this region will appear on x-ray film with a distinct banding pattern. The pattern of banding of a person being tested for the disease is compared to the pattern from a family member affected by the disease. Linkage studies have disadvantages not found in direct DNA mutation analysis. These studies require multiple family members to participate in the testing. If key family members choose not to participate, the incomplete family history may make testing other members useless. The indirect method of detecting a mutated gene also causes more opportunity for error. Various genetic syndromes are caused by structural chromosome abnormalities. To analyze a person's chromosomes, his or her cells are allowed to grow and multiply in the laboratory until they reach a certain stage of growth. The length of growing time varies with the type of cells. Cells from blood and bone marrow take one to two days; fetal cells from amniotic fluid take seven to 10 days. When the cells are ready, they are placed on a microscope slide using a technique to make them burst open, spreading their chromosomes. The slides are stained: the stain creates a banding pattern unique to each chromosome. Under a microscope, the chromosomes are counted, identified, and analyzed based on their size, shape, and stained appearance. A karyotype is the final step in the chromosome analysis. After the chromosomes are counted, a photograph is taken of the chromosomes from one or more cells as seen through the microscope. Then the chromosomes are cut out and arranged side-by-side with their partner in ascending numerical order, from largest to smallest. The karyotype is done either manually or using a computer attached to the microscope. Chromosome analysis also is called cytogenetics. Applications for genetic testing Genetic testing is used most often for newborn screening. Every year, millions of newborn babies have their blood samples tested for potentially serious genetic diseases. An individual who has a gene associated with a disease but never exhibits any symptoms of the disease is called a carrier. A carrier is a person who is not affected by the mutated gene he or she possesses, but can pass the gene to an offspring. Genetic tests have been developed that tell prospective parents whether or not they are carriers of certain diseases. If one or both parents are a carrier, the risk of passing the disease to a child can be predicted. To predict the risk, it is necessary to know if the gene in question is autosomal or sex-linked. If the gene is carried on any one of chromosomes 1-22, the resulting disease is called an autosomal disease. If the gene is carried on the X or Y chromosome, it is called a sex-linked disease. Sex-linked diseases, such as the bleeding condition hemophilia , are usually carried on the X chromosome. A woman who carries a disease-associated mutated gene on one of her X chromosomes, has a 50% chance of passing the gene to her son. A son who inherits that gene will develop the disease because he does not have another normal copy of the gene on a second X chromosome to compensate for the mutated copy. A daughter who inherits the disease associated mutated gene from her mother on one of her X chromosomes will be at risk for having a son affected with the disease. The risk of passing an autosomal disease to a child depends on whether the gene is dominant or recessive. A prospective parent carrying a dominant gene has a 50% chance of passing the gene to a child. A child needs to receive only one copy of the mutated gene to be affected by the disease. If the gene is recessive, a child needs to receive two copies of the mutated gene, one from each parent, to be affected by the disease. When both prospective parents are carriers, their child has a 25% chance of inheriting two copies of the mutated gene and being affected by the disease; a 50% chance of inheriting one copy of the mutated gene, and being a carrier of the disease but not affected; and a 25% chance of inheriting two normal genes. When only one prospective parent is a carrier, a child has a 50% chance of inheriting one mutated gene and being an unaffected carrier of the disease, and a 50% chance of inheriting two normal genes. Cystic fibrosis is a disease that affects the lungs and pancreas and is discovered in early childhood. It is the most common autosomal recessive genetic disease found in the caucasian population: one in 25 people of Northern European ancestry are carriers of a mutated cystic fibrosis gene. The gene, located on chromosome 7, was identified in 1989. The gene mutation for cystic fibrosis is detected by a direct DNA test. More than 600 mutations of the cystic fibrosis gene have been found; each of these mutations causes the same disease. Tests are available for the most common mutations. Tests that check for 86 of the most common mutations in the Caucasian population will detect 90% of carriers for cystic fibrosis. (The percentage of mutations detected varies according to the individual's ethnic background). If a person tests negative, it is likely, but not guaranteed that he or she does not have the gene. Both prospective parents must be carriers of the gene to have a child with cystic fibrosis. , also autosomal recessive, affects children primarily of Ashkenazi Jewish descent. Children with this disease die between the ages of two and five. This disease was previously detected by looking for a missing enzyme. The mutated gene has now been identified and can be detected using direct DNA mutation analysis. Not all genetic diseases show their effect immediately at birth or early in childhood. Although the gene mutation is present at birth, some diseases do not appear until adulthood. If a specific mutated gene responsible for a late-onset disease has been identified, a person from an affected family can be tested before symptoms appear. Huntington's disease is one example of a late-onset autosomal dominant disease. Its symptoms of mental confusion and abnormal body movements do not appear until middle to late adulthood. The chromosome location of the gene responsible for Huntington's chorea was located in 1983 after studying the DNA from a large Venezuelan family affected by the disease. Ten years later the gene was identified. A test now is available to detect the presence of the expanded base pair sequence responsible for causing the disease. The presence of this expanded sequence means the person will develop the disease. The specific genetic cause of Alzheimer's disease, another late onset disease, is not as clear. Although many cases appear to be inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, many other cases exist as single incidents in a family. Like Huntington's, symptoms of mental deterioration first appear in adulthood. Genetic research has found an association between this disease and genes on four different chromosomes. The validity of looking for these genes in a person without symptoms or without family history of the disease is still being studied. CANCER SUSCEPTIBILITY TESTING. Cancer can result from an inherited (germline) mutated gene or a gene that mutated sometime during a person's lifetime (acquired mutation). Some genes, called tumor suppressor genes, produce proteins that protect the body from cancer. If one of these genes develops a mutation, it is unable to produce the protective protein. If the second copy of the gene is normal, its action may be sufficient to continue production, but if that gene later also develops a mutation, the person is vulnerable to cancer. Other genes, called oncogenes, are involved in the normal growth of cells. A mutation in an oncogene can cause too much growth, the beginning of cancer. Direct DNA tests currently are available to look for gene mutations identified and linked to several kinds of cancer. People with a family history of these cancers are those most likely to be tested. If one of these mutated genes is found, the person is more susceptible to developing the cancer. The likelihood that the person will develop the cancer, even with the mutated gene, is not always known because other genetic and environmental factors also are involved in the development of cancer. Cancer susceptibility tests are most useful when a positive test result can be followed with clear treatment options. In families with familial polyposis of the colon, testing a child for a mutated APC gene can reveal whether or not the child needs frequent monitoring for the disease. In 2003, reports showed that genetic testing for high-risk colon cancer patients has improved risk assessment. In families with potentially fatal familial medullary thyroid cancer or multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2, finding a mutated RET gene in a child provides the opportunity for that child to have preventive removal of the thyroid gland. In the same way, MSH1 and MSH2 mutations can reveal which members in an affected family are vulnerable to familiar colorectal cancer and would benefit from aggressive monitoring. In 1994, a mutation linked to early-onset familial breast and ovarian cancer was identified. BRCA1 is located on chromosome 17. Women with a mutated form of this gene have an increased risk of developing breast and ovarian cancer. A second related gene, BRCA2, was later discovered. Located on chromosome 13, it also carries increased risk of breast and ovarian cancer. Although both genes are rare in the general population, they are slightly more common in women of Ashkenazi Jewish descent. When a woman is found to have a mutation of one of these genes, the likelihood that she will get breast or ovarian cancer increases, but not to 100%. Other genetic and environmental factors influence the outcome. Testing for these genes is most valuable in families where a mutation has already been found. BRCA1 and BRCA2 are large genes; BRCA1 includes 100,000 bases. More than 120 mutations to this gene have been discovered, but a mutation could occur in any one of the bases. Studies show tests for these genes may miss 30% of existing mutations. The rate of missed mutations, the unknown disease likelihood in spite of a positive result, and the lack of a clear preventive response to a positive result, make the value of this test for the general population uncertain. Prenatal and postnatal chromosome analysis Chromosome analysis can be done on fetal cells primarily when the mother is age 35 or older at the time of delivery, experienced multiple miscarriages, or reports a family history of a genetic abnormality. Prenatal testing is done on the fetal cells from a chorionic villus sampling (from the baby's developing placenta) at 9-12 weeks or from the amniotic fluid (the fluid surrounding the baby) at 15-22 weeks of pregnancy. Cells from amniotic fluid grow for seven to 10 days before they are ready to be analyzed. Chorionic villi cells have the potential to grow faster and can be analyzed sooner. Chromosome analysis using blood cells is done on a child who is born with or later develops signs of mental retardation or physical malformation. In the older child, chromosome analysis may be done to investigate developmental delays. Extra or missing chromosomes cause mental and physical abnormalities. A child born with an extra chromosome 21 (trisomy 21) has Down syndrome. An extra chromosome 13 or 18 also produce well known syndromes. A missing X chromosome causes Turner syndrome and an extra X in a male causes Klinefelter syndrome . Other abnormalities are caused by extra or missing pieces of chromosomes. Fragile X syndrome is a sex-linked disease, causing mental retardation in males. Chromosome material also may be rearranged, such as the end of chromosome 1 moved to the end of chromosome 3. This is called a chromosomal translocation. If no material is added or deleted in the exchange, the person may not be affected. Such an exchange, however, can cause infertility or abnormalities if passed to children. Evaluation of a man and woman's infertility or repeated miscarriages will include blood studies of both to check for a chromosome translocation. Many chromosome abnormalities are incompatible with life; babies with these abnormalities often miscarrry during the first trimester. Cells from a baby that died before birth can be studied to look for chromosome abnormalities that may have caused the death Cancer diagnosis and prognosis Certain cancers, particularly leukemia and lymphoma, are associated with changes in chromosomes: extra or missing complete chromosomes, extra or missing portions of chromosomes, or exchanges of material (translocations) between chromosomes. Studies show that the locations of the chromosome breaks are at locations of tumor suppressor genes or oncogenes. Chromosome analysis on cells from blood, bone marrow, or solid tumor helps diagnose certain kinds of leukemia and lymphoma and often helps predict how well the person will respond to treatment. After treatment has begun, periodic monitoring of these chromosome changes in the blood and bone marrow gives the physician information as to the effectiveness of the treatment. A well-known chromosome rearrangement is found in chronic myelogenous leukemia. This leukemia is associated with an exchange of material between chromosomes 9 and 22. The resulting smaller chromosome 22 is called the Philadelphia chromosome. Most tests for genetic diseases of children and adults are done on blood. To collect the 5-10 mL of blood needed, a healthcare worker draws blood from a vein in the inner elbow region. Collection of the sample takes only a few minutes. Prenatal testing is done either on amniotic fluid or a chorionic villus sampling. To collect amniotic fluid, a physician performs a procedure called amniocentesis . An ultrasound is done to find the baby's position and an area filled with amniotic fluid. The physician inserts a needle through the woman's skin and the wall of her uterus and withdraws 5-10 mL of amniotic fluid. Placental tissue for a chorionic villus sampling is taken through the cervix. Each procedure takes approximately 30 minutes. A 2003 study comparing the two tests reported that chorionic villus sampling resulted in fewer cases of pregnancy loss, amniotic fluid leakage, and birth defects Bone marrow is used for chromosome analysis in a person with leukemia or lymphoma. The person is given local anesthesia. Then the physician inserts a needle through the skin and into the bone (usually the sternum or hip bone). One-half to 2 mL of bone marrow is withdrawn. This procedure takes approximately 30 minutes. After blood collection the person can feel discomfort or bruising at the puncture site or may become dizzy or faint. Pressure to the puncture site until the bleeding stops reduces bruising. Warm packs to the puncture site relieve discomfort. Chorionic villus sampling, amniocentesis and bone marrow procedures are done under a physician's supervision. The person is asked to rest after the procedure and is watched for weakness and signs of bleeding. Collection of amniotic fluid and chorionic villus sampling, have the risk of miscarriage , infection, and bleeding; the risks are higher for the chorionic villus sampling. Because of the potential risks for miscarriage, 0.5% following the amniocentesis and 1% following the chorionic villus sampling procedure, both of these prenatal tests are offered to couples, but not required. A woman should tell her physician immediately if she has cramping, bleeding, fluid loss, an increased temperature, or a change in the baby's movement following either of these procedures. After bone marrow collection, the puncture site may become tender and the person's temperature may rise. These are signs of a possible infection. Genetic testing involves other nonphysical risks. Many people fear the possible loss of privacy about personal health information. Results of genetic tests may be reported to insurance companies and affect a person's insurability. Some people pay out-of-pocket for genetic tests to avoid this possibility. Laws have been proposed to deal with this problem. Other family members may be affected by the results of a person's genetic test. Privacy of the person tested and the family members affected is a consideration when deciding to have a test and to share the results. A positive result carries a psychological burden, especially if the test indicates the person will develop a disease, such as Huntington's chorea. The news that a person may be susceptible to a specific kind of cancer, while it may encourage positive preventive measures, also may negatively shadow many decisions and activities. A genetic test result may also be inconclusive, meaning no definitive result can be given to the individual or family. This may cause the individual to feel more anxious and frustrated and experience psychological difficulties. Prior to undergoing genetic testing, individuals need to learn from the genetic counselor the likelihood that the test could miss a mutation or abnormality. A normal result for chromosome analysis is 46, XX or 46, XY. This means there are 46 chromosomes (including two X chromosomes for a female or one X and one Y for a male) with no structural abnormalities. A normal result for a direct DNA mutation analysis or linkage study is no gene mutation found. There can be some benefits from genetic testing when the individual tested is not found to carry a genetic mutation. Those who learn with certainty they are no longer at risk for a genetic disease may choose not to undergo preventive therapies and may feel less anxious and relieved. An abnormal chromosome analysis report will include the total number of chromosomes and will identify the abnormality found. Tests for gene mutations will report the mutations found. There are many ethical issues to consider with an abnormal prenatal test result. Many of the diseases tested for during a pregnancy cannot be treated or cured. In addition, some diseases tested for during pregnancy may have a late-onset of symptoms or have minimal effects on the affected individual. Before making decisions based on an abnormal test result, the person should meet again with a genetic counselor to fully understand the meaning of the results, learn what options are available based on the test result, and the risks and benefits of each of those options. — A disease caused by a gene located on a chromosome other than a sex chromosome (autosomal chromosome). — A person who possesses a gene for an abnormal trait without showing signs of the disorder. The person may pass the abnormal gene on to offspring. — A microscopic thread-like structure found within each cell of the body that consists of a complex of proteins and DNA. Humans have 46 chromosomes arranged into 23 pairs. Changes in either the total number of chromosomes or their shape and size (structure) may lead to physical or mental abnormalities. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) — The genetic material in cells that holds the inherited instructions for growth, development, and cellular functioning. — A gene, whose presence as a single copy, controls the expression of a trait. — A protein that catalyzes a biochemical reaction or change without changing its own structure or function. — A building block of inheritance, which contains the instructions for the production of a particular protein, and is made up of a molecular sequence found on a section of DNA. Each gene is found on a precise location on a chromosome. — A standard arrangement of photographic or computer-generated images of chromosome pairs from a cell in ascending numerical order, from largest to smallest. — A permanent change in the genetic material that may alter a trait or characteristic of an individual, or manifest as disease, and can be transmitted to offspring. — A type of gene that is not expressed as a trait unless inherited by both parents. — The proportion of people with a disease who are correctly diagnosed (test positive based on diagnostic criteria). The higher the sensitivity of a test or diagnostic criteria, the lower the rate of 'false negatives,' people who have a disease but are not identified through the test. — A disorder caused by a gene located on a sex chromosome, usually the X chromosome. "Best Early Test." Fit Pregnancy (October-November, 2003): 37. Bodenhorn, Nancy, and Gerald Lawson. "Genetic Counseling: Implications for Community Counselors." Journal of Counseling and Development (Fall 2003): 497-495. "Genetic Testing for High-risk Colon Cancer Patients has Improved Risk Assessment." Genomics & Genetics Weekly (August 1, 2003): 18. "Genetic Testing Increasing Internationally." Health & Medicine Week (September 29, 2003): 283. Wechsler, Jill. "From Genome Exploration to Drug Development." Pharmaceutical Technology Europe (June 2003): 18-23. Yan, Hai. "Genetic Testing-Present and Future." Science (September 15, 2000): 1890-1892. Alliance of Genetic Support Groups. 4301 Connecticut Ave. NW, Suite 404, Washington, DC 20008. (202) 966-5557. Fax: (202) 966-8553. http://www.geneticalliance.org. American College of Medical Genetics. 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814-3998. (301) 571-1825. http://www.faseb.org/genetics/acmg/acmgmenu.htm. American Society of Human Genetics. 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814-3998. (301) 571-1825. http://www.faseb.org/genetics/ashg/ashgmenu.htm. Centers for Disease Control. GDP Office, 4770 Buford Highway NE, Atlanta, GA 30341-3724. (770) 488-3235. http://www.cdc.gov/genetics. March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation. 1275 Mamaroneck Ave., White Plains, NY 10605. (888) 663-4637. [email protected]. http://www.modimes.org. National Human Genome Research Institute. The National Institutes of Health, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892. (301) 496-2433. http://www.nhgri.nih.gov. National Society of Genetic Counselors. 233 Canterbury Dr., Wallingford, PA 19086-6617. (610) 872-1192. 〈http://www.nsgc.org/GeneticCounselingYou.asp〉. Blazing a Genetic Trail. Online genetic tutorial. 〈http://www.hhmi.org/GeneticTrail/〉. The Gene Letter. Online newsletter. http://www.geneletter.org. Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man. Online genetic testing information sponsored by National Center for Biotechnology Information. 〈http://www.ncbi.nlm.-nih.gov/Omim/〉. Understanding Gene Testing. Online brochure produced by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 〈http://www.gene.com/ae/AE/AEPC/NIH/index.html〉.

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|Location||New York City| |Size||53 million books and other items| |Access and use| |Population served||3.5 million (Manhattan, The Bronx and Staten Island)| |Director||Anthony Marx, President and CEO| William P. Kelly, Andrew W. Mellon Director of the Research Libraries The New York Public Library (NYPL) is a public library system in New York City. With nearly 53 million items and 92 locations, the New York Public Library is the second largest public library in the United States (behind the Library of Congress) and the third largest in the world (behind the British Library). It is a private, non-governmental, independently managed, nonprofit corporation operating with both private and public financing. The library has branches in the boroughs of Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island and affiliations with academic and professional libraries in the New York metropolitan area. The city's other two boroughs, Brooklyn and Queens, are not served by the New York Public Library system, but rather by their respective borough library systems: the Brooklyn Public Library and the Queens Public Library. The branch libraries are open to the general public and consist of circulating libraries. The New York Public Library also has four research libraries, which are also open to the general public. The library, officially chartered as The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations, was developed in the 19th century, founded from an amalgamation of grass-roots libraries and social libraries of bibliophiles and the wealthy, aided by the philanthropy of the wealthiest Americans of their age. The "New York Public Library" name may also refer to its Main Branch, which is easily recognizable by its lion statues named Patience and Fortitude that sit either side of the entrance. The branch was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966, and designated a New York City Landmark in 1967. - 1 History - 2 Branch libraries - 3 Services - 4 Governance - 5 Other New York City library systems - 6 In popular culture - 7 See also - 8 References - 9 Further reading - 10 External links At the behest of Joseph Cogswell, John Jacob Astor placed a codicil in his will to bequeath $400,000 (equivalent of $11.6 million in 2018) for the creation of a public library. After Astor's death in 1848, the resulting board of trustees executed the will's conditions and constructed the Astor Library in 1854 in the East Village. The library created was a free reference library; its books were not permitted to circulate. By 1872, the Astor Library was described in a New York Times editorial as a "major reference and research resource", but, "Popular it certainly is not, and, so greatly is it lacking in the essentials of a public library, that its stores might almost as well be under lock and key, for any access the masses of the people can get thereto". An act of the New York State Legislature incorporated the Lenox Library in 1870. The library was built on Fifth Avenue, between 70th and 71st Streets, in 1877. Bibliophile and philanthropist James Lenox donated a vast collection of his Americana, art works, manuscripts, and rare books, including the first Gutenberg Bible in the New World. At its inception, the library charged admission and did not permit physical access to any literary items. Former Governor of New York and presidential candidate Samuel J. Tilden believed that a library with citywide reach was required, and upon his death in 1886, he bequeathed the bulk of his fortune—about $2.4 million (equivalent of $67 million in 2018)—to "establish and maintain a free library and reading room in the city of New York". This money would sit untouched in a trust for several years, until John Bigelow, a New York attorney, and Andrew Haswell Green, both trustees of the Tilden fortune, came up with an idea to merge two of the city's largest libraries. Both the Astor and Lenox libraries were struggling financially. Although New York City already had numerous libraries in the 19th century, almost all of them were privately funded and many charged admission or usage fees. Bigelow, the most prominent supporter of the plan to merge the libraries found support in Lewis Cass Ledyard, a member of the Tilden Board, as well as John Cadwalader, on the Astor board. Eventually, John Stewart Kennedy, president of the Lenox board came to support the plan as well. On May 23, 1895, Bigelow, Cadwalader, and George L. Rives agreed to create "The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations". The plan was hailed as an example of private philanthropy for the public good. On December 11, John Shaw Billings was named as the library's first director. The newly established library consolidated with the grass-roots New York Free Circulating Library in February 1901. In March, Andrew Carnegie tentatively agreed to donate $5.2 million (equivalent of $157 million in 2018) to construct sixty-five branch libraries in the city, with the requirement that they be operated and maintained by the City of New York. The Brooklyn and Queens public library systems, which predated the consolidation of New York City, eschewed the grants offered to them and did not join the NYPL system; they believed that they would not get treatment equal to the Manhattan and the Bronx counterparts. Later in 1901, Carnegie formally signed a contract with the City of New York to transfer his donation to the city in order to enable it to justify purchasing the land for building the branch libraries. The NYPL Board of trustees hired consultants for the planning, and accepted their recommendation that a limited number of architectural firms be hired to build the Carnegie libraries: this would ensure uniformity of appearance and minimize cost. The trustees hired McKim, Mead & White, Carrère and Hastings, and Walter Cook to design all the branch libraries. The notable New York author Washington Irving was a close friend of Astor for decades and had helped the philanthropist design the Astor Library. Irving served as President of the library's Board of Trustees from 1848 until his death in 1859, shaping the library's collecting policies with his strong sensibility regarding European intellectual life. Subsequently, the library hired nationally prominent experts to guide its collections policies; they reported directly to directors John Shaw Billings (who also developed the National Library of Medicine), Edwin H. Anderson, Harry M. Lydenberg, Franklin F. Hopper, Ralph A. Beals, and Edward Freehafer (1954–70). They emphasized expertise, objectivity, and a very broad worldwide range of knowledge in acquiring, preserving, organizing, and making available to the general population nearly 12 million books and 26.5 million additional items. The directors in turn reported to an elite board of trustees, chiefly elderly, well-educated, philanthropic, predominantly Protestant, upper-class white men with commanding positions in American society. They saw their role as protecting the library's autonomy from politicians as well as bestowing upon it status, resources, and prudent care. Representative of many major board decisions was the purchase in 1931 of the private library of Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich (1847–1909), uncle of the last tsar. This was one of the largest acquisitions of Russian books and photographic materials; at the time, the Soviet government had a policy of selling its cultural collections abroad for gold. The military drew extensively from the library's map and book collections in the world wars, including hiring its staff. For example, the Map Division's chief Walter Ristow was appointed as head of the geography section of the War Department's New York Office of Military Intelligence from 1942 to 1945. Ristow and his staff discovered, copied, and loaned thousands of strategic, rare or unique maps to war agencies in need of information not available through other sources. Main branch building The organizers of the New York Public Library, wanting an imposing main branch, chose a central site along Fifth Avenue between 40th and 42nd Streets, on top of the Croton Reservoir. Dr. John Shaw Billings, the first director of the library, created an initial design that became the basis of the new building contain a huge reading room on top of seven floors of book stacks, combined with a system that was designed to get books into the hands of library users as fast as possible. The architectural firm Carrère and Hastings constructed the structure in the Beaux-Arts style, and the structure opened on May 23, 1911. It was the largest marble structure up to that time in the United States. The two stone lions guarding the entrance were sculpted by E.C. Potter and carved by the Piccirilli Brothers. Its main reading room was contemporaneously the largest of its kind in the world at 77 ft (23 m) wide by 295 ft (90 m) long, with 50-foot-high (15 m) ceilings. An expansion in the 1970s and 1980s added storage space under Bryant Park, directly west of the library. The structure was given a major restoration from 2007 to 2011, underwritten by a $100 million gift from philanthropist Stephen A. Schwarzman, for whom the branch was subsequently renamed. Today, the branch's main reading room is equipped with computers with access to library collections and the Internet as well as docking facilities for laptops. A Fellows program makes reserved rooms available for writers and scholars, selected annually, and many have accomplished important research and writing at the library. The Main Branch also contains several historic designations. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966, and designated a New York City designated landmark in 1967. The main reading room was separately made a New York City designated landmark in 2017. Other research branches In the 1990s, the New York Public Library decided to relocate that portion of the research collection devoted to science, technology, and business to a new location. The library purchased and adapted the former B. Altman department store on 34th Street. In 1995, the 100th anniversary of the founding of the library, the $100 million Science, Industry and Business Library (SIBL), designed by Gwathmey Siegel & Associates of Manhattan, opened to the public. Upon the creation of the SIBL, the central research library on 42nd Street was renamed the Humanities and Social Sciences Library. Today there are four research libraries that comprise the NYPL's research library system; together they hold approximately 44 million items. Total item holdings, including the collections of the Branch Libraries, are 50.6 million. The Humanities and Social Sciences Library on 42nd Street is still the heart of the NYPL's research library system. The SIBL, with approximately 2 million volumes and 60,000 periodicals, is the nation's largest public library devoted solely to science and business. The NYPL's two other research libraries are the Schomburg Center for Research and Black Culture, located at 135th Street and Lenox Avenue in Harlem, and the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, located at Lincoln Center. In addition to their reference collections, the Library for the Performing Arts and the SIBL also have circulating components that are administered as ordinary branch libraries. The New York Public Library was not created by government statute. From its earliest days, the library was formed from a partnership of city government with private philanthropy. As of 2010, the research libraries in the system are largely funded with private money, and the branch or circulating libraries are financed primarily with city government funds. Until 2009, the research and branch libraries operated almost entirely as separate systems, but that year various operations were merged. By early 2010, the NYPL staff had been reduced by about 16 percent, in part through the consolidations. In 2010, as part of the consolidation program, the NYPL moved various back-office operations to a new Library Services Center building in Long Island City. A former warehouse was renovated for this purpose for $50 million. In the basement, a new, $2.3 million book sorter uses bar codes on library items to sort them for delivery to 132 branch libraries. At two-thirds the length of a football field, the machine is the largest of its kind in the world, according to library officials. Books located in one branch and requested from another go through the sorter, which use has cut the previous waiting time by at least a day. Together with 14 library employees, the machine can sort 7,500 items an hour (or 125 a minute). On the first floor of the Library Services Center is an ordering and cataloging office; on the second, the digital imaging department (formerly at the Main Branch building) and the manuscripts and archives division, where the air is kept cooler; on the third, the Barbara Goldsmith Preservation Division, with a staff of 10 (as of 2010) but designed for as many as 30 employees. The NYPL maintains a force of NYC special patrolmen, who provide security and protection to various libraries, and NYPL special investigators, who oversee security operations at the library facilities. These officials have on-duty arrest authority granted by the New York Penal Law. Some library branches contract for security guards. In February 2013, the New York and Brooklyn public libraries announced that they would merge their technical services departments. The new department is called BookOps. The proposed merger anticipates a savings of $2 million for the Brooklyn Public Library and $1.5 million for the New York Public Library. Although not currently part of the merger, it is expected that the Queens Public Library will eventually share some resources with the other city libraries. As of 2011, circulation in the New York Public Library systems and Brooklyn Public Library systems has increased by 59%. Located in Long Island City, BookOps was created as a way to save money while improving patrons service. The services of BookOps include the Selection Team which "acquires, describes, prepares, and delivers new items for the circulating collections of Brooklyn Public Library (BPL) and New York Public Library, and for the general collections of NYPL's research libraries." Under the Selection Team are the Acquisitions Department, the Cataloging Department, The Collections Processing Unit, and the Logistics Department. Before this facility opened, all the aforementioned departments were housed in different locations with no accountability between them, and items sometimes taking up to two weeks to reach their intended destination. BookOps now has all departments in one building and in 2015 sorted almost eight million items. The building has numerous rooms, including a room dedicated to caring for damaged books. The consolidations and changes in collections have promoted continuing debate and controversy since 2004 when David Ferriero was named the Andrew W. Mellon Director and Chief Executive of the Research Libraries. NYPL had engaged consultants Booz Allen Hamilton to survey the institution, and Ferriero endorsed the survey's report as a big step "in the process of reinventing the library". The consolidation program has resulted in the elimination of subjects such as the Asian and Middle East Division (formerly named Oriental Division), as well as the Slavic and Baltic Division. A number of innovations in recent years have been criticized. In 2004 NYPL announced participation in the Google Books Library Project. By agreement between Google and major international libraries, selected collections of public domain books would be scanned in their entirety and made available online for free to the public. The negotiations between the two partners called for each to project guesses about ways that libraries are likely to expand in the future. According to the terms of the agreement, the data cannot be crawled or harvested by any other search engine; no downloading or redistribution is allowed. The partners and a wider community of research libraries can share the content. The sale of the separately endowed former Donnell Library in midtown provoked controversy. The elimination of Donnell was a result of the dissolution of children's, young adult and foreign language collections. The Donnell Media Center was also dismantled, the bulk of its collection relocated at the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts as the Reserve Film and Video Collection, with parts of its collection redistributed. The site was redeveloped for a luxury hotel. Several veteran librarians have retired, and the number of age-level specialists in the boroughs have been cut back. The New York Public Library system maintains commitment as a public lending library through its branch libraries in the Bronx, Manhattan, and Staten Island, including the Mid-Manhattan Library, the Andrew Heiskell Braille and Talking Book Library, the circulating collections of the Science, Industry and Business Library, and the circulating collections of the Library for the Performing Arts. The branch libraries comprise the third-largest library in the United States. These circulating libraries offer a wide range of collections, programs, and services, including the renowned Picture Collection at Mid-Manhattan Library and the Media Center, redistributed from Donnell. The system has 39 libraries in Manhattan, 35 in the Bronx, and 13 in Staten Island. The newest is the 53rd Street Branch in Manhattan, which opened on June 26, 2016. As of 2016[update], the New York Public Library consisted of four research centers and 88 neighborhood branch libraries in the three boroughs served. All libraries in the NYPL system may be used free of charge by all visitors. As of 2010[update], the research collections contain 44,507,623 items (books, videotapes, maps, etc.), while the branch libraries contain 8,438,775 items. Together the collections total nearly 53 million items, a number surpassed only by the Library of Congress and the British Library. Website and digital holdings The Library website provides access to the library's catalogs, online collections and subscription databases. It also has information about the library's free events, exhibitions, computer classes and English as a Second Language (ESL) classes. The two online catalogs, LEO (which searches the circulating collections) and CATNYP (which searches the research collections) allow users to search the library's holdings of books, journals and other materials. The LEO system allows cardholders to request books from any branch and have them delivered to any branch. The NYPL gives cardholders free access from home to thousands of current and historical magazines, newspapers, journals and reference books in subscription databases, including EBSCOhost, which contains full text of major magazines; full text of the New York Times (1995–present), Gale's Ready Reference Shelf which includes the Encyclopedia of Associations and periodical indexes, Books in Print; and Ulrich's Periodicals Directory. The New York Public Library also links to outside resources, such as the Bureau of Labor Statistics' Occupational Outlook Handbook, and the CIA's World Factbook. Databases are available for children, teenagers, and adults of all ages. The NYPL Digital Collections (formerly named Digital Gallery) is a database of over 700,000 images digitized from the library's collections. The Digital Collections was named one of Time Magazine's 50 Coolest Websites of 2005 and Best Research Site of 2006 by an international panel of museum professionals. Other databases available only from within the library include Nature, IEEE and Wiley science journals, Wall Street Journal archives, and Factiva. Overall, the digital holdings for the Library consist of more than a petabyte of data as of 2015. In 2006, the library adopted a new strategy that merged branch and research libraries into "One NYPL". The organizational change developed a unified online catalog for all the collections, and one card to that could be used at both branch and research libraries. The 2009 website and online-catalog transition had some initial difficulties, but ultimately the catalogues were integrated. The New York Public Library offers many services to its patrons. Some of these services include services for immigrants. New York City is known for having a welcoming environment when its comes to people of diverse backgrounds. The library offers free work and life skills classes. These are offered in conjunction with volunteers and partnerships at the library. In addition, the library offers non-English speakers materials and coaching for them to acclimate to the U.S. For these non-English speakers, the library offers free ESOL classes. An initiative was taken in July 2018, NYC library card holders are allowed to visit Whitney Museum, the Guggenheim and 31 other prominent New York cultural institutions for free. In June 2017 Subway Library was announced. It was an initiative between the New York Public Library, Brooklyn Public Library, Queens Public Library, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, and Transit Wireless. The Subway Library gave New York City Subway riders access to e-books, excerpts, and short stories. Subway Library has since ended, but riders can still download free e-books via the SimplyE app or by visiting SimplyE.net. The NYPL, like all public libraries in New York, is granted a charter from the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York and is registered with the New York State Education Department. The basic powers and duties of all library boards of trustees are defined in the Education Law and are subject to Part 90 of Title 8 of the New York Codes, Rules and Regulations. The NYPL's charter, as restated and granted in 1975, gives the name of the corporation as The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations. The library is governed by a board of trustees, composed of between 25–42 trustees of several classes who collectively choose their own successors, including ex officio the New York City Mayor, New York City Council Speaker and New York City Comptroller. Other New York City library systems The New York Public Library is one of three separate and independent public library systems in New York City. The other two library systems are the Brooklyn Public Library and the Queens Public Library. According to the 2006 Mayor's Management Report, New York City's three public library systems had a total library circulation of 35 million: the NYPL and BPL (with 143 branches combined) had a circulation of 15 million, and the Queens system had a circulation of 20 million through its 62 branch libraries. Altogether the three library systems hosted 37 million visitors in 2006. Taken as a whole, the three library systems in the city have 209 branches with 63 million items in their collections. Other libraries in New York City, some of which can be used by the public, are listed in the Directory of Special Libraries and Information Centers. In popular culture The historian David McCullough has described the New York Public Library as one of the five most important libraries in the United States; the others are the Library of Congress, the Boston Public Library, and the university libraries of Harvard and Yale. The New York Public Library has been referenced numerous times in popular culture. The library has appeared as a setting and topic multiple times in film, poetry, music, television, and music. - Education in New York City - Google Books Library Project - List of museums and cultural institutions in New York City - Benjamin Miller Collection, collection of posted stamps - Ira D. Wallach, namesake of the Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs - The New York Public Library Desk Reference - List of New York Public Library Branches - About The New York Public Library - "New York Public Library General Fact Sheet" (PDF). Nypl.org. Retrieved November 24, 2012. - "New York Public Library Annual Report 2017" (PDF). Nypl.org. Retrieved September 19, 2018. - "President and Leadership". Nypl.org. Retrieved December 29, 2016. - Burke, Pat (July 2, 2015). "CTO Takes the New York Public Library Digital". CIO Insight. Quinstreet Enterprise. Retrieved July 12, 2015. - The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations. Financial Statements and Supplemental Schedules, June 2016, page 8. - "New York Public Library". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. September 16, 2007. Archived from the original on December 5, 2007. - "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. January 23, 2007. Archived from the original on October 2, 2007. - "New York Public Library" (PDF). New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. January 11, 1967. Retrieved June 24, 2016. - Lydenberg 1916a, pp. 556–563 - Lydenberg 1916a, pp. 563–573 - Lydenberg 1916a, pp. 573–574 - "History of the New York Public Library". nypl.org. Retrieved June 12, 2011. - "Editorial: Free Public Libraries". The New York Times. January 14, 1872. Retrieved May 19, 2011. - An Act to Incorporate the Trustees of the Lenox Library (L. 1870, ch. 2; L. 1892, ch. 166) - Lydenberg 1916b, p. 688; A Superb Gift - Lydenberg 1916b, pp. 685–689 - Lydenberg 1916b, pp. 690, 694–695 - Reed 2011, pp. 1–10 - "Lent Eleven Million Books". New-York Tribune. April 14, 1901. p. 16. - "CITY WILL ACCEPT MR. CARNEGIE'S LIBRARIES; Formal Action by the Board of Estimate to Be Taken To-morrow". The New York Times. March 17, 1901. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved July 25, 2017.[dead link] - "Carnegie Offers City Big Gift". New-York Tribune. March 16, 1901. pp. 1–2. - "Library Plans All Right Now: Carnegie Approves Controller Coler Contracts". The Evening World. September 9, 1901. p. 3.; Carnegie Approves the Contracts, Mr. Carnegie's Libraries (New York Times September 10, 1901) - Van Slyck (1995), pp. 113–114 - Myers, Andrew (1968). "Washington Irving and the Astor Library". Bulletin of the New York Public Library. 72 (6): 378–399. - Chapman, Gilbert W. (1970). "Edward G. Freehafer: An Appreciation". Bulletin of the New York Public Library. 74 (10): 625–628. - Dain, Phyllis (1995). "'A Coral Island': A Century of Collection Development in the Research Libraries of the New York Public Library". Biblion. 3 (2): 5–75. - Dain, Phyllis (March 1991). "Public Library Governance and a Changing New York City". Libraries & Culture. 26 (2): 219–250. - Kasinec, Edward; Davis Jr., Robert H. (1990). "Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich (1847–1909) and His Library". Journal of the History of Collections. 2 (2): 135–142. - Hudson, Alice C. (1995). "The Library's Map Division Goes to War, 1941–45". Biblion. 3 (2): 126–147. - "50,000 People at the Dedication of the City's Great Library; Taft and Dix Take Part". The Evening World. May 23, 1911. p. 1.; New Public Library Formally Dedicated - Pogrebin, Robin (December 20, 2007). "A Centennial Face-Lift for a Beaux-Arts Gem". New York Times. Archived from the original on January 8, 2012. Retrieved January 6, 2012. - "Sculptor Potter Hurt". The Evening World. November 2, 1911. p. 9.; cf. Cupid Turns Him from Study of Theology to Art, The Library Lions - Potter, Edward Clark (1910). Lions. Carrere & Hastings, Piccirilli Brothers Marble Carving Studios. - "The New York Public Library". The Sun. April 9, 1911. p. 9. - "New York Public Library gets a 50M facelift for 100th birthday" Archived February 6, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, New York Daily News, 2011-02-02, accessed February 5, 2011. - Santora, Marc (April 23, 2008). "After Big Gift, a New Name for the Library". New York Times. - "New York Public Library". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. September 16, 2007. Archived from the original on December 5, 2007. - "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. January 23, 2007. - "New York Public Library" (PDF). New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. January 11, 1967. - Plitt, Amy (August 8, 2017). "NYPL's Rose Main Reading Room is officially a New York City landmark". Curbed NY. Retrieved December 17, 2018. - "Science, Industry and Business Library", June 19, 2003 Press Release, New York Public Library. Retrieved June 13, 2010. - Taylor, Kate, "That Mighty Sorting Machine Is Certainly One for the Books", New York Times, April 21, 2010, retrieved same day - Meredith Schwartz, "NYPL, Brooklyn Merge Technical Services", Library Journal, February 22, 2013 - "BookOps". Retrieved September 20, 2015. - "BookOps – Shared Technical Services between BPL & NYPL | Urban Libraries Council". www.urbanlibraries.org. Retrieved September 25, 2017. - "Services - BookOps.org". sites.google.com. Retrieved September 25, 2017. - "Behind the Scenes at BookOps, the New York Public Library's Laser Sorting Facility". Viewing NYC. February 3, 2016. Retrieved September 25, 2017. - "Keepers of the Secrets | Village Voice". Retrieved September 25, 2017. - Norman Oder, "One NYPL," Many Questions, Library Journal, November 1, 2007 Archived July 4, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. - Oder, Norman. "NYPL Reorganization Coming", Library Journal (October 1, 2007). Vol. 132, Issue 16, p. 12. - Sherman, Scott (December 19, 2011). "Upheaval at the New York Public Library". The Nation. - New York Public Library + Google - Rothstein, Edward. "If Books Are on Google, Who Gains and Who Loses?" New York Times. November 14, 2005. - "LITA PreConference: Contracting for Content in a Digital World". LITA Blog. - Chan, Sewell. "Sale of Former Donnell Library Is Back on Track", New York Times. July 9, 2009. - LeClerc, Paul. "Answers About the New York Public Library, Part 3", New York Times. December 12, 2008. - "Reserve Film and Video Collection," New York Public Library website (accessed 2 February 2016). - "NYPL head = Natl. archivist; New Catalog, Restructuring". Library Journal. 134 (13). August 1, 2009. - "American Library Association: The Nation's Largest Libraries". Ala.org. Archived from the original on April 13, 2009. Retrieved March 17, 2009. - "About the 53rd Street Library". NYPL. Jan 2, 2017. - "NYPL Facts at a Glance" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on November 7, 2016. Retrieved November 7, 2016. - "2010 Annual Report" (PDF). Annualreports.nypl.org. Retrieved November 24, 2012. - The New York Public Library. "Get Help / Ask NYPL | The New York Public Library". Nypl.org. Retrieved November 24, 2012. - "Before Google Search There Was the Library". Retrieved April 8, 2015. - Study, C. "At Your Service: Information Sleuth at the New York Public Library". Retrieved April 7, 2015. - "Library Phone Answerers Survive the Internet". The New York Times. June 19, 2006. - The New York Public Library. "Welcome to The New York Public Library". Nypl.org. Retrieved November 24, 2012. - "New York Public Library Catalog". Leopac.nypl.org. Retrieved November 24, 2012. - The New York Public Library (November 13, 2012). "Articles and Databases | The New York Public Library". Nypl.org. Retrieved November 24, 2012. - The New York Public Library (November 13, 2012). "Articles and Databases | The New York Public Library". Nypl.org. Retrieved May 5, 2016. - "NYPL Digital Gallery | Home". Digitalgallery.nypl.org. Retrieved November 24, 2012. - Archived July 21, 2006, at the Wayback Machine - "Best of the Web: Categories: Research (Best Research Site)". Archimuse.com. Retrieved November 24, 2012. - David Lowe (2016). "Photographers' Identities Catalog". The Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs. Retrieved January 11, 2018. - Archived February 8, 2007, at the Wayback Machine - Slotnik, Daniel E. "Library System Resolves Catalog Problems", New York Times. July 20, 2009. - "A Library Card Will Get You into the Guggenheim (and 32 Other Places)". Retrieved July 17, 2018. - "Announcing #SubwayLibrary: Free E-Books for Your Commute". The New York Public Library. Retrieved March 19, 2018. - "New York Today: A City Library, on the Subway". The New York Times. June 8, 2017. Retrieved February 23, 2019. - Plitt, Amy (June 8, 2017). "NYPL's new 'Subway Library' may make your commute a bit less horrible". Curbed NY. Retrieved February 23, 2019. - Nichols, Jerry, Handbook for Library Trustees of New York State (2015 ed.), New York State Library - Woodrum, Pat (1989). Managing Public Libraries in the 21st Century. pp. 84–85. ISBN 0-86656-945-6. LCCN 89-20016. - "Different Boroughs, Different Library Systems". The New York Times. December 7, 2017. Retrieved March 10, 2019. - The New York Public Library (November 13, 2012). "Directory of Special Libraries and Information Centers | The New York Public Library". Nypl.org. Retrieved November 24, 2012. - "Simon & Schuster:David McCullough". Archived from the original on September 29, 2006. Retrieved October 12, 2007. - Chapman, Carleton B. Order out of Chaos: John Shaw Billings and America's Coming of Age (1994) - Dain, Phyllis. The New York Public Library: A History of Its Founding and Early Years (1973) - Davis, Donald G. Jr and Tucker, John Mark (1989). American Library History: a comprehensive guide to the literature. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc. ISBN 0-87436-142-7 - Glynn, Tom, Reading Publics: New York City's Public Libraries, 1754–1911 (Fordham University Press, 2015). xii, 447 pp. - Harris, Michael H. and Davis, Donald G. Jr. (1978). American Library History: a bibliography. Austin: University of Texas ISBN 0-292-70332-5 - Lydenberg, Harry Miller (1916a). "History of the New York Public Library: Part I". Bulletin of the New York Public Library. 20: 555–619. - Lydenberg, Harry Miller (1916b). "History of the New York Public Library: Part III". Bulletin of the New York Public Library. 20: 685–734. - Lydenburg, Harry Miller (1923). History of the New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations. The New York Public Library. - Myers, Andrew B. The Worlds of Washington Irving: 1783–1859 (1974) - Reed, Henry Hope. The New York Public Library: Its Architecture and Decoration (1986) - Reed, Henry Hope (2011). The New York Public Library: The Architecture and Decoration of the Stephen A. Schwarzman Building. 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY: W.W. Norton and Company. ISBN 978-0-393-07810-7. - Sherman, Scott (2015). Patience and fortitude : power, real estate, and the fight to save a public library, Brooklyn ; London : Melville House, ISBN 978-1-61219-429-5 - Van Slyck, Abigail A. (1995). Free to All: Carnegie Libraries & American Culture, 1890–1920. Chicago: IL: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-85031-5. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to New York Public Library.| |Wikipedia Cultural Embassy for| New York Public Library - Official website (Mobile) - "New York Public Library collected news and commentary". The New York Times. - Teachinghistory.org review of NYPL website American Shores - Texts on Wikisource: - Works by New York Public Library at Project Gutenberg - Works by or about New York Public Library at Internet Archive

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Choose USER: Student 4. 8th Grade. Review the engraving of Martín de Mujica. Includes Differentiated Lessons & Assessments, Nonfiction Reading Comprehension and more. Check out CamelPhat on Beatport. GOOGLE CLASSROOM CODES - PERIOD 8 - w1jp0i PERIOD 9 - 6wf5df6. and Canada and 155+ countries worldwide, discover how Reading A-Z's affordable, easy-to-use teacher resources fill the teaching gaps left by many reading education programs. Since 2002 DirectTextbook. Take one of our many Common Core: 10th Grade English Language Arts practice tests for a run-through of commonly asked questions. Social Studies Techbook is a standards-aligned, core-curricular resource that uses an inquiry-based approach to enhance literacy and critical thinking skills, allowing students to approach inquiry through the 5Es: Engage, Explore, Explain, Extend, and Evaluate. 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Location: Fifth Grade Social Studies Description: The period from the end of the 1800's through the early 1900's was a time of great change in the United States. It is important to know who wrote your history textbook, and what kinds of bias are evident. Latest Document - Page 11. These worksheets are cross-curricular and can be used in Social Studies as well in English Language Arts. History 4 Guide adopted on: Draft 6/2012 PSD Adopted Text and Teacher Materials American Journey (with supplemental material) PSD Adopted Supplemental Resources -None adopted…see recommended resources and activities beginning on page 5. 7th grade science curriculum resources typically specialize in either earth science or physical science. Science: Life Science. about social studies concepts. Please encourage them to take advantage of the study tools inside. 8th GRADE Textbook Information – The American Journey: Reconstruction to the Present. We have now placed Twitpic in an archived state. 7th Grade Math Weekly Agenda; Photo Album; Melissa Hawthrone's Profile; Daily Schedule; Educational Websites; JOHNSON, D. Georgia Studies Teacher Notes for the Georgia Standards of Excellence in Social Studies Georgia Department of Education 10. 10th Grade American History Below are links to the PDFs of each chapter. Terms and Conditions of Use. lowest prices on complete general & world history / social studies programs,general & world history courses / unit studies,general & world history references, tools, & activities,general & world history informational / textual resources,historical fiction books / series. jahlen m tuvilleja 2 librarianship is a social process based on the librarians‘ service, devotion, and belief in the value of the library to its public (collison, r l, 1958) 3. The games are invaluable for applying the concepts we learn in class. Initially, I did not want to enroll him in the class because he just finished Year 1 of 2 in Sonlight’s American History (Core D) curriculum, and I obviously did not want to repeat the same subject matter. This course will involve studying American history from the events leading up to the Revolutionary War through Reconstruction. 8th Grade Reading Strategy and Curriculum Standards: Writing Applications. The Tennessee Social Studies Standards lay out a vision of these vitally important disciplines and describe what all students should know and be able to do at the end of each grade/course level. No student has access to create an individual student account. Students will encounter lessons on Colonial America, the American Revolution, the Constitutional Convention, our first Presidents, the War of 1812, Westward. Textbook Website: The American Journey- glencoe. key themes in grade 7 highlight the connections among the GLEs. Explore the Middle Ages and more, from Byzantium to the New World. We love helping you find books quickly and saving you money, so please don't hesitate to let us know if you have any questions. 5th Grade Homeschool Social Studies and History When Lira took a standardized achievement test at the end of the fourth grade, I saw exactly where I had failed to educate her, and that is why we will be spending a great deal of time on 5th grade social studies in United States History. - Social Studies/Language Arts > WELCOME TO SOCIAL STUDIES 2017 - 2018 I am so excited to continue this historical journey with you beginning with Rome and. UNLESS you choose to only use online textbook. This American Journey: The Civil War Lesson Plan is suitable for 8th Grade. 8th Grade Religion Curriculum: Areas of Focus • Pray and act in faith • Reflect upon the message and values of Christ • Examine the dynamic teachings of our Catholic in a clear and meaningful way • Explore the gift of faith and the meaning of the Gospel • Evangelize the world • Explore the journey of Church history. To help homeschool parents ignite wonder and connect with their kids through the best stories and guided lessons. Be a part of our community by participating in the Resource Feedback Program. Every word, activity, map skill, and assessment was written based on Tennessee standards. Help your kids learn about history, geography, government, and much, much more. GOOGLE CLASSROOM CODES - PERIOD 8 - w1jp0i PERIOD 9 - 6wf5df6. Block 2: American History - 8th grade - Social Studies is only Thursday & Friday Continue Reverse Chronological Lecture (2000 - 1980) - Collect Notes for Grade! Complete Chapter 8, Sections 1, 2, 3, 4. See Social Studies books every teacher should know about. In the box labeled State Resources Box, select state, student/parent, subject. Wilson John J. The AHA is a trusted voice advocating for history education, the professional work of historians, and the critical role of historical thinking in public life. Mandate: African and African American History Social Studies Textbook - Correlations Textbook Glencoe: AMERICAN JOURNEY Grade: 8 8/27/08 13 Section 3 397-399 Rise of the Cotton Kingdom • Cotton Rules the Deep South 13 Section 4 402-403 Plantations • Plantation Owners • Plantation Wives • Work on the Plantation 13 Section 4 403 - 405. Middle School Fifth Grade Social Studies. Search this site. 13 Colonies Foldable Create a 4 page foldable over the 13 Colonies; each set of colonies, the New England, Middle and Southern, should take up a left and right hand side of a page as shown in the picture to the left. The games are invaluable for applying the concepts we learn in class. tsbd social studies s c alp 15503062 35. Create a map of each region, and put it on the left. Engage your students with Pearson social studies curriculums and textbooks. It’s a perfect story to read aloud, taking the entire class on a journey along with thirteen-year-old Salamanca Tree Hiddle that is both a geographic and an emotional one. Since its foundation, the Council has achieved a prominent place in. This booklet is designed to help you use recognized reading strategies to improve your reading-for-information skills. Freedom • Clay’s Proposal 15 Section 1 437-439 New Western Lands • Slavery Issues in the New Western States. 7th Grade Lesson Calendar. History and Social Studies Web Links. Social Studies language students should know and use:, Historical Dictionary; KidsClick! Digital History Encyclopedia of American History. 5th Grade 6th Grade 7th Grade 8th Grade Specials Social Studies McGraw Hill Social Studies Discovery Education Social Studies Discovery Education Social Studies Discovery Education Art. Free Social Studies worksheets, Games and Projects for preschool, kindergarten, 1st grade, 2nd grade, 3rd grade, 4th grade and 5th grade kids. 3-1 Early Colonies Have Mixed Success. Our curriculum in Minnesota History (6th grade), American History (7th grade), and Global Studies (8th grade) allows teachers to best meet the needs of all learners by providing more. Social Studies Now available on iPad and web The teacher edition of the Georgia Studies digital textbook provides instructional strategies, lesson plans, PDF printable documents, constructed response questions, and more. Help your kids learn about history, geography, government, and much, much more. Building on sixth grade, the curriculum also. SS: Finish reading pgs. A textbook will be provided in the classroom, so you do not have to bring a textbook to class. (Does not work well with modern web browsers) Student Textbook (pdf) American Government Out of Many : A History of the American People; The American Journey The access code is ED6C289BF6. AL Civics Today– 7th grade ©2005 username password Out of Print (available online) CTAL05 x7truqe7 Geography AL The World & It’s People 7th grade ©2005 username password Out of Print (available online) TWIPEAAL05 wrac2eku Electronic Textbook 6th Grade Core Classes Electronic Textbook 7th Grade Core Classes. Discover how the continent was irrevocably changed by European colonization, the events that caused the wholesale displacement and decimation of the land's original inhabitants, and how the 50 states came to be formed. Olmec : Ancient History Encyclopedia. The textbook will start with the end of the Age of Exploration and cover everything in between until the 20th Century. All links are deemed relevant and are not placed merely for profit. Fill the right side with the information below on the left. Long Range Lesson Plans* (2017-18) – 8th Grade Social Studies (SC History) Dates Topics Covering Standards & Standards Related to SC Text** Aug. The State Social Studies Standards Committee recognizes that social studies is the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence. Our collection of social studies worksheets complement classroom learning on topics ranging from how to read a map and how to identify different landforms to the historical significance of Rosa Parks and the American Revolution. Journ Book Spanish: Continue working in your exam review packet. 10th Grade American History Below are links to the PDFs of each chapter. Main menu. This textbook written for a seventh grade audience by Jennie Chinn, Kansas Historical Society executive director, is tied directly to Kansas social studies standards. Download Journeys word lists with one click to pair with VocabularySpellingCity's 35+ game-based learning activities for strong literacy building. Welcome to 8th Grade American Studies on the Pathfinders Team! I am very excited to have you in class this year! This year, we will take a journey through time, as we explore American history from the end of the American Revolution through the 2nd Industrial Revolution. It's that easy!. Randy Friedland from Deerwood Academy School. Welcome to Creating America: Beginnings through World War I. It's that easy!. SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHERS Testing Out Info CIVICS textbook - pdf copy & audio U. 8th Grade Social Studies. Instead of finding a route to Asia, explorers found rich land and resources in North America. PACING GUIDE 8th Grade Social Studies Standard Test % TIME SKILLS INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES MATERIALS ASSESSMENT Colonialism (1600-1750) (8. Quia Web allows users to create and share online educational activities in dozens of subjects, including Social Studies. Pearson apparently has taken out of print three established Prentice Hall textbooks, Boorstin’s History of the United States, Cayton’s Pathways to the Present, and Davidson’s American Nation. All classes meet the California History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools for Grades 6-8. The following documents represent the Kansas College and Career Ready Standards for History, Government, and Social Studies which were adopted by the State Board of Education on April 16, 2013. Fill the right side with the information below on the left. Any other reproduction, for use or sale, is prohibited Activity Workbook Describe their social organization. Please note that this site was retired on August 11th, 2017 as part of a continuous effort to provide you with the most relevant and up to date content. SOCIAL STUDIES 8 - U. Unit 1A - Cultural Diffusion; Louisiana's Cultural Regions. American Quest Journey back in time to learn. An online copy of the 7th grade Social Studies textbook. Addressing the needs of multi-grade classrooms. 8th Grade Social Studies Syllabus. 65 k kindergarten studies weekly/2012/7 ‐ [5 year subscription] tsbd social. The Kansas Journey is a 7th grade Kansas history textbook. Mason's PC Social Studies Class. Teams of teachers authored units for each grade and content area of the Colorado Academic Standards. America at the Turn of the Century: Inventors, Immigration, and Indignation. Textbook Materials: 8th Grade American Journey 8th grade text book 8th Grade Social Studies Webstites Unit Plans. A textbook will be issued to all students to bring home. This American Journey: The Civil War Lesson Plan is suitable for 8th Grade. Academy Social Studies Curriculum Exchange High School (9-12). Learn social 8th grade studies american journey with free interactive flashcards. See my review. Here is a list of books our teacher editors suggest for students in grade 8. Free Online Textbooks. Our team at Direct Textbook takes great pleasure in helping you find the books you need at the best prices available anywhere. The Journey of Ibn. Government AP 2004 Percent of students lacking their own assigned textbook: 0%. Members receive unlimited access to 49,000+ cross-curricular educational resources, including interactive activities, clipart, and abctools custom worksheet generators. On this page you can read or download Calculations Of Total Distance Travelled By Road For This Leg Of Race On A Map Of Mpumalanga in PDF format. Discuss what the American Journey textbook says about Spanish and English settlement. GradeSaver offers study guides, application and school paper editing services, literature essays, college application essays and writing help. Pearson Homeschool offers Preschool & K-12 Homeschool Curriculums, Educational Products & Lesson Plans to help your children succeed. This list shows all the current textbooks for middle school students. You should have received a hard copy to read and sign and returnbut if not, you can print this one and do so. This 3rd Grade History course traverses history from the Stone Age to the Space Age. Here is a list of books our teacher editors suggest for students in grade 8. Use the printables, references, and lessons below to examine the significance of this document in American history. on the court and fields of sporting events, and on the playground. The textbook is "The American Journey". Law Studies Lesson 7 American Democracy Principles. Standard 4: Students will understand that the 19th century was a time of incredible change for the United States, including geographic expansion, constitutional crisis, and economic growth. I incorporate many different tools in my instruction. SOCIAL STUDIES READING AND WRITING ACTIVITIES The Division of Social Sciences has developed this reading and writing activity packet to provide support for social studies teachers with instructional program delivery including enrichment activities for addressing the Reading Sunshine State Standards Benchmarks. The worksheets include fourth grade appropriate reading passages and related questions. the South begins the year for the 8th graders. Engage students in 8th grade science, 8th grade Language Arts, 7th grade Math, 7th grade Social Studies, and 6th grade Language Arts with challenging products integrating technology with Common Core Standards. OUR NATION: Student Edition US History Textbook Ex-Library 2003 National Geo See more like this Bob Jones Press U. Students journey through the Industrial Age, Immigration, the eras of Reform and Imperialism, World War I, the 1920s and Great Depression, World War II, Cold War, Civil Rights and the Modern Era. History AP 2001 Magruder’s American Government, Pearson Prentice Hall U. Students will need their username and password (available from their teacher for that subject) to log into the specific textbook. - Social Studies/Language Arts > WELCOME TO SOCIAL STUDIES 2017 - 2018 I am so excited to continue this historical journey with you beginning with Rome and. On a cautionary note, Wikibooks is an open source site (like Wikipedia), so. Listed below you will find chapter readings for all 8th grade chapters covered this year. You will then take the information and knowledge you gain to create a historically accurate, yet entertaining political cartoon about one of the events of the American Revolution. Land, Politics, and Expansion in the Early Republic Discovering Our Past: The American Journey to World War I (2006). 8th Grade History Book - Discovering Our Past: The American Journey to World War 1. See Social Studies books every teacher should know about. pdf---Outline of Section 5. Grading Scale:. Here is a worksheet you can give your students to have them work on their state capitals. 2001 Social Studies Grade 8 Test. The primary purpose of social studies is to help young people make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependen t world. I also incorporate primary source lesson plans and rely on the American Journey textbook. Section 3 - The French and Indian War. Unit 1 Test: Roots of American History Unit 2 Test: The Revolutionary Era. Welcome to Mr. Social studies education for responsible citizenship must be a compelling priority if we expect to sustain our constitutional democracy. Dynamic graphics combined with relevant text allows students to "experience" social studies rather than just reading and answering questions. Social Studies: Turn in your Am. 8th Grade Social Studies. 5th Grade Properties of Matter review 2 Millionare Game_2 : FCAT Science Review Games 4th Grade. The American Journey No copyright is implied over materials taken from this U. accessing The American Journey textbook online. Students may check the books out from class with Mrs. UNLESS you choose to only use online textbook. Students read to textbook readings on the decision to drop the bombs and then watched 2 short video clips. Check out CamelPhat on Beatport. If your student misses a day, he or she needs to be sure to fill in. No objectives at this grade level Goal 1. Click on a button and the book will read itself to you! Click here to get to the login page and the use the following information: login: STUDENTS455 password: stude525. grades k-8 social studies content expectations v. The American Textbook Council was established in 1989 as an independent national research organization to review social studies textbooks and advance the quality of instructional materials in history. Current Unit: --- 8A- 8B- Textbook Website: The American Journey- glencoe. SWBAT explain how American expanded its role in the world during the presidency of. 9th grade Social Studies Curriculum: World History Unit 1: Introduction to World History 3 days WH9. social studies Course Description: Eighth grade students will study the European exploration of North America, along with the geographic features that influenced early settlements and colonies. I use videos/video clips, as they enhance the visual aspect of history. Middle School Fifth Grade Social Studies. Our social studies workbooks bring history and culture to life with vibrant, colorful illustrations while helping kids develop reading comprehension, writing, critical thinking, vocabulary, and research skills. Excel at Social Studies with Our Worksheets. Geometry: Notes on 13. Social Classes There were different social classes within Aztec society. 10 Perfect Read Aloud Books for 2nd Grade. SyncBlasts (6–12). Book 1 (471 KB) Book 2 - Document Based Question (DBQ) (1. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act, no part of this publication. Take a Unit benchmark test. The Arkansas Journey is a brand-new 8th grade Arkansas history textbook. It is built around CompassLearning Odyssey®, an online, interactive educational system that has been in existence for many years and was. To help you integrate Black History Month into your classroom, we offer a selection of lesson plans that cover a variety subjects and that can be adapted to fit grades K-5. 4th Grade Forms of Energy, Energy Transfer and Transformation, Motion of Objects Millionaire. Excel at Social Studies with Our Worksheets. Explore the Middle Ages and more, from Byzantium to the New World. org: Road trip of information. American History Investigates the people, events, and themes of our nation's evolution, from the explorers of the Americas to today's headlines. Below is a list of supplies needed for your Social Studies class and need to be brought in the first day of school in September. We will begin with a review of the major ideas and events preceding the foundation of North Carolina and the United States. Since its foundation, the Council has achieved a prominent place in. 98 Grade 8 Holt, Rinehart and Winston Holt Middle School Mathematics, Course 3 Premier Online 2004 Bennett et al 003067994X $ 44. The North vs. American Government, Ninth Edition James Q. To help homeschool parents ignite wonder and connect with their kids through the best stories and guided lessons. Order Online Today!. Grading Scale:. Click Here to view Student Online Textbook. Wednesday, August 7, 2019 Classwork: iReady and STAR testing LA: Teacher demo of how to do/format Greek/Latin roots homework. The book enables students to gain a working knowledge and understanding of Kansas's history in the context of American history. For each case you need to have: A summary of the issue; Argument (what were they debating) Verdict (what did the court decide). Utilize this worksheet package if you are looking for basic Civil War coverage. History and Social Studies Web Links. Middle School Social Studies- 8th Grade ( The United States Through Industrialism , the TCI textbook, refers to each lesson as a chapter. Social studies materials and resources vary between buildings but have been approved by the District Instructional Materials Committee. 8-2: The American Revolution—the beginnings of the new American nation and South Carolina’s part in the development of that nation. Location: Fifth Grade Social Studies. Social Studies 8th Grade COURSE DESCRIPTION: Social Studies is the integrated study of Social Sciences-History, Geography, Economics, Political Science, and Cultural Anthropology. 13 Colonies Foldable Create a 4 page foldable over the 13 Colonies; each set of colonies, the New England, Middle and Southern, should take up a left and right hand side of a page as shown in the picture to the left. If you have any questions, don't hesitate to contact him at [email protected] The Council cannot recommend any Pearson middle- or high-school social studies textbook titles. Civil War Erupts. The State Social Studies Standards Committee recognizes that social studies is the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence. American Journey Glossary. 8th Grade History Textbook. Check out CamelPhat on Beatport. Social Studies in the 8th grade consists of the study of South Carolina history and its role in the development of U. 6th Grade Social Studies Curriculum Updated Fall 2012 5 Unit 8 (Chapter 7: Early China) 7-1 China's First Civilizations 7-2 Life in Ancient China 7-3 The Qin and Han Dynasties Unit 9 (Chapter 8: The Rise of Rome 8-1 Rome's Beginnings 8-2 The Roman Republic 8-3 The Fall of the Republic 8-4 The Early Empire Dynasty Aristocrat Pictograph Ideograph. Besides providing the child with a textbook to learn them by heart, it is important to make the same text interesting and amusing for them to read. The ByDesign program provides resources for the multi-grade teacher. History AP 2001 Magruder’s American Government, Pearson Prentice Hall U. jahlen m tuvilleja 2 librarianship is a social process based on the librarians‘ service, devotion, and belief in the value of the library to its public (collison, r l, 1958) 3. 8th Grade History Textbook. Either way, we have both subjects covered with our curriculum books and supported by science experiment books, science fair project books, science kit. Please visit my Procedures and General Ideas for 8th Grade American History Squidoo Lens to see my classroom set up, procedures, grading, use of textbook, exam ideas, etc. 8th Grade Syllabus American Journey Textbook. Welcome to Mr. The Kansas Journey A textbook for seventh grade. tif _____ Chapter 1-The First Americans. A textbook will be issued to all students to bring home. Economics textbook pdf. The American Journey Volume 1 Study Guide A History of the United States, Jonathan M. Students on grade-. Course Description: Eighth grade students will study the European exploration of North America, along with the geographic features that influenced early settlements and colonies. Wilson John J. Constitution. HISTORY textbook - pdf copy & audio The American. For educational purposes. Second Grade Social Studies Vocabulary List September-. Please encourage them to take advantage of the study tools inside. These printable worksheets are a supplemental resource provided for those educators using this particular book with their students. The South Carolina Journey is a textbook program that meets the 2011 state-approved South Carolina Social Studies Academic Standards for Grade 8. Grade 6 Social Studies Quarter 1 Pacing Guide 2013-14 !! 6th grade social studies , Quarter 1: 1 ! Topic/ Pacing NM Standards Academic Vocabulary Instructional Activities/Strategies Common Core Standards Resources Learning Outcomes/Assessment Notes (1-) Positive terms that help students feel confident in their place in the class. CURRICULUM GUIDE. The American Historical Association is the largest professional organization serving historians in all fields and all professions. Outstanding collection of classroom resources and lesson plans for humanities, social studies and literature. Engage your students with these Social Studies U. All links are deemed relevant and are not placed merely for profit. Tecuhtli - Just below the emperor, who ruled the capital Tenochtitlan, were the rulers of the other city-states. Grade 8 - Social Studies Georgia Standards of Excellence (GSE) Note: Social Studies Resources are developed and reviewed by #GAsocialstudies educators. mheonline 2. (For Christian school textbooks, look here. Skills available for Common Core eighth-grade social studies standards IXL's eighth-grade skills will be aligned to the Common Core State Standards soon! Until then, you can view a complete list of eighth-grade standards below. 8th Grade History is based on American History up to the Civil War. Learn social 8th grade studies american journey with free interactive flashcards. Access Google Sites with a free Google account (for personal use) or G Suite account (for business use). History textbook ratings -- 5 California titles. - Social Studies/Language Arts > WELCOME TO SOCIAL STUDIES 2017 - 2018 I am so excited to continue this historical journey with you beginning with Rome and. Main menu. Description: Welcome to Halls of History! This game will test your visual knowledge of American history. pdf---Outline of Section 5. The year concludes with the writing and delivery of a personal experience speech. They then write both. The first colonies in North America were along the eastern coast. Other language arts lessons and language arts worksheets develop research report writing and reading skill. 7th Grade Social Studies Directions: Click on the link below to access the Online Social Studies Textbook. Create a map of each region, and put it on the left. The K-12 Social Studies Learning Standards consist of Essential Academic Learning Requirements (EALRs) and Grade Level Expectations (GLEs) that describe what students should know and be able to do in civics, economics, geography, history, and social studies skills. If it's too fast you can watch it at. Hit Textbook Resources (On-line student edition) 9. Textbook: The American Journey - McGraw-Hill Glencoe Publishing ©2005 Course Topics: American history beginning with WWI and concluding with an introduction to the Cold War. Check out CamelPhat on Beatport. Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Students examine the exploration of the New World. This page will allow both students and parent access to several of the Glencoe/McGraw HIll Publishing textbooks that we use in our classroom. Location: Fifth Grade Social Studies Description: The period from the end of the 1800's through the early 1900's was a time of great change in the United States. A Journey through North Carolina is an 8th grade textbook. Students may check the books out from class with Mrs. It's that easy!. In this class, students will work on their social studies skills by: learning about the geography and history of the United States through reading comprehension of the textbook, interpreting maps, using primary resources, and analyzing diagrams, charts, and graphs. In this past year as a 7th grade student you have learnt about the history of America and civics. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt restructuring. The student textbook covers the history of South Carolina from prehistoric times to the present, with an emphasis on how the state’s history coincides with the history of the nation as intended by. Grade 6 Social Studies Quarter 1 Pacing Guide 2013-14 !! 6th grade social studies , Quarter 1: 1 ! Topic/ Pacing NM Standards Academic Vocabulary Instructional Activities/Strategies Common Core Standards Resources Learning Outcomes/Assessment Notes (1-) Positive terms that help students feel confident in their place in the class. Wednesday, August 7, 2019 Classwork: iReady and STAR testing LA: Teacher demo of how to do/format Greek/Latin roots homework. Welcome to Creating America. Worked on Exam Review WS (Review WS is a Quiz grade) Short answer exam on Tuesday 3rd hour exam- Wed / 2nd hour exam -Thurs. A textbook will be issued to all students to bring home. The 8th-Grade Social Studies curriculum is a continuation of the American History course taught in 7th-grade. Course Description: Eighth grade students will study the European exploration of North America, along with the geographic features that influenced early settlements and colonies. Etowah County Schools » Teachers' Corner » Social Studies / History » Holt 6-12 Textbook Instructions and Resources » 8th Grade Text - PDF 8th Grade Text - PDF 8th Grade Ancient Civilizations. Please encourage them to take advantage of the study tools inside. Social Studies TEACHERS @ GLHS. They wanted the explorers to search for a Northwest Passage to Asia and to look for gold and other treasure. The mission of Independence Hall Association, owner of ushistory. This textbook written for a seventh grade audience by Jennie Chinn, Kansas Historical Society executive director, is tied directly to Kansas social studies standards. A Journey to Mecca Pg 82-83. The goal of a writing sample is to measure your. Grade 8 American History Social Studies Scope and Sequence TEKS/TAKS Time Allotted Concepts/Processes/Skills Assessment Resources Instructional Resources Textbook o Invasion of Canada o Burning of Washington, D. The textbook will start with the end of the Age of Exploration and cover everything in between until the 20th Century. org Team Genesis Social Studies. The quiz below is designed to help you review all that. 10th Grade Text - PDF. In this course we will begin with the study of the geography of South Carolina and Native Americans pre-European contact, continue through the settlement of South Carolina by Europeans and end with the course of events. Home > Colorado Resources > Social Studies COLORADO RESOURCES: ACCOUNTING: ART: BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Beyond the Textbook The American Journey. The American Vision: Modern Times. McPherson, The National Geography Society] on Amazon. Addressing the needs of multi-grade classrooms. 14) Students will understand the social, political, and economic reasons for the movement of people from Europe to the Americas, and they will describe the impact of colonization by Europeans on. Social Science Discovering Our Past: The American Journey to World War I by Glencoe Chapter Quizzes and Tests Maps, Charts, Graphs by Modern Curriculum Press Introduction The eighth grade year is a milestone year for the students. Books shelved as 8th-grade-reading-list: The Hobbit or There and Back Again by J. This course will emphasize the development and maturation of the British colonies, and the political, cultural, and economic influences that led to the. Grade 2 English Language Arts. Social Studies: The World and Its People. Social Studies/ History. Social Studies in grade eight is the final opportunity for an in-depth look at the historical development of South Carolina. Your student will be expected to have this workbook with him or her every day. Sixth Grade Social Studies On-Line Textbook 1. Social Studies language students should know and use:, Historical Dictionary; KidsClick! Digital History Encyclopedia of American History. Section 1 - Tighter British Control. ClassZone Book Finder. The Invisible Man. grades k-8 social studies content expectations v.

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European Union Law These 2 IGCs led to the draft of the MAASTRICHT TREATY (also called TEU) which was signed in Maastricht in 1992 and still in force since 1993. There were originally seven titles in the TEU: Title I provisions” Title II, III and IV Pillar amendments to the EEC, ECSC and Erratum Title V Pillar of the Common Foreign and Security Policy Title VI the Third Pillar of Justice and Home Affairs Title VII provisions. T “This Treaty marks a new stage in the process of creating an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe, in which decisions are taken as closely as possible to the citizen”. The most important change has been the introduction of the 3 pillars structure: 1) THE COMMUNITY PILLAR: there were three communities: EURATOM, ECSC, EEC. There is more supranational decision-making structure; 2) THE COMMON FOREIGN AND SECURITY POLICY PILLAR: external actions in general. More intergovernmental and less supranational decision-making 3) THE JUSTICE AND HOME AFFAIRS PILLAR: included cooperation on a range of international crime issues and various forms of judicial, customs and police cooperation, including the establishment of a European Police Office (Europol) for exchanging information. The decision-making process was more Two kinds of changes: Increasing European Parliament legislative power, introducing co-decision procedure under article 251 TEC Giving the European Parliament the power to request the Commission to initiate legislation or the power to block the appointment of a new European Central Bank (ECB) and a European Central Bank System (ECBS); article 8 TEC; Parliamentary Ombudsman, an individual who has the power of controlling over the EP administrative activities; Committee of the Regions Subsidiarity principle, by which different matters are divided for the aim of intervening between European Institutions and Member States on their European Citizenship statues, by which Member Stats’ citizens own some specific rights because of they come from a Community State; Economic and Monetary Union (EMU); New areas of competences felt under European Community Jurisdiction. 8. ENLARGEMENTS in the EU In 1995: Finland, Austria and Sweden. 9. TREATY OF AMSTERDAM The Amsterdam Treaty was signed on 2 October 1997 and came into effect on 1 May 1999. It deleted obsolete provisions from the EC Treaty (TEC), adapted others, and renumbered all the Articles of the TEU and the EC Treaty. Some horizontal changes: • Community pillar: incorporation into the Community Pillar of a large part of the former Third Pillar on free movement of persons, covering visas, asylum, immigration and judicial cooperation in civil matters. The aim of this title and that of the amended third Pillar was to establish “an area of freedom, justice and security” (AFSJ). Some matters covered under the remaining two pillars has been included in the first pillar: “communitarization”, meaning a more supranational structure of the EU; • CFSP pillar: no big changes with the exception of the Secretary General of the Council who was also nominated as “High Representative” for the CFSP to assist the Council Presidency, it’s a sort of Minister of Foreign Affairs for the EU; • PJCC pillar renominated “Police and Judicial Cooperation in Criminal Matters” (PCJJ): its aim is to provide citizens with a high level of safety within an area of freedom, security, and justice, by developing “common action” in three areas: police cooperation in criminal matters, judicial cooperation in criminal matters, and the prevention and combating of racism and xenophobia. 10. NICE TREATY AND THE EURO The Treaty of Nice was signed by European leaders on 26 February 2001 and came into force on 1 February 2003. In 2000 was also concluded the Nice Charter, a charter of fundamental rights for the EU, which was a soft law document, then, with Lisbon Treaty in 2007, it will acquire legal force. One of the most important changes dealt with the adoption of the common currency, the EURO, by some MS on the 1st January 2002, within the Economic and Monetary Union; not all Member States have adopted the EURO (UK, Ireland, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Denmark, Poland, Romania, Sweden). In 2004 there was an enlargement which brought 10 States within the EU, which are : Czech Rep., Estonia, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Slovenia, Slovakia. The Nice Treaty modified only the first pillar (the Community Pillar) extending the co-decision procedure to other matters, instead the second and the third pillars were not 11. THE CONSTITUTIONAL TREATY The Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe (TCE) was an unratified international treaty intended to create a consolidated constitution for the European Union (EU). It would have replaced the existing European Union treaties with a single text, given legal force to the Charter of Fundamental Rights, and expanded Qualified Majority Voting into policy areas which had previously been decided by unanimity among MS. In December 2001, the Laeken European Council was created in order to discuss over a reform process to be taken, which had to be contained in the so called “Constitutional Treaty”. This reform process had to be intended as a “constitutionalization” of the EU, meaning that the “treaty system” adopted until that moment had to be abandoned, in order to create a Constitution which had to contain all the previsions about EU. The Laeken European Council was composed of: Representatives from national governments (3) National parliaments (2) Chairman (1) d’Estaing as Vice-chairmen (2) Amato and Dehaene We can highlight 4 parts of the Constitutional Treaty: - Part I: basic objectives, fundamental rights, institutional division of power; - Part II: Charter; - Part III: policies and functions; - Part IV: final provisions. The Treaty was signed on 29 October 2004 by representatives of the then 25 member states of the European Union and it was later ratified by 18 member states. The rejection of the document by French and Dutch voters in May and June 2005 brought the ratification process to an end. 12. LISBON TREATY The Treaty of Lisbon was created to replace the Constitutional Treaty and was forged by Member States and Community institutions. The Treaty was signed on 13 December 2007 and entered into force on 1 By the end of 2007, the IGC produced a document, initially named the Reform Treaty, but then called the Lisbon Treaty, which has been ratified by each MS (Unanimity Principle), but Ireland, in a first referendum, decided to withdraw from the Treaty; with a second referendum, in Ireland, Irish citizens wanted to ratify the Treaty. The reluctance of Czech president to ratify the document because there were some provisions which went against the Czech Constitution so many statements has been cut down by the Czech Constitutional Court. The Lisbon Treaty has seven Articles, of which Article 1 TEU amends the Treaty on European Union and contains core principles governing the EU (EU replaces EC and it had legal personality) and CFSP, Art. 2 amends the EC Treaty renamed TFEU. The TEU and the TFEU have the same legal value; EU is no more founded on the “pillars structure”. - 2007: Bulgaria and Romania; - 2013: Croatia. 9. ASYMMETRIES in the membership: the case of UK. Examples of Asymmetry. • Economic and monetary union. Not all MS have euro, they are called “Eurosceptic” countries: UK, Bulgaria, Croatia, Denmark, Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Sweden, Poland, etc. • Schengen area in migration matters. The Schengen Convention covers an agreement finalized to support free circulation across member states territories. Some States did not undertaken it with the consequence that is not possible talking about free circulation over there. •UK case: United Kingdom always had a special status within EU context. Its position affects a particularly complicated issue due to the 2016 referendum about Brexit. In 2017 UK Supreme Court recognized that EU law is directly binding National authorities. The consequence was the necessity to first consultate Parliament to correctly adopting the procedures ex. art. 50 of TEU. There is a paradox: EU may lost any residual power on UK even tho it had consistently kindly approach to UK institutions. SOFT BREXIT: the country could have several advantages even tho it wouldn’t be part of EU. The problems of this option are that every MS could decide to withdraw and paradoxically get more benefits than HARD BREXIT: UK abandon the EU and all its treaties and institutions. So it exit from the single market, too. 1.GENERAL REMARKS AND OVERVIEW Article 13 of the TEU under its first paragraph provides for a list of the The Union's institutions shall be: — European Parliament, — European Council, — European Commission — Court of Justice of the European Union, , the Court of Auditors — European Central Bank According to the second paragraph of article 13, we have two different relation between EU institutions and member states. Paragraph 4 The European Parliament, the Council and the Commission shall be assisted by an Economic and Social Committee and a Committee of the They are not defined as institutions and have limited powers. The main function is supporting other institutions. There are other entities: European Investment Bank (gives support to countries who are actually facing financial concerns), Agencies (deals with several issues as it come to migration and so on), High Representative (he/she covers There’s no rigid separation of powers. The European Commission, according to the article 17 TEU, has the power of promoting the EU integration and is the “guardian of treaties”. Commissioners must have general competence and must be independent. Commissioners term should be of five years. Article 17.4 TEU provides for the SIZE of the Commission, which shall be formed of one national of each Member State, including the President and the High Representative, who shall be one of its Vice-Presidents, but, according to 17.4 TEU, the size of the Commission should be this way until 31 October 2014, then, from 1 November 2014 on, article 17.5 TEU is applied, providing that the number of the Commissioners shall be the two third of the number of the Member States, including the President and the High Representative. According to article 17.6 TEU, the President of the Commission shall lay down guidelines for the Commission, by deciding on the internal organization of the Commission and appoint V Article 17.7 provides for the APPOINTMENT of the Commission and of the President, claiming that the European Council, acting by a qualified majority, shall propose to the European Parliament a candidate for President of the Commission. The Council, by common accord with the President-elected, shall adopt the list of the other persons whom it proposed for appointment as members of the Commission. The President, the High Representative and the other members of the Commission shall be subject as a body to a vote of consent by the European Parliament. On the basis of this consent the Commission shall be appointed by the European Council, acting by a qualified Two type of removals: 1. individual removals: (article 247 TFEU; article 17.6 TEU) a Commissioner or the High Representative shall resign if the President of the Commission so requests. Under no circumstances the EP can force a single Commissioner to 2. collective removals: (article 17.8 TUE; article 234 TFUE) the EP may vote on a motion of censure of the Commission, forcing both the Commission and the High Representative to resign. weekly The decision-making proceeding operates in 4 different ways: A. meetings, usually on Wednesday; B. the i.e. a proposal sent to the Commissioners and if there is no objection whiten a specified period of time, the decision is taken; C. i.e. the decision of the Commission to give the power of taking a decision to one of the Commissioners, respecting the principle of the Commission delegates the Directors General and Heads of Service for taking some decisions. Talking about the Commission bureaucracy, every Commissioner has: a) a (i.e. the list of different matters with which every Commissioner the Commission decides to whom attribute every portfolio; b) holds a Directorate General: these DGs cover almost every matter on which the Commission has the power to decide. Heads of Division/Unit; There are even with national civil servants. The power of the Commission, provided under article 17 TEU, are divided in: legislative power: the power of legislative initiative, so it’s know as “motor of integration” of the EU, then, the Commission has to develop once a year an overall legislative plan, which shall contain the guidelines for the forthcoming year reforms. The Commission has san autonomous legislative powe r, according to which this organ can adopt a legislative act without involving any other EU Institution; administrative power: power of managing programs • and policies, once a legislative act has been approved by the Commission, it has to be implemented into domestic laws. executive power: the Commission prepares and approves the EU budget, it plays an important role within the external relations, indeed it negotiates quasi-judicial power: the Commission has two kinds of judicial powers: first of all there is the power for which the Commission must control the application of the EU law; if a branch is found, then the Commission must bring the case before the CJEU (infringement proceeding). The second judicial power is that for which the Commission acts, only in some matters, as investigator and initial The Council (or Coucil of Ministers) is regulated by the article 16 TEU. At the paragraph 2 of this article, it’s provided that the Council shall consist of a representative from each Member State at ministerial level. The Council meets in Brussels on the request of the Commission, of the of the Council or of one of the members of the Council. Council meetings are divided in two parts: legislative acts (be public meetings) and non-legislative acts. The Council has different formations, but three of them are most relevant: Council (Economic and Finance matters), Foreign Affairs Council (which is chaired by the High Representative) and General Affairs Council (which deals with matters being at the crossroad of various formations). The Presidency of the Council is formed of a bureau, composed of three States (Estonia, Bulgaria, Austria). The President of the Council, six mouths before taking the office, together with the High Representative, the Commission and the President of the European Council, prepares a list of the activities to be made by the Council in an eighteen mouths term. The drafts to be discussed by the Council are prepared by the so called of the Permanent Representatives (COREPER). It has two different formations: COREPER 1 (which is composed of deputy permanent representative of Member States) and COREPER 2 ( composed of ambassadors) dealing with different matters. They both in the “consensus” way (raising the hand for not letting the acts pass). The Council has a Secretariat, which is held by Secretary General. It deals with translations, logistic matters and so on. Talking about the powers of the Council, there are: 1. legislative power: the Council shall adopt legislative acts, in pair with the EP, usually with the principle of qualified majorit y, unless a Treaty claims otherwise. Article 16.4 explains us more clearly what is the qualified majority, it “shall be defined as at least 55% of the Members of the Council, comprising at least fifteen of them” and those Member States must represent at least 65 % of the population of the Union. It’s provided that a blocking minority must be formed at least of 4 member States; initiative power: according to article 241 TFEU, the Council may request to the Commission, acting by a simple majority, to undertake a proposal in order to achieve in a better way a common objective; 3. delegated power: the Council may delegate the Commission to adopt acts without the involvement of itself; the power of approving EU’s budget in pair with the EP; 5. the power of concluding international agreements in pair with the 6. the power of preparing works of the European Council. Council covers a fundamental role in the area of Foreign and Security policy (CSFP) and in the area of Freedom and Security Justice (AFSJ). 4. EUROPEAN COUNCIL Article 15.2 TEU, The European Council is composed of Heads of State or Government of the Member States, so it’s composed only of politicians at the highest level. Member States decide whom to send to the European Council. Article 15.3 TEU, the European Council shall meet twice every six months, convened by its President, which can also convene special meetings. The General Affairs Council prepares the works of the European Council. Powers and functions of the European Council are listed under article 15.1 TEU and creation of IGC (Intergovernmental Conference) amending the treaties resolution of conflicts external relations enlargements and accessions The President of the European Council, according to article 15.5 TEU, shall be elected by the European Council, acting by qualified majority, and stays in charge for two and a half years, renewable. Article 15.6 TEU provides for a list of competences of the President, who: 1) shall chair it and drive forward its work; shall ensure its good work, according to what is claimed by the General 3) shall facilitate cohesion and consensus within the European Council; 4) shall present a summary after each meeting. 5. EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT Art. 14.2 TEU says that members of European parliament are directly elected by EU citizens. The maximum number for each MS shall not exceed 96 units with a slight preference to the most populous States. Smaller ones count on the minimum of Art.14.3 TEU says that the members of the European Parliament shall be elected for a term of five years by direct universal suffrage. The Parliamentary organs are: Bureau, composed by President of European Parliament and the 14 vice - presidents of it (Parliament). It has the competence to set up administrative affairs and solve organizational issues. It also draws up EP’s preliminary draft Quaestors, empowered to hold advisory competence; Secretariat that deals with additional levels of administrative stuff. Conference of Presidents composed by EP President and ‘’chair men’’ of political groups. It manages the agenda of the institution and prioritizes arguments to be discussed. Group of 20 committees that deals with several matters as environment, national security, internal affairs and so on. +1 anno fa I contenuti di questa pagina costituiscono rielaborazioni personali del Publisher martaqui di informazioni apprese con la frequenza delle lezioni di European Union Law e studio autonomo di eventuali libri di riferimento in preparazione dell'esame finale o della tesi. Non devono intendersi come materiale ufficiale dell'università Guido Carli - Luiss o del prof Gallo Daniele. Acquista con carta o conto PayPal Scarica il file tutte le volte che vuoi Paga con un conto PayPal per usufruire della garanzia Soddisfatto o rimborsato

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Let us return to the language of the early Christians of Antioch. As mentioned earlier, they spoke mainly Greek and Aramaic. Some may have known Latin, and the Jews, Hebrew. We have already discussed the problem early Christians of Greek origin had with the word GOD. Let us now consider the word LORD. Hebrew speaking Jews used the word adōn (אדון) for LORD. It is frequently used on humans who were regarded as superior in one way or another and also often to express politeness. In Genesis 18:12 Sarah is using this term on Abraham although she is not addressing him: “Therefore Sarah laughed within herself, saying, After I am vaxed old shall I have pleasure, my lord [adōn] being old also?”[i] In Genesis 23:6 it is used by “the sons of Heth” addressing Abraham: “Hear us, my lord [adōn]: thou art a mighty prince among us.”[ii] In the Book of Ruth 2:13,[iii] Ruth uses the term on the landowner Boaz, and it is very frequently used in the phrase “my lord the king” [adonī hammelek].[iv] The word a adōn is also used about God, such as in Deuteronomy 10:17: “For the Lord your God is God of gods, and Lord of lords.”[v] The quotation from Deuteronomy is interesting, and to a certain extent it illustrates the problem interpreters had to cope with. In Hebrew, the first “Lord” is not adōn but YHWH. This is the proper name of God as used in the Bible. Some claim that it is the causative form of the Hebrew verb ‘to become’ and was pronounced Yahweh. Others suggest it was pronounced Yahūh. The common form today is Jehovah. For reasons irrelevant for this discussion, the Jews eventually stopped pronouncing it. Instead, the divine name, when read, was replaced with a plural form of the Hebrew word for LORD. Consequently the original pronunciation was forgotten. (However, Bible writers do not seem to have been too occupied with the correct pronunciation of names. Thus, the New Testament writers consistently used the name Jesus, although it was pronounced Yeshūa.) In the other two occurrences of the word LORD in Deuteronomy 10:17, the words are in plural ın Hebrew. Thus the text would read: For YHWH your gods, he is gods of the gods and lords of the lords.[vi] This is typical usage in connection with the in Hebrew word for LORD. As mentioned in an earlier post, the Hebrew word for GOD, when used on the Creator, was in plural. The accompanying verb, however, was in singular. It is therefore held that the plural form was a plural of respect.[vii] This is also the case with the plural of the word LORD [adōn] in this context. In the Hebrew Old Testament the word adōn [lord] usually has the suffix –ay when used about the Creator. A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Hebrew Language has this explanation: “אֲדֹניָ m. n. pl. the Lord, God. [Lit. ‘my Lord’, the pl. of majesty of אׇדוֹן (= Lord), with the suff. of the first person. The spelling with Qamatz[viii] serves to distinguish it from אֲדֹניַ (= my lords. See אׇדוֹן.]”[ix] According to this, the word LORD in the Old Testament can refer to the following concepts: to God the Almighty, to gods in general, to angels, and to man. When applied to God, the plural of respect is used together with the possessive suffix of 1. person singular in pausal. When the Old Testament was translated into Greek a couple of centuries before the bırth of Jesus, the translators chose to translate the singular form of the Hebrew word adōn [lord] with kürios [κυριος, lord] whenever a single person was in question and with the same word in plural when more than one person was in question. However, in the beginning the translators chose to keep God’s personal name written with Hebrew characters in the Greek text. Later, when this practice was discontinued, curious problems arose. An example is Psalm 110:1 as rendered in the Greek Septuagint translation of the Old Testament: “Ειπεν ο Κυριος τω Κυριω μου, καθου εκ δεξιων μου.”[x] [The Lord said to my Lord, Sit at my right hand.] Had it not been for the explanation Jesus gave in the Gospel of Matthew (22:41-45), Christians today would not have known how to interpret this text. According to the church historian Eusebius (d. ca. 339), Matthew did not write his gospel in Greek: “For Matthew, who had at first preached to the Hebrews, when he was about to go to other peoples, committed his Gospel to writing in his native tongue, and thus compensated those whom he was obliged to leave for the loss of his presence.”[xi] Furthermore, to our knowledge, the native language of Jesus was Aramaic,[xii] but he knew Hebrew. He was able to read and interpret a text form the Hebrew prophet Isaiah while visiting his hometown.[xiii] (We are aware of the fact that some scholars believe that the mother tongue of Jesus was Hebrew. He no doubt knew Hebrew; but whenever he is quoted in another language than Greek, the language is Aramaic. Thus, when he renamed his disciple Simeon, he used the Aramaic word for rock, Keepa [Cephas]).[xiv] Consequently, in his discussion with the Pharisees, Jesus did not quote Psalm 110 from the Greek translation of the Old Testament. We have good reason to believe that he quoted the Hebrew text where it says “YHWH said to my lord [adōnī] …” No ambiguity at all! As mentioned above, even early copies the Greek Septuagint translation of the Old Testament kept God’s personal name with archaic Hebrew characters in the Greek text. God’s name in the Greek text is marked with an arrow.[xv] We have good reason to assume that the Christians of the first century knew the difference between the words LORD and YHWH. Many of them, those in Antioch included, were Arameans, who spoke a language close to Hebrew. Those of them who had a Jewish background could at least read Hebrew. Although we have no proof that they made a distinction between the two words kürios and YHWH in the original Greek copies of New Testament books, we have all reasons to believe that they did. In his paper “The Use of the Name (YHWH) by Early Christians,” Gérard Gertoux writes: “Did early Christians pronounce the Name? The answer depends on what kind of Christians we are talking about: “Yes” for the Judeo-Christians (Christians of Jewish origin, before 70 CE) because many of them knew Hebrew and “No” for the Pagano-Christians (Christians of heathen origin, mainly after 100 CE) most of whom only knew Greek.”[xvi] Gertoux also observes: “In the papyrus P90 dated around 150 CE which contains 45 the verses of John 18:36-19:7, the name of Jesus is this time shortened into JS according to the process of nomina sacra, like the word kyrios (Lord) which is written KS. So, when the sacred name was absent the word ‘Lord’ had to be written without abbreviation. For example, in this codex the verse of John 12:38 have appeared: ΗΜΩΝ.ΚΑΙ .Ο.ΒΡΑΧΙΩΝ.ΚΥΡΙΟΥ.ΤΙΝΙ .ΑΠΕΚΑΛΥ ΦΘΗ (John 12:38) However this part of the gospel of John quoted a verse from the book of Isaiah and in all the Septuagints of this period (before 150 CE) there are none with the name kyrios (Lord) instead of the tetragram.”[xvii] If this is correct, it is safe to assume that first century Christians knew the difference of meaning between the Greek word for LORD when used on YHWH and when it was used on other persons. In Matthew 11:25, for instance, Jesus uses this word on his Father, in Matthew 10:25 on slave owners, and in 8:21 on himself. Leaving out the places where the New Testament has direct or indirect quotations from verses in the Old Testament where YHWH occurs, let us now take a look at how the term LORD (kürios) is used in the New Testament and how the early Christians understood it. We have already mentioned that it was used on slave owners. It is also seen from Acts 16:16 where the King James Version has “masters” instead of “lords” (κυρίοις > plural, dative of κυριος. A Hebrew translation of the New Testament has אדניה “her lords”[xviii]). In the First letter of Peter 3:6, Sarah uses the word on Abraham. In most of the cases in the New Testament where the word LORD [κυριος] is used, it is referring to Jesus. Nevertheless, the word is used on God the Father as well. Thus, in Revelation 11:15 we read: “The kingdoms of this world are become the kingdoms of our Lord, and of his Christ.” (KJV) [ἐγένετο ἡ βασιλεία τοῦ κόσμου τοῦ Κυρίου ἡμῶν καὶ τοῦ Χριστοῦ αὐτοῦ.] In spite of this, the Apostle Paul could say that “to us there is but … one Lord Jesus Christ.”[xix] How is this to be understood? Did the early Christians use the word LORD inconsistently? It depends on what we mean by inconsistency. Let us first take a look at the semiotic aspect of the matter. The Russian linguist Roman Jakobson has left us with this communication model: The addresser (or sender) speaks to a group of people or sends them a letter. He wants them to understand his message. He therefore gives his message a form he knows that they should be able to understand. This he does by using codes the addressees are familiar with. Subsequently, when reading the message or listening to the words of the addresser, the addressees subconsciously take the context of the message into consideration, and they decode the message according to the codes applied by the addresser. This is easy if both addresser and addressee belong to the same interpretive community. “A term introduced by Fish to refer to both writers and readers of particular genres of texts (but which can be used more widely to refer to those who share any code)… The conventions within the codes employed by such communities become naturalized amongst its members. Individuals belong simultaneously to several interpretive communities.”[xx] If, for instance, a Turk calls a man ‘a bear’ [ayı], he is not speaking about the strength or joviality of the person, but about his unpleasant rudeness. If you are familiar with the codes, you know what the Turk is speaking about. In Danish, on the other hand, ‘to carry a bear’ [at have en bjørn på] has the meaning of being gloriously drunk. To be able to decode a text, spoken or written, you have to know, not just the denotations of the words used, but also their connotations. Within an interpretive community the individuals are familiar with the codes used by an addresser who belongs to the same community or who is familiar with its codes. The book Key Terms in Semiotics has this explanation: “In order to function properly, that is, in order for it to be effectively transmitted a message must contain a code that is understood by both sender (addresser) and receiver (addressee).”[xxi] One is born into an interpretive community. However, things get more difficult when you read a text that originally was addressed to a different interpretive community, perhaps even a community that existed 2,000 years ago. This takes us to the New Testament. The New Testament was mainly, or perhaps exclusively, written by Jews. The addressee was Jewish Christians or Gentile Christians who had acquainted themselves with the Old Testament and with the principles of early Christianity. It is evident that the “Bible” of first century Christians was the Old Testament. Throughout the New Testament, the writers refer to the authority of the Old Testament. Eventually New Testament books were used in the same way. Whether Jewish Christians or Gentile Christians, they shared the same codes, thanks to a concept called intertextuality: “The notion of intertextuality refers to close relationships of content and/or form between texts. No text stands on its own. It is always linked to other texts. Texts create contexts within which other texts are created and interpreted.”[xxii] Interestingly, Wikipedia has this comment: “While the theoretical concept of intertextuality is associated with post-modernism, the device itself is not new. New Testament passages quote from the Old Testament and Old Testament books such as Deuteronomy or the prophets refer to the events described in Exodus.”[xxiii] Consequently, when we have to find out how and why certain words in the New Testament are used the way they are, we have to turn to their usage in the Old Testament. Those of the early Christians who were familiar with the way the word LORD (κυριος) was used in the Greek Septuagint version of the Old Testament, would use this word with the same denotation, and they would automatically actualize the connotations they knew from there. About actualization, the following explanation has been given: “With regard to language, actualization denotes the operation by which any given language unit is rendered ‘present’ within a particular linguistic context.’[xxiv] In other words, a reader of New Testament books – say, in Antioch towards the end of the first century – who came across word LORD (κυριος), would do the following: As a member of an interpretive community with its background in the Old Testament, where the word LORD according to the context of the word was used on God, angels, and men alike, he would automatically actualize the relevant meaning. Let us now take a look at chapter 10 in Paul’s letter to the Romans. According to Catholic Encyclopedia, it is likely that this letter was written in the 50’s AD, [xxv] and it was no doubt known in Antioch about 50 years later.[xxvi] In this letter the Apostle Paul writes (Chapter 10, verses 9 – 16): 9. That if thou shalt confess with thy mouth the Lord Jesus, and shalt believe in thine heart that God hath raised him from the dead, thou shalt be saved. 10. For with the heart man believeth unto righteousness; and with the mouth confession is made unto salvation. 11. For the scripture saith, Whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed. 12. For there is no difference between the Jew and the Greek: for the same Lord over all is rich unto all that call upon him. 13. For whosoever shall call upon the name of the Lord shall be saved. 14 How then shall they call on him in whom they have not believed? and how shall they believe in him of whom they have not heard? and how shall they hear without a preacher? 15. And how shall they preach, except they be sent? as it is written, How beautiful are the feet of them that preach the gospel of peace, and bring glad tidings of good things! 16. But they have not all obeyed the gospel. For Esaias saith, Lord, who hath believed our report? In verse 9 we have the expression “Lord Jesus” [Κύριον ᾿Ιησοῦν]. In verses 12 and 13 we have “Lord” twice [Κύριος and Κύριου], and in verse 16 we have the same word in vocative [Κύριε]. This would seem to identify Jesus with the God of the Old Testament. Nonetheless, we have to remember that many of the early Christians, Paul included, knew the Hebrew of the Old Testament. Consequently, they knew that in some of Paul’s quotations from the prophet Isaiah the four Hebrew letters for God’s name occurred. Interestingly, the Protestant translation of the New Testament from Greek to Hebrew, Tōrah, Nabī’īm, Katūbīm, Berīt Ḥadaşah, has translated kürios with adōn [אדון] when Paul is speaking of Jesus. In this context it does not use adōnay, which is the Hebrew word for LORD exclusively used when referring to God the Almighty. In the places in Paul’s letter where κυριος [kürios] is a replacement of the Divine Name, such as in verses 13 and 16, this same Hebrew translation is using the four Hebrew letters of the Divine Name (יהוה). Thus, any confusion about identity is avoided. Nevertheless, it is true that the New Testament uses the word LORD [κυριος] on both Jesus and his Father. But so it does on Mammon in Matthew 6:24: “No man can serve two masters [κυρίοις].” In Acts 16:16, 19 the word is used on slave owners, and so it is in Paul’s letter to the Ephesians chapter 6 verses 5 and 9. It is therefore no wonder that the same word can be used on Jesus without thereby identifying him with God. All the more so as the Apostle Peter is quoted saying in Acts chapter 2 verse 36: “Therefore let all the house of Israel know assuredly, that God hath made that same Jesus, whom ye have crucified, both Lord [κυριος] and Christ.” Later, when the four Hebrew letters representing God’s name was removed from the Greek Bible and when the majority of the Christians were of gentile background and therefore unacquainted with the use of the word LORD in the original Hebrew and Greek, they started to identify Jesus with God. The reason behind this was that they were not familiar with the codes of the original addressee, or interpretive community, and instead they decoded the text according to their own codes. This, however, was aberrant decoding and led the development of Christian doctrine in a totally new direction, a direction not intended by New Testament writers. [i] John Stirling, ed. The Bible: Authorized Version (KJV) (London: The British & Foreign Bible Society, 1960), 13. [ii] Ibid. 17. [iii] Ibid. 207. [iv] The Englishman’s Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance of the Old Testament (London: Samuel Bagster and Sons Limited (no year)), 16. [v] The Bible: Authorized Version, 142. [vi] The Holy Scriptures [in Hebrew] (Middlesex, England: The Society for Distributing Hebrew Scriptures, (no year)), 342-43. [vii] Something similar is observed when a Turk refers to his mother as annelerim [my mothers]. [viii] The “T” like symbol under the letter י . [ix] Ernest Klein, A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Hebrew Language (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987), 8. See also Johs. Pedersen, Hebræisk Grammatik (Copenhagen: V. Pios Boghandel – Povl Branner, 1926), 93, where the qamatz is explained as a pausa. [x] The Septuagint Version of the Old Testament (London: Samuel Bagster and Sons Limited, (no year)), 767. [xi] Eusebius Pamphilius, Philip Schaff, ed. Church History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine (New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co. 1890, 265. [xii] As understood from the his words ”Talitha qumi” (Mark 5:41) and “Eli, Eli, lama sabakhthani” (Mark 15:34). (Qumi is normally written cumi from the Greek κουμι. [xiii] Luke 6:16-12. [xiv] “Saint Peter,” Wikipedia, accessed January 20, 2014, [xv] ”Septuagint Manuscripts,” Wikipedia, accessed January 6, 2014, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuagint_manuscripts#Greek_Septuagint_manuscripts_with_Hebrew_YHWH. [xvi] G. Gertoux, The Use of the Name (YHWH) by Early Christians, (International Meeting – Society of Biblical Literature) 2. [xvii] Ibid., 10. [xviii] Tōrah, Nabī’īm, Katūbīm, Berīt Ḥadaşah (Jerusalem: Qeren Aḥawah Maşīḥīt, 2010),144. [xix] First letter to the Corinthians 8:6 (KJV). [xx] ”Interpretive community,” Oxford Reference, accessed January 13, 2014, http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100008353. [xxi] Martin Browen and Felizitas Ringham, Key Terms in Semiotics (London: Continuum, 2006), 42. [xxii] Ibid., 108. [xxiv] Browen and Ringham, Key Terms in Semiotics, 21. [xxvi] The Antiochene bishop Ignatius (d. at a point between 98 and 117 AD) was acquainted with the letter. Ignatius, “Epistle to the Romans,” Philip Scharff ed. The Apostolic Farthers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus (Edinburg: 1867; copyright: Christian Classics Ethereal Library), 172, 174.

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- Open Access Population-level estimates of the proportion of Plasmodium vivax blood-stage infections attributable to relapses among febrile patients attending Adama Malaria Diagnostic Centre, East Shoa Zone, Oromia, Ethiopia Malaria Journal volume 16, Article number: 301 (2017) Malaria is ranked as the leading communicable disease in Ethiopia, where Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax are co-endemic. The incidence of P. vivax is usually considered to be less seasonal than P. falciparum. Clinical cases of symptomatic P. falciparum exhibit notable seasonal variation, driven by rainfall-dependent variation in the abundance of Anopheles mosquitoes. A similar peak of clinical cases of P. vivax is usually observed during the rainy season. However, the ability of P. vivax to relapse causing new blood-stage infections weeks to months after an infectious mosquito bite can lead to substantial differences in seasonal patterns of clinical cases. These cannot be detected with currently available diagnostic tools and are not cleared upon treatment with routinely administered anti-malarial drugs. A health- facility based cross-sectional study was conducted in Adama malaria diagnostic centre from May 2015 to April 2016. Finger-prick blood samples were collected for thin and thick blood film preparation from participants seeking treatment for suspected cases of febrile malaria. Informed consent was obtained from each study participant or their guardians. Seasonal patterns in malaria cases were analysed using statistical models, identifying the peaks in cases, and the seasonally varying proportion of P. vivax cases attributable to relapses. The proportion of patients with malaria detectable by light microscopy was 36.1% (1141/3161) of which P. vivax, P. falciparum, and mixed infections accounted for 71.4, 25.8 and 2.8%, respectively. Of the febrile patients diagnosed, 2134 (67.5%) were males and 1919 (60.7%) were urban residents. The model identified a primary peak in P. falciparum and P. vivax cases from August to October, as well as a secondary peak of P. vivax cases from February to April attributable to cases arising from relapses. During the secondary peak of P. vivax cases approximately 77% (95% CrI 68, 84%) of cases are estimated to be attributable to relapses. During the primary peak from August to October, approximately 40% (95% CrI 29, 57%) of cases are estimated to be attributable to relapses. It is not possible to diagnose whether a P. vivax case has been caused by blood-stage infection from a mosquito bite or a relapse. However, differences in seasonal patterns of P. falciparum and P. vivax cases can be used to estimate the population-level proportion of P. vivax cases attributable to relapses. These observations have important implications for the epidemiological assessment of vivax malaria, and initiating therapy that is effective against both blood stages and relapses. Plasmodium vivax is the most widely distributed species of malaria in the world, causing an estimated 8.5 (6.6–10.8) million clinical cases per year . Across the globe, there are about 3 billion people at risk of P. vivax infection . Despite this large burden of disease, P. vivax is often overlooked compared to Plasmodium falciparum, which is responsible for the majority of malaria-associated deaths, predominantly in young children and pregnant women in sub-Saharan Africa. Ethiopia together with India, Indonesia, and Pakistan accounts for more than 80% of the global P. vivax burden . About 75% of the landmass of Ethiopia is either malarious or potentially malarious and an estimated total of 68% of the Ethiopian population live at altitudes below 2000 m and are considered to be at risk of malaria. In Ethiopia, P. falciparum and P. vivax account for about 60 and 40% of all malaria cases, respectively . Malaria transmission is generally seasonal and unstable with substantial spatial and inter- and intra-annual variation. The seasonality is attributed to variation in the vector population (due to variation in the suitability of climatic conditions for vector breeding) across different months of the year. In general, two main seasons for the transmission of malaria are known in Ethiopia: the major transmission season from September to December following the main rainy season from June to August and the minor transmission season from April to May following the shorter rainy season in March, although the transmission seasons generally vary from region to region depending on climatic conditions such as temperature, rainfall, and humidity . In some parts of the country where temperature and rainfall conditions are nearly always favorable the transmission of malaria occurs throughout the year. In Ethiopia, most malaria control interventions are initiated during wet seasons. The co-existence of both P. falciparum and P. vivax in Ethiopia creates challenges for prevention, control and elimination of the disease. Anopheles arabiensis is the main malaria vector although Anopheles pharoensis, Anopheles funestus and Anopheles nili also transmit malaria . The interruption of P. vivax transmission is not easy because of its unique biological features, most notably, the ability for relapses to cause new blood-stage infections weeks to months after the initial infectious mosquito bite . In contrast to P. falciparum, which has only sporozoite induced infections, P. vivax blood-stage parasitaemia can arise from either mosquito-borne sporozoites or liver-stage hypnozoites. Hypnozoites arise from P. vivax sporozoites that invade liver-stage hepatocytes and lie dormant for weeks to years before activating to cause relapses . Assigning the exact source of any given blood stage infection (parasitaemia) observed in endemic settings is usually impossible, but the force of infection attributable to sporozoites versus hypnozoites may still be inferred at a population level [8,9,10]. Relapse may well be the predominant origin of most P. vivax clinical attacks throughout the endemic areas. Failure to systematically attack the hypnozoite reservoir of P. vivax not only results in repeated clinical attacks and serious illness, but also creates further opportunities for transmission to others . The time to first relapse after primary infection has been observed to be approximately 3 months in Ethiopia . When the transmission season ceases as a consequence of decline and/or absence of the mosquito population, most vivax malaria cases in the dry season are likely due to hypnozoite reactivation. Although hypnozoites do not contribute to clinical disease until activated, these dormant stages of the parasite ultimately play a vital role in sustaining transmission as they are refractory to blood-stage antimalarial drugs and interventions to reduce transmission. Furthermore, hypnozoites also ensure the ability of P. vivax to survive in climatic conditions that cannot sustain P. falciparum transmission [13, 14]. Representing an important reservoir for new infections, P. vivax hypnozoites are less susceptible to conventional malaria control interventions such as insecticides, bed nets, diagnostic methods, and almost all chemoprophylactic or chemotherapeutic interventions . Only one class of drugs, 8-aminoquinolines, has been proven to successfully prevent relapses, with primaquine being the only drug from this class currently licensed for use. In most endemic countries chloroquine (CQ) and primaquine (PQ) have been used as the first-line therapies for P. vivax infections except where P. vivax is resistant to CQ . There are currently insufficient measures in place to ensure the safe delivery of PQ within the context of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency (G6PDd) risk . As PQ may cause a life threatening haemolytic anemia in patients with G6PD deficiency, it is not recommended to patients whose G6PD deficiency status is not known. Estimates of the force of blood-stage infections arising from primary infections and relapses are important for designing intervention strategies although their relative contributions in endemic settings are not well established. The seasonality of P. vivax primary infections can be estimated from the seasonality of P. falciparum infections since they are transmitted by the same vectors. A statistical model has been developed to estimate the incidence and seasonality of P. vivax primary infection and relapse , given longitudinal data with genotyped samples. The seasonal pattern of P. falciparum infections provides approximate estimates of the seasonal pattern of P. vivax primary infections. In co-endemic settings, P. falciparum is often the first species to show a decline in incidence during successful control campaigns with P. vivax generally being slower to respond to the same interventions. As a result significant reductions in P. vivax case burden may only become evident a few years after decreases of P. falciparum, due to the hidden reservoir of silent P. vivax hypnozoites . It is uncertain how relapses contribute to the burden of P. vivax malaria in areas of seasonal transmission settings. Effective control strategies for P vivax will be aided by improving our understanding of the proportion of clinical cases of P. vivax caused by relapses. The objective of this study was to estimate the proportion of clinical cases of P. vivax attributable to relapses in Adama malaria diagnostic centre, East Shoa Zone, Oromia, Ethiopia. The study was conducted in Adama malaria diagnostic centre, East Shoa Zone, Oromia, Ethiopia from 15 May 2015 through 15 April 2016. The health centre is dedicated to malaria diagnosis as it does not perform any other types of diagnosis. Adama town (8°33′N 39°17′E) is located 100 km from Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. People from the Adama town and the surrounding rural areas preferentially use this laboratory for malaria diagnosis over hospitals and other surrounding health centres. The population of Adama within reach of the health centre is approximately 324,000. As individuals can obtain malaria diagnosis and treatment at other facilities, this can be considered as an upper limit on the population denominator. The laboratory technicians at this centre are WHO certified microscopists. In the study area, malaria transmission is seasonal like many endemic regions of Ethiopia and both P. falciparum and P. vivax co-exist. Although malaria transmission varies from year to year depending on rainfall patterns, the major transmission season in the study area usually runs from August through December with a minor transmission season from May through June. Self-reporting febrile patients seeking malaria diagnosis were included in this study. Demographic characteristics of individuals presenting at Adama malaria diagnostic centre were systematically registered on the logbook (routine procedures). Blood samples were obtained through finger prick method for thick and thin smears. The slides were stained with a 10% Giemsa solution to be examined under 100× microscopes for the presence of malaria parasites. The slides were independently read by two skilled microscopists. Ethiopia adopted species-specific malaria treatment policy making species identification very crucial for proper prescription of the right anti-malarial drugs. Those febrile individuals who were negative for malaria were advised to undertake further diagnosis for their febrile illness at hospitals or elsewhere. Patients with confirmed cases of P. vivax received an unsupervised 3-day treatment of chloroquine (total 25 mg/kg) without primaquine, while cases of confirmed P. falciparum and mixed infections (P. falciparum and P. vivax) received artemether–lumefantrine. Ethical clearance for this study was obtained from Aklilu Lemma Institute of Pathobiology Institutional Review Board. Informed consents were obtained from participating individuals. where Pf 0 is the average number of P. falciparum cases per month, c is the ratio between cases at the lowest point of the dry season and the peak of the wet season, κ is a parameter determining the seasonality (larger values of κ correspond to higher degrees of seasonality), and θ determines the timing of the peak of seasonality. B is the beta function which assures the seasonal function is appropriately normalized. It is assumed that the incidence of cases of P. vivax caused by primary infections is proportional to the incidence of P. falciparum cases , and that the incidence of P. vivax cases caused by relapses is proportional to the incidence of P. falciparum cases δ months ago. The incidence of P. vivax can then be described by the following formula. The models for seasonal variation in P. falciparum and P. vivax cases described in Eqs. (1) and (2) are jointly fitted to the data on malaria cases. Importantly, this model can be fitted to the data in two different formats: seasonal variation in the total cases of P. vivax and P. falciparum (Fig. 1b); and seasonal variation in the proportion of cases of P. vivax and P. falciparum (Fig. 1c). The statistical model was fitted separately to these two formats of the data: (a) data on proportion of cases using a Binomial likelihood; and (b) data on total cases using a normal likelihood. The models were fitted in a Bayesian framework using improper uniform priors. A total of 3161 patients visited Adama malaria diagnostic centre from May 2015 through April 2016. The proportion of patients with malaria detectable by light microscopy was 36.1% (1141/3161). P. vivax was the predominant species (71.4%) identified in the study area. Of the study participants 67.5% were males and 60.7% were urban residents. Age group 6–15 years had the highest incidences of malaria (49.5%) with the age group greater than 45 years having the lowest incidence (26.0%). Pattern of P. vivax infections by age across the 12 months of the study period is presented in Additional file 1. The demographic characteristics of the study participants are shown in Table 1. For both P. falciparum and P. vivax, the peak of malaria was from August through December. The number of people presenting at the health facility and monthly malaria clinical cases due to P. falciparum and P. vivax is summarized in Table 2. Parameters of the statistical model used to analyse data on proportion of cases and data on total cases are presented in Table 3. Figure 2 shows the results of fitting statistical models to the data on the proportion of cases that are due to either P. falciparum or P. vivax. The model identifies the primary peak in P. falciparum cases from August to October seen in the data. The model also identifies the peak of cases of P. vivax attributable to primary infection seen in the data from August to October, as well as a secondary peak from February to April attributable to cases arising from relapses. Examining the seasonal variation in clinical cases of P. vivax attributable to relapses, it was estimated that during the secondary peak in February to April 77% (95% CrI 68, 84%) of cases are attributable to relapses. During the primary peak from August to October, it is estimated that 40% (95% CrI 29, 57%) of cases are attributable to relapses. Figure 3a shows the results of fitting the model for seasonal variation to the data on total case numbers of P. vivax and P. falciparum. For both species, the model predicts a peak during September to October. A minor secondary peak of P. vivax cases is also predicted from February to March. It should also be noted that the data suggest a minor secondary peak in P. falciparum cases during this period as well. Figure 3b shows the estimated proportion of clinical cases of P. vivax attributable to relapses. Although the line of best fit does suggest substantial seasonal variation in the cases attributable to relapses, the credible intervals are very wide, spanning most of the range from 0 to 100%. This suggests that the model and data interpreted in this manner does not have sufficient statistical power to identify the seasonal variation in relapses. In this study, the proportion of individuals with malaria was 36.1% (1141/3161) as diagnosed by light microscopy. The highest incidence of malaria was during the peak malaria transmission season for the study site from August to October. Malaria cases were highest among age group 6–15 years (49.5%), followed by the <5 age group (40.0%) (Table 1). It is apparent that most malaria mortality and morbidity in endemic settings occurs in children under 5 years of age. Malaria cases were highest among rural (46.4%, 576/1242) residents compared to urban residents (29.4%, 565/1919). Inhabitants of urban areas may have lower exposure to mosquito bites than rural inhabitants and hence have lower malaria incidences. Males had a slightly higher proportion of confirmed malaria cases (38.5%) than females (32.0%). The presence of sex-specific occupational variation in the study area (mainly outdoor activities in males and indoor activities in females) may account for variable exposure to mosquito bites and hence lower incidence of malaria cases in the latter. The incidence of P. vivax appears to decrease more slowly than that of P. falciparum in areas where both species coexist . As the incidence of malaria is reduced, the proportion of all cases due to P. vivax increases and predominates in the area. During the peak transmission season, both falciparum and vivax malaria cases appear at health facilities. As the transmission season ceases following the unfavourable weather conditions for vector breeding, P. falciparum cases decline while vivax malaria cases continue appearing at health facilities because of latent liver-stage infections. Thus, the appearance of P. falciparum cases after a pause of transmission signals the beginning of the next malaria transmission season. The continuation of P. vivax cases even after the primary transmission season underscores the need for effective intervention strategies against liver-stage parasites in Ethiopia. However, with currently available technology, it is not possible to diagnose latent liver stages. Another point worth noting is the complaints of treatment fatigue by individuals receiving treatment for P. vivax. As Ethiopia’s national treatment guideline does not allow PQ for the radical cure, the inevitable recurrence of P. vivax after CQ therapy has made people less interested to seek health facilities. Plasmodium vivax cases appearing at health facilities during the non-transmission season likely arise from reactivation of dormant liver-stages. These individuals had P. vivax primary infections sometime ago during the previous transmission seasons and did not receive PQ for radical cure for their illness. The infections that arise from the reactivation of dormant liver-stage in the dry season may not be transmitted from infected individuals to uninfected ones as the vectors responsible for active transmission are non-existent due to the unsuitability of the weather conditions in the dry season. Indeed, in the transmission season P. vivax cases are presumed to be both from new mosquito infections and relapse unlike the vivax malaria episodes in the dry season that emanate from the latter. As a consequence, clearance of acute vivax malaria requires two distinct classes of drugs: blood schizonticide(s) (to terminate the acute attack), and hypnozoitocide(s) (to prevent subsequent acute attacks) [15, 16]. Prevention of infections arising from relapse is challenging as it is less susceptible to the conventional malaria control interventions such as insecticides, bed nets, diagnostic methods and almost all chemotherapeutic interventions . The distinct biological characteristics of P. vivax present challenges for its control and elimination. Insecticide-treated mosquito nets (ITNs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS), for instance, are not always as effective against P. vivax as they are against P. falciparum. The reservoir of P. vivax infection in the human liver stage (hypnozoites), can result in cases occurring without the bite of infectious vectors. Several historical studies have shown that P. falciparum and P. vivax substantially contribute to malaria morbidity in Ethiopia, in relative proportions of approximately 60 and 40% [20,21,22], respectively, although their relative proportions vary both temporally and spatially. The predominance of P. vivax cases in the study site is consistent with a globally reported epidemiological trend in P. vivax and P. falciparum co-endemic regions where the proportion of P. vivax cases increases as total malaria cases are reduced via malaria control interventions. However, to definitively show this for the study site in Adama would require additional data from before the roll out of insecticide treated nets. The statistical model applied here utilizes routinely collected data on monthly cases of P. falciparum and P. vivax to estimate the proportion of P. vivax cases attributable to relapses. Notably, the results of this study are consistent with the findings from an analysis of data from cohorts of Papua New Guinean children that indicate that approximately 81% (95% CI 42, 94%) of clinical cases of P. vivax are attributable to relapses and that the proportion of P. vivax infections attributable to relapses is highest in the dry season . However, it should be noted that there are some challenges in interpreting the data due to the seasonality in non-malaria cases reporting to the health centre (Fig. 1b). The seasonal variation in non-malaria cases could be due to (1) seasonally varying incidence of other infectious diseases; (2) sub-microscopic symptomatic cases of malaria; or (3) individuals systematically over-accessing resources at the health centre during the malaria transmission season. Given these uncertainties, it is unclear whether the true seasonal pattern of cases of clinical malaria in the population as a whole is better represented by the proportion of cases of confirmed P. vivax and P. falciparum, or by total case numbers. When the statistical model is applied to the data on proportion of cases with P. vivax there is a clear secondary peak of P. vivax cases in February to March (Fig. 2a). However when the statistical model is applied to total P. vivax cases, there is much less evidence for a secondary peak of P. vivax cases from February to March (Fig. 3a). In both cases, the proportion of P. vivax cases attributable to relapses is predicted to be highest during February to March, although there is not enough signal for a significant pattern when data are analysed using total cases. Seasonal patterns in clinical cases of P. vivax may not accurately reflect seasonal patterns in the incidence of P. vivax blood-stage infections. The incidence of P. vivax relapses is believed to be highest immediately after the initial infectious mosquito bite , but possibly with a delay of a few weeks [17, 24]. However, the model fit to the data suggests a delay of 5–6 months between exposure during the peak malaria transmission season and the incidence of clinical cases of P. vivax attributable to relapses. This could be due to the relapse phenotype of Ethiopian P. vivax parasites [25, 26], or may be a consequence of induced immune responses. An adaptive antibody response targeting the primary blood-stage P. vivax infection may provide protection against high density parasitaemia and clinical episodes arising from relapses, particularly if the relapse and primary infection are clonal . Indeed, it is plausible that a relapse may only cause a clinical case of P. vivax if: (1) it occurs after a sufficient duration such that short-term adaptive responses generated by the primary infection have waned [28, 29]; and (2) the relapsing parasite is not a full sibling of the parasites that caused the primary infection . It is apparent that the treatment of P. vivax patients with primaquine radical cure may reduce relapse associated morbidity. However, many malaria endemic countries have not mandated routine glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) testing before initiating PQ for radical cure of patients infected by P. vivax malaria. This has led to the absence of PQ prescription or inconsiderate prescription and administration of PQ to P. vivax patients without being concerned about patients’ G6PD status and associated complications . Indeed, the single greatest obstacle to PQ prescription is the rational fear of complications associated with this drug in G6PD deficient patients. Towards this end, a study conducted in the Gambella region of Ethiopia showed the presence of G6PD deficiency in Nilotic ethnic group that represents less than 1% of the total population. Further assessments of G6PD deficiency nationwide will help abate relapse-associated morbidity by providing PQ for radical cure. Data on the incidence of P. falciparum and P. vivax cases are often routinely collected at various levels of the public health system. By comparing the seasonal patterns in P. falciparum and P. vivax cases, this method suggests that after the primary malaria transmission in Adama, Ethiopia up to 77% (95% CrI 68, 84%) of P. vivax cases are attributable to relapses. This provides an indication of the burden of P. vivax malaria that can be prevented if more individuals are treated with primaquine during the wet season, either following a primary case of P. vivax in the wet season or by mass treatment of asymptotic individuals in the wider population. This is the first study in Ethiopia to address population-level estimates of the proportion of P. vivax clinical cases attributable to relapses among febrile patients. As relapses present a challenge to control and elimination programmes, the hypnozoite needs to be the focus of specific intervention programmes for the realization of malaria elimination. These observations have important implications for the epidemiological assessment of vivax malaria, and initiating therapy that is effective against both blood stages and relapses. This study estimated the proportion of clinical cases of P. vivax attributable to relapses, which has important implications for the epidemiological assessment of vivax malaria and initiating therapy that is effective against both blood stages and relapses. The study provides an indication of the burden of P. vivax malaria that can be prevented if more individuals are treated with primaquine during the wet season, either following a primary case of P. vivax or by mass treatment of asymptomatic individuals in the wider population. The model suggest that 70% of P. vivax infections are suggested to have arisen from relapse during February to April, while 40% of P. vivax cases resulted from relapse during August to October 2015. The model also shows the occurrence of the relapse phenotype of Ethiopian P. vivax parasites with a delay of 5–6 months between exposure during the peak malaria transmission season and the incidence of clinical cases of P. vivax attributable to relapses. 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Pathog Glob Health. 2016;110:1–8. Tsegaye A, Golassa L, Mamo H, Erko B. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency among malaria suspects attending Gambella hospital, southwest Ethiopia. Malar J. 2014;13:438. LG conceived and designed the study, MTW analysed the data, LG and MTW wrote the paper. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript. We are grateful to all the study participants, as well as their parents or legal guardians who made themselves available for these studies. We also thank laboratory staff at the Adama malaria diagnostic centre, Tewabech Lemma and Tsehay Orlando for their assistance with patient recruitment and microscopic slide readings. The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. About this article Cite this article Golassa, L., White, M.T. Population-level estimates of the proportion of Plasmodium vivax blood-stage infections attributable to relapses among febrile patients attending Adama Malaria Diagnostic Centre, East Shoa Zone, Oromia, Ethiopia. Malar J 16, 301 (2017) doi:10.1186/s12936-017-1944-3 - P. vivax

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The First Day of Genesis: Malkuth Genesis 1:1-5: In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. And God said, let there be light: and there was light. And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness. And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day. Inside of any Monad one will always find the three atoms of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. These are the three atoms of the Cosmic Christ, the Glorian within each Monad; these three atoms (forces) are as an electric wire: positive, negative and neutral. They connect the Monad with the Elohim (Gods and Goddesses). In the World of Briah, the world of Cosmocreators, we find the seven mighty rays that organize these Monads. Our Monad is connected to one of those seven mighty rays. The three spiritual atoms (Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit) of our Monad are connected to the Glorian (Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit) of the Elohim (Cosmocreator) who commands the ray to which our Monad is connected. The first words of the Bible: Bereishit bara Elohim. In common English: “In the beginning, God create..” This phrase actually has many meanings. One, according to Zohar, the more important book of Kabbalah, is: This is why it says Bereishit, about Chokmah, which is composed of beth-reishit. the numerical value of the letter Beth is two, because Chokmah is the second of the ten Sephiroth. it is called resheet (beginning) because (relates to the World of Briah-Creation), although the supernal and concealed Kether is the first of the Sephiroth, Kether is not included in the number of the Sephiroth (because relates to the World of Atziluth-Archetypes). Thus, the second--namely Chokmah--is considered as the resheet (beginning). therefore, it is considered beth-reishit, Beth, since it is the second Sephirah in the order of the emanation of the Sephiroth, and 'beginning,' since it is the first in (Briah) the counting, as Kether is not counted. - Beth = Chokmah - reishit = The "Higher, or Upper Wisdom,” which is related to the Sephirah Chokmah: the cognizance that is always creating Furthermore, just as the upper Chokmah is a beginning, so is the lower Chokmah a beginning. From the upper Chokmah down to Malkuth, which is the lower Chokmah, there is no Sephirah that may receive for itself the illumination of Chokmah. Hence, Beth should not be separated from reishit. in other words, this bet alludes to Malkuth, which is the lower Chokmah. since there is no other Sephirah between them that may receive the illumination of Chokmah, Malkuth and reishit should be joined to form Bereishit. - Zohar So, a proper translation of Bereishit bara Elohim, according to Kabbalah, could be: The "Higher, or Upper Wisdom" of the six, over which stands the seventh Sephirah (Jehovah Elohim in Daath), created the Heaven and the Earth. Chokmah, the "Higher, or Upper Wisdom" of the Gods and Goddesses, is related to creation (World of Briah). “Throughout, the 10 Sephiroth are represented as divided into the three higher, or the spiritual Triad, and the lower Septenary. The true Esoteric meaning of the sacred number seven is cleverly veiled in the Zohar; yet was betrayed by the double way of writing "in the beginning" or Be-resheeth, and Be-raishath, the latter the "Higher, or Upper Wisdom." As shown by Mr. Macgregor Mathers in his Kabbalah (p. 47), and in the Qabbalah of Mr. T. Myer (p. 233), both of these Kabalists being supported by the best ancient authorities, these words have a dual and secret meaning. Bereishit bara Elohim means that the six, over which stands the seventh Sephirah, belong to the lower material class, or, as the author says: "Seven . . . . are applied to the Lower Creation, and three to the spiritual man, the Heavenly Prototypic or first Adam." - H.P.Blavatsky, from The Secret Doctrine. Bereishit bara Elohim created the Monads and material world. Heaven is always related to God, our own particular Spirit. Our Monad, Spirit, is always in Heaven. The Monads (Spirits) are related to a particular Cosmic Ray. When the Monads are sent out (into the universe) from within the bosom of the Absolute (the Eternal Cosmic Common Father) they immediately become connected when being fecundated by that particular Cosmic Ray or Cosmo-creator that is in charge of that part of the Cosmos. This is how our Monads are connected with the Elohim / Gods and Goddesses / Cosmo-creators. All the Monads of this Planet Earth are connected to the Elohim in that way, this is, through one Ray among the seven cosmic rays. Any one of these seven rays is what is called Glorian (Father / Son / Holy Spirit). The difference between the three spiritual atoms (Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit) of our Monad and of the three spiritual atoms (Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit) of the Elohim (because the Elohim or Cosmocreators are also Monads) is that they were also simple Monads in former Cosmic Days (as our Monads presently are), but they became Self-realized and developed the power of creating a world, the power of organizing a kosmos. The Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit of the Elohim or Cosmocreator Monads have more wisdom, more capacity. The Monad of an ant (Father /Son / Holy Spirit) has only the power to create that matter, that tiny body of the ant. The heaven of that ant is its Monad that only has the power of creating that earth/ matter, which is that ant. But through evolution, the three spiritual atoms will learn to create more complicated organisms, until the moment in which the Monad is capable of creating a human body, and if this Monad enters into the initiatic path, it will learn how to create a world, a sun, just as Michael, Raphael, etc. who are Monads that are capable of giving life and sustaining it on the planets. Suns, stars, are Elohim. Bereishit bara Elohim; these are the Gods related with the universe, eg. In this solar system, the seven Cosmocreator Monads that command the seven mighty rays are: Gabriel, Raphael, Uriel, Michael, Samael, Zachariel and Orifiel. There are others, because other Elohim exist in this solar system, but these seven are the main ones. All Monads are connected to the three spiritual atoms (Father, Son and Holy Spirit) of these seven Cosmocreator Monads. In order to achieve the work in the Self-realisation of the Being, or in other words, in order for the Monad to create the human being into its own image, we need the help of Christ. No one gets to the Father (our Monad) except through the Son. Christ is not a person, is not an individual, but the Multiple Perfect Unity. Christ is that cosmic energy that manifests itself through the Seven Cosmic Rays of this or any solar system. Christ is the Lamb with seven horns (rays) and seven eyes (chakras) of the book of Revelation. Each Monad is connected to any of these seven horns. Thus, that Cosmocreator Monad that commands such Cosmic Ray or horn of the Lamb (cosmic fire) is connected to the Cosmic Christ. This is how the Cosmic Christ gives us its energy through that Cosmic Ray in order for us to become united with our Father (Monad) who is in Heaven. Whether we are connected to Gabriel, or Samael… the Christ is always the same. Christ is always Christ—Cosmic, Universal—but acting in a different way according with each particular Cosmic Ray. This is why we find different kinds of Masters, because these Masters are connected to different Cosmic Rays. - Mars / Samael: Warriors - Venus / Uriel: Art - Sun / Michael: related to the Law of the Scale… Light is always Light. Christ grants its Light to its Monads, but its light illuminates different in each Cosmocreator. Samael is Red Light, the Red Christ. All Monads evolve in the mineral, plant, animal and human kingdoms. The Earth / Malkuth is the physical body created by the Monad through the direction of the Elohim. The Monad created the body, but above the Monad is always a Cosmocreator that is guiding the Monad. So in this Earth, without Cosmocreators, nobody can have a physical body. Our Monad is always the intermediator of the creative force from the Cosmocreators. That’s why in initiation one has to follow one’s own Monad, Being, Inner God, but our Monad is always following its particular Elohim, following its own Cosmic Ray. In order to reach the Absolute (the bosom of our Cosmic Common Eternal Father) the Monad needs the help of its own particular Cosmic Ray or Elohim this way the Monad develops faster, because the Cosmic Christ is connected to our Monad through that Cosmic Ray. That Elohim is Christ or the Light, the electricity, that acts through that Elohim. In the beginning Elohim created Heaven and Earth. We have to realise that many different types of people exist who are related to different types of Cosmic Rays. Therefore, when a Monad reaches the level in which we are in now (the humanoid kingdom), and if we enter into initiation, we read: ...And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. Earth = matter, physical body. Because “In the beginning Elohim created Heaven” is the evolution of our Spirit in Heaven, and is related with the Elohim “..and the earth...” is the physical body in different steps in evolution from the mineral until the human kingdom. ..And the earth was without form, and void... The matter, the earth (physical body), that we have here and now, is without form, is disorganised, there is no psychological organization within us. When we examine our psyche through meditation, we discover that within our psyche is not God, but the Ego (the devil). We do not have even Tiphereth, the Human Soul, incarnated. We are beings without Human Soul, even though we have one small part of Tiphereth, Beauty, Soul, inside, which is the consciousness, the essence, the Buddhata. The Buddhata is an embryo of soul; this embryo is trapped within Lust, Anger, Greed, Envy.. etc., it is without form and void, in disorder (and the earth was without form, and void…). There is no organisation in our psyche, it has no form. ...and darkness was upon the face of the deep. The deep is the abyss in each of us: the subconsciousness/ unconsciousness/ infra-consciousness; it is the darkness within us. If we start awakening the consciousness, then we will see light. But at the moment we only see darkness inside. There is no Light, only disorder, and emptiness, a Void. There is nothing there related to our Monad; the Buddhata disgracefully is bottled up within the animal ego, defects, vices, perversity, etc... Fortunately, Genesis tells us how to initiate our interior organization and to make light within that darkness. And the (Ruach Elohim) Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters... “And the Ruach Elohim…” Ruach means Spirit, and also Breath or Wind. In this case we read as Spirit. The Solar Spirit (Ruach Elohim) finalizes its transformation (through the metabolism of the physical body) in the sexual waters. The Solar Spirit (Ruach Elohim) is the Christic Solar Substance within the sperm and the ovum that are floating upon face of the sexual waters of man and woman. Here in these Genesic Waters is the beginning of all life. “And God said..” We are only interested in Self-realization if our Monad wants to Self-realize. Our God has to decide, has to say. Our Monad can guide us, but first the Elohim have to indicate how. The Elohim assist and help the Buddhatas and Monads through their Cosmic Ray. The Masters of the White Lodge are always taking care of all the souls and Monads of the earth. The Monads need to be guided by the Cosmic Christ. So, the Cosmic Christ through the Elohim guides those Monads that are entering into the Initiatic Path. This is why we always find Avatars, Prophets, Messengers who descend here to teach. The Monad reaches the level of Mastery through the guidance of the Elohim. Afterwards, the Monad can proceed illuminating itself with its own experience, with its own light. And Elohim said, let there be light: and there was light… This knowledge is light for our darkness. But the real light shines when we awaken the Kundalini, the Fire of the Holy Spirit, because the Holy Spirit is the maker of Light. Our Inner God has to invert the animal sexual current in order to transform it into Human. Because the animal nature is always related to multiplication, automatism, mechanicity etc.; the animal only utilizes the sexual energy to physically multiply, to create. If we want to enter into the Human kingdom, we have to take advantage of that Solar Light (Christ) in order to make Light within our psyche, with the help of our God, by awakening the Fire of Kundalini; this is how we acquire the power to destroy the darkness within, step by step. And God saw (when someone awakens the Kundalini, the Fire within) that the Light was good (for illumination). The Kundalini, the Fire of the Holy Spirit, awakens, and goes up from earth to Heaven, from the coccyx to the brain. It starts in Yesod (in the microcosmic humanoid body), which is the sexual force, with which the Spirit of God is moving upon the face of the waters. This is the 9th sphere, Yesod that is in the centre of the earth, in Hell, where Dante finds Lucifer, the sexual potency. We have to steal the fire from Lucifer in order to make light within out interior darkness. “Temptation is Fire; the triumph over temptation is Light.” We must command the sexual force because the Spirit of God moves upon the face of the sexual waters. And God divided the Light from the Darkness. When we awaken the Fire of the Holy Spirit, the Kundalini, then a division between light and darkness occurs. The Light gives us consciousness of our Heavens, the Gods, Masters, the astral, mental planes, etc. The Darkness is our ego. God makes that division or separation. ...And the evening and the morning were the first day... We always start in the evening, in the darkness, and step by step we move towards the light. We start from the base or foundation (Yesod) and work upwards. The First Initiation of Major Mysteries is when the fire of Kundalini (the Holy Spirit) rises from the coccyx to the root of the nose in the physical body. In each initiation, in each day of Genesis, we are losing part of our animal nature and gaining human nature. What happens to the Monad? The Monad becomes transformed with all of that energy (Kundalini) that rises in the earth, in the physical body; it grants onto the Monad divine mighty powers. Upon receiving this First Initiation, our Innermost, Gedulah or Chesed, Mercy, our particular Spirit, becomes united with Geburah, our Divine Soul, and then in the Heavens of the Sixth Dimension is celebrated the birth of a new Master. Simply, it is another Monad that is entering the current that leads to Nirvana. That Monad is a new born Master in Heaven; such Monad still is not born as a Master on earth. The Buddhata of that initiated Monad has changed; the Buddhata has more capacity for helping others, because its Monad has already performed the First Day of Genesis within. “The "Higher, or Upper Wisdom" of the six Cosmo-creators (Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter in Briah), over which stands the Seventh Cosmocreator (Saturn, which is related with the Sephirah Binah, Jehovah Elohim in Daath), created the Heavens (the Monads) and (the Physical Body) the Earth. And (because of the animal ego, the consciousness of the Physical Body or) the earth was without (human) form and void (of the Spirit), and darkness (absence of spiritual light) was upon the face of the (psychological) deep; and (nonetheless) the Spirit of God (or the Ruach Elohim of the Stellar Gods) was moving upon the face of the waters (of Sexuality). And (during sexual transmutation, this Ruach Elohim of) God said: “Let there be light (within this psychological chaos of Malkuth); and there was (the) light (of Kundalini rising through the 33 vertebrae of the spinal column of the Physical Body). And (this Ruach Elohim of) God (internally) saw that the light (of Shekinah, the Divine Mother Kundalini) was good (for his Self-realization); and (this Ruach Elohim of) God separated the light (of our Divine Mother Kundalini) from the darkness (of the ego in Malkuth and placed it in Geburah, his Divine Consciousness). (So this Ruach Elohim of) God called the light (of his physical body, “Malkuth,” the first Initiatic) Day, and the darkness he, (the Ruach Elohim) called (the Spiritual) Night (of the Soul in Malkuth). And there was the evening (when one takes the solar light from the sun that sets in Yesod) and the morning (when the solar atoms of the sun rise towards the brain), the first (Initiatic) day. And because God, the Monad separated the light or Wisdom of Christ from the darkness or ignorance of the Ego, the light shone exceedingly more in the darkness of the earth; and the darkness comprehended it not. Thus the light within the Monad said to its own Cosmic Ray: Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do. - Next: The Second Day of Genesis >

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Article body copy “Let’s drive to Soldiers Delight,” says Grace Brush. So out we go up Baltimore’s treeless Reisterstown Road and down county back roads through Maryland’s thick summer green. Suddenly, we’re among hills with sparse grass and a slightly scrubby forest. This is Soldiers Delight Natural Environment Area, a serpentine barren that looks out of place in this lush country. It’s a peculiar landscape and Brush is a paleoecologist, an expert in the history of landscapes. She views landscapes the way physicians view bodies: systems of interconnected parts, changing with time, resilient until they’re not. Brush is 86 years old, so we stump cautiously along paths that are interrupted by corrugated pavements of silvery gray-green serpentine rock. It’s a little hard for her to navigate, though she’s paying less attention to her balance than to the rock itself. Serpentine was born directly from the Earth’s mantle and when it weathers, she says, “you don’t get much soil.” The dirt that does weather out is shallow, low in plant nutrients, and doesn’t hold water, so few tree species grow here. Brush points out what does grow—blackjack and post oak, sassafras, greenbrier, grasses, and ferns—and stops to examine the individuals. Our progress is slow but relentless. In the early 1800s, Soldiers Delight’s serpentine was found to contain chromite, and this area and the nearby barrens were mined; for a while, Baltimore County was the world’s largest supplier of chrome. Brush walks me to the open-pit Choate Mine, talking about how the mines and later the invasive suburbs meant that natural wildfires were quickly stamped out. But “grasslands need fires,” she adds, and without fires, “Virginia pine moved in.” Beginning in the 1960s, a group of ecologically minded citizens lobbied to protect the area, cut the pines, and set up controlled burns. The serpentine barrens are now returning to their normal abnormality, which includes many rare wildflowers. Brush takes a wildflower identification book out of her jacket and stops to identify tiny flowers on thready plants, though we’re a little early in the wildflower season. “We’ll come back,” she says. We came in the first place because Brush wanted to show me what she means by “landscape,” that is, space plus time, cause and result, from the rock to the dirt to the plants; birth, destruction, restoration. Brush’s true love and deepest expertise is in an entirely different landscape, that of the Chesapeake Bay. She was 41 years old and living in Baltimore about the time the bay was found to be dying. The Chesapeake is an estuary, the world’s third largest, created in part by 150 rivers that drain 166,000 square kilometers and flow into the Atlantic Ocean. Thus, the bay is a mixture of fresh and salt water. It has 3,600 species of plants and animals, and its watershed area has 18.1 million humans. Its fisheries are worth billions of dollars and they employ tens of thousands of people. But in the early 1970s, the Chesapeake was rapidly losing oxygen, fish, oysters, and plants. The loss coincided with the growth of the environmental movement, and the newly created US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) began funding scientists, including Brush, to figure out what was wrong with the Chesapeake and how to fix it. Ecological landscapes are notoriously complex, with many variables and an unknown number of unknown connections: “When we try to pick out anything by itself,” the famous naturalist John Muir once wrote, “we find it hitched to everything else in the Universe.” Ecologists wanting to restore a broken landscape must deal with not only that complexity, but also with shifting baselines. That is, ecologies change with time, shifting naturally through stability to instability to the next stability. So one of the big questions facing ecologists is: to which stability should restoration return? Brush’s approach to the problem was meticulous, elegant, and obvious: before fixing the Chesapeake, figure out the long history of its shifts and changes. With colleagues and generations of graduate and undergraduate students (whom she carefully credits), she took core samples of the bay’s sediments, the oldest of which date back a little over 14,000 years. In the sediments, she counted pollen grains and other tiny indicators of what was growing on the land and what was living in the water, and assembled an ecological history of the bay. The project took decades of detailed work. For the past 40 years, Brush has thought through the complex living arrangements of the bay landscape, identifying every variable and measuring each one to see how the Chesapeake got from then to now. “Gracie chasing down the past,” says Walter Boynton, an ecologist at the University of Maryland. Core by core, variable by variable, methodically, precisely, Brush pieced together evidence of the relationships between failing fisheries, river sediment, the sudden disappearance of underwater grasses, and a bay with a serious chemical imbalance. “Brush’s work was foundational,” says Rich Batiuk, the EPA’s associate director for science, analysis, and implementation. And she accomplished much of this without tenure and the usual net of academic securities. Some universities gave her not contracts or salaries, but access to work space and graduate students. She funded most of her work with grants, one after another, never sure where the next one would come from. She got her first tenured position at Johns Hopkins University in 1990, when she was 59, an age at which most scientists are past their prime. Her most recent scientific papers were published this year. One of her former graduate students, Daniel Bain, a geologist at the University of Pittsburgh, says “she’s tough as heck.” Grace Somers Brush is of medium height. She has curly, sandy-gray hair, doesn’t stand quite as straight as she used to, and looks like she’s nobody in particular. If you’re talking mundanities, she’s polite but her attention tends to drift. If you want to know about the silt piling up in the Susquehanna behind the Conowingo Dam, she snaps to, knows exactly what she thinks, says so, and backs it up with evidence. Brush grew up in rural Nova Scotia, going to a tiny country school with a monthly delivery of books, all of which she read. She spent a lot of time outdoors in the woods and at a nearby lake. “Nova Scotia was totally glaciated,” she says, so her outdoors was a postglacial landscape of bogs, lakes, rocky coasts, and sandy beaches, as well as a northern forest with conifers, maples, hemlocks, and aspens. When she was 13, her only option for continuing education was a boarding school in Antigonish, 40 kilometers from her home; she stayed in the small town to attend St. Francis Xavier University. One of her classes took a field trip to an outcrop called Joggins Fossil Cliffs, a slice through 300 million years’ worth of rock. Some layers revealed fossilized tree ferns that could have grown only in the tropics. That landscape would have looked nothing like the postglacial land she was standing on. Why were landscapes in the same place so different at different times, she later wondered? In 1956, she finished a PhD dissertation at Harvard University on the ancient pollen from tropical and semitropical plants preserved in 200-plus-million-year-old fossils from the American Midwest. Eventually, she became seriously interested in landscapes. They are profoundly unlike, and each one changes profoundly with time. How does that happen? By 1969, after a number of short but productive stays in various universities, Brush moved to Baltimore for good, just in time for the discovery that the Chesapeake Bay was sick. Some 35 million years ago, when the mid-Atlantic coast was even swampier, hotter, and more humid than it is now, a comet or asteroid three to five kilometers in diameter hit the region. It left a crater twice the size of Rhode Island. In time, rivers from the Appalachians began flowing northeast and southeast toward the crater. And about 10,000 years ago, after the last ice age ended, glaciers melted and the sea level rose, flooding the crater and up into the rivers; the biggest river valley, the Susquehanna, became the Chesapeake Bay. Indigenous Americans made a good living for thousands of years along its shores, hunting and fishing. And early Europeans were much taken with the region. In the early 1600s, Captain John Smith called the Chesapeake “a very goodly bay.” The land around it, he added, was pleasant: “overgrowne with wood,” “well-watered,” and “the vallies very fertill.” In the water were blue crabs, oysters that “lay as thicke as stones,” and “an aboundance of fish, lying so thicke with their heads above the water.” The rivers were large and navigable, and, Smith concluded, “heaven and earth never agreed better to frame a place for man’s habitation.” Over the next few centuries, the land around the very goodly bay was fished, farmed, urbanized, and industrialized. By the late 1800s, the forests, which had once covered 95 percent of the land, were reduced to just 40 percent. By the early 1970s, the underwater grasses that sheltered many species of fish and crabs—grasses that in living memory had been so thick in the river estuaries that boats couldn’t get through them—were all but gone. It “astonished the fishermen that the grasses disappeared so quickly and completely,” Brush said. The catches of fish and oysters all dropped. Concern was expressed; federal officials took boat trips to see for themselves. Congress created the Chesapeake Bay Program, an unlikely but high-functioning collaboration between 19 federal agencies, 40 agencies in six states and the District of Columbia, 1,800 local governments, 20 academic institutions, and more than 60 nongovernmental organizations. Money—US $27-million—was raised. Blame was laid: overfishing, toxic effluent from industry, sewage—or maybe all these, plus a bust phase in the bay’s normal boom and bust cycle. “I knew about this,” Brush said. “And I thought, ‘Gee whiz, if we could take [sediment] cores we could see what it was like before the fisheries’ decline.’” To take a core, get into a boat with a couple of muscular students and several one- to two-meter piston tubes. Find a place where the mud should be relatively undisturbed, jam one of the tubes into the mud as far as possible, and then—using the general principles of blood drawing—pull the mud into the tube, and cap and label. Try to do this six to 12 times in each place to be sure of having at least one core with intact sediment layers. Take the cores back to the lab, cut each one down the middle, then slice each half into sections one to two centimeters wide, and look for whatever you’re trying to find. To learn what was growing where and when, Brush began with pollen grains—her specialty. “Pollen gets everyplace,” Brush says—all over land, rivers, and bays, which is why people call it “pollen rain.” So she and a graduate student first identified and then counted the pollen from plants around one of the Chesapeake’s largest rivers, the Potomac, and did the same for pollen from trees on the river’s banks. Then Brush figured out which plants and trees shed the most pollen, namely oak and ragweed, and used these counts to study the ratio of plants to tree pollen and how that ratio changed with time. After that, Brush and several of her students studied how quickly pollen and silt each settle out of water. The settling rates were about the same, which meant that the amount of pollen in a layer could be used as a proxy for the rate of sedimentation. Then the team counted the pollen grains in each thin section of more than 100 cores and identified the pollen. After that, the team knew how much sediment the rivers carried at any given time. That “entailed a huge amount of work,” Brush says. “It took me a long, long time to figure that out.” She then took the pollen counts and sedimentation rates to the historical archives and compiled a timeline of events in the region. Once the Europeans moved in and began plowing the ground, first with wooden plows and then more deeply with metal plows, the sedimentation rate roughly tripled. And as they cleared the land, ragweed, “the most invasive species on Earth,” Brush wrote, moved in and spread across the places that had been logged. In the cores, ragweed went from accounting for less than one percent of the pollen to more than 20 percent. In short, Brush had found that just as pollen could serve as a proxy for sedimentation, ragweed could be used as a proxy for deforestation: “Lots of ragweed,” Brush says, and “you know the forests have been cut.” This had major implications. Cut the forests and rain carries even more sediment into the rivers and on into the Chesapeake. To find out what the increased sediment was doing to the water, Brush and successive graduate students did more coring throughout the bay. Then they checked the cores for seeds of the underwater grasses that form, in Walter Boynton’s words, “a green wreath around the bay” and provide shelter and food to a variety of bay creatures. In Brush’s cores, the numbers of grass seeds cycled up and down for centuries; and then in the 1970s, they disappeared fast and didn’t reappear. Such a disappearance was unique. “It wasn’t a cycle,” says Boynton. “It was an event. Brush made it clear this was unprecedented.” So what was killing the underwater grasses? In cores taken from different parts of the bay, Brush and her graduate students counted the tiny jawbones of worms and the fossil remains of certain diatoms, species that lived on the bottom of the bay. The results were telling: as farming increased along the bay, worms and bottom-dwelling diatoms began disappearing along with the grasses. In her counts, Brush could watch the land being cleared of forests, and the rivers carrying more sediment into the bay. And as the sediment and nutrients increased, the bay water became murky: less and less light got through to the bottom. When the light was gone, Brush saw the disappearance of the grasses that depended on the light and the creatures that depended on the grasses. But those weren’t the only major changes that Brush and her team discovered in the sediment cores. They also recently found an unexpected jump in the level of nitrogen, a raw material that plants need to grow. The jump dated from the earliest European settlement. During the same period, in different cores, Brush noticed that the plants were changing from those that grew in wetlands to those that grew in dry lands. Wetland plants return the nitrogen to the air and dry land plants return it to the soil and then the bay. And because the nitrogen in the bay increased, Brush thought she was seeing a sign that farmers were draining the wetlands. As farmers in the Chesapeake cleared more forest, farmed more land, and eventually spread chemical fertilizers rich in nitrogen across their fields, the rivers swept more nitrogen into the bay. So the more nitrogen in the bay, the more photosynthesis fuel for the algae living at the top of the bay. By the middle of the 20th century, algae in the bay were increasing faster than marine organisms could eat them. The algae bloomed in enormous areas of greenery and the blooms, along with the increasing sediment from farming and deforestation, decreased the light at the bottom of the bay. And when the algal blooms died, they sank to the bottom, where they decayed with the help of bacteria that need oxygen. As the decaying algae used up oxygen, the water became anoxic, a dead zone in which fish and oysters perished. “Turn off the light, put in a lot of organisms [at the top],” said Fredrika Moser, director of the Maryland Sea Grant College, “the communities [at the bottom] lose their function.” In fact, the bay “flipped;” life floated on the top, died on the bottom. The Europeans moving into Chesapeake country brought with them a new civilization rich in technology, but everything they did moved sediment and nitrogen from the land into the water. Eventually, John Smith’s landscape turned into Grace Brush’s. Her research, says former graduate student Emily Elliott, a biogeochemist at the University of Pittsburgh, has taken “a lot of labor-intensive work. It’s taken her 30-plus years to do it. But she tied the land to the water.” For thousands of years, the bay’s landscape had no set baseline; it shifted through one phase after another, adapting to changes in climate, sea level, fishing, and farming. “The bay had always been a dynamic system,” Brush says. William Ball, her colleague at Johns Hopkins, agrees: a healthy bay “responds, it rebounds,” he says, “and it doesn’t always look the same.” But in the past 300 to 400 years, with humans practicing industrial farming, paving over land, creating pollutants, and generally suiting the landscape to their own interests, the changes, Brush says, came too fast for nature to respond and rebound. “Humans change the systems much faster than nature does,” she says. “Fast change doesn’t allow for adaptation.” What humans break, they can sometimes fix. Like most studies in ecology, Brush’s research has implications for policy. Her work now allows the bay’s stakeholders to devise targets for its revival, says the EPA’s Rich Batiuk—targets for how much nitrogen to let into the bay, how much oxygen the deep Chesapeake could hold, how many acres of underwater grasses could be restored, how much nitrogen and sediment a healthy bay could handle, how to keep the water on the land. It’s working: the latest report on the bay documents fewer anoxic areas. The grasses are coming back, the water is clearer. “Things [are] turning the corner,” says Boynton. “People have been busting their butts on this for 30 years, but good things are starting to happen.” Brush herself cares about policy but avoids the politics. “I stayed out of it. You can lose an awful lot of time and I couldn’t get my hands around the discussions,” she says. “For me, I got a core, I could sample the bay, I could see it. I could get answers.” “And God bless her for that,” says Batiuk. “When her name is on the work, the science is strong and you can run with it.” Ball: “She’s a delight. I go into her office with some bug about politics and we end up talking about science. And then I remember why I’m here.” Batiuk: [laughing] “Working with her is like working with velvet. She talks, everybody goes silent and listens respectfully … and you see things you hadn’t seen. It’s like a smooth thing you want to wrap yourself up with—you feel smarter and you understand the world better.” “She’s just remarkable,” Moser says. So Brush continues as she began, though she says she’ll retire in the spring of 2018. She fell recently, tripped over her pant leg near her home and face planted. Her upper lip was lacerated, some teeth were broken. She’s okay now. But after recuperating for a few weeks at home, she’s had a taste of complete retirement; and that, she says, “is not going to work.” She’ll still retire, but she’s going to need projects. She just had a book come out, called Decoding the Deep Sediments, but it’s a little heavy going and she’d like to write a popular version of it. And she wants to know more about the extra nitrogen in the bay that apparently came from early farmers draining marshes. She doesn’t think she’ll be collecting more evidence, but she’s pretty sure she’s already got the data in existing cores. “I just have to get busy,” she says.

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Essentials Of The Unification Principle by Thomas Cromwell 3. The Purpose Of Creation The previous discussion of God and creation shows that God's purposeful force harmonizes His diverse creations within one, integrated and purposeful cosmos. What is God's purpose? Why did God create? Since human beings were made in the image of God, and therefore are endowed with characteristics that mirror God's attributes, the key to answering this question is easily derived by understanding the fundamental motivation of humankind. It is important to know God's purpose in making the creation because human beings can fulfill their own purpose only when they know clearly why God made them. Every being comes into existence to fulfill a purpose given to it by its creator; nothing creates itself or determines its own purpose. Consequently, a creation can fulfill its potential only by implementing its creator-given purpose. Since God is the Creator of all, His purpose for the creation is the creation's purpose. It is the natural tendency of God's creations to carry out the purposes for which they were made. For example, hydrogen naturally combines with oxygen to form water; a lettuce plant unconsciously absorbs light, water and minerals in becoming food for human beings and animals; and, without having been shown how, a stork builds a nest to protect its eggs and young offspring until they are strong enough to fend for themselves. Human beings, however, have free will, allowing them to choose to fulfill their given purpose. Free will is a gift from God that enables humankind to know and love God, and participate with God in creative processes. If humans do not understand the purpose for which God made them, they are likely to make wrong choices and consequently live unfulfilled and tragic lives in the pursuit of erroneous purposes. However, when a person does fulfill his God-given purpose, he experiences complete joy and fulfillment. The precise purpose for God making the creation and the way that purpose can be fulfilled by humanity and nature are discussed in this chapter. Universal Human Purpose: Achieving True Happiness The most universal human desire is for happiness. All men and women live to be happy, pursuing that aim as best they know how. Every action of every person is intended to increase his or her happiness. Even if pain is to be the immediate consequence of a decision to seek happiness, that pain is understood to be the price that must be paid to gain greater happiness. Thus, artists will make great effort to create substantial representations of their ideas or visions, feeling joy once they have succeeded; athletes will exhaust themselves in training, driving their bodies to the limit so that they can experience the pleasure of achieving fitness and winning competitions; saints will live lives of sacrifice and hardship to gain the eternal joy of heaven. How, then, is joy produced? Consider how any person feels joy. It can never be experienced by an individual alone, but only through having an object that reflects the subject's nature. Joy is the stimulation a subject receives from the object's resemblance to the subject, whether the object is visible or invisible. For example, an artist feels joy when the vision or idea in his or her mind is realized as a finished work of art. The work created is a resemblance of the idea for it. An athlete feels joy when, after continual training and practice, he or she achieves sporting excellence. Whether athlete, business professional, scientist or artist, the joy of achievement arises when substantial accomplishment in the world resembles the goal formulated in the mind. Most exhilarating is the joy experienced by parents as they raise their children to substantiate their parents' ideal for them, since in the parent-child relationship there is the greatest resemblance between creator and creation. True happiness, or joy, is experienced only when human beings fulfill the purpose for which they were originally created. All other pursuits of happiness sooner or later lead to frustration and misery. Thus the individual who pursues his own happiness by exploiting others can never experience lasting joy. All moral and social crimes are of this nature: seeking happiness that, sooner or later, causes the loss of happiness for others. Action taken with a selfish and unrighteous motive always leads to the creation of human suffering, proving that it is contrary to humanity's true, God-endowed purpose. The creation was made to complete itself through the formation of four position foundations based on giving and receiving between subjects and objects. It is when a subject and object form a harmonious union, centered on God's will, that each fulfils its purpose. Sub-atomic particles fulfill their purpose when they form atoms, atoms when they form molecules, and molecules when they form whole entities. Likewise, stamens and pistils fulfill their purpose when they cross-pollinate and produce seeds, and male and female animals when they mate and produce offspring. In human society, this principle applies to all relationships, from the individual to the global. A child fulfills its purpose and is happy when it has harmonious relationships with its parents and siblings, while a mature man and woman fulfill their purpose and experience joy when they enter into a responsible, monogamous relationship of love, create children and raise a family. The happiness of children and parents produced by the giving and receiving of true love is the greatest human joy. Joy is also experienced in all other human relationships governed by true love, and hence centered on God's love. Giving and receiving love in a family is the model for giving and receiving love in society and among nations. In the family one learns the most essential truth: concern for the whole must be set above the interests of the individual. Human experience shows that the degree of joy in a relationship depends on the compatibility of the characteristics and purposes of those involved. The most intense joy experienced by a woman is in the love relationship she has with the man who is her eternal mate. The couple's compatibility of purpose is total and the masculinity and femininity of the man and woman are perfectly complementary. When a man and woman unite in true love, their spiritual and physical natures fuse into one to create the highest joy for both partners. This experience of joy and fulfillment demonstrates that man was made for woman and woman for man. Individuals, families, groups and nations also experience joy in relating to other individuals, families, groups and nations, depending on mutuality of purpose. Social happiness is produced from harmonious relations among families, centered on God's love and truth; international happiness is produced from harmonious relations among nations, centered on God's will for those nations. The will of God is the purposeful expression of His love and truth. Humans can also receive joy from their relationships with nature. Because nature was created in the image of human beings (as an environment to sustain and give them joy), men and women together encapsulate the elements of the mineral, plant and animal kingdoms and are the only created beings that can relate to all other beings in the creation, directly or indirectly. The degree of resemblance between human and non-human beings determines the degree of joy experienced in the relationship. Pets, for example, generally demonstrate a high level of human-like characteristics, giving joy to the individuals who love them. God Created to Experience Joy God is the origin of all love, the First Lover. He is not distant from His creation, but intimately concerned with its welfare and development. Love, by its very nature, must be given, and therefore needs an object that can receive it. One cannot love nothing. God made the creation, centered on man and woman endowed with the ability to receive and give love, as the object to receive His love. Without such an object, God would not be a God of love, but would remain a God of potential love. Without an object to whom He could give His love, God would not experience joy. Therefore, God made the creation, and humankind in particular, in order to give love and experience joy. Men and women were created by God for love. Giving and receiving love is the central purpose of their lives and the means by which they experience fulfillment and joy. Although God is perfect, He seeks joy from His creation through the flowering of His love. His joy comes from experiencing men and women as they grow from infants through childhood into adulthood when, as mature parents, they create families, groups and nations living in the harmony created by relationships of true love. Their joy is His joy, their fulfillment, His fulfillment. Thus God seeks as much from His partners in the four position foundation as they seek from each other and from Him. Men and women are the culmination of the creation, embodying the dual attributes of God more completely than any other beings. The high degree to which human beings resemble God, especially in their capacity to give and receive love, enables them to respond substantially to God and His love. God's heart is essentially the heart of a parent for children, and therefore the relationship between God and human beings can best be likened to a parent-child relationship. Humans Were Created to Give Joy to God God made human beings in such a way as to enable Him to experience joy through giving and receiving love with them. Consequently, the purpose of human life is to give joy to God. This is accomplished by perfecting human relationships to complete the four position foundation, centered on God. Men and women are endowed with heart and creativity. These are the attributes they need to complete the four position foundation and fulfill their purpose as objects of God's heart and co-creators with God. When humans fulfill their God-given purpose, they feel complete and experience joy through returning joy to God. God's joy and human joy are inseparable. Human beings were not created in a vacuum, but in a nurturing environment which they need for the fulfillment of their purpose. God created the mineral, plant and animal kingdoms in the image of man and woman, to sustain and please human beings. Man and woman are an encapsulation of the cosmos created before them and for them. But they are unique in creation because they have both spirit and body, an internal character capable of intimate communication with God as well as an external form capable of communicating with the rest of creation. Mature men and women, who have become true parents, are the center of han-nony between the all-transcending world of God and the world of nature. For this reason, God experiences joy in nature through human joy in nature. The Three Blessings In a complex world presenting men and women with multiple obligations, what are the essential steps they must take to fulfill their purpose? More specifically, what is it they must do to fulfill the four position foundation that gives joy to God? Joy is produced when subject and object become one, resembling the oneness of God's attributes. The harmonization of subject and object creates beauty, which love seeks: love is attracted to the unified being of subject and object. Together, a harmonious subject and object represent a single object to love. Wherever love finds beauty, a subject finds its image in an object, joy is experienced by both subject and object in the giving and receiving between them. Since God created men and women out of His desire to give love and receive joy, human beings fulfill their purpose by becoming objects of beauty to God. In giving and receiving love with God, other humans and nature, men and women create beauty in all dimensions of their lives, experiencing joy and giving it to God. How can men and women become objects of beauty to God? They must become the image of God, first as individuals, second in their families and social relations, and third in their interaction with nature. They must complete four position foundations on these three levels, centered on God, thereby completing their purpose and qualifying to receive the full blessing of God's true love. Hence the empowerment to establish these three foundations for the completion of human purpose are called the three blessings. To realize the three blessings, men and women must grow to become the image of God as mature individuals engaged in pure relationships within their families and the world, and exercise a dominion of true love over the rest of creation. In achieving these objectives, they come to mirror God and embody His beauty as true human beings. The three blessings are: first, the ability and right (responsibility and potential) to become an individual with perfect personality and achieve the value of a complete, true being, sharing God's value; second, the ability and right to fulfill true love relationships and thereby create an ideal family and world, sharing God's ability to create new life and raise children; and, third, the ability and right to have dominion over things of creation, sharing God's creativity and lordship. By giving the three blessings, God shared His own perfect being fully with human beings, making them objects who can represent Him in the creation and reciprocate His love completely. Fulfilling the three blessings is a process of growth and development in which an individual gradually discovers and understands who he or she is and how he himself, or she herself, functions, and then learns how to relate to other people and nature. Through this process of self-discovery, people learn about the laws that govern life and shape human nature. On this foundation, they learn about the laws of relationships and, ultimately, the laws governing the whole universe. With this understanding they can truly inherit the creativity and lordship of God and fulfill their potential: to have perfect dominion over themselves and their environment and create relationships of joy and happiness in all circumstances. The First Blessing The first step toward becoming a true man or woman is taken by uniting mind and body, centered on God's will. The spiritual mind, also called the conscience, must have dominion over the body, its object. The body must learn to respond to the direction of the mind because the mind can understand and respond to God. On the other hand, when the body, whose essential desires are selfish, dominates the mind, the person will not know or care to do God's will. God can relate only to that in the creation which resembles Him. Without mutual resemblance, there is no common base for giving and receiving between God and the creation. Unity of mind and body centered on God resembles the unity of God's internal and external attributes. Hence the mind is to direct all the functions of the body: drinking, eating, moving, sleeping, procreating and so on, so that mind and body together conform to God's purpose for human beings and function in resemblance of His unity. Endowed with free will as an intrinsic part of their spiritual nature, men and women can choose to obey or disobey God. This means they can, through obedience, become the image of the selfless, loving and pure God, or, through disobedience, become selfish and impure beings. Those who achieve mind-body unity centered on God become one with God's will and live in accordance with His word. Their words are one with God's truth and their actions are consistent with their words. They can be said to have godly personalities, and, filled with His love and truth, they are beautiful to Him. As true men and women, they realize the first blessing. Through realizing the first blessing, men and women become mature individuals who can think and feel as God does and can exercise perfect dominion over their own lives. In maturity, they do not deviate from the will of God because they share His purity of heart and have no desire to violate true love. God's joy is their joy; God's pain, their pain. This unity of love with God is the key to perfecting love in the family and society as well as love for all creation: the realization of the second and third blessings. The Second Blessing Children learn how to give and receive love primarily at home, first in relations with their parents, then with brothers and sisters. The love learned at home prepares a man or woman to enter into mature conjugal love relations. Husband-wife love is the foundation for a married couple to have children and create a family. Through obedience to the will of God, a husband and wife create a relationship of true love, based on the true love of God. Their children are then born into a pure and God-centered home in which they are nurtured with true love so that they can grow into true men and women. An infant is not conscious of God. The child's parents represent God to it: the father embodies God's masculinity and the mother God's femininity. Thus, in a true love family, the children first come to experience the love and truth of God through the love and truth of their parents. For this reason, the personality of the parents (the relationship between their words and actions) is critically important to the development of their children. Only true parents, expressing God's love and truth through true personalities, can raise true children. Children created in the image of God are true children. They are to grow through stages as true brothers and sisters to become true husbands and wives and, eventually, true parents themselves. The true families created in this process are the building blocks of a world governed by true love. The creation of true love clans, tribes and nations are stages in the building of a true world. God's attributes, internal and external, masculine and feminine, are perfectly one within the divine nature. When a man and woman, endowed with internal and external, male and female characteristics, become one in true love they come to resemble God fully. A family of pure love is the most beautiful object to God because it embodies the image of His own nature so totally. Consequently it can receive God's love in its most all-embracing and profound expressions. When a man and woman create a true love family, they realize the second blessing. The Third Blessing The family unit not only embodies the image of God most completely, it also encapsulates the rest of creation. The union of man and woman in a true family is a microcosm of the perfection of all subject-object relationships throughout the universe, since the structures and functions of the bodies of men and women encapsulate the structures and functions of nature. Because human beings are a microcosm of the universe and the center of all natural hierarchies, true families can exercise God-centered dominion over nature, caring for the mineral, plant and animal kingdoms and, in return, being cared for by the creation. When families tend nature with true love, they create a harmonious relationship between humankind and the rest of creation, a relationship of beauty that realizes the third blessing. Thus God's purpose for creating human beings is accomplished when they fulfill the conditions necessary to receive the three blessings. Men and women complete their God-given purpose by realizing all three blessings. Universal Human Aspirations Although not articulated in the same terminology, the essential aims of all religions and ethical systems are encompassed within the three blessings, which, in terms of human fulfillment, represent the aspirations of all people. There is no one, religious or not, who would not like to be a whole, fulfilled individual living in perfect love within a joyful family and peaceful world and existing in harmony with nature. Human misery and suffering increase in direct proportion to an individual's distance from achieving these basic objectives. It is no exaggeration to say that all human ills, the hatreds, crimes, conflicts, injustices and oppression that characterize this troubled world, derive from the misshapen lives of men and women who fail to fulfill the conditions to receive the three blessings: individuals who cannot unite mind and body create families lacking in true love and become people who are abusive of other human beings and nature. Restoring the World Begins with Individuals The existence of huge contradictions between God's ideal and the reality of the world known to humans implies that there has been a massive human failure to fulfill the purpose of creation. (The nature of this failure is explained in Chapter 7.) By understanding the three blessings, it is clear that the path this sickly world must take to regain its health begins with the restoration of individuals. Only true men and women can create good families and a peaceful world of true love. One can think of the world's problems as the negative repercussions produced by the thoughts and actions of disordered individuals and groups, in whom the desires of the human body are unrighteously given precedence over those of the mind. This is the root of all materialism, which sets the value of the external, physical world of the body above the internal, spiritual world of the mind. The evident global disorder is produced by disorder in nations, societies, tribes and families made up of disordered people. At root, then, the key to solving the world's problems lies in solving the mind-body relationship within individuals. Restored individuals can build restored families and then restore all other human relationships. They can also restore the human relationship with nature. For this reason, the history of God's work to restore fallen humanity to the original ideal has focused on finding individuals who can become true parents and fulfill the original purpose for humankind by realizing the three blessings. The Mission of Religion The world's religions have all encouraged individuals to unite mind and body centered on the will of God or altruistic principles at one with God's will. Religion recognizes that the root of all evils is to be found in individuals and therefore the cure for humankind must begin with individual purification and restoration. The essential message of religion is that when the mind gains dominion over the body (the first blessing) the other goals of life (the second and third blessings) can be achieved. Religion educates human beings to realize the three blessings, teaching the virtues of individual faith and purity, the sanctity of family and respect for nature. In sum, the mission of religion is to educate people in the realization of the three blessings. God made the creation as an object to which He could give His love and from which He could receive joy. For God and humanity, joy is produced when an object comes to resemble a subject and enters into a harmonious relationship with it. Men and women were created to give joy to God, which they can do by growing in resemblance to Him, and in harmony with other people and nature, fulfilling the three blessings. The failure of humankind to fulfill the three blessings is the fundamental problem that underlies all the problems of this world. The solution to these problems lies, then, in the restoration of the three blessings, beginning with one man and one woman who can create a true family as the foundation for a true world. The three blessings are not realized in an instant, but as the fruit of a process of growth. As the body needs time to reach physical maturity, so too the mind needs time to reach spiritual maturity. The principles that govern the process of growth to maturity are discussed in the next chapter. Download entire page and pages related to it in ZIP format Table of Contents

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- Proposals for new Canadian provinces and territories Canadian Confederationin 1867, there have been several proposals for new Canadian provinces and territories. The Constitution of Canadarequires an amendment for the creation of a new province but the creation of a new territory requires only an act of Parliament; therefore, it is easier to create a territory than a province. Canada's four original provinces in 1867 were Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, with their shape and size varying over time. Since then, the following provinces and territories have joined Canada: Manitobawas created as a province in 1870 in an area that had been planned to be part of the Northwest Territories. It was originally intended to be a homeland for the Métis. It attained its current size in 1912. Manitoba was for a time nicknamed the "Postage Stamp Province" due to its original square shape. Northwest Territories(originally North-West Territories) joined Canada on the same day as Manitoba. It was originally very large in size; two provinces and two other territories have been created from it as well as large portions of territory being transferred to other provinces. There have been proposals for it to evolve from a territory into a province. British Columbiajoined Canada as a province in 1871. Prince Edward Islandjoined Canada as a province in 1873. District of Keewatinwas separated from the North-West Territories in 1876, initially intended as a temporary compromise in the Ontario-Manitoba boundary dispute. It was re-integrated with the Northwest Territories in 1905. Yukonwas created as a territory from the western part of Northwest Territories in 1898. It was created for better control of the Klondike Gold Rush. There are currently proposals for it to change from a territory to a province. Saskatchewanand Albertawere provinces created from part of the Northwest Territories in 1905. They were created because of the large-scale settlement of the Canadian prairies. There were many rival proposals regarding how many provinces should be created in Canadian West. Premier Frederick Haultainof the old North-West Territories wanted to create one large province, called Buffalo, which would have encompassed all of present-day Alberta and Saskatchewan. Other proposals called for three or four provinces to be created, one each for the provisional districts of the old North-West Territories: Alberta, Saskatchewan, Assiniboia, and sometimes the less populated Athabasca. Another proposal called for two provinces, but divided by a line of latitude (51.97° north) rather than longitude (110° west) as eventually happened. This would have created a northern parkland province that would have include the settlements along the Carlton Trail, and a southerly prairieprovince along the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Newfoundland and Labradorjoined Canada as a province in 1949 (originally as "Newfoundland", officially renamed in 2001) after being an independent Dominion from 1907 to the 1930s. Nunavutwas created from the eastern part of the Northwest Territories in 1999. It was intended as a homeland for the Inuitand has been essential in maintaining a prominent Inuit culture in Canada. Like Canada's older territories, there is currently a movement for it to evolve from a territory into a province.Fact|date=July 2008 Current and defunct movements within Canada People in many areas across Canada have expressed wishes that their communities receive heightened autonomy via provincehood or territoryhood. These areas include: Cape Breton Island- An area which was annexed by and is currently a part of Nova Scotia, but in the past it has been a separate colony. Cape Breton Island is usually considered distinct from mainland Nova Scotia by people across Canada including mainland Nova Scotia. Provincehood had been advocated by the Cape Breton Labour Party. [cite news|first = Daniel | last = Squizzato | title = Separatist feelings seize Cape Breton | publisher = Toronto Star| date = December 11, 2006| accessdate = 2006-12-14 | url = http://www.thestar.com/NASApp/cs/ContentServer?pagename=thestar/Layout/Article_Type1&c=Article&cid=1165792209563&call_pageid=968332188774&col=968350116467] English Quebec- Around the time of the 1995 Quebec referendumon sovereignty, a self-named 'partition' movement flourished, advocating the separation of certain areas of Quebec, particularly the English-speaking areas such as Montreal's West Island, in the event of Quebec separation, with such areas remaining part of Canada. This movement is no longer active. Kanienkehaka(Mohawks) - During the runup to the 1995 Quebec referendum, Mohawkleaders asserted a sovereign right to secede from Quebec if Quebec were to secede from Canada. ["First Nations Say No to PQ," Windspeaker, November 1995.] It is not clear whether most Mohawks would actually like to secede from Canada or to form a territory within Canada, in the event of Quebec secession. In the CBC Televisiondocumentary "Breaking Point", the Quebec Premier at the time, Jacques Parizeau, said that had the referendum succeeded, he would have allowed the Mohawk communities to secede from Quebec, on the grounds that they had never given up their sovereign rights. See also: Oka Crisis. Labrador- The mainland portion of the province of Newfoundland and Labrador. The Labrador Partyhas campaigned on the platform of a separate province. Its population of 28,000 people suggests that Labrador would more likely become a territory if it separated. * National Capital Region - At various times, provincial, territorial or special federal status has been proposed for the metropolitan areaconsisting of Ottawa, Ontarioand Gatineau, Quebec, so that the national capital would not be part of any province. The movement currently has limited support, however. Northern Ontario- The Northern Ontario Heritage Partyadvocated for the creation of a separate province in the 1970s, although the party did not attract widespread electoral support. A newer group, the Northern Ontario Secession Movement, has begun a similar campaign, but has not to date attracted the same degree of attention. One paper in "Canadian Public Policy" suggested the region merge with Manitoba to form a new province called "Mantario." [Livio di Matteo, "Breakaway country," " Financial Post" September 6, 2006, page FP17] On a more modest scale, Sudbury's "Northern Life" community newspaper has also published a number of editorials in recent years calling on the province to create a new level of supraregional government that would give the Northern Ontario region significantly more autonomy over its own affairs within the province. [ [http://www.northernlife.ca/News/Columns/Archive/Atkins/11-03-06-ottawa.asp?NLStory=11-03-06-ottawa "The case for regional government"] , "Northern Life", November 6, 2006.] Nunatsiavut- An area in northern Labrador, it is inhabited mainly by Inuit, many of whom wish to leave Newfoundland and Labrador and form a territory similar to Nunavut. It has recently been granted certain self-government powers, while remaining within the province. Similar Inuit and First Nation territories, such as Nunavikand parts of British Columbia, are seeking the same status as Nunatsiavut. Toronto- The largest city in Canada. Some have argued that the rest of Ontario benefits from Toronto more than the reverse. Support for its separation from Ontario is low. However, many politicians and political groups have lobbied for a separate Province of Toronto. Vancouver Island- Vancouver Island was a distinct British colony before it joined British Columbia. Some island residents believe that the island would be better off as its own province. Currently, support for the movement, or even "awareness" of it, is low. * Eastern and Northeastern Ontario- A movement advocating the separation of Eastern Ontario and part of Northern Ontario from the rest of the province. It is primarily targeted toward the regions of the province where the bulk of the Franco-Ontarianpopulation reside — while Franco-Ontarians would still be a minority in the new province, they would be a much larger and more powerful one. The proposal also includes the city of Gatineauseceding from Quebec to join the new province. [ [http://www.freewebs.com/ontarioeast Ontario East] ] The movement is currently inactive, however. Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean- André Harvey, the former federal MP for Chicoutimi—Le-Fjord, was attributed with the idea of creating a new province encompassing the highly separatist area of Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean in Quebec, on the premise that it has a culture distinct from the rest of Quebec and already has its own flag. * Each of the three current Canadian territories — Yukon, the Northwest Territoriesand Nunavut— is home to a movement lobbying for the territories' political status to be upgraded to full provincehood. Other countries and territories Current or former British territories Turks and Caicos Islands- A British overseas territory in the Caribbean. There is some support for it to join Canada, and in 2004 Nova Scotiavoted to invite Turks and Caicos to join that province, in the event of the islands becoming Canadian. However, the islands' small economy and Canada's involvement in Haitihas made this controversial. Jamaica- In the late 19th century, there was some discussion of some form of political union between Canada and Jamaica. Barbados- In 1884, the Barbados Agricultural Society sent a letter to Sir Francis Hincks requesting his private and public views on whether the Dominion of Canada would favourably entertain having the then colony of Barbados admitted as a member of the Canadian Confederation. Asked of Canada were the terms of the Canadian side to initiate discussions, and whether or not the island of Barbados could depend on the full influence of Canada in getting the change agreed to by Britain. Then in 1952 the " Barbados Advocate" newspaper polled several prominent Barbadian politicians, lawyers, businessmen, the Speaker of the Barbados House of Assemblyand later as first President of the Senate, Sir Theodore Branker, Q.C. and found them to be in favour of immediate federation of Barbados along with the rest of the British Caribbeanwith complete Dominion Status within five years from the date of inauguration of the West Indies Federationwith Canada. Bermuda- In 1949 Henry Vassey, then Chairman of the Bermuda Trade Development Board, urged the House of Assembly of Bermudato pursue a political union with Canada. Four Methodist church congregations in Bermuda are part of The United Church of Canada, forming Bermuda Presbytery of the United Church's Maritime Conference headquartered in Sackville, New Brunswick. West Indies Federation– In a 1952 letter by T.G. Major, a Canadian Trade Commissioner in Trinidad and Tobago, it was stated to the Under Secretary of State for External Affairs that the respective leaders of the British Caribbean could not reach a clear consensus for the exact style of a federal union with Canada. During a parliamentary conference held in Ottawa, it was also noted though that the colony of British Honduras(present day Belize) showed the most interest in a union with Canada exceeding that of the other British Caribbean colonies. Canadian Prime Minister Robert Bordenand his delegation to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 put pressure on British Prime Minister David Lloyd Georgeto give most of the above territories to Canada as sub-dominions or League of Nationsmandates, citing the concessions made to Billy Hughes' Australian delegation with regard to New Guineaand Nauru. Lloyd George eventually declined [Cite book |last=MacMillan |first=Margaret |year=2001 |title=Paris 1919: Six months that changed the world |publisher=Random House |location=New York |id=ISBN 0-375-76052-0] . In the 1979 Canadian federal election, the Rhinoceros Party of Canada, a satirical political party, included annexation of the United States as part of its platform [ [http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/ff/Judiskucepamphlet2.pdf 1979 campaign brochure of Judi Skuce] ] . It was proposed that the United States become the third territory of Canada. As well, following the 2004 U.S. presidential election, some American voters distributed the Jesusland map, which proposed that the 19 American " blue states" secede from the United States and become Canadian provinces. In both cases, however, Canadian annexation of all or part of the United States was a primarily satirical idea rather than a serious proposal. [ [http://www.orionmagazine.org/index.php/articles/article/311 Bye, Bye, Miss American Empire | Orion magazine ] ] Alaska- Some Canadians and Alaskans have discussed the possibility of the state of Alaska seceding from the United States and joining Canada under an autonomyplan allowing for a U.S. sphere of influence. This is comparable to what some Quebec separatists have advocated for in the past ( sovereignty-association, Quebec Autonomism). The issue has been discussed on various fora, such as that for the Alaska Independence Partyforum, which claims Alaska as the "lost province". However, no formal movement in favor of this proposal exists, nor does any political party currently advocate it. Vermont- Some supporters of the Vermont independence movement propose that Vermont join Canada as a province. [ [http://www.vermontcanada.org/reasons.html Vermont, Canada's 11th Province ] ] [ [http://baheyeldin.com/canada/state-of-vermont-wants-to-join-canada.html State of Vermont wants to join Canada | The Baheyeldin Dynasty ] ] Maine- Some propose that Maine secede from the U.S. and join Canada as a province [ [http://www.portlandphoenix.com/features/top/ts_multi/documents/04383231.asp Features | Maine could secede from the US and join Canada ] ] [ [http://usredtory.wordpress.com/2008/01/30/could-a-state-join-canada/ Could a State join Canada? « American Red Tory ] ] , though this movement is much smaller than the "Vermont annexation movement". New England- Certain members of the Maine and Vermont secession movements back all of New England seceding and joining Canada. [ [http://newenglandsecession.blogspot.com/2004_12_01_archive.html New England Secession: December 2004 ] ] [ [http://www.alternatehistory.com/discussion/archive/index.php/t-1861.html Sessession allowed in US Constitution [Archive - Alternate History Discussion Board ] ] Northwest Angledue to laws restricting fishing, some resident of the part of Minnesotaassessable only by way of Manitoba, suggested leaving the United States and joining Canada in 1997. The following year, Representative Collin Petersonproposed a constitutional amendment that would allow the residents of the Northwest Angle, which is part of his district to vote on seceding from the United States and joining Canada, angering the leaders of Red Lake Indian Reservation, which holds most of the Northwest Angles' land. [http://news.minnesota.publicradio.org/features/199808/17_radila_angle-m/] [http://minnesota.publicradio.org/collections/special/2006/campaign/congress/peterson/] Other political entities St. Pierre and Miquelon- A small French dependency just off the Burin Peninsulaof Newfoundland and Labrador. At various times, residents and politicians in Saint Pierre and Miquelon have proposed that the islands pursue secession from France to become part of Canada, so that the islands could participate in Canada's much larger maritime zone rather than France's limited "keyhole" zone, although as of 2008 such proposals have never come to a vote or referendum. With a population of just 6,125 in 2006, however, St. Pierre and Miquelon would most likely become part of Newfoundland and Labrador or Quebec, rather than a separate province or territory, if it were to join Canada. Other boundary changes There have also been some proposals that would result in a change of the boundary status between existing provinces, or even between Canada and the United States. Northwestern Ontario- Recently, some residents of Northwestern Ontario have proposed that the region secede from Ontarioto join Manitoba, due to the perception that the government of Ontario does not pay sufficient attention to the region's issues. Maritime Provinces- At various times, some politicians in Canada's Maritime provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotiaand Prince Edward Islandhave proposed that the three provinces unite into a single new province, which would be larger and have more political and economic clout than any of the three provinces does individually. Although this Maritime Unionproposal often attracts media attention, there has been little substantive discussion. British Columbia- In the 1990s, there was discussion amongst some municipal councillors in Elkford, west of the Rocky Mountains, about joining Alberta, whose conservative politics were more in line with their own than were the left-wing politics of B.C.'s Lower Mainland. This discussion did not result in any formal movement. *Some residents of the Northwest Angle, a small exclave of Minnesotawhich is separated from its state by the Lake of the Woodsbut has a land border with Manitoba, have proposed that the area should secede from the United States and join Manitoba or Ontario. Gatineau- Some people in Gatineau, Quebec feel that they would be better off in Ontario, due to the city's substantial English population and strong social ties with Ottawa. That belief, however, is not commonly held by all residents of Gatineau, particularly the majority French-speaking population. Annexationist movements of Canada Proposals for new Australian States Secessionist movements of Canada Territorial evolution of Canada Lists of the provinces and territories of Canada Wikimedia Foundation. 2010. Look at other dictionaries: Proposals for new Indian states and union territories — This is a list of proposals, both historic and present, for new states and union territories of India.List* Bodoland * Bundelkhand * Central Travancore * Gondwana * Gorkhaland * Harit Pradesh * Kodagu * Ladakh * Mithila * Panun Kashmir *… … Wikipedia Proposals for new Australian States — [ Australian states.] A number of proposals for further states of Australia have been made in the past century. So far, no new states have been added to the Commonwealth since Federation in 1901.Most proposals are suggesting an Aboriginal state… … Wikipedia Canadian provincial and territorial name etymologies — This page lists the etymologies of the names of the provinces and territories of Canada. Contents 1 Provinces 2 Territories 3 Historical regions … Wikipedia New France — For the short lived monarchy in South America, see Araucania and Patagonia. For the colony claimed by the Marquis de Rays to exist in New Ireland, see De Rays Expedition. Viceroyalty of New France Vice royauté de Nouvelle France French colony … Wikipedia New Caledonia (Canada) — New Caledonia was the name given to a district of the Hudson s Bay Company that comprised the territory largely coterminous with the present day province of British Columbia, Canada. Though not a British colony, New Caledonia was part of the… … Wikipedia New York City secession — New York City secession, the secession of New York City (and possibly neighboring areas) from New York State and/or the United States, has been proposed several times in history. These movements have been in some ways just extreme manifestations… … Wikipedia New states — may refer to: 51st state, possible new states to join the United States of America. New states of Germany, five German states recreated in 1990. Proposals for new Australian states, proposed additional states in Australia. Proposals for new… … Wikipedia Canadian Confederation — 1885 photo of Robert Harris s 1884 painting, Conference at Quebec in 1864, to settle the basics of a union of the British North American Provinces, also known as The Fathers of Confederation. The original painting was destroyed in the 1916… … Wikipedia Canadian Airlines — Infobox Airline airline = Canadian Airlines International Canadien Ligne aérienne logo size = 150 fleet size = 163 destinations = 160 in 17 countries IATA = CP ICAO = CDN callsign = CANADIAN parent = Canadian Airlines Corporation founded = 1987… … Wikipedia Districts of the Northwest Territories — The vastness of Canada s Northwest Territories (spelled North West Territories from 1870 to 1905) meant that for much of its history it was divided into several districts for ease of administration. The number and size of these territorial… … Wikipedia

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This book provides an accessible introduction for architecture students to all aspects of architectural technology: structural physics, structural elements and forms, heating, lighting, environmental control, and computer modelling. It will also help students to integrate their design thinking with appropriate structural and environmental solutions. The book explains the relationships between physical phenomena, materials, building elements and structural types using simple classification systems and real world examples. In addition, it explores current computer techniques for assisting students to predict the structural and environmental behaviour of buildings. 109,00 zł Cena 198,45 zł Cena Lighting is a key feature of almost all interiors but it is often treated in a rather superficial manner in most books. This volume features more than 40 recent international projects where the lighting is the defining design feature. For large schemes, a professional lighting designer is usually employed, but for smaller projects it will often fall to the architect or interior designer to specify the lighting. In either case, it is crucial that the architect or interior designer understands what lighting is available, how it can be used and controlled and how it can be fitted. Each project includes detailed plans, diagrams, sketches and CAD visuals to demonstrate the lighting techniques involved. These are accompanied by an explanatory text that looks at the original brief, the design concept and the detailed specification of the light fittings. A bonus CD includes technical drawings from the book. This book will be an invaluable resource for professional interior designers and architects in what is a fast-changing field. About the Author Jill Entwistle was editor of Light magazine for several years and is the author of a number of books on lighting, including Designing with Light: Bars and Clubs and Designing with Light: Hotels. 114,45 zł Cena This book explores the theories, practices and principles of new approaches to solar architecture that foster both design excellence and low-energy use. In response to the challenges of global warming and climate change, design and technology enable architects to achieve greater performance standards while at the same time developing an environmental aesthetic. The book showcases ten award-winning buildings to illustrate the aesthetic and technological design integration of solar response in contemporary zero-energy and low-energy architecture. For each project there is a detailed examination of the local climate, the design and construction, and the technology used to reduce energy use. "Towards Zero-energy Architecture" is a much-needed call for the design professions to redefine architecture to help solve ecological problems. 124,95 zł Cena Architectural detailing makes a building unique, and an architect outstanding. Detail in Contemporary Residential Architecture provides analysis of both the technical and the aesthetic importance of details in the development of contemporary residential architecture. Featuring many of the world's most highly acclaimed architects, the book presents more than 50 of the most recently completed and influential house designs. For each house there are colour photographs, plans of every floor, sections and elevations as well as numerous construction details. All the drawings are styled in the same consistent way to allow for easy comparison. There is also a brief descriptive text and detailed captions. The book also features in-depth information for each project, including the location, the floor area, the client, the architectural project team, main consultants and contractors. Virginia McLeod was the editor of The Phaidon Atlas of Contemporary World Architecture. She is the author of several books, including Detail in Detail in Contemporary Landscape Architecture, the Encyclopedia of Contemporary Residential Architecture and Detail in Contemporary Timber Architecture. 177,45 zł Cena This book provides an in-depth study of the design and construction processes behind 25 leading contemporary buildings. Covering a broad range of international projects, the book illustrates the working methods and creative concerns of both long-established and emerging international architects. Every stage of each project is included, from the demands of the original brief, through early sketches and design development to investigation of building regulations and collaboration with engineers, contractors, builders and clients. Each project is presented through an explanatory overview, sketches, details, CAD renderings, models and construction shots, all captioned in great technical detail. Architecture from Commission to Construction offers both students and professional architects an inspiring and informative overview of how today's major architectural projects are designed and built. Jennifer Hudson is an author, editor and researcher in the fields of contemporary design and architecture, and was the general editor of The International Design Yearbook for 15 years. She is the author of 1000 Designs and Where to Find Them Volumes 1 & 2, Interior Architecture Now, Process: 50 Product Designs from Concept to Manufacture and Interior Architecture: From Brief to Build. 140,70 zł Cena The environmental impact of interior architecture and design practice is immense. This book highlights the need for designers to adapt the way they work and relearn lessons that have been lost. Contrary to many preconceptions, sustainable design can be sophisticated and stylish. And by its nature, a sustainable approach means considering the whole life cycle of a project and therefore improving the functionality, quality, human enjoyment and, in the long term, bringing real social and economic benefits. This book has examples, techniques, and historical and contemporary case studies, all supported by useful resources and links. A comprehensive reference book for anyone wanting to work in this area, Sian Moxon aims to introduce these ideas to design students while they are formulating their understanding of the industry, encouraging and inspiring them with positive, creative and practical alternatives. 124,95 zł Cena Very Small Caf s and Restaurants features 40 projects from around the world by such designers as Wonderwall, Marti Guix , and Thomas Heatherwick. Almost all of the establishments featured measure less than 150 square metres so the designers must make a big impact with very little space. The book will be inspirational for designers faced with the challenge of a tiny caf or restaurant, as well as for independent food retailers looking for fresh new ways to present their product. 124,95 zł Cena "Drawing for Urban Design" explores a range of ways to represent the city, from freehand sketching to the sophisticated interactive computer model of the city of the future. There are many ways to engage with images of the city by exploring and considering what exists as well as imagining future ideas for the development of the city. Many professionals need to describe city environments in the course of their work. This can be done through maps, sketches, computer renderings or models. This book provides an introduction to these techniques while explaining the processes associated with describing and designing urban environments. Following a brief introduction the book is divided into five parts. Chapter one traces the historical context of urban design. Chapter two explores traditional and contemporary methods of drawing and representing cities. Chapter three introduces and describes a range of tools and techniques for analyzing and mapping cities and urban spaces. Chapter four deals with the imagined city of the future and the virtual city, and chapter five showcases eight masterplanning projects from around the world by internationally renowned architects, ranging from the regeneration of a historic environment to the creation of an entirely new city. This book is illustrated throughout with examples of representations of the city created using a range of techniques, from simple freehand pencil sketches through to the most complex CAD visualizations and computer mapping techniques. This book will provide the architecture and urban planning student with an invaluable visual grammar for representing the contemporary city. 135,45 zł Cena Construction for Landscape Architecture cConstruction for Landscape Architecture covers all aspects of landscape construction, giving a good understanding of building materials and assembly. It is heavily illustrated with specially commissioned, detailed construction drawings and has a strong emphasis on sustainability and good practice. At the end of the book there is an extensive glossary and an appendix of technical information. It is heavily illustrated with specially commissioned, detailed construction drawings and has a strong emphasis on sustainability and good practice. At the end of the book there is an extensive glossary and an appendix of technical information. 156,45 zł Cena This book explores the theories, practices and principles of new approaches to solar architecture that foster both design excellence and low-energy use. In response to the challenges of global warming and climate change, design and technology enable architects to achieve greater performance standards while at the same time developing an environmental aesthetic. The book showcases ten award-winning buildings to illustrate the aesthetic and technological design integration of solar response in contemporary zero-energy and low-energy architecture. Towards Zero-Energy Architecture is a much-needed call for the design professions to redefine architecture to help solve ecological problems. 99,75 zł Cena When planning a new office, designers and their clients are faced with many challenges and questions. They have to think about practical issues such as spatial needs, proximity relations, IT infrastructure and furniture, but also more strategic issues such as occupancy costs, effectiveness of the working environment, and environmental impact. One of the most fundamental questions during the briefing stage concerns the office concept: what kind of office design best suits the working processes and culture of the organization? Should all employees have their own workstation or are they going to share desks? Would enclosed offices or a more open working environment be better? Perhaps a solution that holds the middle is best? How many and what kind of meeting spaces do we need? Planning Office Spaces is a clear, accessible book written to help solve these problems, looking at each of these issues in turn and showing the alternatives on offer and clearly indicating the advantages and disadvantages. It is ideally suited for both office designers and their clients to help them reach the best, most suitable office design while ensuring that they have considered all of the issues that need to be addressed. 114,45 zł Cena New Restaurant Design showcases 45 of the best-designed, most exciting new dining venues around the world. Featured establishments include Patrick Jouin’s Senderens in Paris, Christian Liaigre’s Buddakan in New York and Philippe Starck’s Bon in Moscow. Fans of Bethan Ryder’s earlier books will not be disappointed by this colourful and exciting new survey of the latest projects from the cream of the international design world. The introduction features interviews with 11 of the world’s most influential interior designers – including Adam D. Tihany, Marcel Wanders, Patrick Jouin and David Collins – who talk about their design philosophy and approach, their favourite eateries and what makes a great restaurant space. 162,75 zł Cena Modern architecture is a story of movements, styles and genres. But what of the work that remains defiantly unique, refusing to submit to a label or genre? The New Modern House is a comprehensive look at the emerging trend of architecture that favours substance over style, combining functional design and sustainable processes with a straightforward, honest aesthetic. The New Modern House features around 50 residential case studies, from single family houses to self-builds, eco-friendly structures, recycled projects and creative re-uses. All are accompanied by full details, models, sketches and diagrams, allowing a closer look at their conception and construction. At the heart of the book is the concept of a new authenticity, and how an emerging ‘anti-aesthetic’ approach demonstrates a logical evolution of modernist design. The book contains work from around the world, including France, Germany, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Sweden, Switzerland, Japan, Norway, and more. The emphasis is on unselfconscious, modest architecture – projects that are at odds with contemporary obsessions with high concept design, big names and brand identity. The New Modern House is an inspirational guide to this new architectural concept, describing a diversity of new forms and new approaches to the modern house. 152,25 zł Cena Interior Architecture provides an in-depth study of the creative and construction processes behind 30 contemporary interior designs. Covering a broad range of international projects, the book illustrates the working methods and creative concerns of both long-established and emerging international designers. Every stage of the project is included, from the demands of the original brief, through early sketches and design development to investigation of building regulations and collaboration with engineers, contractors, builders and suppliers. Each project is presented through an explanatory overview, shots of production and construction processes, and details of fixtures, fittings, customised furnishings and decoration. Interior Architecture offers both students and professional designers, an inspiring and informative overview of how today's major interior architectural projects are designed and built. 156,45 zł Cena Surveying applied arts and industrial design from the 18th century to the present day, this book explores the dynamic relationship between design and manufacturing, and the technological, social and commercial context in which this relationship developed. The effects of a vastly enlarged audience for the products of modern design and the complex dynamic of mass consumption are also discussed. Part of this dynamic reveals that products serve as signs for desires that have little to do with need or function. The book also explores the impact of a wealth of new man-made industrial materials and tools on the course of modern design - from steel to titanium, plywood to plastic, cotton to nylon, wire to transistors,and microprocessors to nanotubes. The research, development and applications of these technologies are shown as depending upon far-reaching lines of communication stretching across geographical and linguistic boundaries. 120,75 zł Cena The physical scale model is often cited as an important tool of communication for architecture students and practitioners alike. Although the proliferation of CAD programmes has enabled the creation of increasingly complex computer models and virtual environments, there is also a growing need to address the three-dimensional qualities of architecture that may be lost when using such media. This book focuses on the inspiring possibilities for modelling the built environment with all the different media and techniques that are now available. 120,75 zł Cena While computers have facilitated and enriched the ways in which architects can develop and present their ideas, there is also a growing lack of skills in other forms of image-making that was traditionally furnished through training in drawing and sketching. This book focuses on the exciting possibilities for representing the built environment with all the techniques – both ancient and modern – that are now available. Students today need to learn the following skills: how to draw using a range of media, the basic rules of making effective spatial images, how to read a drawing, and how to express ideas through appropriate media and forms of communication. Following a brief introduction, the book is divided into three sections: Media, Types and Places. Each section is illustrated with key drawings and accompanying commentaries. Step-by-step sequences and special tips will further help students to make the most of their newly acquired skills. This book will be an indispensable practical and inspirational resource in architectural schools and practices alike. 114,45 zł Cena As we become only too aware of the damage man has caused to the planet, more of us want to furnish and decorate our homes with products that do not harm the environment. But being sensitive to the environment does not mean you have to sacrifice good design. More and more designers are creating products that are both beautiful and ethical. 141,75 zł Cena This book looks at every aspect of interior detail for domestic spaces. It is designed to appeal to anyone interested in improving the home environment, from DIY enthusiasts to professionals such as architects and interior designers. Products selected come from around the world and are all currently available to buy (websites of manufacturers/suppliers are included in the product captions). The selection includes a combination of the newest and the best products launched since the millennium, arranged into chapters to provide inspiration for every space in the domestic interior. 110,25 zł Cena 1000 Designs for the Garden is a highly illustrated sourcebook focusing on the best in contemporary garden product design, including work from designers such as Marcel Wanders, Philippe Starck, and Ross Lovegrove. Packed with the very latest in outdoor furniture, garden art and both practical and luxury garden items, the book features sourcing information and full specifications for every product. 261,45 zł Cena Dostępność: na zamówienie Architectural detailing makes a building unique, and an architect outstanding. "Detail in Contemporary Residential Architecture" provides analysis of both the technical and the aesthetic importance of details in the development of contemporary residential architecture from 2000 to 2005. Featuring many of the world's most highly acclaimed architects, the book presents over 50 of the most recently completed and influential house designs. For each house there are colour photographs, plans of every floor, sections and elevations as well as numerous construction details. All the drawings are styled in the same consistent way to allow for easy comparison. There is also a brief descriptive text and detailed captions. The book also features in-depth information for each project, including the location, the floor area, the client, the architectural project team, main consultants and contractors. This work features: Concrete - Alberto Campo Baeza, De Blas House, Spain; Baumschlager & Eberle, Flatz House, Liechtenstein; Daniel Libeskind, Studio Weil, Spain; Georg Driendl, Solar Tube, Austria; Jim Jennings Architecture, Visiting Artists' House, USA; Kei'ichi Irie, Y House, Japan; Leon Wohlhage Wernik Architekten GmbH, House Voss, Germany; Pugh + Scarpa, Solar Umbrella House, USA; Tadao Ando, 4X4 House, Italy GLASS: Aranda Pigem Vilalta, Casa M-LIDIA, Spain; Ian Moore Architects, Rose House, Australia; Kazuyo Sejima, Small House, Japan; Kruunenberg Van der Erve Architecten, Laminata House, The Netherlands; Shigeru Ban, Picture Window House, Japan; and, Wood + Zapata, Private House, Ecuador. Masonry - Bruckner + Bruckner Architekten, House in the Landscape, Germany; Adjaye Associates, Dirty House, UK; Carlos Ferrater, Casa Tagomago, Spain; John Pawson, Tetsuka House, Japan; MADA s.p.a.m., Father's House, China; Olson Sundberg, Chicken Point Cabin, USA; and, Will Bruder, Sky Arc House, USA. Steel: Aranda Pigem Vilalta, Bellows House, Spain; Architecture Research Office (ARO), Colorado House, USA; Julie Snow, Koehler Residence, Canada; Lorcan O'Herlihy, Vertical House, USA; Mack Scogin Merrell Elam, Mountain Tree House, USA; Marin & Trottin, Artifice/MR House, France; Shuhei Endo, Springtecture B, Japan; Troppo Architects, Rozak House, Australia; Tsukamoto Lab + Atelier Bow-Wow, Gae House, Japan; Werner Sobek, House R128, Germany; and, WPA Inc, Villa Lucy, USA. Timber: Alvaro Siza Vieira, House in Oudenbourg, Belgium; Antonius Lanzinger, Single Family House, Austria; Bernard Quirot and Olivier Vichard, Maison Convercey, France; Drew Heath, Zigzag Cabin, Australia; Edge Design Institute Ltd, Suitcase House, China; Fougeron Architecture, Jackson Family Retreat, USA; Kengo Kuma, Bamboo Wall House, China; Martin + Martin, La Vega House, Spain; Patkau Architects, Agosta House, USA; Stutchbury and Pape, Verandah House, Australia; RoTo Architects, Gompertz Residence, USA; Sean Godsell, Peninsula House, Australia; and, Smith-Miller + Hawkinson, Mustang Meadow, USA. Aluminum, Bamboo, Plastic, Rubber, and Straw: Abalos + Herreros, Studio Gordillo, Spain; Kengo Kuma, Plastic House, Japan; Masaki Endoh + Masahiro Ikeda, Natural Ellipse, Japan; Sarah Wigglesworth, Stock Orchard Street House House, UK; Simon Conder Associates, Rubber House, UK; and, Steven Holl, Turbulence House, USA.

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A new study, made possible through NCSL Closing the Gap research projects, found; - Pupils learn more deeply - Teachers learn about learning - Pupils’ attainment rises - Teachers become learning coaches - And more….for the full story read the report below This is the story of how this can happen – a report of a short but powerful feasibility research project in Cumbria. What Is Learning Power? Learning Power is about knowing ourselves as learners: consciously using and improving useful learning behaviours and gradually turning them into habits. Learning behaviours might include how we: persevere; get curious and ask questions; imagine what if: learn with and from others; plan ahead; reason things out and so forth. Understanding how we learn helps us to get better at learning. Five schools that are part of the West Coast Teaching Alliance in Cumbria have been finding out what it’s all about. 1. Before The Research It all started some years ago when, after reading Professor Guy Claxton’s book Building Learning Power and gaining funding through Creative Partnerships, staff at Victoria Infant School in Workington began working with some of the learning power ideas. Although the resultant changes in the classrooms were fairly superficial there seemed to be sufficient change for the school to want to find out more. Then Ofsted began to look for learning behaviours and the school realised their work on learning needed to jump up a notch or two. After attending a Building Learning Power workshop the senior leaders recognised that going deeper would take time and effort but that the approach had the potential to make a real difference to children’s learning. After becoming a Teaching School in 2013 and setting up the West Coast Teaching Alliance, the pursuit of learning power became the Alliance’s central theme for improvement. Over the next 2 years, 18 schools, 144 members of staff and 60 trainee teachers variously undertook 25 days training in Building Learning Power, provided by TLO Ltd. The training served to deepen teachers’ understanding of learning behaviours and the teachers’ learning enquiries developed their classroom practice. Glimmers of independence? From their learning enquiries teachers began to notice real changes in their pupils. They were talking more confidently about how they were learning. They were developing a growing number of strategies to use when they were stuck. Pupils seemed to have more energy and thirst for learning and they needed less help; more able to make their own decisions about how to tackle a challenge. Were they just beginning to take charge of their own learning? As a result teachers found that they had time to step back a little, to observe what pupils were doing and then to engage more productively with pupils in moving their learning forward. These apparent small changes piqued teachers’ interest and raised more questions. Was this just a passing phase or was it here to stay? Were pupils really getting better at learning and becoming more independent? The growth mindset of the teachers themselves led them to wonder what would happen if they had a more consistent approach to teaching. How might they structure the learning to enable pupils to make more decisions and attack more open ended challenges? Would they be able to see any impact on pupils’ learning and levels of attainment? Undertaking the research: An opportunity to find out more The WCTA came across an opportunity to explore and maybe prove some of their questions. The National College for School Leadership Closing the Gap research projects in 2014 gave them the opportunity to discover some of the answers to their questions, under the constraints of ‘real’ research. But this was real research so the outcomes would have to be scientifically measurable; the approaches across schools would need to be consistent; they would need to find a control measure (another school where meta-cognitive strategies were not being explicitly trained or surfaced) and, last but not least, the project would need to be carried out over a very limited timescale – eight lessons across three weeks. The need for such rigor was challenging. The new National Curriculum had just been introduced and they wondered if they were brave enough to explore new approaches in something so recent. Not only a new curriculum but now a life without levels. How would they prove any development without levels to rely on? The curriculum end-of-year expectations were too broad to prove any improvements especially over a short timescale, and, in looking for improvements what curriculum area would be most useful? Furthermore they wanted to test out whether developing learning behaviours would help pupils become more able to tackle increasingly challenging open-ended tasks So how did they resolve these difficulties? 2.Undertaking The Research: The Who And The How First of all they needed to sort out which schools wanted to be involved, this would after all mean time being available for careful data collection before and after the project. The following schools and year groups opted to be involved - Victoria Infant School: Reception, Year 1, Year 2 - Victoria Junior Schools: Year 4 - Hensington Primary School: Year 3, Year 6 - Bransty Primary School: Year 4 - Frizington Primary School: Year 6 - Distington Primary School: Year 1 (who acted as the control school) How: The subject and its measures The Alliance needed to decide which subject to work on and crucially how this might be measured. The schools quickly recognised their local need to raise attainment in Maths and decided that this should be the focus of the research. The next problem was to design a process through which they could both teach and measure attainment in maths. This had to have clearly identifiable steps and be manageable within the time constraints of the project. They selected multiplication and picked out the process of teaching multiplication – from counting in steps of a number through to formal calculation methods. Each year group agreed the most appropriate times table to work on and used this process consistently across the schools. Every pupil was assessed against the multiplication process steps at the start and end of the project. Multiplication process steps Steps 1, 2 and 3 are about learning and understanding the multiplication tables being focussed on. These depended on the year group the pupils were in and were linked to National Curriculum end of year expectations. (Connect) Steps 4 and 5 are about using tables facts to solve simple problems – a variety of different types of tasks to encourage understanding of tables. (Stretch) Steps 6 and 7 are about using formal methods to solve 1 digit by 2 digit multiplications and then 2 digit by 2 digit multiplication (Stretch) Steps 8, 9 and 10 are about mastery – using and applying their knowledge and understanding of multiplication tables to solve one, two and multistep problems. (Transfer). How: The learning behaviours and their measures The final area requiring definition was which learning behaviours might best lend themselves to the development of multiplication. The Alliance plumped for developing questioning and link-making skills. In essence this would involve prompting and nudging pupils to use these learning behaviours to help them understand and solve multiplication procedures and problems; to think more deeply about the how rather than focusing on the answer itself. To assist teachers’ understanding of the meaning and subtleties of such behaviours, TLO Ltd provided progression tables for how these different learning behaviours might develop over time. For example, the types of questions that might be useful (e.g. open, closed, past, present, clarifying, planning, hypothetical, etc.), or the range of links pupils might make (e.g. noticing similarities and differences, linking known and new ideas/patterns, using analogies to explain complicated ideas). Through the use and prompting of such behaviours it was expected that pupils would develop these meta-cognitive skills, leading on to fluency and mastery of multiplication tables and challenges. The questioning and making links progression tables were used to provide entry and exit data for each pupil and also to guide teachers in planning the next steps in activities. Steps in Questioning (partial) Types of question in their repertoire - Open questions to elicit longer answers - Sequencing (funnel) questions to identify detail - Sorting and sifting questions to distil meaning - Elaborating questions to go deeper - Rhetorical questions to engage and convince - Provocative, divergent irreverent questions to challenge thinking - Unanswerable question that inspire Steps in Making links (partial) Type of links - Links detail to what they currently know - Links detail to previous knowledge - Makes links between similar disciplines - Makes links between dissimilar disciplines - Makes links with aspects of their life - Makes intuitive links between the known and the unknown How: The Curriculum model The curriculum model used follows the aims of the new maths National curriculum, but coupled with the explicit development of the learning behaviours. Tuning pupils into learning through hooks or starter activities based around a focus learning behavior Train, explain, model and explore learning behaviours Activities about multiplication that, by their design, activate and provoke learning behaviours (dual focus) Sometimes collaborative teamwork, sometimes practising alone. Nudge, remind, communicate & reflect on learning behaviours. Assess readiness for open ended tasks. Open-ended challenges that can be achieved by using learning behaviours and understanding of the content. Stand back, gauge any intervention carefully Over the course of a series of lessons or a unit of work the model translates to: An open ended challenge to establish which Knowledge / skills / Concepts pupils are secure in Connect & Stretch Various types of tasks including practise using learning behaviour to build knowledge / skills / concepts Open ended challenge to assess knowledge / skills / concepts Connect & Stretch Various types of tasks using learning behaviours to build more / consolidate knowledge / skills / concepts Open ended challenge to evaluate knowledge / skills / concepts This model causes teachers to think about the design of tasks in relation to the steps in the multiplication process and the stages in the learning behaviours. How might they be blended to achieve best results. So what happened when they implemented all this… 3. Results Of The Research: The Impact On Teaching And Learning Although the teachers taking part in the research had dealt with learning behaviours for a year or more, the focused nature of this study meant that the pace of change was rapid, and shifts in attitude and behaviour, both teacher and pupil, were significant. Working at a degree of depth and precision they had not worked at before, teachers recorded improvements in both pupil achievement and employment of metacognitive strategies. Changes In Teaching What did teachers actually do that was different? How did their practice change? Teachers found they: - had to think about tasks and lesson planning far more deeply - had to plan out the questions they needed to ask and decide how they would model a learning behaviour, - needed to design connecting activities that would work as warm-ups. - recognised the need to plan for Transfer early and work backwards to ensure there was enough Connect & Stretch time built in to enable Transfer to happen. They added more connect and stretch as necessary Classrooms became much more collaborative; learning became a more two way process. The pupils were drawn in, adding their own ideas and questions to explain the why and how of their learning. Climates changed from ‘done to’ to ‘done with’. The methods used by the teachers served to focus meta-cognitive interaction in the classroom. NB: the teachers worked with a Hierarchy of task types based on the degree of control and decision making invested in the learner ( or teacher). The more open ended the task the greater control of the learner. Designing lessons and tasks Teachers now considered both the content to be learned and the learning behaviour (s) that would best assist this. (dual focused) - Am I trying to enable pupils to Connect to the content/behaviours? - Stretch the content/behaviors? - Transfer the content learning to another context using the learning behaviours to assist? They thought about; - The level/stage of content - The level of learning behaviour that would take content learning forward - The type of tasks needed - The review/reflection process needed. Teachers’ language moved from the general to the specific in relation to the learning process – - ‘What links this to that?’ - ‘When you did this last time what did you do?’ - ‘How could you use that idea here?’ - ‘Can you find an idea on the learning wall to help you?’ Commentating on learning behaviours became the dominant teaching strategy – nudging pupils to explain and model their understanding. They explored open and closed questions and used these to help pupils explore multiplication. One school worked with all the Teaching Assistants to create a book of words, phrases, and questions to use to support pupils and move their learning forward. “I tried to improve my own questioning so that children wouldn’t just say words like “I made good links or he made links” I wanted them to be able to explain, for example, that they had made links to previous learning and say why. I used more open questions myself and allowed them time to think about answers. I looked at Blooms taxonomy to improve my questioning and put them into my planning” Sarah Parr, Hensingham Primary School Displays and Classroom Walls Classroom walls were used to display different ways of making links or asking questions. The walls served not only to help pupils but also to remind teachers and teaching assistants to reinforce key messages and connect to the steps they needed to take. Some teachers created a washing line to record helpful questions to develop pupils’ self-talk. These were added to and updated, and pupils could take questions to their table to help them when they were stuck. Teachers learned that differentiation had to go deeper. It wasn’t so much about a harder or easier level of task but rather about discovering which learning behaviour strategies different pupils were using (questioning, linking) and then using these to move and support pupils further. Reward and Recognition Stickers, praise and other forms of recognition shifted from being awarded for right answers to how pupils used their learning beh aviours. - ‘You used a useful question. Can you see/tell me why?’… - ‘Good, can you tell me why that pattern will help you?’ - ‘Well done, you used good thinking questions there and your answer has come out right’ Teachers learned how to model their thought processes to work through an example problem. They voiced the questions they were asking themselves about the procedure; they voiced the links they needed to make. Modeling moved from demonstrating the mechanics of the procedure to demonstrating the thought process behind it. By using these meta-cognitive processes themselves the teachers began to have a greater understanding of the mathematical concepts/procedures they were teaching. They used the learning behaviour tables to help them understand the meaning and use of questions and making links more precisely and practically. They learned that the warm up sessions they used to introduce these learning behaviours needed more time. Many introduced such sessions once or twice a week outside maths lessons. They learned how to introduce such learning behaviours through how they talked about them, showing examples, modeling them in action and pointing them out when they spotted them being used by pupils. For Teachers … A Big Shift The classroom talk and dialogue shifted from being dominated by maths talk to being dominated by meta-cognitive talk. Teachers could more easily discern a child’s understanding and which strategy might help them forward. They quite quickly came to know whether a pupil would be able to tackle a more open ended task, without having to be rescued, by the way the pupil used questions, made links, saw patterns and talked about their learning. Changes In Pupils’ Learning Changes in subject content. Mathematics For Pupils … A Big Shift In The Maths Results Statistical analysis of the before and after data showed a significant ( in statistical terms) improvement in the maths scores in the research schools. In these schools pupils worked through more steps of the multiplication process and reached the point of transfer more quickly and with greater accuracy. They were more successful in the open ended problems using the meta cognitive strategies they had learned. Older pupils completed the progression – from understanding tables, recognising patterns, using formal methods and using word problems. Link-making specifically enabled pupils to move through this process more quickly. Questioning helped them to look at the types of questions used in word problems – e.g. sifting, sorting, questions, and pupils picked up the vocabulary clues they needed to learn to make sense of the problem. Younger children were able to demonstrate transfer of knowledge/skills from one context to another. For example a reception pupil used the ‘counting in steps of 2’ to count pencils ready for literacy lesson without prompting from an adult. Transfer of the ability to undertake multiplication calculations and use these same skills in word problems was particularly apparent. Older pupils were able to plan and organise their own maths word problems, with 90% of them able to write appropriately challenging questions. Younger children benefited particularly from making links and looking for similarities, differences, and patterns in times tables. The Connect – Stretch – Transfer model, together with constant referral to the learning walls motivated children to ‘up-level’ both their learning behaviours and their maths. Consistent reinforcement of link-making strategies helped younger pupils to understand how to solve a problem. Pupils quickly moved on from simply saying ‘I made a link’ to a more detailed explanation of what they were doing – ‘there’s a link between those numbers because ….’ In questioning, pupils quickly learned the difference between open and closed questions. Their language developed from ‘I asked a question’, to’ I asked myself what was different about that pattern’. Pupils became eager to demonstrate the questions they would use to help them to dig deeper. This type of self talk became common place in classrooms. In some classrooms pupils were made aware of a simple progression in the two learning behaviours. One class used the popular characters, Minions. The Minion Ladder showed progressive statements for making links on one side and questioning on the other. After reflection and discussion the pupils could move themselves up the ladder when they could use the strategy well. Pupils were also encouraged to watch out for and discuss their peers’ learning behaviours; how they might try another way, or sharing successful strategies. Teaching specific, progressive learning behaviours has a significant impact on pupils’ maths attainment, confidence, and independence in problem solving. The use of questioning, making links, and reflection has given pupils strategies that they can call on to better understand and solve maths problems. These meta-cognitive strategies have given pupils ways of working things out for themselves. Such strategies have enabled pupils to move from tackling an abstract multiplication procedure to transferring these skills in multiplication word problems. Teaching multiplication through the use of meta cognitive approaches has led teachers to understand the learning process more deeply, think more intently about how they teach, and transform themselves into learning coaches. For pupils to become fully conversant with these strategies and ensure transfer the Connect – Stretch – Transfer model should be repeated frequently throughout units of work. Real learning, rather than performance, is invisible, it takes place in pupil’s heads. But this way of teaching has made it possible for teachers to have a much closer understanding of pupils’ learning gains. By nudging, questioning and enabling pupils to use meta-cognitive strategies, teachers and pupils have got much closer to the real action of learning itself and are shaping it more profitably. Although this research project was small (numbers of pupils & timescales) the results are highly encouraging. Further larger scale research over longer timescales is worthy of serious consideration.

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It is widely accepted—in American law, in other countries’ laws, and in human-rights law generally—that “freedom of religion” is fundamental and that it should be protected, respected, and promoted. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, for example, called on all political communities to “promote respect” for the right to religious freedom and to “secure [its] universal and effective recognition and observance.” However, and to put it mildly, a commitment to religious freedom is easier to profess than to operationalize. Identifying the content, reach, and limits of religious freedom; working out its implications and applications; and constructing effective doctrines and other mechanisms for its legal and judicial enforcement continue to be difficult and contested projects. I have, in some academic and other work, tried to show that the right to “freedom of religion” belongs not only to individuals but also to (at least some) institutions, associations, communities, and congregations. Just as every person has the right to seek religious truth and to cling to it when it is found, religious communities have the right to hold and teach their own doctrines. Just as every person ought to be free from official coercion when it comes to religious practices or professions, religious institutions are entitled to govern themselves, and to exercise appropriate authority, free from official interference. Just as every person has the right to select the religious teachings he will embrace, churches have the right to select the ministers they will ordain. “Religion,” Justice William Douglas observed in his opinion in Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972), is “an individual experience.” It certainly is, but it is not only that. After all, as Justice William Brennan reminded us, in Corporation of the Presiding Bishop v. Amos (1987): For many individuals, religious activity derives meaning in large measure from participation in a larger religious community. Such a community represents an ongoing tradition of shared beliefs, an organic entity not reducible to a mere aggregation of individuals. Such “organic entities” are subjects, not merely results or byproducts, of religious liberty. At the center of religious freedom, then, is the principle of “church autonomy” or what the American Jesuit and church-state scholar John Courtney Murray (and many others) called “the Freedom of the Church.” According to Harold Berman, the great legal scholar and historian, the freedom of the church was a “‘Great Idea,’ whose entrance into history marked the beginning of a new civilizational era.” In any event, this idea—or something like it—is an important aspect of any plausible account of religious freedom under and through constitutional law and government. Michael McConnell observed a little while ago that although “‘freedom of the church’ was the first kind of religious freedom to appear in the western world, [it] got short shrift from the Court for decades.” However, he continued, “it has again taken center stage.” It seems that it has. Indeed, Chief Justice Roberts, in his opinion in the Hosanna-Tabor case (2012), gestured toward its place in Magna Carta on the way to concluding for a unanimous court that the Constitution “bar[s] the government from interfering with the decision of a religious group to fire one of its ministers.” But, what is this “great idea”? Berman and others have discussed at length and in depth what it meant during, around, and after the Investiture Crisis of the 11th century. What, though, does and should it mean today? For starters, the “freedom of the church”—if it means anything—includes the freedom of religious associations, institutions, and communities to govern and order themselves and it constrains the authority of political, secular officials to interfere with that governance. The Supreme Court in Hosanna-Tabor appears to have said as much. Wrote Chief Justice Roberts for the Court: By forbidding the “establishment of religion” and guaranteeing the “free exercise thereof,” the Religion Clauses ensured that the new Federal Government . . . would have no role in filling ecclesiastical offices. The Establishment Clause prevents the Government from appointing ministers, and the Free Exercise Clause prevents it from interfering with the freedom of religious groups to select their own. Later, when affirming that an implication of these prohibitions is the so-called “ministerial exception,” Justice Roberts explained that: [r]equiring a church to accept or retain an unwanted minister, or punishing a church for failing to do so, intrudes upon more than a mere employment decision. Such action interferes with the internal governance of the church, depriving the church of control over the selection of those who will personify its beliefs. There is more to the idea, though, than its core. I have proposed that we can usefully think about the “freedom of the church” not only as a “black letter” legal rule; and not so much as a single organizing principle like “equality,” “neutrality,” or “liberty of conscience”; but also as a way of describing the confluence of and relationship among a variety of constitutional, political, and moral arguments and themes. That is, the “freedom of the church” might—for us, today—function less as a rule, standard, or doctrine (though it will function this way sometimes, as in Hosanna-Tabor) and more like a background or animating value, even a mood. It might, for example, serve in law and policy as a kind of placeholder, or as a point of entry, for the argument that political and personal liberties are best protected through competition and cooperation among plural authorities and jurisdictions and through structures and mechanisms that check, diffuse, and divide power. Additionally, it echoes and perhaps reinforces the arguments of scholars like Paul Horwitz and Fred Schauer regarding the importance of “First Amendment institutions” and the “infrastructural” role they play in clearing out and protecting the civil-society space within which the freedom of religion is exercised and in creating the conditions and opportunities for that exercise. Freedom of religion, after all, is not only lived and experienced in and through institutions, it is also protected, nourished, and facilitated by them. An appropriate appreciation for “the freedom of the church” might inspire careful attention to what the Second Vatican Council called the “conditions for the fostering of religious life,” that is, the conditions within which “people may be truly enabled to exercise their religious rights and to fulfill their religious duties.” Furthermore, “the freedom of the church” affirms and reflects what Mark DeWolfe Howe called [the] pluralistic thesis . . . that government must recognize that it is not the sole possessor of sovereignty, and that private groups within the community are entitled to lead their own free lives and exercise within the area of their competence an authority so effective as to justify labeling it a sovereign authority. To make this assertion is to suggest that private groups have liberties similar to those of individuals and that those liberties, as such, are to be secured by law from governmental infringement. It confirms, in Murray’s words, that “[w]ithin society, as distinct from the state, there is room for the independent exercise of an authority which is not that of the state.” And, the “freedom of the church” provides a reason and justification for the fact that there are some questions—“religious” questions—that civil or secular courts do not and should not answer. It also provides justification for the doctrine that the First Amendment does not permit state actions that create or require “excessive entanglement” between governments on the one hand and religious institutions, practices, or teachings on the other. This “great idea” could, in other words, be many ideas. Perhaps the Hosanna-Tabor case, by anchoring the idea’s paradigmatic application firmly in our Constitution and tradition, has provided something of a fixed point of reference for the various other complementing, supporting, and operationalizing themes. Now, these themes have been closely examined and pointedly criticized, on a variety of grounds, in scholarly literature and elsewhere. Some insist, for example, that principles like “church autonomy” or the “freedom of the church” are suspect because they can be used to protect deeply objectionable or immoral activities and programs. They can, but this is true of many important ideas. Others have contended that rights and liberties properly belong to individuals only and not to groups, associations, or corporate entities. This criticism has some political appeal, but it does not square with our practice or jurisprudence. Still others remind us that using or protecting the idea of “the freedom of the church” in law requires difficult line-drawing and close-call distinctions. But this fact does not mean the idea should be rejected. At least three other objections have been pressed by Micah Schwartzman and Richard Schragger in an important 2013 article called Against Religious Institutionalism. We might call these the Misplaced Nostalgia objection, the Religion Isn’t Special objection, and the Individual Conscience objection. With respect to the first, they argue that the “historical account offered by some religious institutionalists is anachronistic, incomplete, and reactionary” and they detect in present-day defenses of the freedom of the church “a form of religious nostalgia, a certain melancholy for the passage of an age in which everyone—or at least all Christians—shared a thick set of religious beliefs and perhaps also a way of life based on common rituals and practices.” In fact, the idea does not—or, at least, it need not—involve nostalgia or reaction. Its defense should not be dismissed as a “melancholy” call for a return to a time of organic social unity, before the collapse of “the sacred canopy,” the disenchantment of the world, and the emergence of pluralism. It is, of course, true that appeals to, or efforts to mine, “the freedom of the church” risk falling into anachronism. There is a need for translation, not transplantation, of this idea. Still, the “freedom of the church” proposal is fairly modest and for the most part consists in the suggestion that the tradition of protecting and respecting religious liberty under and through law in the United States is richer and more interesting than is sometimes thought (or described in some Supreme Court opinions). Next, it is objected that religion isn’t “special” (and so religious institutions aren’t, either). First Amendment scholars and others have been wrestling for some time with doubts about the justifiability of treating “religious” claims for exemptions with more solicitude than non-religious, conscientious claims for exemptions. The “freedom of the church” idea presumes and proposes that religion is special—or, more precisely, that religious institutions, communities, and authorities are and should be differentiated, at least for some purposes, both from political authorities and from non-state institutions and voluntary associations generally. To embrace this idea as still-relevant is to claim that religious institutions have a distinctive place in our constitutional order—and not only a distinctively worrisome or harmful one. It is to suggest that churches are not “just like the Boy Scouts” and that, while they to a large extent function in civil society in the same way and deliver the same Tocquevillian benefits as any number of voluntary associations, they are, in the end, different. True, it is increasingly difficult, within the boundaries of argument set down by some versions of liberal political theory, to justify, on principled grounds, special treatment for religious liberty. Still, in our history and tradition, “religious” institutions and authorities have acted, and have been regarded, as special and distinct, whether or not “religion” has been understood as neatly separate from “culture,” “conscience,” or “morality.” We live under a written Constitution that “singles out” religion and we inhabit a tradition in which “church” and “state” have, in a special way, cooperated and contended. If it is anachronistic to invoke the freedom of the church, it seems even more ahistorical to deny the distinctive (for better or worse) place and role of religious actors in that tradition, and today. Finally (for now), proposals to bring “the freedom of the church” back to center stage have been criticized for neglecting, or even supplanting, the rights-bearing individuals who appropriately star in the post-Enlightenment show and for allowing the rights and liberties of churches and institutions over those of natural persons. Schragger and Schwartzman, for example, express the concern that “the freedom of the church” “put[s] church first,” and thereby “inverts the usual formulation whereby institutional autonomy is derived from individual rights of conscience.” The “freedom of the church” proposal, however, does not subordinate individuals’ religious-liberty rights to those of institutions. Nor is it being claimed that the freedom of the religious conscience from government coercion “derives” from the autonomy, sovereignty, or independence of churches or other religious institutions. The historical and continuing significance of “the freedom of the church” is not that it somehow grounds or trumps individuals’ religious liberty or freedom of conscience, but that it checks and limits state and political power and thereby helps to protect the liberty and conscience of institutions and individuals alike. To be sure, there is no getting around the fact that the “freedom of the church” idea, or cluster of ideas, is a challenge to many contemporary assumptions, premises, and commitments. It remains to be seen whether, or to what extent, it can be incorporated faithfully—that is, in a way that is faithful to the idea—into an account of religious liberty and church-state relations that is plausible, let alone attractive, to present-day citizens and scholars. It may be that it cannot. If not, we should be willing to question not only the idea itself but also the standards we use to identify attractive accounts. The effort to retrieve, translate, and incorporate “the freedom of the church” confronts more than a few obstacles. First, there is the centrality in contemporary political theory and morality of the individual. The appeal of an idea that seems to privilege institutions over individuals seems limited given that, more and more, we think in terms of personal spirituality rather than institutional affiliation, public worship, or tradition. Next, there is the reality of religious difference and diversity. There is no one “church” any more than there is one “state.” As Schragger and Schwartzman insist: The issue is how the freedom of the church can be made plural—how to move from the Middle Ages to the Reformation and eventually to our modern experience of religiously diverse, liberal democratic societies, without losing the claim of church sovereignty that drives the various forms of religious institutionalism. A related, and quite substantial, obstacle is the rise of the modern, liberal, sovereign state and the tension between its claims and any pluralist account of authority. The state, even if it stops short of attacking non-state authorities as “worms within the entrails” of the body politic, and even if its powers are constitutionally conferred, enumerated, and limited, seems likely to regard non-state authority as only provisionally held and exercised and to insist that it be exercised in accord with the same norms that (appropriately) govern the state itself. The fourth, and perhaps most formidable, obstacle to translation is the lack of interest in translating. As always, there are those who are comfortable with, or who have a stake in maintaining, the doctrinal and conceptual status quo. As Steven Smith has observed: [A]ny . . . reorientation would require judges and scholars—and citizens generally—to unthink and unlearn much that has come to be taken for granted, and to recover interpretive possibilities that have largely been forgotten. All that said, the idea of, and the on-the-ground struggle for, “freedom of the church” mattered in the past and matters today. It is an old but still important idea. It is significantly, but not entirely, out of place in today’s constitutional-law and law-and-religion conversations. But, if it can be retrieved and translated, then it should be—not out of nostalgia or reaction, but so that the law will better identify and protect the things that matter. See generally, for example, Richard W. Garnett, “The Freedom of the Church”: (Towards) An Exposition, Translation, and Defense, 21 J. Contemp. Legal Issues 33 (2013); Richard W. Garnett, Religious Liberty, Church Autonomy, and the Structure of Freedom, in J. Witte & F. Alexander, eds., Christianity and Human Rights: An Introduction (2011); Richard W. Garnett, The Freedom of the Church, 4 J. Cath. Social Thought 59 (2007). See generally, John Courtney Murray, We Hold These Truths: Catholic Reflections on the American Experience 186-90 (2005 ed.). Harold Berman, Law and Revolution 87 (1983). Michael W. McConnell, Reflections on Hosanna-Tabor, 35 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol’y 821, 836 (2012). See for example Paul Horwitz, Freedom of the Church Without Romance, 21 J. Contemp. Legal Issues 59 (2013); Richard Schragger & Micah Schwartzman, Against Religious Institutionalism, 99 Va. L. Rev. 917 (2013); Steven D. Smith, Freedom of Religion or Freedom of the Church?, in A. Sarat, ed., Legal Responses to Religious Practices in the United States (2012). Hosanna-Tabor Evangelical Lutheran Church and School v. EEOC, 132 S. Ct. 694, 702 (2012). Paul Horwitz, First Amendment Institutions (2012). Frederick Schauer, Principles, Institutions, and the First Amendment, 112 Harv. L. Rev. 84 (1998). Pope Paul VI, Dignitatis humanae, ¶ 6 (1965). Mark DeWolfe Howe, Foreword: Political Theory and the Nature of Liberty, 67 Harv. L. Rev 91 (1953). Murray, We Hold These Truths, at 70-71. See generally John Inazu, The Four Freedoms and the Future of Religious Liberty, 92 N. C. L. Rev. 787 (2014) (presenting a theory of “strong pluralism”). See for example Frederick Mark Gedicks, An Unfirm Foundation: The Regrettable Indefensibility of Religious Exemptions, 20 U. Ark. Little Rock L. J. 555 (1998). Richard W. Garnett, Religion and Group Rights: Are Churches (Just) Like the Boy Scouts?, 22 St. John’s J. Legal Comment. 515 (2007). Michael McConnell’s phrase from his article, “The Problem of Singling Out Religion,” 50 De Paul L. Rev. 1 (2000-01) Steven D. Smith, Freedom of Religion or Freedom of the Church?, in Legal Responses to Religious Practices in the United States 45 (Austin Sarat ed., 2012). I have long benefitted from Professor Garnett’s work in the area of law and religion. Given the sometimes contentious climate in and out of the academy, it is worth highlighting the tone of his writing as well as its substance. Both are admirable. One of Professor Garnett’s core scholarly pursuits has been to argue for a… One of the challenges in commenting on Rick Garnett’s essay is that I think his deeply thoughtful and measured analysis is basically right on target. If we are going to take individuals’ freedom of religion seriously, we need take into account the importance of their religious communities. Exactly what that means is, unfortunately, hard to… Richard Garnett’s Liberty Forum essay argues eloquently for the importance of institutional religious freedom in our system of government and our broader society. As Garnett writes, some form of institutional religious liberty, or “freedom of the church,” is an “old but still important idea.” It’s an idea, moreover, that in one form or another has… I am grateful to the Liberty Law Forum for publishing my short essay, Freedom of Religion and the Freedom of the Church and for securing thoughtful, helpful responses from John Inazu, Paul Horwitz, and Donald Drakeman. These three first-rate scholars are my friends and teachers; I have learned a great deal from their work and through…

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Rural Industries in South Australia While South Australia covers approximately 98 million hectares - one eight of the area of the Australian continent - approximately one third of this area has no significant economic use and over one half is devoted to extensive pastoral pursuits. Less than 17$ of the total area, approximately 16 million hectares, receives more than 250 mm (10") of rain per year. A total of just under 66 million hectares is held in the State's 29,087 rural holdings. Of this total 51.4 million hectares are under pastoral lease where extensive grazing is practised. In the more favoured agricultural areas 5.87 million hectares are devoted to crops, sown pastures and fallow. Sown pastures account for 2.97 million hectares and cereal crops for 2.04 million hectares - 56 000 hectares are devoted to vineyard, orchard and vegetable production. A work force of 27,700 owners and permanent employees, supplemented by 12,000 to 13,000 temporary seasonal workers are engaged in rural production in the State. Primary production plays a significant role in the economy of the State. Gross value of primary production, excluding forestry, mining and quarrying, varies between $300-$400 million. Subject to seasonal variations, the net annual value of production has been maintained at between $250 million - $300 million. This represents between 25% and 30% of the State's total production. The contribution to export income is even greater. In 1971-72 exports of rural origin contributed 57% of South Australia's income, with a total value of over $229 million. Of this, the cereal grains accounted for $102 million, while exports from sheep and cattle industries amounted to $101 million. South Australian agriculture is dominated by the sheep, wool enterprises. However, barley has always been an important crop, and in recent years beef cattle have become more important in the farm scene, with numbers now at a record 1.3 million, having trebled in the past 5 years. In recent years sheep numbers have varied between 18 to 20 million depending on drought and wool prices. The predominant breed is the Merino, accounting for 85% of the population. They are well adapted to the harsh South Australian conditions and produce a high clip of medium to broad quality wool. Their wool predominates the 110 million kg annual clip. Each year between 2.0 and 2.. 5 million hectares are sown to cereals the largest area is sown to wheat. This year, from approximately 1.4 million hectares, a harvest of 2.0 million tonnes is expected. The sowing of barley of 0.64 million hectares and 0.16 million hectares of oats are expected to yield 1.0 million tonnes of barley and 0.2 million tonnes of oats. Smaller areas of other field crops include field peas (14 000 hectares) and some oilseed rape, linseed and lupins. The dairying industry, in addition to supplying the State's needs for fresh milk, produces over 6 000 tonnes of butter and 18 000 tonnes of cheese. While the State imports butter to supply the local market large quantities of cheese find a ready market overseas particularly in the Far Eastern countries including Japan. Pig numbers have risen over the past five years to over 430,000 as producers meet the growing demand for pigmeats for the home and export markets. South Australia, with 29 500 hectares of vines, is the largest wine producing State, with an annual vintage of near 180 megalitres, of which finds its way to other States and overseas markets. In addition, significant quantities of dried sultanas and raisins are produced. A large variety of orchard crops are grown; citrus is the most important, with an annual crop of between 5 and 6 million bushels. About 20% of the crop is exported and the remainder is sold for the fresh fruit or juice market. Agricultural Extension Services The great majority of the extension services available in the State are provided by the Department of Agriculture. Useful contributions agribusiness, chiefly stock firms, and agricultural firms. Private farm advisory services, mainly in the form of agricultural consultants, are not extensive and the total number of people engaged is now only 7. The Agricultural Bureau and to a lesser extent the Rural Youth Movement provide a means of exchange of farmer information and create extension opportunities for the Department of Agriculture and the other agencies. Other Government departments play a small role - notably Roseworthy College, the Department of Lands and the Department of Further Education which arranges formal classroom courses in several subjects. Department of Agriculture Services History of the Development of the Department The first attempts at agricultural extension in the state followed the formation in the 1880's of Roseworthy Agricultural College and the Central Agricultural Bureaux -the fore-runner of the present Agricultural Bureau. The Bureau was largely a forum for exchange of farmer information but it also arranged trials and demonstrations. One of its early objectives was to find plants which were better adapted to the environment. Roseworthy College had teaching and research responsibilities, but notable research findings like the importance of superphosphate to cereal production were extended by College staff members. The appointment of three technical specialists to the Department of Lands soon after the turn of the century was followed by the establishment of a Department of Agriculture in 1907. Early in the life of the Department, emphasis was placed on the development of experimental farms in many parts of the State - Kybybolite Minnipa, Turretfield, Berri, Blackwood, Keith, Booborowie, Melrose, Hammond, and perhaps some others. These farms contributed much to the early development of South Australian agriculture. But they met political difficulties in the depression of the early thirties and only Kybybolite, Berri and Blackwood survived. Minnipa and Turretfield were later reinstated as research centres, and new ones were opened at Parndana on Kangaroo Island, Wanbi, Struan and Parafield. Berri and Blackwood which serviced the horticultural and viticultural industries for many years have now been replaced by Research Centres at Loxton, Lenswood and Nuriootpa. Roseworthy College has operated continuously, and its main contribution to agriculture, apart from the training of diplomates in agriculture and oenology has undoubtedly been in cereal breeding. The development of the Department's research function was affected significantly by the establishment of the Waite Agricultural Research Institute in the mid 1920 's. For many years the South Australian Government, which provided financial assistance to the Waite Institute, held to the pol icy that research -including applied research -in many agricultural fields should be carried out at the Institute and not in the Department. The first move towards the development of a decentralized extension service came during 1924-1926, when 8 District Agricultural Advisers and 4 District Dairy Advisers were appointed. In their districts, these men covered the broad field of agriculture, without specialization. They were for all practical purposes cast in the mould of the American county agent, except that specialist backing was then quite limited too. by 1940 there were still only 40 technical officers in the Department; these included district advisers attached to the Horticulture Branch. Livestock specialists were also added to the Department, and in the late 1940's the Stock and Brands Department, which operated in the field of animal health, was amalgamated with the Department of Agriculture. Motivated by serious wind and water erosion troubles throughout the State, a Soil Conservation Branch also developed in the 40's. By 1950 the Department consisted of a Director of Agriculture and 7 Branches - Agriculture, Horticulture, Dairy, Soils, Animal Health, Animal Husbandry and Poultry. Poultry was later combined with Animal Husbandry. From 1948 to 1955 there was tremendous expansion in technical staff. Numbers grew from about 50 in 1948 to almost 200 in 1955. This expansion brought its problems. The situation was difficult administratively in that the proportion of inexperienced staff to seniors was great. Further, the generalist character of extension staff changed to a specialist orientation. The administrative moves made at this time included the linking of related branches into industry divisions and the establishment of a division extension. The first appointment of a farm management officer was also made, the objective being to foster the adoption of a "whole farm" approach which would co-ordinate the efforts of subject matter specialists. The structure of the Department is shown in Figure 1 while Table 1 gives an analysis of the roles played by the Department's staff. In general it may be said that research officers are university graduates - mainly in agricultural science or rural science. The extension staff includes an increasing proportion of graduates but still comprises a preponderance of officers with an agricultural college diploma. The regulatory staff includes graduates, diplomates and officers no post-secondary qualifications. Details of Extension Services The overall extension objective of the Department is to help farmers cope more effectively with their environment, which comprises not only physical but also social, economic and technological factors. Within the framework of this main objective, we can say that extension officers' functions include programmed objectives in communicating information. They also include on-farm advisory work, and move into the educational field of helping farmers to solve their own problems. For these purposes each of the technical branches have both research and extension functions (Figure 1). Table 1: Staff numbers by role. |Central Executive and Personnel||7| |Agricultural Chemicals Branch||1||2| |Animal Health Branch||5||9||16||27| |Research Centres Branch||13||33||0||0| |Extension Services Branch||2||3||25||0| |1. Head Office||78| |2. Country Offices||26| (1) The above figures were extracted from the payroll sheets as at December 1973. Vacant positions are not included. (2) Administration includes all officers from Graduate 3 level and above. To fulfil the requirements of research more adequately,in 1965 a Research Centres Branch was created. The branch co-ordinates the activities of those research centres in which two or more branches have a major interest. In 1958 a farm management section was set up within the Department to assist and advise officers on the inclusion of farm management in their extension work. Between 1971 and 1973 the section was strengthened and economists are now located in four district centres besides head office. This has provided opportunities for training staff in a wide range of farm management tools. In addition, a strong marketing nucleus has been created in Adelaide; this publishes the quarterly "Rural Market Outlook". Other economists are also encouraged to specialise in a particular field such as economic assessment of research projects, farm machinery syndication and co-operatives. Further developments will include an educational service for farmers in several areas besides farm business management. The development of a regional structure is still only in the planning stages. To date the only move in this direction has been to appoint an extension liaison officer at Struan. This has enabled some progress in the co-ordination of the extension efforts of officers from different branches and in fostering liaison between extension and research personnel. However, such an appointment cannot be expected to produce the substantial gains in the co-ordination of all aspects of the Department's activities which, it is hoped, will result from a regionally based organisation. Figure 2 shows the present distribution of district extension offices and research centres. Staff Qualifications and Training The basic qualification for extension workers is the three-year agricultural college diploma. However, in recent years holders of the four-year diploma and graduates in agricultural science and rural science are being used to an increasing extent . Extension workers are usually entitled "adviser" - coupled with the discipline in which they are working, e.g. agricultural adviser. However, some graduate specialists which are chiefly engaged in extension work are entitled "officer", e.g. Livestock officer. Graduate extension officers have the same status and salary range as graduate research officers with Class I classification. However, while research officers may progress to Class 11 and Class I II without any significant change in duties or increase in administrative responsibilities, the advancement of extension officers is dependent on an increased supervisory load. Diplomate extension officers may progress until they reach, after a probationary period, "professional adviser" status, at which time their salary is that of the Class I graduate. The training of extension officers may be considered under: (a) Technical training In the main extension officers undergo an apprenticeship training under a more experienced staff member. This is supported by technical conferences held annually within the branches and conferences or workshops held interstate. Some branches have a formalized training scheme laid out in which each officer has to gain experience in specific areas over a period of time. Most branches circulate printed technical notes. (b) Farm business management This Department has tended to move from the formalized "pressure packed" training school towards half-day or one-day seminars held for officers in each of the industry branches. The industry branch supervisors then ensure that the officers apply the material in the field. (c) Extension training Considerable developments have occurred in the past six years in this area and each extension officer is expected to undertake a "sequential" training programme which lasts from 5-7 years. The programme comprises schools at three levels of difficulty in communication theory and practice, in programme planning and in adult learning and group dynamics. "Continued training at higher levels is given to the more experienced staff in such areas as writing, photography, television and so on. The opportunity is taken to send experienced staff to the short course at the Queensland University and/or one of the diploma courses in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, or South Australia. Until 1968 in-service training was provided in the induction extension school. In the future, the Personnel Section will undertake this function. The Public Service Board of South Australia has also set up training courses at various levels and a number of officers are attending these. Extension Objectives and Programmes The setting of extension objectives 'at State level is primarily done at Branch Head level at head office. Decisions are based on inputs from industry and marketing organisations, subject matter specialists within the Department, recommendations from the Standing Committee on Agriculture, research work done both within and outside the Department and from district extension officers. At the district level, the adviser normally determines his objectives under the guidance of the senior adviser of this Branch. He takes into account the State level objectives and the particular needs of his area as indicated by farmer and industry contacts and Departmental subject matter specialists. In one Branch regional objectives are determined by consultation between advisers in adjoining districts. Following the 1971 National Workshop dealing with programme planning, the technique has emerged as an important organisational tool . Ideas on the methods used at each level of programming have been gradually developed by officers whereby they will shortly be making more discriminating judgements as to their programmes. However, it must be realised that besides extension programmes, officers are also generating objectives with relation to their total work load as well as to their self-development. Each of the areas requires a good deal of training, and development of skill takes time. Most of all, this Department has concentrated on obtaining acceptance of the concept from the top level to the lowest amongst the staff. Once this goal is reached then the more sophisticated methods of analysing situations , programme development and evaluation will be applied to an increasing extent. Extension Research and Evaluation of Programmes No pure extension research has been carried out within the Department. Evaluation of programmes has been at a fairly elementary level and has been carried out by staff for their individual projects. In only one instance have before-after measurements been taken in a programme and this followed work with neighbourhood groups of farmers over a period of three years. Following the principles suggested by Dr. A. Durfee, moves are at present afoot to evaluate programmes more rigorously. A position of Women's Extension Officer was created about 1961. The f unction of this role is essentially to provide adult education in home economics. For this purpose , the Department has had, in recent years, to rely on Canadian graduates. Other special services offered include seed testing and certification , pure seed production of cereals, herd testing, cheese starter service and soil testing. The Department has recently decided to appoint a Greek speaking technical officer to cater for the needs of an important sector of producers in the River Murray irrigation area. Research Extension Liaison This is a most difficult area in that research officers are differentiated organizationally from extension officers. Further, the thinking and language of the research officer tends towards the scientific, and the extension officer more towards the pragmatic. To attempt to overcome these difficulties, a large segment of the first level induction school (which both research and extension officers attend) is devoted to research-extension liaison. Further, at least one branch holds meetings of extension officers regularly in country areas . At these meetings, research officers provide information which is relevant to the extension needs. Most branches hold annual conferences in which both research and extension workers attend and contribute papers, certainly informal liaison occurs but this is likely more on the basis of personality compatibility than from a prescribed pattern. Current trends and Developments The most important current trend appears to be towards formalised regionalisation of the Department. With this present thinking, coordination of extension programmes will be a major objective in regrowth. It is also hoped that research-extension liaison will be facilitated. This will occur through definition of problems by research and extension officers working in co-ordination. Further, it is expected that local supervision of field staff (as opposed to supervision from Adelaide) will result in more systematic training and objective assessment of officers. Another significant development is the strengthening of the services provided in farm business management and market information. Training is another area in which developments are occurring; it would seem that the agricultural extension officer is required to develop knowledge and skills in a wider area than most adult educators cover. For this purpose training methods in the technical, farm management and extension fields used by the Department are presently under review. A detailed programme to serve as a guideline for the training for all extension officers is being prepared. There is a research section, headed by a Principal Research Office, in each of the six industry branches. In addition, the Research Centres Branch administrators six multi-discipline regional research centres and the biometrics section. Research projects are conducted at the Northfield Research Laboratories, at several research centres and on private properties. (a) Northfield Research Laboratories Situated in the Adelaide suburban area, this is the main centre for the Department's extensive programme of applied research. Northfield is administered within the Departmental policy by a committee of senior officers from each industry branch. An important consequence of this is the development of a strongly motivated inter-disciplinary approach among the research staff. Northfield staff maintain close contact with many other research organisations, e.g. C.S.I.R.O. Divisions of Soils, Nutritional Biochemistry, Horticulture and Mathematical Statistics, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, the research unit of the Engineering and Water Supply Department, and the College of Advanced Education at Roseworthy. Research at Northfield is carried out by officers from four branches viz. agronomy, dairying , horticulture and soils. Each officer is responsible to his own Branch Head and to the interdepartmental Research Liaison Committee for his research programme. Research plans have to be submitted on a pre-scheduled statement which requires approval before work is started . Details of research programmes are available in the Department's Current Research Bulletin (the second edition is shortly to be published), the C.E.S.G. Technical Report, various Trust Fund Reports, the Branch Research reports of Agronomy, Dairy and Soils and in the series of (b) Research Centres Administered by Research Centres Branch. There are six centres where the range of activities extends across the interests of three or more of the Department's industry Branches. These are as follows: A. Cereal zone: cereal cropping with livestock . (Minnipa, Turretfield and Wanbi Research Centres.) (The Cleve centre is an outstation of the Minnipa Research Centre.) B. High Rainfall zone: primarily livestock with some cropping. (Kybybolite, Struan and Kangaroo Island Research Centres.) At each of these centres, the research programme comprises aspects of crop and animal production technology and soil management which are appropriate to the area. Each officer in charge of a centre reports to the Superintendent of Research Centres, who has a major responsibility for co-ordination of the various programmes . The research centre staff typically comprises (a) technical officers and farm assistants who are concerned with property management and (b)research and technical officers involved in the research programme. All of these officers, including those who have been seconded from an industry branch, are responsible to the officer in charge. However, each research officer has a nominated functional link with the appropriate industry branch; a pasture research officer, say, can thereby look for expert supervision and guidance from a senior research officer of the Agronomy Branch. To an extent which varies from centre to centre, part of the research is conducted by visiting research officers who are members of an industry branch. Proposals for new research projects on a centre may be initiated either by resident or visiting research officers. However, approval to proceed with them is dependent on the concurrence of the officer in charge, the Superintendent and the Research Liaison Committee. This committee, which includes the Superintendent and the Principal Research Officers of industry branches, is responsible for the co-ordination of all research projects and the effective use of research facilities. Administered by Industry Branches At several research centres, the main activities are within the range of interests of only one industry branch. These centres operate as part of the research section of the particular branch concerned, the officer in charge being responsible to the Branch Head through the principal research officer. As with the centres mentioned above, the staff at each centre include both management and research sections. Similarly, both resident and visiting research officers contribute to the research programme. Because only one branch is involved, problems of programme co-ordination are less complicated than in the case of the multi-discipline centres. The centres under this heading are: Horticulture BranchLoxton Research Centre: River Hurray irrigation area. Nuriootpa Research Centre : Barossa Valley viticultural area. Lenswood Research Centre : Adelaide Hills. Northfield Unit : adjacent to the Research Laboratories. Dairy BranchNorthfield Research Centre: adjacent to the Research Laboratories. Parafield Poultry Research Centre: Outer Adelaide suburbs. Parafield Plant Introduction Centre : Outer Adelaide suburbs. Animal Health BranchNorthfield Pig Research Unit: adjacent to the Research Laboratories. (c) Research on Private Properties In many field research projects , it is necessary to choose a location outside the Department's research centres in order to obtain a wider range of environmental or management factors. Northfield Research Laboratory and Research Centre staff and district officers may all be involved in such projects. Planning and Co-ordination of Research Problems Within areas which are broadly defined at Director level, heads of the industry branches and the Research Centres Branch allocate specific areas of research to individual research officers. The formulation of research projects is the responsibility of the research officer, under the supervision and guidance of the principal research officer, or his nominee. In most branches, project pre-schedules are carefully examined by a research committee within the branch, and in all cases pre-schedules are distributed to members of the Research Liaison Committee which was referred to earlier. This committee is required, among other things, to ensure that there is proper co-ordination between branches with over lapping interests. The research centres of the Department are listed above and their location is shown in Figure 2. Current trends and developments - a gradual change in scientific methodology to meet the increasingly complex field problems. Systematic analysis, in which the integrated effects of soil-plant-animal-climate are defined, will become more profitable than simple ad hoc techniques. - the accumulation of a storehouse of technical data on soil, plant, climatic variation in districts, and on potential yields in order to be able to advise farmers more quickly and effectively on farm practices to meet changing market requirements and changing technology. - in the livestock field, joint biological-economic projects are being encouraged to provide a sound basis for the economic assessment of new management techniques. - the development of multi-disciplinary research groups to investigate broad problems, e.g. the need for copper fertiliser by soils, pastures and sheep. - research relating to environmental pollution problems, the utilisation of effluent and waste water and the most efficient use of water resources. 100% of the finance for administration, 70% for extension, 55% for research and 75% for regulatory, service work and so on. Special Commonwealth funds provide the balance for regulatory work. The Commonwealth Extension Services Grant provides about 25% and 20% of the finance used for extension and research respectively. Commowealth / industry finance contributes 20% of the funds used for research. Other Groups concerned with Extension The Department of Agriculture is fortunate in being associated with the Agricultural Bureau of South Australia, the Women's Agricultural Bureau, and the Rural Youth Movement (both Senior and Juniors). Each at its top level of organization has a "Council", in one instance W.A.B.) elected and in the other appointed by the Minister of Agriculture. The Department is represented on each of the Councils and with the exception of the Rural Youth Movement, membership of the governing body is drawn from the membership. In the case Rural Youth, a State Committee , reporting to Council, is fully representative of the Movement. Through these organisations the Department has direct contact with 14,600 people in 377 separately organised groups. It may be noted in passing that there are more than 25,000 farm owners in South Australia. Specific figure for each organisation are as follows: Agricultural Bureau of South Australia: 8 ,000 members in 200 Branches Women's Agricultural Bureau: 2, 300 members in 83 Branches Rural Youth Movement: 4,500 members in 94 Clubs. With the scatter of branches that exists throughout the state, it is possible to discuss problems of importance to agriculture in all districts, without any political or sectarian influences. While the demands on Department agricultural extension staff are greatest from the Agricultural Bureau, the Rural Youth Movement and Women's Agricultural Bureau both provide specific agricultural learning situations in which our extension officers can make a contribution. The planned internal re-organisation of the staff that services the three movements will lead to rationalisation of their functions. In particular, the officers will be called on to attend the needs of any of the three Movements. Agricultural consultants' numbers were depleted between 1968 and 1970, but it would now appear that the numbers are static. The present tally is 7 and they are scattered over wide areas of the State. The functions of those engaged in the consultant role appear to vary from person to person - some appear to give technical advice in the main, others look at the economic issues in much greater depth. One organisation has concentrated on supplying a management service for large properties or syndicates. The part played by staff employed by agri-business in extension is also complex. Some members attend only to servicing clients, others are more concerned with sales, whilst there is a large number who are concerned with client's problems as well as sales. Estimates of numbers that are engaged in extension from agri-business therefore lack meaning. Previous mention was made of the activities of the Department of Further Education. The objectives of this Department are related to the needs of people for formal education in a wide variety of subjects; and from this point of view, it is difficult to estimate the numbers of people who are involved in agricultural subjects from one year to the next. The majority of courses in agricultural subjects are prepared and presented by Department of Agriculture officers .

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Rugose spiraling whitefly, Aleurodicus rugioperculatus Martin (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), is an invasive species that underwent a period of outbreak in southern Florida (Miami-Dade, Palm Beach, Broward, Martin, and Monroe counties) between 2010 and 2013. It infested numerous plant species in the landscape and nurseries of southern Florida and became a nuisance and economically damaging species in many urban areas. In order to study its oviposition preference, an experiment was conducted in a shadehouse using 5 known host plant species, namely coconut, Cocos nucifera L. (Aurecaceae); gumbo limbo, Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg. (Burceraceae); avocado, Persea americana Mill. (Lauraceae); black olive, Bucida buceras L. (Combretaceae) var. ‘Shady Lady;' and giant white bird of paradise, Strelitzia nicolai Regel & Körn (Strelitziaceae). Gumbo limbo was the most preferred and giant white bird of paradise was the least preferred of the host plant species. This is consistent with survey data on frequency of plants serving on hosts provided by the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services-Division of Plant Industry. There was a significant difference between the number of eggs per spiral among host species with gumbo limbo having the highest number of eggs per spiral. No significant correlation was found between the leaf size and the number of eggs on each host species. A strong and significant correlation was found between the number of spirals and the number of eggs per plant species. Adult females deposited the first eggs on source plants, and later oviposited on test host plants, but always returned back to their eclosion site on the source plant. No statistically significant difference was found among the survival of rugose spiraling whitefly on different host plant species tested. Rugose spiraling whitefly, Aleurodicus rugioperculatus Martin (Hempitera: Aleyrodidae: Aleurodicinae), is an invasive species that first was reported in the USA in Florida, in 2009. This whitefly was originally described in 2004 in Belize (Martin 2004), and since its discovery has spread to 22 mostly coastal Florida counties (Francis et al. 2016). Not much is known about the biology of rugose spiraling whitefly but the management of this whitefly was heavily reliant on systemic insecticides (Taravati et al. 2013a). Nevertheless, several natural enemies have been identified on rugose spiraling whitefly infestations in southern Florida, including 3 parasitoids: Encarsia noyesi (Hayat) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), Encarsia guadeloupae Viggiani (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), and Aleuroctonus spp. (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), and 1 ladybird beetle, Nephaspis oculata (Blatchley) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) (Taravati et al. 2013b). When done properly, E. guadeloupae and N. oculata can easily be introduced and established to new areas containing whitefly–infested plants (Taravati et al. 2013a). Rugose spiraling whitefly eggs usually are found in a waxy spiral on the abaxial side of the leaf. Similar to the spiraling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus Russell (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) and giant whitefly, Aleurodicus dugesii Cockerell (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), rugose spiraling whitefly may have the potential to disperse to and become established in other regions of the US as well as in other countries. Rugose spiraling whitefly has already reached the southern Indian states of Kerala (Shanas et al. 2016) and Tamil Nadu, where they are likely to pose a threat to the coconut industry (Sundararaj & Krishnan 2017). Most economically important whiteflies are known to be polyphagous. In contrast, many non–pest species are monophagous or oligophagous (Byrne & Bellows 1991). For example, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), an important pest worldwide, attacks more than 600 plant species (Gelman et al. 2005). Spiraling whitefly, A. dispersus, has a wide host range with at least 104 host plant species reported just from the northernmost parts of Queensland, Australia (Lambkin 1999). Similarly, more than 96 plant species have been reported as hosts for rugose spiraling whitefly, but it is not known how many of these species are true host plants (defined as a plant species on which the whitefly can develop from egg to adult) (Kumar et al. 2013, Francis et al. 2016). The most common whitefly–infested plants in the southern Florida landscape include gumbo limbo, Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg. (Burseraceae); coconut, Cocos nucifera L. (Aurecaceae); black olive, Bucida buceras L. (Combretaceae); avocado, Persea americana Mill. (Lauraceae); and Calophyllum spp. (Calophyllaceae) (Stocks & Hodges 2012). Most members of Aleurodicinae are native to the Neotropics (Martin 2004) and only a few species, such as A. dispersus, have been able to disperse to different regions of the world and pose a problem (Waterhouse & Norris 1989). In Hawaii, A. dispersus was commonly found on many vegetable, ornamental, fruit, and shade trees crops, but some of the specific crops attacked include Annona spp. (Anonnaceae); avocado; banana, Musa sp. (Musaceae); bird of paradise; breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg (Moraceae); citrus, Citrus spp. (Rutaceae); coconut, etc. (Kessing & Mau 1993). In Florida, A. dispersus prefers black olives over coconut; banana; mango, Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae); seagrape, Coccoloba uvifera (L.) Crantz (Polygonaceae); grapefruit, Citrus x paradisi Macfad. (Rutaceae); and sweet orange, Citrus x sinensis (L.) Osbeck (Rutaceae), and its survival on black olive was significantly greater than on the other types of host plants (Cherry 1980). Data on whitefly host preference may help researchers and regulatory agencies predict the host plant range more effectively and do more selected monitoring for this whitefly. In this paper, the results from oviposition preference and survival of whitefly on 5 known host plant species will be provided and discussed for the first time. Materials and Methods To evaluate the efficacy of releasing whiteflies into oviposition preference cages on cut leaves, whiteflies were collected from gumbo limbo trees from Miami–Dade and Monroe counties, Florida, by cutting tree branches containing infested leaves using an adjustable pole cutter and placing them in large plastic bags. These bags were transferred to the University of Florida, Tropical Research and Education Center, in Homestead, Florida, and placed in 6 field cages (1.83 × 1.83 × 1.83 m with 20 × 20 Mesh Lumite, BioQuip, Rancho Dominguez, California, USA) set up in open fields containing 5 individual plants from 5 different species. The 5 plant species were gumbo limbo, coconut, black olive, avocado, and giant white bird of paradise each 1.2 to 1.5 m (4–5 ft.) tall, all purchased from local nurseries around Homestead, Florida. Bags containing infested gumbo limbo branches and leaves were transferred to each field cage where they were gently opened, and placed on the ground so that adult whiteflies could fly from the leaves and reach the host plants in the cage. Observations were made on the location of adult whiteflies and wax spirals. An alternative experiment was conducted in a greenhouse at the University of Florida, Tropical Research and Education Center by placing small, 12 cm pots with live bird of paradise, and gumbo limbo plants infested with whitefly into cages containing clean plants of 1 or both species. Similar to the previous setting, observation was made on the location of adult whiteflies and newly deposited wax spirals. The host preference test was conducted in Nov 2013 using the 5 plant species mentioned above. These plants will be called ‘potential hosts' hereafter. A total of 30 potential hosts were used in this experiment (6 from each plant species). Leaves on all plants were gently wiped with a damp paper towel to remove debris, pests, and mineral residues before placement into the cages and were irrigated using drip irrigation for 6 minutes per day in the morning. Additional bird of paradise plant liners also were purchased and were repotted into 12 cm diam pots and kept in an air–conditioned greenhouse with temperatures ranging between 16 to 31 °C. These plants (“source plant” hereafter) were infested with whiteflies collected from gumbo limbo trees from Miami–Dade and Monroe counties, Florida. Infested gumbo limbo tree branches were cut using an adjustable pole cutter, placed into large plastic bags and transported to the laboratory where they were transferred to a glass–top cage (custommade wood box, about 78 × 38 × 45 cm W × D × H). Source plants also were placed in the glass–top cage with infested gumbo limbo branches for oviposition by whitefly. After oviposition, these plants were transferred to an air–conditioned greenhouse for whitefly rearing for the oviposition preference experiment. All plants were fertilized with a slow release fertilizer (Suncote 16–9–12, Scotts Company LLC, Marysville, Ohio, USA). Plants were irrigated using drip irrigation set at once per d in the morning. Six field cages (1.83 × 1.83 × 1.83 m with 20 × 20 Mesh Lumite, BioQuip, Rancho Dominguez, California, USA) were set up in late Oct 2013 and aligned in a north–south (Fig. 1) row inside a shadehouse at the University of Florida, Tropical Research and Education Center. On 6 Nov 2013, 1 whitefly–infested source plant was placed in the center of each cage to serve as the source of adult whiteflies in the experiment. Each source plant was surrounded by 5 target host plant species. The source plant was raised to 67 cm from the ground by placing it on a plastic platform made of a stack of 26.5 L pots. The source plant was tied to the platform for stability. All stems of the source plants were treated with Tanglefoot® Tangle Trap® insect trap coating (Scotts Company LLC, Marysville, Ohio, USA) in order to prevent ants from reaching whiteflies and interfering with the experiment. A randomized complete block design was used for this experiment. The order of the plant species around the source plant was randomly assigned in each cage. All the plants were placed in the cages in a way to equalize the distance between the source plant and the closest leaf on each potential host. To achieve this, the location and orientation of potential hosts and the source plant were carefully adjusted. All the cages were monitored for oviposition activity after the introduction of the infested source plants. Leaves also were checked for the presence of predatory beetles and parasitoids that were quickly removed using an aspirator or by hand. Leaves were sampled from each target plant on 6, 10, 15, and 26 d after the infested source plant was introduced. On each sampling date, all the infested leaves were removed from potential hosts and taken to the laboratory to count the number of eggs and egg spirals. Eggs were cleaned of wax by blow ing a stream of air over them using a disposable plastic pipette, and the leaves were examined under a dissecting microscope to count the total number of eggs. The cumulative number of eggs for each target plant species was determined. The number of spirals per plant and the number of eggs in each spiral was recorded and calculated for both the source plant (bird of paradise) and the target host plants. SUPPLEMENTAL FIELD DATA To compare our data to field data in southern Florida, pest detection records were obtained from the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services–Division of Plant Industry (Ian Stocks, personal communication). These records were analyzed and summarized to find the total percent contribution of each host plant to the total number of samples sent to Division of Plant Industry for identification. The mean leaf surface area of each plant species was calculated by randomly choosing and collecting a subset (19–41, due to the limited number of leaves on bird of paradise) of infested leaves from each plant species. Each leaf was flattened on a cork board using insect pins, and a scientific ruler was placed close to the leaf to be used as a scale in digital size calibration. Photos were taken of the leaves at a perpendicular angle to reduce any angular distortion. These photos were digitized using the program tpsDig v.2 (James Rohlf, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA). The leaf outline was digitized using the “background curve” tool in tpsDig and all curves were re–sampled to 50 points around the outline of the shape. The leaf area was calculated using the program Geometric Morphometrics Tool Package (Taravati 2009), and the result was imported into Microsoft Excel. Leaf area and oviposition data were used to investigate any correlations between them. Survival of the whiteflies on each target plant species was determined by counting 100 eggs on each host plant species using a magnifying hand lens. Leaves containing these selected 100 eggs were enclosed in a paintstrainer bag (Trimaco 3.78 L Elastic Top Strainer, Morrisville, North Carolina, USA) made of tight nylon mesh. The opening of the bag was wrapped snugly around the branch with a pipe cleaner wire tightly wrapped around the strainer and the branch to prevent natural enemies from contaminating the contents or adult whiteflies from escaping. The leaves were monitored for adult whitefly emergence. The number of emerged adults was counted, and the survival was calculated by dividing the number of adults by the number of eggs. The numbers of spirals, numbers of eggs, and data from the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services–Division of Plant Industry were analyzed using a chi–square test for equal proportions in the program R, ver. 3.3.1 (R Development Core Team 2008). Leaf area, eggs per spiral, and egg–to–adult survival were tested for normality using the Shapiro–Wilk test, and all were found to have non–normal distribution (P < 0.05). Thus, these data were analyzed using the nonparametric Kruskal–Wallis test. Pairwise (post–hoc) comparisons were conducted using the Mann–Whitney U test and Bonferroni correction in the statistical program PAST ver. 3.17 (Hammer et al. 2001). Observations on the oviposition behavior of whitefly revealed that when whiteflies were released on cut leaves and branches, adult females deposited wax and eggs indiscriminately on the closest leaves regardless of the plant species. Most of the eggs were deposited on bird of paradise. They also deposited many eggs on non–living objects, such as on the screen of the cage and plastic pots. Furthermore, a heavy aggregation of dead adult whiteflies was found on the top corner of cages toward the east. Most adult whiteflies died within 3 to 4 d after their release into cages. In contrast, adult whiteflies survived much longer, deposited fewer eggs per d, were rarely found dead on the corners of the cage, and very rarely deposited eggs on non–living objects when they were introduced into cages on live potted plants. Also, egg distribution was more even in the latter method. Based on these observations, whiteflies were introduced into cages on live potted plants instead of infested cut leaves in the oviposition preference test. There was a significant difference among the number of eggs deposited on different host plants (χ2 = 8764.4; df = 4; P < 0.001) with gumbo limbo having the most (16,956) and bird of paradise having the fewest (4,750) eggs (Table 1). The average cumulative number of eggs deposited over time for each host plant species is presented in Figure 2. The average cumulative number of eggs was greatest on gumbo limbo on all sampling dates. The average number of eggs per spiral ranged from 22.5 to 31.2 when compared among the different plant hosts. There was a significant difference in the number of eggs per spiral deposited on different host plants (χ2 = 99.42; df = 4; P < 0.001), with gumbo limbo receiving the greatest number of eggs per spiral. Also, a strong and significant correlation was found between the number of spirals and the number of eggs per plant species (rs = 0.90; P < 0.05). Distribution of eggs and egg spirals recorded in the host preference test. Also provided are leaf area and the total number of eggs and egg spirals deposited on each plant species. Mean values are reported as mean ± S.E. In addition to the eggs deposited on the potential hosts, there was some oviposition on the source plants. Initially, some eggs were deposited on the source plant and then on the potential hosts. Oviposition continued on both the source and potential hosts. Among the potential hosts, the first egg spirals were seen on gumbo limbo and avocado. Adult females returned to the source plant after each egg laying on the target host plants. In other words, they flew back to the “emergence site” (the place they emerged as adults) after laying eggs on other parts of the source plant or potential hosts. The number of egg spirals continued to increase on both the source and potential hosts until the end of the study. On average, female whiteflies deposited 6.1 ± 2.2% of the total number of eggs on the source plant and the remainder on the potential hosts. At the end of the study, all of the potential hosts and source plants still had non–infested leaves or a considerable amount of clean area on their leaves available for oviposition. SUPPLEMENTAL FIELD DATA The analysis on data from the Division of Plant Industry revealed that out of 475 plant samples sent to them for verification of whitefly infestation, the highest number came from gumbo limbo (15%), followed by coconut (11%), Calophyllum spp. (Calophyllaceae) (11%), avocado (9%), black olive (5%), Phoenix roebelenii O'Brien (Aracaceae) (3%), Mangifera indica Bl. (Anacardiaceae) (3%), and bird of paradise (2%). There was a statistically significant difference among the number of reported infestations from the 5 host plants species used in our experiment mentioned above (χ2 = 57.54; df = 4; P < 0.001), with the trend largely consistent with our observations under controlled conditions. There was a significant difference in leaf size area among the 5 host plants (χ2 = 101.7; df = 4; P < 0.001) with bird of paradise having the largest leaf area and black olive having the smallest leaf area (Table 1). However, no significant correlation was found between the average leaf size and the total number of eggs deposited on each of the plant species (rs = −0.30; P = 0.51). Egg–to–adult survival in our experiment ranged from 5 to 10% but there was not a statistically significant difference (χ2 = 1.72; df = 4; P > 0.05) in survival among the different host plants (Table 1). Preliminary observations showed that releasing whiteflies on cut leaves is not a suitable method for measuring oviposition preference, and may result in strongly skewed and inaccurate data. The principal reason for this could be because of the rapid deterioration of cut leaves and the resulting disturbance to adult whiteflies, forcing them to leave and find a new host. The aggregation of adult whiteflies on the eastern side of the cage is consistent with a previous study that showed a strong flight phototaxis, especially right after dawn, on the eastern side of the cages (Taravati et al. 2014). In the preliminary study using cut leaves, many adults died on the eastern corners of the cages, probably because of the disturbance caused by the destruction of the cut leaves and the fact that whiteflies were not able to return to their eclosion site to continue feeding. Gumbo limbo was the most preferred, and bird of paradise was the least preferred host plant in our experiment. The preference for gumbo limbo is supported not only by the number of eggs deposited on this species, but also the fact that gumbo limbo was one of the 2 potential hosts that received the first series of eggs in our experiment. In addition, gumbo limbo had a significantly greater number of eggs per spiral among the host plant species. Gumbo limbo is one of the most commonly infested plants in the southern Florida landscape (Stocks & Hodges 2012). Our result is consistent with the Division of Plant Industry data, where gumbo limbo was the most–reported host plant and bird of paradise was the least–reported host plant species for whitefly among the 5 host plants used in our study. Based on the above–mentioned observations and the consistency of our data with that of the Division of Plant Industry, we believe that the result of our experiment is representative of the whitefly host plant preference in southern Florida fields. The lack of significant correlation between leaf size and the number of eggs deposited on leaves suggests that whitefly females do not simply prefer plant species with larger leaves for oviposition when given the choices we provided in our experiment. Leaves of bird of paradise are about 20 times larger than avocado, and 380 times larger than black olive leaves on average, but despite these huge size differences, bird of paradise plants received the lowest number of eggs in our experiment. The plant species used in our host preference experiments had a very different spatial structure and leaf surface area. For example, bird of paradise has large, upright leaves, whereas black olive var. ‘Shady Lady' has very small, mixed–angle leaves. The coconut plants received the lowest cumulative number of eggs in the beginning of the experiment, but later surpassed that of bird of paradise and black olive (Fig. 2). This could be an example of the influence of plant architecture, because coconuts in our experiment differed from the other plants in their spatial structure of the fronds, which are spread horizontally. Within the cage, a large number of coconut leaflets (on the fronds) were relatively far away from the source plant due to the horizontal spread. These leaflets did not receive many eggs in the early stages of the experiment, but started to receive more eggs as more and more leaves of other plant species that were closer to these leaflets were used for egg laying. As the experiment progressed, adult females probably had to increase their flight range in search of uninfested leaves within the cages, eventually encountering those coconut leaves further away. This hypothesis needs further investigation to be confirmed. Survival from egg to adult was generally low on all plants, which may be partially explained by the fact that many of the whiteflies became infected with fungal pathogens. Our experiment site received a considerable amount of rain during the whitefly survival study period, which explains the prevalence of fungal pathogens and high mortality of whiteflies. Observations during our experiment and the preparation period prior to experimentation suggest that the female whitefly deposits her first egg spirals close to the place where it emerged as an adult, regardless of the plant on which it developed. This is true provided that the host plant is not under stress or deteriorating. Observations that the adult female whiteflies return to their eclosion site after each egg laying effort is consistent with a previous study (Taravati & Mannion 2015), and suggests that whiteflies use one or more type of cues to locate their eclosion site. We would like to thank Amanda Hodges (University of Florida, Entomology and Nematology Department, Gainesville, Florida) and Aaron Palmateer (University of Florida, Tropical Research and Education Center, Homestead, Florida) for their guidance as PhD committee members. Anthony Boughton (USDA, Laredo, Texas) made many suggestions regarding the experimental design, for which we are grateful. A special thanks to Ian Stocks (Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services– Division of Plant Industry) for sharing the whitefly detection report database. Also, we are grateful to Holly Glenn and Rebecca Tannenbaum for assistance in data collection and experiment setup. A special thanks to James Colee (University of Florida, Department of Statistics, Gainesville, Florida) for his assistance in statistical data analysis.

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Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Location of Weston Creek, shaded. |Population||22,746 (2011 census)| |• Density||1,440/km2 (3,729/sq mi)| |Gazetted||12 May 1966| |Area||15.8 km2 (6.1 sq mi)| |Location||13 km (8 mi) SSW of Canberra City| The District of Weston Creek is one of the original eighteen districts of the Australian Capital Territory used in land administration. The district is subdivided into divisions (suburbs), sections and blocks. The district of Weston Creek lies entirely within the bounds of the city of Canberra, the capital city of Australia. The district comprises eight residential suburbs, situated to the west of the Woden Valley district and approximately 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) southwest of the Canberra City centre. Situated adjacent to the district was the large Stromlo Forest pine plantation until the forest was destroyed by bushfires in 2001 and 2003. Weston Creek was named in honour of Captain George Edward Weston, a former officer of the East India Company who arrived in Australia in 1829, and was Superintendent of the Hyde Park Convict Barracks in Sydney. In 1841, Weston was granted land in the district now known as Weston Creek. Establishment and governance Following the transfer of land from the Government of New South Wales to the Commonwealth Government in 1911, the district was established in 1966 by the Commonwealth via the gazettal of the Districts Ordinance 1966 (Cth) which, after the enactment of the Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988, became the Districts Act 1966. This Act was subsequently repealed by the ACT Government and the district is now administered subject to the Districts Act 2002. The 'four-square-mile' (2560 acre) grant to George Weston at the 'Yarrow-Lumla plains' was completed on 31 October 1831. The land was originally settled by James Martin, a former soldier in the NSW Corps, who in August 1827 applied to the government for permission to rent 2,000 acres (810 ha) of land on which he had already built a dwelling and barn, was grazing cattle and sheep, and had sown 12 acres (4.9 ha) with wheat. Martin's claim, however, was not successful. Along with the adjacent Woden Valley, the area later became part of the 40,000 acres (16,000 ha) Yarralumla Station. It was owned successively by Sir Terence Aubrey Murray, Augustus Gibbes and Frederick Campbell, until it was resumed in 1913 as part of a land acquisition scheme after the Federal Capital Territory, was declared in 1911. The earliest homesteads in the valley were Weston (in the present suburb of Holder), Cooleman (on the southern edge of Chapman), The Rivers (corner of Uriarra Rd and Coppins Crossing Rd), Blundell's Homestead (off of Coppins Crossing Rd, near the large bend in the Molonglo River), Illoura (present suburb of North Weston) and Avondale (present-day Holder). In the early 1920s, approximately 9,000 acres (3,600 ha) were subdivided for soldier settlement leases. Weston. John and Ellen Fox were amongst the first settlers in the Weston valley, living at the Weston homestead from the 1860s. The homestead was located on what is now a small reserve on the corner of Calder Crescent and Woolrych Street, Holder. Several of John and Ellen's nine children were born at Weston, and their son David Fox and his wife Margaret later took over the property. In 1920, the Commonwealth Government acquired the land for use in the Soldier Settlement scheme. Fred Dulhunty was then granted a five-year soldier settlement lease of 804 acres (325 ha) (Block 30), which was then expanded to 1,319 acres (534 ha) in 1926 to incorporate most of the Weston property (Block 24A). Dulhunty did not reside at the property, and the Foxs continued to live and work there. Following David Fox's death at age 49 in 1926, Margaret continued to reside at the property, but then moved to nearby Avondale homestead in about 1933. The Weston and Taylor's Hill leases were purchased by John Dent in October 1932, and used for mixed farming and grazing. The Weston lease was then purchased in 1937 by Rudolph and Eileen De Salis. Rudolph was born at Cuppacumalong homestead near Tharwa, and had lived at 'Bondo' near Cooma and 'Yarrawa' near Adaminaby before moving to Weston. Rudolph remained at Weston until he died in February 1957, aged 70. Members of the De Salis family continued to live at Weston up until the late-1960s. Avondale. Avondale was located off of Kambah Lane just to the northeast of the Weston homestead, in the vicinity of what is now a small reserve in De Graaff Street, Holder. Margaret Fox moved to Avondale in about 1933 and remained there until she sold the property in 1955. The property was then resumed in 1968 to allow suburban development in Weston Creek. Cooleman. Cooleman was located on the southern side of the Weston valley, located in what is now a reserve in Bertel Crescent, Chapman. Cooleman was farmed by Heather and Philip Champion from 1937. The Champions moved to the property from Weetangerra. Cooleman continued as a sheep run until residential construction in Weston Creek commenced around 1970. Allawah. In 1926, Kenneth Anderson was granted a 1,503 acres (608 ha) soldier settlement lease in present-day Fisher and Waramanga, extending across to Mount Taylor (Block 22), and called his property Allawah. In November 1932, he transferred the lease to John and Stella Dent. The Rivers. In 1926, Aubrey Blewitt was allocated a ten-year soldier settlement lease for Block 13 which he called The Rivers. The 1,120 acres (450 ha) block went from the corner of Uriarra Road and Coppins Crossing Road north to the Molonglo River, an area now incorporated into the new suburb of Denman Prospect. Blewitt had previously been granted 645 acres (261 ha) in present-day North Weston and northern Holder in 1920 (Block 41), but it was resumed in 1925 and incorporated into Block 24 (Weston). Illoura. Thomas Cargill was offered a ten-year soldier settlement lease for the 1,015 acres (411 ha) Block 26A, which extended from present-day Curtin and Lyons across to present-day North Weston and McCubbin to the west. In 1928 he sold his lease to Guy Tanner, and the Tanner family continued to farm the area until the property was resumed in the early 1970s. Early roads and landmarks In 1914, the two main roads running into the Weston Creek district were Uriarra Road (now Cotter Road) from the northeast and Long Gully Road from the southeast (through present-day Waramanga). Uriarra Road followed the current day Cotter Road from Weston Creek past the Yarralumla Woolshed and then across through present-day Kingston to Queanbeyan, passing just south of where Parliament House now sits. Cotter River Road branched off of Uriarra Road near the present-day RSPCA site. Long Gully Road came into the valley through present-day Waramanga and ran to the west to what is now the corner of Streeton Dr and Darwinia Tce, between Stirling and Rivett. The route of the original road is still easily discernible on present day maps, as it followed what is now green space between Nagara St and Nemarang Cres in Waramanga, then across the playing fields to Namatjira Dr, and then along the green space over Fremantle Dr to the corner of Streeton Dr and Darwinia Tce. Long Gully Road then intersected with the north-south running Kambah Road. Kambah Road ran south from Uriarra Road (the intersection was in the present day suburb of Coombes), through the suburb of Holder to the corner of Dixon Drive and Hindmarsh Drive, and then through the present day suburb of Rivett. The intersection of Kambah Road and Long Gully Road was situated within present day Stirling Oval. A bitumen stretch of the original Kambah Road and a narrow concrete bridge are still clearly visible opposite 134 Dixon Drive. Kambah Pool Road branched off of Kambah Road within the present day suburb of Kambah. Prior to the development of Tuggeranong, Namatjira Drive between Chapman and Fisher (a sealed road) turned into the remainder of Kambah Road (a gravel road which was sealed in 1972). This provided access to the Kambah Pool reserve for residents in the Woden/Weston Creek area. Early landmarks in the district were Narrabundah Hill (still Narrabundah Hill, west of Duffy), Dawson Hill (now Calder Pl, Holder), Mount Stromlo to the north west, and Taylor's Hill to the southeast (now Mt Taylor). Western Creek (later known as Weston Creek) followed the course of the present day stormwater drain just to the east of Weston Creek Centre, then along present day Streeton Drive and into the Molonglo River (where present day Weston Creek still terminates). At the 2011 census, there were 22,746 people in the Weston Creek district, of these 48.8 per cent were male and 51.2 per cent were female. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 1.2 per cent of the population, which was lower than the national and territory averages. The median age of people in the Weston Creek district was 40 years, which was higher than the national median of 37 years. Children aged 0 – 14 years made up 19.2 per cent of the population and people aged 65 years and over made up 17.0 per cent of the population. Of people in the area aged 15 years and over, 53.2 per cent were married and 11.3 per cent were either divorced or separated. Between the 2001 census and the 2006 census, the population in the Weston Creek district decreased by 0.94 per cent; and in the subsequent five years to the 2011 census, the population grew by 2.8 per cent. When compared with total population growth of Australia for the same periods, being 5.78 per cent and 8.32 per cent respectively, population growth in Weston Creek district was significantly lower than the national average. The median weekly income for residents within the Weston Creek district was significantly higher than the national average, and marginally lower than the territory average. At the 2011 census, the proportion of residents in the Weston Creek district who stated their ancestry as Australian or Anglo-Saxon exceeded 72 per cent of all residents (national average was 65.2 per cent). In excess of 49 per cent of all residents in the Weston Creek district nominated a religious affiliation with Christianity at the 2011 census, which was approximately equal to the national average of 50.2 per cent. Meanwhile, as at the census date, compared to the national average, households in the Weston Creek district had a lower than average proportion (15.1 per cent) where two or more languages are spoken (national average was 20.4 per cent); and a higher proportion (85.0 per cent) where English only was spoken at home (national average was 76.8 per cent). |Selected historical census data for the Weston Creek district| |Population||Estimated residents on census night||22,338||22,127||22,746| |District rank in terms of size within the Australian Capital Territory||6th||6th||6th| |Percentage of the Australian Capital Territory population||6.4%| |Percentage of the Australian population||0.12%||0.11%||0.11%| |Cultural and language diversity| (other than English) |Presbyterian and Reformed||3.7%||3.2%||2.7%| |Median weekly incomes| |Personal income||Median weekly personal income||A$737||A$910| |Percentage of Australian median income||158.2%||157.7%| |Family income||Median weekly family income||A$1,819||A$2,258| |Percentage of Australian median income||155.3%||152.5%| |Household income||Median weekly household income||A$1,517||A$1,831| |Percentage of Australian median income||147.7%||148.4%| Sewerage treatment plant Weston Creek was the site of Canberra's main sewerage treatment plant from the early days of Canberra's settlement up until the late-1970s. Located by the river down the hill from the present day RSPCA site, the plant was proposed as early as 1915. Following several studies, it was approved for construction by the Federal Capital Advisory Committee in January 1924, and commenced operating in 1927. Sewerage from the fledgling city of Canberra was pumped to the site through an underground pipe from the vicinity of the Canberra Hotel, through the Yarralumla area. In the late-1960s, odours from the plant became a problem in the expanding residential areas of Woden and Weston Creek, and also at nearby Government House. Several refinements were made to the plant, and the sludge drying beds were abandoned. The plant was closed in August 1978 and replaced by the new Lower Molonglo Water Quality Control Centre. In December 2010, during excavation work to construct the North Weston Pond as part of the new Molonglo Valley development, 90,000 tonnes of asbestos-contaminated waste were discovered buried near the former sewerage treatment plant site. The contaminated soil contained asbestos sheets and pipes that were dumped at the site by builders from around Canberra during the late 1970s and early 1980s. The plan to develop Weston Creek as a residential district was announced by the National Capital Development Commission in September 1966. It was expected to house 10,000 residents, and was to be regarded as an extension of the Woden Valley. The names of its first two suburbs, Waramanga and Fisher, were announced on 4 June 1968, with the first residents moving in around September 1969. The first 56 residential blocks offered in Waramanga under restricted conditions went at auction for an average of $1,326 each in October 1969. Hindmarsh Drive was extended from Woden Valley into Weston Creek in late-1968 to serve as the main arterial road into the new district. Streeton Drive connecting Cotter Road with Hindmarsh Drive was then constructed in early 1970. Six further suburbs were constructed in the Weston Creek district between 1969 and 1972: Weston and Rivett in 1969, Duffy and Holder in 1970, and Chapman and Stirling in 1972. Each suburb is named after a notable Australian, and the street names in each suburb follow a specific theme such as Australian rivers, native flowers, or names of surveyors. Work on the district shopping centre, Cooleman Court, commenced in March 1977. The centre opened on schedule a year later in March 1978. The new shopping centre in Brierly Street included a Woolworths supermarket, Fosseys store and 52 smaller shops. The name 'Cooleman Court' and its logo were selected from a competition involving the local community. The name was inspired by the Cooleman Homestead settled in the district by Mr Phillip Champion in 1937. The logo, a circle divided into eight parts, was intended to symbolise the eight suburbs of Weston Creek served by the new shopping complex. Situated on Canberra's western edge adjacent to open farmland and formerly large pine plantations, the Weston Creek district has been affected by several serious bushfires. The more notable fires have been: - February 1952 – Several observatory buildings and equipment were damaged and more than 100,000 pine trees destroyed when a bushfire swept across Mount Stromlo and into the Weston valley on 5 February 1952. - December 2001 – Fire swept through the Stromlo Pine Forest adjacent to Weston Creek on 24 Dec 2001, threatening the suburbs of Duffy, Holder, Weston, Curtin and Yarralumla. It burnt areas of the National Zoo & Aquarium and Government House, and reached Adelaide Avenue, Deakin, before being contained. - Canberra bushfires of 2003 – Weston Creek was hard hit by the bushfires that entered Canberra's suburbs on 18 January 2003, with nearly 500 homes destroyed and four people killed. Duffy bore the brunt of the bushfires with 219 homes destroyed, while parts of Chapman, Holder, Rivett and Weston also suffered significant damage. A Bushfire Memorial was established in nearby Stromlo and opened on 18 January 2005. Local sports teams include the Weston Molonglo Football Club (formally known as Weston Creek Soccer Club), Royals (Rugby Union), Weston Creek Wildcats (Australian rules football) (formerly Western Creek Lions), Weston Creek Indians (Baseball), a men's and women's Lawn Bowls team and Weston Creek Cricket Club. Established in 1976, notable players in the cricket club include Greg Irvine (from 1979), Michael Bevan (1985), Huntley Armstrong (1985) and even star rugby player George Gregan (1990). There is also a Weston Creek netball competition, called Arawang, comprising several teams. Junior sporting groups are also well represented with the Weston Creek Little Athletics centre being established in 1976. The centre currently trains and competes at Chapman oval every Saturday during the summer months. The district has only one public high school. Named Stromlo, the school is located in the suburb of Waramanga. Until the 1990s there were two public high schools — Stromlo High School, originally called Weston Creek High School, and Holder High School, located in Holder. Holder High School was closed in 1991 and the two schools merged to become Stromlo High. The Weston Creek valley was serviced by one senior secondary college, Stirling, which opened in 1977. In 1997, the Stirling College amalgamated with Phillip College to become the Canberra College. Initially, the united colleges ran out of both Woden and Weston campuses. The mainstream student body gradually moved to the Woden campus, leaving an alternative education set of programmes at the Weston campus. The CCCares (Canberra College Cares) programme is the only remaining element of the Canberra College in Weston Creek, running in the old Stirling complex. CCCares is an internationally recognised, multi-award-winning alternative education setting catering for the needs of pregnant and parenting students from the ACT and nearby regional areas. A Community Council, known as the Weston Creek Community Council (WCCC), provides the residents of the district with a forum to convey concerns to government, and lobbies government and bureaucrats for services and facilities for Weston Creek. It was established due to concern amongst district residents that they lacked a political voice in the legislative process in Canberra, with the closure of Holder High School in 1991 the initial catalyst for bringing residents together. The Australian Defence College's Centre for Defence and Strategic Studies (CDSS) and Australian Command and Staff College (ACSC) are both located at Weston Creek. - George Gregan – a former Wallabies captain, grew up in Weston Creek. - Michael Bevan – a former Australian representative cricketer, grew up in Weston Creek. - Helen Razer – an author and ABC Radio host grew up in Weston Creek. - Robert de Castella – a former marathon runner, lived and trained in Weston Creek and adjacent pine forests. - Katy Gallagher – a former Chief Minister of the Australian Capital Territory, now a Federal Senator, grew up in Weston Creek. - Sir David Martin – a former Rear Admiral and Governor of New South Wales, resided for a time in Weston Creek. - Australian Bureau of Statistics (31 October 2012). "Weston Creek (SA3)". 2011 Census QuickStats. Retrieved 20 December 2013. - "Districts Ordinance 1966 No. 5 (ACT)" (PDF). - "Search for street and suburb names: Weston Creek (district)". Environment and Sustainable Development Directorate. ACT Government. 4 December 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2013. - "Aboriginal Heritage in the ACT". Environment and Sustainable Development Directorate. ACT Government. 17 March 2013. Retrieved 18 December 2013. - Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988 (Cth) - Districts Act 1966 (ACT). - Districts Act 2002 (ACT). - Douglas, F (1996). Not without my corsets!: oral histories of the families who farmed soldier settler blocks in the Woden Valley from 1920 to 1963. O'Connor, ACT. - Weston Homestead site, Canberra Tracks, Retrieved 7 January 2018. - See details of the Fox family in Monaro Pioneers, retrieved 28 August 2010 - National Library of Australia Digital Maps Collection, Military Cartographic Map of Canberra Federal Territory, 1914. Retrieved 27 Aug 2010 - Blocks 24A & 30 Woden District - Property Name: 'Weston', Archives ACT website, Retrieved 7 January 2018. - Hidden Canberra website, Canberra District Electoral Rolls 1928-1959. Retrieved 28 August 2010. - The Canberra Times, 2 Nov 1932, p.2 - ACT Memorial website, DE SALIS, Rodolph Leopold Pierce Fane, retrieved 28 August 2010 - 1949 Electoral Roll - Red Hill, retrieved 28 August 2010 - 1967 Electoral Roll - Outside Canberra, retrieved 28 August 2010 - ACTmapi website, Retrieved 8 January 2018 - Block 22 Stromlo District - Property Name: 'Allawah', Archives ACT website, Retrieved 7 January 2018. - Block 41 Woden & Block 13 Stromlo District - Blocks 40 & 26A Woden District – Property Name: 'Illoura' ArchivesACT, Retrieved 8 January 2018. - ArchivesACT, Retrieved 8 January 2018 - "Military Cartographic Map of Canberra Federal Territory" (Map). Digital Maps Collection. National Library of Australia. 1914. Retrieved 27 August 2010. - Australian Bureau of Statistics (9 March 2006). "Weston Creek-Stromlo (SSD)". 2001 Census QuickStats. Retrieved 20 December 2013. - Australian Bureau of Statistics (25 October 2007). "Weston Creek-Stromlo (SSD)". 2006 Census QuickStats. Retrieved 20 December 2013. - Sydney Morning Herald, 16 Feb 1915. p.4 - Canberra's Engineering Heritage, Chapter 5 - Water Retrieved 25 Aug 2010 - Asbestos hits Molonglo plans The Canberra Times, 4 Dec 2010, Retrieved 31 Dec 2010 - The Canberra Times, 24 Sep 1966, p. 1 - The Canberra Times, 09 Sep 1969, p. 3 - The Canberra Times, 08 Oct 1969, p. 38 - The Canberra Times, 07 Mar 1978, p. 14 - The Canberra Times, 6 Feb 1952, p. 1 - Christmas 2001 - The ACT bushfires, The Riot Act, Retrieved 31 Dec 2010 - "Canberra Bushfires Fieldwork" (PDF). Geoscience Australia. 19 November 2009. Retrieved 20 December 2013. - ACT Bushfire CRC (2005), Investigation of bushfire attack mechanisms resulting in house loss in the ACT bushfire 2003. Retrieved 21 Aug 2010. - Weston Molonglo Football Club - "HISTORY of the Weston Creek WILDCATS Junior Australian Football Club (WCWJAFC)". 28 September 2009. Retrieved 6 April 2017. - Weston Creek Cricket Club - "History of WCLAC". 17 January 2016. Retrieved 9 September 2016. - Weston Creek Community Council

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Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act explained |Shorttitle:||Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act| |Longtitle:||To prohibit the movement in interstate commerce of adulterated and misbranded food, drugs, devices, and cosmetics, and for other purposes.| |Acronym:||FFDCA, "FD&C Act"| |Public Law Url:||https://research.archives.gov/description/299847| |Cite Public Law:||75-717| |Acts Repealed:||Pure Food and Drug Act| |Title Amended:||21 U.S.C.: Food and Drugs| |Sections Created:|| § 301 et seq.| |Introducedby:||Royal Copeland (D–NY)| |Introduceddate:||January 6, 1937| |Passeddate1:||March 9, 1937| |Passedbody2:||House with amendment| |Passeddate2:||June 1, 1938| |Conferencedate:||June 10, 1938| |Passeddate3:||June 10, 1938| |Passeddate4:||June 13, 1938| |Signedpresident:||Franklin D. Roosevelt| |Signeddate:||June 25, 1938| - 1951 Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act Amendments, PL 82–215, 65 Stat 648 - 1962 Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act Amendments, PL 87–781, 76 Stat 780 - Fair Packaging and Labeling Act, PL 89–755, 80 Stat 1296 - Medical Device Regulation Act, PL 94–295, 90 Stat 539 - Radiation Control for Safety and Health Act, PL 90-602, 82 Stat 1173 - Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984, PL 98-471, 98 Stat 1585 - Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (1990), PL 101-535, 104 Stat 2353 - Safe Medical Device Amendments of 1990, PL 101-629, 104 Stat 4511 - Food and Drug Administration Revitalization Act (1990), PL 101-635, 104 Stat 4583 - Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (1994), PL 103-417, 108 Stat 4332 - Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 - Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act of 1997, PL 105-115, 111 Stat 2296 - Food and Drug Administration Amendments Act of 2007, PL 110-85, 121 Stat 823 The United States Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (abbreviated as FFDCA, FDCA, or FD&C), is a set of laws passed by Congress in 1938 giving authority to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to oversee the safety of food, drugs, medical devices, and cosmetics. A principal author of this law was Royal S. Copeland, a three-term U.S. Senator from New York. In 1968, the Electronic Product Radiation Control provisions were added to the FD&C. Also in that year the FDA formed the Drug Efficacy Study Implementation (DESI) to incorporate into FD&C regulations the recommendations from a National Academy of Sciences investigation of effectiveness of previously marketed drugs. The act has been amended many times, most recently to add requirements about bioterrorism preparations. The introduction of this act was influenced by the death of more than 100 patients due to a sulfanilamide medication where diethylene glycol was used to dissolve the drug and make a liquid form (see elixir sulfanilamide disaster). It replaced the earlier Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906. The FDC Act has ten chapters: I. Short Title - 201(f) is the definition for a food, which explicitly includes chewing gum - 201(g) is the definition for a drug - 201(s) is the definition of a food additive - 201(ff) is the definition of a dietary supplement III. Prohibited Acts and Penalties This section contains both civil law and criminal law clauses. Most violations under the act are civil, though repeated, intentional, and fraudulent violations are covered as criminal law. All violations of the FD&C Act require interstate commerce because of the commerce clause, but this is often interpreted broadly and few products other than raw produce are considered outside of the scope of the act. Notably, the FD&C Act uses strict liability due to the Dotterweich and Park Supreme Court cases. It is one of a very small number of criminal statutes that does. There is a distinction in food adulteration between those that are added and those that are naturally present. Substances that are added are held to a stricter "may render (it) injurious to health" standard, whereas substances that are naturally present need only be at a level that "does not ordinarily render it injurious to health" V. Drugs and Devices - 505 is the description of the drug approval process - 510(k) is the section that allows for clearance of class II medical devices - 515 is the description of the (class III) device approval process VII. General Authority - 704 allows inspections of regulated entities. Inspection results are reported on Form 483. VIII. Imports and Exports IX. Tobacco Products The FD&C is perhaps best known by the consumer because of its use in the naming of food coloring additives, such as "FD&C Yellow No. 6." The Act made the certification of some food color additives mandatory. Some food colorings are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the FDA and do not require certification. The FDA lists nine FD&C (Food, Drugs & Cosmetics) certified color additives for use in foods in the United States, and numerous D&C (Drugs & Cosmetics) colorings allowed only in drugs for external application or cosmetics. Color additives derived from natural sources, such as vegetables, minerals or animals, and artificial counterparts of natural derivatives, are exempt from certification. Both artificial and naturally derived color additives are subject to rigorous standards of safety before their approval for use in foods. |Name ||Common name ||Color ||Comment| |FD&C Blue No. 1||blue | |FD&C Blue No. 2||indigo | |FD&C Green No. 3||green | |FD&C Red No. 3||pink | |FD&C Red No. 40||red | |FD&C Yellow No. 5||yellow| |FD&C Yellow No. 6||orange | |orange ||Restricted to specific uses | |red ||Restricted to specific uses | There are also "D&C" colors that are only approved for use in pharmaceuticals for external application and cosmetics. The FFDCA requires producers of food additives to demonstrate to a reasonable certainty that no harm will result from the intended use of an additive. If the FDA finds an additive to be safe the agency issues a regulation specifying the conditions under which the additive may be safely used. Definition of food additive A shortened definition of "food additive" is defined by the FDA as "any substance the intended use of which results or may reasonably be expected to result, directly or indirectly, in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristic of any food (including any substance intended for use in producing, manufacturing, packing, processing, preparing, treating, packaging, transporting, or holding food; and including any source of radiation intended for any such use); if such substance is not GRAS or sanctioned prior to 1958 or otherwise excluded from the definition of food additives." The full definition can be found in Section 201(s) of the FD&C Act, which provides for any additional exclusions. Homeopathic preparations are regulated and protected under Sections 201(g) and 201(j), provided that such medications are formulated from substances listed in the Homeopathic Pharmacopoeia of the United States, which the Act recognizes as an official drug compendium. However, under separate authority of FTC Act, the Federal Trade Commission declared in November 2016 that homeopathic products cannot include claims of effectiveness without "competent and reliable scientific evidence." If no such evidence exists, they must state this fact clearly on their labeling, and state that the product's claims are based only on 18th-century theories that have been discarded by modern science. Bottled water is regulated by the FDA as a food. The Agency has published identity standards for types of water (mineral water, spring water), and regulations covering water processing and bottling, water quality and product labeling. This Act defines cosmetics as "articles intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled, or sprayed on, introduced into, or otherwise applied to the human body...for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance." Under the Act, the FDA does not approve cosmetic products, but because the Act prohibits the marketing of adulterated or misbranded cosmetics in interstate commerce, it can remove cosmetics from the market that contain unsafe ingredients or that are mislabeled. The FDA can and does inspect cosmetics manufacturing facilities to ensure that cosmetics are not adulterated. On May 28, 1976, the FD&C Act was amended to include regulation for medical devices. The amendment required that all medical devices be classified into one of three classes: - Class I: Devices that do not require premarket approval or clearance but must follow general controls. Dental floss is a class I device. - Class II: Devices that are cleared using the 510(k) process. Diagnostic tests, cardiac catheters, hearing aids, and dental amalgams are examples of class II devices. - Class III: Devices that are approved by the Premarket Approval (PMA) process, analogous to a New Drug Application. These tend to be devices that are permanently implanted into a human body or may be necessary to sustain life. An artificial heart meets both criteria. The most commonly recognized class III device is an Automated External Defibrillator. Devices that do not meet either criterion are generally cleared as class II devices. For devices that were marketed prior to the amendment (Preamendment devices) and were classified as Class III, the amendment obligated the FDA to review the device to either reclassify it as a Class II device subject to premarket notification, or to require the device manufacturer to undergo the premarket authorization process and prove the safety and efficacy of the device in order to continue marketing it. Notable examples of such preamendment devices are those used for electroconvulsive therapy, which the FDA started reviewing in 2011. Premarket notification (510(k), PMN) Section 510(k) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act requires those device manufacturers who must register to notify FDA, at least 90 days in advance, of their intent to market a medical device. This is known as Premarket Notification, PMN, or 510(k). It allows FDA to determine whether the device is equivalent to a device already placed into one of the three classification categories. Thus, "new" devices (not in commercial distribution prior to May 28, 1976) that have not been classified can be properly identified. Any device that reaches market via a 510(k) notification must be "substantially equivalent" to a device on the market prior to May 28, 1976 (a "predicate device"). If a device being submitted is significantly different, relative to a pre-1976 device, in terms of design, material, chemical composition, energy source, manufacturing process, or intended use, the device nominally must go through a premarket approval, or PMA. This does not always happen. A device that reaches market via the 510(k) process is not considered to be "approved" by the FDA. Nevertheless, it can be marketed and sold in the United States. They are generally referred to as "cleared" or "510(k) cleared" devices. A 2011 study by Dr. Diana Zuckerman and Paul Brown of the National Research Center for Women and Families, and Dr. Steven Nissen of the Cleveland Clinic, published in the Archives of Internal Medicine, showed that most medical devices recalled in the last five years for "serious health problems or death" had been previously cleared by the FDA using the less stringent, and cheaper, 510(k) process. In a few cases the devices had been deemed so low-risk that they did not need FDA regulation. Of the 113 devices recalled, 35 were for cardiovascular issues. This may lead to a reevaluation of FDA procedures and better oversight. Premarket approval (PMA) Premarket approval (PMA) is the most stringent type of device marketing application required by FDA. Unlike the 510(k) pathway, the maker of the medical device must submit an application to the FDA and must receive approval prior to marketing the device. The PMA application contains information about how the medical device was designed and how it is manufactured, as well as preclinical and clinical studies of the device, demonstrating that it is safe and effective for its intended use. Because the PMA requires a clinical trial it is significantly more expensive than a 510(k). Automatic Class III Designation (De Novo classification) The Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act of 1997 created section 513(f)(2) of the FD&C Act, which obligated the FDA to establish a risk-based regulatory system for medical devices. As a result, the FDA established a "de novo" pathway for devices that would automatically be classified as Class III because there was no already-existing device that could be used a predicate for a 510k submission, but for which general controls or general and special controls could provide a reasonable assurance of safety and effectiveness. The Wheeler-Lea Act, passed in 1938, granted the Federal Trade Commission the authority to oversee advertising of all products regulated by FDA, other than prescription drugs. Significant amendments and related laws Descriptions of these can be found at the FDA's web site. - Durham-Humphrey Amendment, Public Law 82-215 (October 26, 1951) created prescription-only status for some drugs - Drug Efficacy Amendment ("Kefauver Harris Amendment") PL 87-781 (October 10, 1962) - Vitamin-Mineral Amendment ("Proxmire Amendment") (April 22, 1976) prohibited the FDA from establishing standards to limit the potency of vitamins and minerals in food supplements or regulating them as drugs based solely on their potency. - Medical Device Amendments of 1976 PL 94-295 (May 28, 1976) - Infant Formula Act of 1980, PL 96-359 (October 26, 1980) - Orphan Drug Act, PL 97-414 (January 4, 1983) - Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984, PL 98-417 (aka Hatch-Waxman) (September 24, 1984) - Prescription Drug Marketing Act of 1987, PL 100-293 (August 18, 1988) - Generic Animal Drug and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1988, PL 100-670 (November 16, 1988) - Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990, PL 101-535 (November 8, 1990) - Safe Medical Device Amendments of 1990, PL 101-629 (November 28, 1990) - Medical Device Amendments of 1992, PL 102-300 (June 16, 1992) - Prescription Drug User Fee Act (PDUFA) of 1992, PL 102-571 (October 29, 1992) - Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act (AMDUCA) of 1994, PL 103-396 (October 22, 1994) - Dietary Supplement Health And Education Act of 1994, PL 103-417 (October 25, 1994) - Food Quality Protection Act of 1996, PL 104-170 (August 3, 1996) - Animal Drug Availability Act of 1996, PL 104-250 (October 9, 1996) - Best Pharmaceuticals for Children Act, PL 107-109 (January 4, 2002) - Medical Device User Fee and Modernization Act (MDUFMA) of 2002, PL 107-250 (October 26, 2002) - Animal Drug User Fee Act of 2003, PL 108-130 (February 20, 2003) - Pediatric Research Equity Act of 2003, PL 108-155 (December 3, 2003) - Minor Use and Minor Species Animal Health Act of 2004 PL 108-282 (August 2, 2004) - Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004, PL 108-282 (August 2, 2004) - FDA Food Safety Modernization Act (January 4, 2011) - Generic Drug User Fee Amendment of 2012 - Biologics Control Act of 1902 (repealed; for historical reference) - Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906 (repealed; for historical reference) - Federal Meat Inspection Act (March 4, 1907) - Federal Trade Commission Act (September 26, 1914) - Filled Milk Act (March 4, 1923) - Import Milk Act (February 15, 1927) - Public Health Service Act (July 1, 1944) - Trademark Act of 1946 (July 5, 1946) - Reorganization Plan 1 of 1953 (March 12, 1953) - Poultry Products Inspection Act (August 28, 1957) - Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (November 3, 1966) - The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (January 1, 1970) - Controlled Substances Act (October 27, 1970) - Controlled Substances Import and Export Act (October 27, 1970) - Egg Products Inspection Act (December 29, 1970) - Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act (January 13, 1971) - Federal Advisory Committee Act (October 6, 1972) - Government in the Sunshine Act (September 13, 1976) - Government Patent Policy Act of 1980 (December 12, 1980) - Federal Anti-Tampering Act (October 13, 1983) - Sanitary Food Transportation Act (November 3, 1990) - Food and Drug Administration Revitalization Act (November 28, 1990) - Mammography Quality Standards Act (MQSA) (October 27, 1992) - Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act (November 21, 1997) - Bioterrorism Act of 2002 (June 12, 2002) - Project BioShield Act of 2004 (July 21, 2004) - Food and Drug Administration Amendments Act of 2007 (September 27, 2007) - Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Reauthorization Act of 2013 (H.R. 307; 113th Congress) (March 13, 2013) Comparison to state laws Some US states have adopted the FD&C Act as an equivalent state law and will by default adopt any changes to the Federal law as changes to the state law as well. Notes and References - "Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Law Research Guide," Georgetown Law Library - http://www.homeowatch.org/history/reghx.html Homeopathic Drugs, Royal Copeland, and Federal Drug Regulation - http://www.fda.gov/cder/about/history/time1.htm CDER – Time Line - http://www.ashp.org/s_ashp/article_news.asp?CID=167&DID=2024&id=3659 ASHP Website : News Article - Web site: Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services . 8 January 2019. - http://wings.buffalo.edu/law/bclc/web/dotterweich.htm United States v. Dotterweich, 320 U.S. 277 (1943) - http://supreme.justia.com/us/421/658/index.html UNITED STATES V. PARK, 421 U. S. 658 (1975) – US Supreme Court Cases from Justia & Oyez - http://www.fda.gov/opacom/laws/fdcact/fdcact4.htm FD&C Act Chapter IV - http://www.fda.gov/ForIndustry/ColorAdditives/ColorAdditiveInventories/ucm106626.htm US FDA/CFSAN: Color Additive Status List - Web site: Guidance for Industry: Color Additive Petitions – FDA Recommendations for Submission of Chemical and Technological Data on Color Additives for Food, Drugs, Cosmetics, or Medical Devices . Laws, Regulations, and Guidance . Food and Drug Administration. January 1997. July 2009 . 22 Apr 2014. - Web site: Code of Federal Regulations: Title 21, Section 74.250. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 20 May 2014. - Web site: Code of Federal Regulations: Title 21, Section 74.302. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 20 May 2014. - Web site: Summary of Color Additives for Use in the United States in Foods, Drugs, Cosmetics, and Medical Devices. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 20 May 2014. - Web site: FTC Issues Enforcement Policy Statement Regarding Marketing Claims for Over-the-Counter Homeopathic Drugs: Efficacy and Safety Claims Are Held to Same Standard as Other OTC Drug Claims. Press Release. FTC. 15 November 2016. 17 November 2016. - Posnick, Lauren M. and Kim, Henry (2002). "Bottled Water Regulation and the FDA." Food Safety. August/September 2002. . - FDA. "21 CFR Part 129 – Processing and Bottling of Bottled Drinking Water." Code of Federal Regulations. - FDA. "21 CFR 165.110 – Requirements for Specific Standardized Beverages: Bottled Water." Code of Federal Regulations. - FDA March 3, 2005; updated August 3, 2013 FDA Authority Over Cosmetics - Staff, FDA. PMA Historical Background Last updated April 26, 2009 - Duff Wilson for the New York Times. January 28, 2011 F.D.A. Panel Is Split on Electroshock Risks - Web site: https://web.archive.org/web/20131019153738/http://www.fda.gov/downloads/AdvisoryCommittees/CommitteesMeetingMaterials/MedicalDevicesAdvisoryCommittee/neurologicalDevicesPanel/UCM240933.pdf . 2013-10-19 . FDA Executive Summary Prepared for the January 27-28, 2011 meeting of the Neurological Devices Panel Meeting to Discuss the Classification of Electroconvulsive Therapy Devices (ECT) . . 2012-10-25 . yes . - http://www.fda.gov/cdrh/510khome.html US FDA/CDRH: Information on Releasable 510(k)s - Zuckerman. Diana. Medical Device Recalls and the FDA Approval Process. Archives of Internal Medicine. 2011. 10.1001/archinternmed.2011.30. 21321283. 171. 1006–11. - Staff, FDA Premarket Approval (PMA), last updated January 24, 2012 - http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/USCODE-2010-title21/html/USCODE-2010-title21-chap9-subchapV-partA-sec360e.htm 21 U.S.C. § 360e. Premarket approval - Josh Makower, Aabed Meer, lyn Denend. November 2010 FDA Impact on US Medical Device Innovation – A Survey of Over 200 Medical Technology Companies - Web site: De Novo Classification Process (Evaluation of Automatic Class III Designation): Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff. FDA. October 30, 2017. - News: Drues. Michael. Secrets Of The De Novo Pathway, Part 1: Why Aren’t More Device Makers Using It?. Meddevice Online. February 5, 2014. en. News: Drues. Michael. Secrets Of The De Novo Pathway Part 2 Is De Novo Right For Your Device. www.meddeviceonline.com. February 18, 2014. en. - Web site: Laws Enforced by FDA . U.S. Food and Drug Administration. - Web site: This Week In FDA History - April 22, 1976. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. May 20, 2009. yes. http://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20161023232851/http://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/WhatWeDo/History/ThisWeek/ucm117726.htm. 2016-10-23. - Web site: S.741 - 108th Congress (2003-2004): Minor Use and Minor Species Animal Health Act of 2003. Library of Congress. 2018-03-17. en. 2 August 2004. - Staff, FDA. Updated April 18, 2013 Generic Drug User Fee Amendments of 2012 - Web site: Other Laws Affecting FDA. U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

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Christianity, major faith stemming from the life, teachings, and death of Jesus of Nazareth (the Christ, or the Anointed One in every of God) within the 1st century ce . It has turn into the largest of the world’s religions and, geographically, the most extensively diffused of all faiths. It has a constituency of more than two billion believers. Its largest teams are the Roman Catholic Church, the Jap Orthodox churches, and the Protestant church buildings. The Oriental Orthodox church buildings represent one of many oldest branches of the tradition however had been out of contact with Western Christianity and Jap Orthodoxy from the center of the fifth century till the late 20th century because of a dispute over Christology (the doctrine of Jesus Christ’s nature and significance). Vital actions inside the broader Christian world and sometimes transcending denominational boundaries are Pentecostalism, Charismatic Christianity, Evangelicalism, and fundamentalism. As well as, there are quite a few independent church buildings throughout the world.See alsoAnglicanism; Baptist; Calvinism; Congregationalism; Evangelical church; Lutheranism; Oriental Orthodoxy; presbyterian; Reformed and Presbyterian churches. This article first considers the character and development of the Christian religion, its ideas, and its institutions. This is followed by an examination of a number of mental manifestations of Christianity. Lastly, the place of Christianity on the planet, the relations among its divisions and denominations, its missionary outreach to different peoples, and its relations with different world religions are mentioned. For supporting materials on numerous topicsseeangel and demon; Bible; biblical literature; canon law; creed; Christology; doctrine and dogma; ecumenism; eschatology; exegesis; religion; grace; heaven; hell; heresy; Jesus Christ; liturgical movement; millennialism; miracle; monasticism; monotheism; New Testomony; Previous Testament; original sin; papacy; prayer; priesthood; purgatory; sacrament; salvation; schism; scripture; theism; theology; and worship. Your useful recommendations on learn how to full your essay on religion The topic of religion is both thought-scary and fascinating because religion has all the time existed since the appearance of man on the planet. The person’s thoughts all the time wished to know the character of the wonders and notions that have been incomprehensible for the tribes and later for the society. The essay about religion could also be assigned to you if you are finding out faith itself, sociology, literature. The philosophy of faith essay topics could be very deep so you’re supposed to take care of philosophy as well. An essay is often a brief piece of writing that contains your opinion, the generalizations with additional background information. An excellent essay can be coherent, nicely-structured, reasoned and with a hint of study. It shouldn’t be overcomplicated as a result of this is not a analysis article or a dissertation abstract. With the help with writing essays, the professor often assesses your ability to cause your ideas, to communicate ideas in a transparent manner and to conclude all the data in a short method. An essay on different religions will show the way you perceive the topic and how you employ your theoretical background when it comes to the subject material. Speaking about numerous topics, faith and morality essay is a well-liked option as a result of right here you will unite two ideas in a single discourse. Religion in modern society essay is as effectively a typical topic. What does an essay on faith entail? In the academic world, one of many easiest topics and attention-grabbing on the similar time is religion. When writing an essay on religion, the first thing to place in thoughts when approaching it is to grasp that faith is a unique self-discipline unlike different research equivalent to science. Away from the individuality of this subject, the interdisciplinary facet of religious studies makes writing a religion essay both exceedingly inspiring and captivating. Some of the disciplines that will highly function when developing an argumentative essay on faith are as various as sociology, hermeneutics, anthropology, linguistics, and most significantly historical past. Because of this, the instructor, professor or the teacher accountable for the course will be expecting the faith essay that you simply write to have an incorporation of these disciplines. These different disciplines come in useful when one is writing a comparative religion essay on the give topic. This type of comparative project can vary from a evaluate and distinction two religions essay to 1 that compares beliefs of sure leaders in the Bible. Personally, I’m positive my religion essay will most probably be a comparative project. Some of the precise and narrowed essay topics on religion that may be given out by instructors and academics include: - The role of church ministers in modern day church - Why do Christians change their religions? - Evangelism versus the Protestantism - Comparison of Islam and Christianity - The emergence of the Protestantism - Explain why the Bible is considered as one of the vital broadly known book. These and extra are just examples of particular religion essay matters that college students will discover themselves writing about and might type nice research topics too. Now we have a variety of essays that may show you how to in getting ideas on your assignment. Under are a few of the topics which can be frequent and have preserved for you the highly rated by our purchasers for your evaluation. - Islam religion essay - Essay on Indian religion - Short essay on Hindu religion - Jane Eyre religion essay Above and plenty of extra argumentative essay matters on faith will be accessed by absolutely registered purchasers on our web site any time. What it means to be a Christian The phrase Christian was given to the early followers of Jesus, and the name has ‘stuck’ to at the present time. Being a Christian will not be about preserving guidelines and laws, performing rituals, and even going to church. It’s a few friendship – a friendship with Jesus Christ. Jesus mentioned that understanding him is the doorway to a special relationship with God. Jesus says that we can start such a special relationship with God by committing ourselves to follow him. Tens of millions of individuals at the moment have found a relationship with God on this method. Along with some words from the Bible, here is what five individuals must say about themselves and what it means to be a Christian. John (fifty five) is married with four kids and 9 grandchildren, and is a word-processing operator. I used to assume a Christian was someone who was born in England, been christened as a baby and did no one any hurt. And that is how I attempted to dwell my life. One day my typing trainer stated, “Nicely John, you’re a Christian aren’t you?” And I said, “I feel I’m.” She stated, “You do not sound too certain.” And I discovered I couldn’t sleep that evening. I was really frightened. I thought, “Am I a Christian? Does it actually matter if I’m a Christian? What if I am not? Will I go to heaven? Is there a heaven? Is there a hell? What is going to happen after I die?” And all these questions started going spherical inside my head. God cherished the people of this world so much that he gave his only Son, so that everyone who has faith in him will have eternal life and by no means actually die. Whereas before I used to fret what will individuals take into consideration me, now all that matters is: what does Jesus think about me? Faith generally is a central part of one’s identification. Through its missionary activity Christianity has spread to most parts of the globe. But what is interesting is that Islam does has a perception system about the finish of the ages, the approaching of an excellent Iman Mahdi, an excellent judgment, a heaven and hell, and a God who’s principally merciful and compassionate. In relation to the Buddha’s teachings, all adherents should have robust faith; communicate nothing however the truth, behave in a constructive method and putt effort of their religious development. In response to Paul in Galatians 5:14, love is a vital aspect of Christian life as the complete regulation is fulfilled in holding this one command love your neighbor as yourself expository essay topics “‘ Subsequently, Paul encouraged love to be the centre point of Christian moral teachings, suggesting that any action executed with out agape,” even charity work, was obsolete within the eyes of God. In Virginia, Patrick Henry argued in favor of tax support for Christian church buildings. On our site, we’ve got typically given people the good thing about the doubt with our links, together with websites except we’re sure there is a purpose not to. Regarding Native American religion and spirituality, however, we’ve decided to err on the facet of warning as a substitute. Issues, opinions and essays on Christianity and faith topics - The undisputed historical details about Jesus; judging by evidence or conjecture?What the real experts in the area of New Testament scholarship and first century historical past agree on, and a brief commentary on the at the moment widespread phenomenon of conjectural skepticism. - A checklist of should-watches for anybody questioning ChristianityEven if these wonderful factual videos don’t convince you toward Christianity, they need to at the very least bring you up to the mark on the realities that go against some widespread “internet myths” on the subject. - Quick reference: The failure points of fashionable skepticismThese are what I have found are the ‘fatal flaws’ of common skepticism, in different words, facts which are devastating to the claims of the preferred and vocal atheists and skeptics at this time. - Miracles and the ‘black hole’ of naturalismThoughts on the tragedy of crossing a personal ‘occasion horizon’ of naturalism. - Disdain for the “Phrase of Religion” / Prosperity GospelI have extra respect for atheism than I do for “Phrase of Faith”. Sure, it truly is that dangerous. - Popular skepticism of Christianity & conspiracy theorism: exceptional similaritiesIt has occurred to me over the years that most skepticism of Christianity – not less than the most well-liked form – has an uncanny, if not an identical, resemblance to your backyard-variety conspiracy idea. Here’s why. - The myths of ‘organized religion”Organized faith’ is seen by immediately’s fashionable tradition as a system designed to fleece followers and guilt-journey them into submission. Is that actually the reality? - Determinism: naturalism’s (atheism’s) elephant in the roomThe realities of determinism ought to shatter the Atheist worldview, or a minimum of mood its perceived ethical superiorities. Despite the gravity of what naturalism truly means for the world, the implications of determinism go largely undiscussed. - The largely-unacknowledged implications of naturalism and atheism, part 2Naturalism is the default atheist place, but few are keen to acknowledge, a lot much less take care of, the profound implications of what naturalism would mean for us. - The skeptic’s responsibilityPeople are free to be skeptical of something, together with Christianity. But a sincere search for fact should embrace disciplines that are severely lacking in today’s world of skepticism, deficiencies that fall in need of true logic and motive. - Value of human life: a naturalistic absurdityIn a cold, detached, Godless universe, the thought of human life having value would be one in all existence’s greatest absurdities. - Probable causes of a mistrust in scienceWhat is behind studies that a constant phenomenon exists of a basic distrust in science by the general public-at-giant? - Variants of self-deceptionIf you need to worth human life in a Godless universe, you will have to pick your deception. - Arguments from personal incredulity in perception and unbelief”Arguments from private incredulity” are a sort of logical fallacy that befalls individuals of all faiths and positions, and unfortunately are used by Christians and atheists alike. - The fallacy of using science to evaluate matters of faithScience’s capabilities are limitless when it comes to the pure world, however not past it. - A private assertion on “God of the Gaps”No facet of accurately-utilized faith handicaps one’s science in any means. - To these troubled with their religion: an enchantment to reasonThe tendency to “go off the deep finish” throughout a interval of doubt is widespread today. - The deliberate ignorance of New Atheism (why New Atheists won’t read this)Regardless of the objections to Christianity/theism having sound solutions which can be readily available to anyone keen to do a short Google search, vocal New Atheists plow onward with their weblog posts, web radio reveals and social media rants as if that information didn’t exist. - Believing means nothing to lose, the whole lot to gainIn a worst case situation, what do Christians have to lose? - OK with atheistsAbout contentment with the existence of atheists, however not some of their tactics. - Some extra thoughts from the journeySome perspectives from experience in testing the validity of Christianity and the Bible. - Thresholds of actionable probabilitiesHow certain do you’ll want to be of one thing before you are taking it severely? - Pass the Take a look at”Look at yourselves to see whether you are in the faith; take a look at yourselves. Do you not understand that Christ Jesus is in you-except, in fact, you fail the check?” -2 Corinthians thirteen:5 - Why I am nonetheless a believerA summary of my causes for staying a Christian. - Pathways of strictly pure interpretationsWhat would it not take to clarify a supernatural event in purely naturalistic terms? - Loving or In Love?Lamenting the increasingly prevalent depiction of a Christian’s relationship with the Lord containing a romantic element. - A few fast thoughts on skepticismA few perspectives on skepticism from the viewpoint of a believer. - How can I make sure where I’m and the place I am going?On the issue of assurance of a beleiver. - The price of being ChristianDoes turning into a Christian solve all your issues here on this life? - What occurred to the guide of Ephesians?Ideas on a troubling development in the church right now. Taking a Take a look at Jewish Religious Beliefs Judaism was the primary tradition to teach monotheism, the assumption that there’s just one God. As Judaism evolved, the idea of God advanced, too, specializing in One unknowable, common, picture-much less Being, Who, as a result of the universe is framed in Love, requires justice of human beings. Judaism tends to focus extra on the way wherein you follow and live in the world than it does on analyzing the character of God. In truth, biblical monotheism is normally referred to as “ethical monotheism” because of the very strong linkage of proper acts to the idea in one God. Whereas some non secular traditions consider belief alone to be adequate, Judaism isn’t one among them; to Jews, belief is most significant in light of the actions motivated by that perception. What is exclusive, perhaps, to Judaism is the notion of arguing with God. For instance, within the Bible, Abraham argued with God for the sake of the righteous residents in Sodom and Gomorrah. He didn’t simply say, “Whatever you say, God” — he bargained! It’s like the entire stage was set for a specific type of change with the Divine. Jews are even known as the “Youngsters of Israel” due to the Biblical story of Jacob who wrestled with an angel and obtained his identify changed to Israel, which means “one who wrestles with God.” While the idea of a whole surrender to religion, a give up to God, is harmonious with many Christian and Muslim faiths, it’s a lot much less snug for most Jews, who are traditionally taught to query in order to be taught more deeply. Judaism tends to encourage people to discover their own private relationship with God. For those people who find themselves snug with the idea of give up, God-wrestling shouldn’t be a simple idea. While many individuals now regard Jesus as the founder of Christianity, it is very important observe that he didn’t intend to determine a brand new religion, at the very least according to the earliest sources, and he by no means used the time period “Christian.” He was born and lived as a Jew, and his earliest followers had been Jews as nicely. Christianity emerged as a separate faith only within the centuries after Jesus’ dying. Top 5 Cons of Teaching Faith in Public Schools - Teaching religion at college is an try and impose a spiritual outlook on the child, however not on crucial scientific considering. - In a civilized state, there isn’t a imposition of dogmas of any religion. Most fashionable individuals have a behavior of believing inwardly, individually. - Teachers may not be capable to teach the fundamentals of a particular religion; they might produce other faiths. On this case, it’s essential to protect the secular nature of the subject and to separate their very own faith from theoretical information. - Textbooks can be compiled in the preaching and anti-scientific type and completely don’t meet the goals. - Fierce disputes arising in the course of the lessons in Religion can provoke hatred and animosity among students that may be manifested in aggression. Totally different religions and beliefs have lengthy existed in the European region as nicely. 39. The New Testament shows us at once the universality of the salvific will of God and the hyperlink between salvation and the redemptive work of Christ Jesus, the only mediator. The Bible is the sacred guide in Christianity. In the United Kingdom there are formally two state recognised Christian denominations – the Church of England and the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. Up-To-Date Works You May Use to Write Your Religion Essay Here we have collected scientific research papers that may help you develop your own arguments and provide proper citations in your argumentative essay. - Religion in the Publi (Religion Liberty Perspective), 2012 - Religion in the Public Schools (Law Perspective), 2007 - Religion in America’s Public Schools (Necessity Perspective), 2009 - The Place of Religion in Public Schools of Canada, 2004 - An Attempt to Reach an Agreement between Religion Institutions and Public Schools, 2008 - Teaching Religion in Public Schools (Texas Case Study), 2019 - The Way Religion Should be Taught in Public Schools, 2008 - Teaching Religion in Public Schools of Georgia, 2019 The question of the need for religion and its study in schools will remain open until the religions themselves exist, that is, for a long time. In any case, a reasoned essay is a great way to express your point of view and substantiate it, as well as analyze the issue from a different angle. The earlier paper was about tragic dilemmas created by the battle of spiritual with moral duties; this one is a couple of equally wrenching conflict between two Christian duties, the responsibility of loyalty to the Savior and the duty to love one’s neighbor. A few of these have been Christian in nature, for example the ‘Jesus Motion’; others were heavily influenced by the pop-cultural ubiquity of pseudo-Jap and New Age thought: the Worldwide Society for Krishna Consciousness (aka the Hare Krishna), modern Wicca, Scientology. Religion in the Present Occasions (Argumentative Essay). Religion has been given totally different definitions over time. Webster defines it as “a cause, principle, or system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith”; Tylor (1871) defines it as a perception in non secular issues. McNamara clearly states the timeless feud on the definition of faith in his assertion, “Attempt to define religion and you invite an argument.” Nevertheless a lot the variety of definitions it carries, all phrases have a typical denominator in its meaning. It affects one self’s way of life, typically mentioning that it’s really part of a person’s life, to have faith. This impact pertains to a somewhat positive change in life-style, livelihood and one’s potentials, quite than having faith as a hindrance in these elements. One might even see this in three major religions, Christianity, Buddhism and Islam. Though matters of private religious perception, worship, and association are thought of to be strictly personal affairs, there are, on the similar time, certain frequent components of religious orientation that the good majority of People share. By giving individuals the instrument to follow Jesus into eternal life, personal relationships with God could develop. Research Paper on Christianity If you have an interest in religion, we extremely recommend you to learn our comparability essay pattern about Christianity and Mormonism. Surely, you must do so after you learn the analysis paper on Christianity beneath. We additionally hope that you won’t neglect the opportunity to reap the benefits of the advantages of our service. Our experienced writers are prepared to help you with solving any writing drawback. The support team is out there 24/7 anyplace on the earth. You possibly can chat with our authors directly in order to control the process of writing and to figure out any points instantly. What Was the Most Essential Determine in the Historical past of Christianity? One of probably the most influential personalities within the historical past of Christianity is Jesus Christ who developed the examine and the foremost rules of this religion and became the image for the followers of this faith. First of all, you will need to notice that within the modern society there is a huge query which is related to the character of Jesus Christ as a lot of people still doubt the existence of this figure. Scientists claim that this particular person can’t be thought of as the real one that lived and died, but it must be famous that there is a lot of proofs that Jesus Christ lived and developed the principle teachings of Christianity which are nonetheless used because the guides for the followers of this faith. “The first Christian writings to talk about Jesus are the epistles of St Paul, and students agree that the earliest of those letters have been written within 25 years of Jesus’s demise at the very newest, while the detailed biographical accounts of Jesus in the New Testomony gospels date from round 40 years after he died” (Gathercole). Jesus Christ may be considered as the mythological character which was created by the followers of the faith to be able to discover the reason for the teachings, however in in the present day’s world there are plenty of historical and archaeological proofs that Jesus Christ lived and made a contribution within the growth of this faith, however the query is within the approach. Some people understand Jesus Christ as an actual historic individual and as a human, and a few folks consider within the myth that Jesus Christ was the son of god. The affect of Jesus Christ ought to be thought-about in the historic perspective of the time when he lived. It have to be famous that his life and death was the essential level for Christianity as the event of this faith was restricted by the followers of the previous religions, so Jesus was considered to be a rebel, and that he confused the individuals. Jesus Christ instructed people that the new religion would come and alter the world for the better. People started to imagine in a single god who was truthful and mercy and who would save them. The teachings of Jesus Christ can’t be considered because the concepts of just one particular person; he was simply the individual who was influential enough to understand people to follow him. The fact that he was discriminated by the Roman energy made him the victim, and other people sympathized him, and what’s more important they believed him and continued to share his teachings and ideas. It have to be famous that followers of Christianity consider in the resurrection of Jesus Christ, but this reality of his biography can’t be proved by the science. This is the myth which normally seems close to the influential historic personalities. That is the metaphor which was perceived by the followers of the religion in a straight means. It must be noted that resurrection of Jesus Christ must be understood because the revival of the faith after his loss of life as a result of his followers continued to share his ideas and the faith exist till the nowadays. It must be famous that “about one-third of the world is taken into account “Christian” as we speak. That’s a reasonably staggering number – that’s a reasonably influential life after nearly 2,000 years” (Niles). Jesus Christ made an incredible contribution to the event of Christianity which is likely one of the most influential faith not only today however in the historical past of the world. Jesus Christ was charismatic character which could lead on the individuals and to perceive them to just accept the brand new guidelines and the new dogmas. “The Gospels repeatedly converse of giant crowds following Jesus. Perhaps they gathered because of his fame as a healer. Perhaps they gathered due to his means as a instructor. Whatever the trigger, it appears doubtless that the authorities’ fear of the gang was a major factor resulting in Jesus’ crucifixion” (“BBC – Religions – Christianity: Jesus”). It have to be underlined that the method of Jesus Christ to the educating changed the angle of the people to the education basically. He made the people search for the truth, and he stated the importance of the schooling and the data for the poor people. The ignorance was thought-about to be a sin, so the individuals tried to hunt the chance to get the knowledge not only in regards to the god however the nature of the things. It must be famous that philosophy and Christianity in the center ages had the sturdy connections, so it provoked the looks of the nice philosophical works concerning the order of the issues and the questions in regards to the existence and mind. One of the core modifications which was made by Jesus Christ for the world is related to the attitude of youngsters. It should be famous that the kids within the historical times had been handled in the taught means; they might be offered into slavery or killed because of the fallacious gender. The teachings of Jesus Christ changed the attitude to the youngsters and provoked folks to treat the kids in a more respectful way (Ortberg). The teachings of Jesus Christ could be considered as the try and the equality in the ancient times. Continuing from this it may be said that Christianity within the occasions of Jesus Christ was empathized largely by the poor individuals as Christ stated that people who abdicate the material goods and cash might discover the salvation. So this faith and the teachings were the first try to state the equality and to eradicate the importance of social status for the religious life. Jesus Christ was the founder of Christianity which became the starting point of the church. The role of the church for the society could be thought of as the mediator between the folks and the god, however from the sociological and historical perspective it should be noted that later the church turned to be the important a part of the society and had an impression on the processes which have been related to the governance, science, and culture (Haight). So, the affect of Jesus Christ continues even nowadays by the influence of the modern church. In conclusion, it have to be said that Jesus Christ may be considered as a historical one who had an excellent influence on the development of Christianity and his teachings are the core point on this religion. These teachings modified the attitude to the education and to the way in which through which folks perceived the religion and made a contribution to the development of philosophy. In these practices I see Christian non secular schooling as an inspirational reality of God’s educating; the one dependable tool that I rely on in the time of difficulties and challenges. For them, the church, its creeds, its popes and bishops have recited the essence of faith definition essay topics and that’s all there’s to it. Then again we are saying that every soul must make its own reconciliation to God; that no creed can take the place of that personal experience.

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The London Interbank Offered Rate commonly known as Libor first permeated public consciousness when the financial crisis erupted in 2008. Millions of borrowers began to realize that the interest rate on their adjustable rate mortgage was based on the rates banks charge each other for funds. The cost of interbank funding is compiled from submissions by18 of the largest international banks to the British Bankers Association based on estimates rather than actual transactions. From mortgages, credit cards, and student loans to derivatives contracts, the Libor rate affects trillions of dollars in global financial transactions. While the manipulation of the Libor rate has centered on Barclays Bank which has admitted wrongdoing, regulatory authorities are investigating more than a dozen international banks including Bank of America, Citigroup, and JPMorgan Chase. A healthy financial system cannot exist without confidence and trust. Not only is the Libor scandal another example of banks violating the public’s trust and confidence, but their regulators allowed and even gave the appearance of endorsing banks falsely reporting the cost of interbank lending. Barclays is probably not the only bank to have violated securities laws by illegally profiting from trading on advance knowledge of falsified submissions. While borrowers whose rates were tied to Libor actually benefitted from artificially lower Libor rates, investors whose interest income was tied to Libor were cheated out of a higher rate of return. By choosing to ignore and even suggest banks submit lower borrowing estimates to calculate Libor, the regulators enabled the illusion that the health of the banks was stronger than it actually was. In their desperation to maintain confidence in the banking system and support the economy, the Federal Reserve and the Bank of England appear to have viewed artificially low Libor rates as one of the ways to use their regulatory power to conduct monetary policy. Similar to former Fed Chairman Greenspan’s “bubble now/clean up later” philosophy, central banks in the midst of the financial crisis wanted to shore up confidence in the banks by ensuring their borrowing costs were as low as possible. The regulators were not going to worry about what would happen when it eventually leaked out that the regulators gave the appearance of colluding with the banks on falsifying Libor. Looking at the birth date of when Libor was first published in London on January 1, 1986, it’s easy to see why it was only a matter of time before Libor would become ensnared in a global banking scandal. Neptune is the planet relating to scandals, Venus represents money and banking, and the Sun symbolizes leaders and speculation. The Sun is the center of our solar system; its conjunction with Venus describes bank executives and central bankers. In the Libor birth chart, all three planets are conjoined together in Capricorn, the sign of government, big business, and regulations. Capricorn and its planetary ruler Saturn represent boundaries which Neptune dissolves. Neptune is the art of illusion where things are not necessarily as they appear. Neptune is an elusive energy that tends to operate in a gray area that blends rumors, lies, and half-truths. Even when the veil of illusion is lifted, wrongdoing can be very difficult to prove. In this case, the users of Libor chose to put the illusion on THEMSELVES! The Libor chart conjunction of Neptune, Venus, and the Sun in Capricorn indicates that speculators must take responsibility for their investments when the illusion dissolves. With Venus in Capricorn out-of-bounds, regulators did not object to banks breaking the rules by submitting artificially lower than actual interbank lending rates to protect the banks reputations. Capricorn represents the law of cause and effect (karma). What occurred in the past affects the present and the future. Capricorn describes people in positions of authority. Libor’s Capricorn planets describe those at the very top risk being held accountable and forced to sacrifice their job and its perks and prestige. Interest rates are ruled by Scorpio and its planetary ruler Pluto. Venus aspecting Mars and Pluto conjoined in Scorpio in the Libor chart describes Libor rates being secretly manipulated for profit. So far the first documented evidence of a central bank being aware that Libor rates were being falsely reported was in an email Barclays sent to the New York Federal Reserve at 8:01 AM on August 28, 2007. This was the day of a Total Lunar Eclipse in Neptune-ruled Pisces which squared the Libor chart’s natal Saturn in Sagittarius. Full Moons and planetary oppositions represent becoming fully aware of an issue usually through interactions with others. The Pisces/Neptune energy was super strong that day as Venus retrograde in Leo opposed Neptune in Aquarius and Mercury in Virgo opposed Uranus in Pisces. Barclays was sending a wakeup call to their U.S. regulator that the Fed probably would have preferred to pretend didn’t exist. Pisces is symbolized by two fish swimming in opposite directions. At the same time Barclays was communicating to the Fed that banks were reporting lower than actual rates, Barclays had begun falsifying its own submissions for US$Libor. Far worse, the bank didn’t reveal that since August 2005 certain traders at Barclays had asked other Libor participating banks to falsify Libor and Euribor rates to benefit their positions! Eclipse energies become re-activated when triggered by planetary transits. Venus retrograde opposing Neptune and Mercury opposing Uranus was a further indication that this situation would erupt into a future global scandal. The public would be the last to know about banks manipulating Libor and bank regulators keeping the public in the dark since the Moon represents the general public and Pisces is the last sign of the zodiac where things begin to leak. Jupiter in Gemini exactly squared the August 28, 2007 Pisces Lunar Eclipse at the July 3, 2012 Capricorn Full Moon, the day that Barclays CEO and COO resigned. Mercury in Virgo conjoining the August 28, 2007 email chart’s Ascendant describes Barclays communicating their concern that banks were not accurately reporting Libor.(2) Mercury’s square to Mars in Gemini and Jupiter in Sagittarius describes actions taken to underestimate the calculation of global Libor rates. Jupiter in Sagittarius describes the hypocrisy of Barclays informing the Fed about reporting lower Libor rates while doing it themselves. Leo and its planetary ruler the Sun symbolizes confidence and rules all forms of speculation. The level of confidence in the financial system depends upon the market’s perception of how healthy it deems the financial system to be. The leadership at the NY Fed was focused on maintaining confidence in the banking system. Using their regulatory authority to police Libor reporting would not only require global cooperation, but would cause interbank lending rates to rise when their health depended upon keeping borrowing rates as low as possible. (Saturn in Leo conjoining the Sun in Virgo as the Sun squared Jupiter.) Already cracks had begun to appear in the foundation of the financial system as Saturn in Leo had just finished a series of exact oppositions to Neptune in Aquarius that began in August 2006. Here Neptune’s belief that if there’s not enough borrowers to extend credit to, Wall St. can magically conjure up synthetic CDOs came face to face with Saturn’s cold hard reality that there are limits. This planetary alignment signaled the party was over in the speculative bubble fueled by easy credit using real estate as collateral. Venus retrograde in Leo opposing Neptune was another reminder that banks would take the biggest hit when the credit bubble burst. The Fed hoped it could employ conventional and unconventional monetary policy tools to let the air gradually leak out of the bubble.(3) Interest rates are ruled by Pluto, the planetary ruler of debt and financial extremes. Pluto entering Capricorn in January 2008 until 2024 signifies the breakdown and transformation of government, corporate, and societal structures. Pluto in Capricorn describes the collusion between big business and government. What had been kept secret eventually gets revealed as Capricorn and its planetary ruler Saturn seek accountability for past actions. What Pluto in Capricorn exposes tends to have a massive long term impact. Falsifying Libor rates began to come to the surface as Pluto in Capricorn began moving closer to conjoining the Libor chart’s natal Neptune. Neptune rules fog and conditions that are murky and confusing. An April 16, 2008 Wall Street Journal article questioning Libor’s accuracy was appropriately titled “Libor Fog: Bankers Cast Doubt On Key Rate Amid Crisis.” According to the WSJ, both the Bank of England and the British Bankers Association were aware of the Libor problem. Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner was the president of the NY Fed at the time. (William Dudley, the current president of the NY Fed, was then in charge of the NY Fed’s Markets Group.) Once again Neptune’s energies were prominent when according to Geithner’s calendar, the NY Fed held a “Fixing Libor” meeting from 2:30-3:00 PM on April 28, 2008.(4) Mercury in Taurus the sign of banking was squaring Neptune in Aquarius as Mars in Cancer formed a stressful alignment to Neptune. Saturn retrograde in Virgo opposing Neptune was another reminder that action should be taken to ensure Libor rates were being accurately reported, but the fragility of the financial system from the collapse of Bear Stearns the month before probably gave the Fed a reason to avoid taking aggressive action. Geithner did however, communicate his “Recommendations for Enhancing the Credibility of LIBOR” in a 5PM June 1, 2008 email to Bank of England Governor Mervyn King. Venus conjoins the Sun and Mercury retrograde in Gemini in the sector of the chart representing interest rates reflects that the issue of banks submitting false rates has been known by central bank leaders for quite some time. The NY Fed released this memo and other related documents on Friday, July 13, 2012 in response to a request for documentation of communications between Barclays and the NY Fed by Rep. Randy Neugebauer, Chairman of the House Financial Services Subcommittee for Oversight and Investigations. Neptune in Pisces opposes Saturn in Virgo in the chart for the June 1, 2008 email, indicating the Libor scandal is now calling into question what the regulators knew and when they knew it. In its press release accompanying the documents, the NY Fed emphasizes that manipulation of Libor has been widely known since 2008 and the NY Fed made efforts behind the scenes to engage its counterparts across the pond. Mercury retrograde at the time of Geithner’s email indicates future action. As the NY Fed released the documents on July 13, 2012, Mercury was about to station retrograde conjoining the June 1, 2008 email chart’s Mars in Leo. Both dates feature the Moon in Taurus (banks) and Taurus’ planetary ruler Venus in Gemini. Venus in Gemini conjoined the Sun then. Four years later, the conjunction of Venus retrograde in Gemini and the Sun has brought a re-examination of the manipulation of Libor rates that has turned into a scandal. A planet’s energies are particularly powerful when it appears from Earth’s vantage point to be motionless in the sky as it changes direction. This can bring new developments in past events. As Venus stationed direct on June 27, 2012, Barclays Bank was fined $453 million by UK and US authorities including the Justice Department for submitting artificially low estimates of its borrowing costs to the British Bankers Association between August 2007 and January 2009. Barclays also admitted that between August 2005 and May 2008, certain traders had requested Libor and Euribor submissions from other Libor participating banks that would favor these traders’ positions. With the energies of Saturn in Venus-ruled Libra extra powerful having stationed direct two days before, the authorities were demonstrating that Barclays and potentially other banks will be held accountable for their actions. The Moon in Libra reflects that this was the first time the general public really became aware of a bank falsely reporting Libor. As Venus stationed direct, it conjoined Jupiter in Gemini and squared Neptune in Pisces as Jupiter squared Neptune. This greatly increases the potential for more of the world’s largest global banks becoming entangled in the Libor scandal. In my post on Jupiter in Gemini I wrote: “Rumors could be running rampant, along with fraudulent activities and scams. At least one major scandal of epic proportions could be brewing that keeps the media busy.” While Pluto transited the Libor chart’s natal Neptune and Venus between March 2009 and December 2011, Uranus in Aries has been squaring the two planets since May 2011 (until March 2013). Uranus and Pluto were squaring each other at the time the June 27 Barclays settlement was announced. These energies describe the surprise over how fast individuals connected to the Libor scandal could fall from power. Regardless of zodiac sign, transiting planetary patterns that mimic natal planetary patterns amplify and initiate action related to the planetary energies involved. Jupiter was semi-square Neptune and Uranus was semi-square Pluto when Libor was born. Jupiter/Neptune and Uranus/Pluto were squaring each other in the sky at the time of the Barclays June 27, 2012 settlement. Now the natal potential for a global scandal involving Libor rates which will likely lead to its reform was becoming activated. The Sun in Cancer exactly opposed Libor’s natal Venus in Capricorn on June 27. Financial regulators and corporate leaders took center stage at the July 3 Full Moon in Saturn-ruled Capricorn. The Full Moon reinforced the planetary energies of late June as it conjoined the natal Sun of the Libor, Barclays, and UK charts, and opposed the USA’s natal Sun and squared natal Saturn in Libra.(5) The Full Moon conjoining Barclay’s Capricorn Sun illuminated the bank’s leadership and their fall from the mountaintop. Mars had just entered Libra (financial relationships) and would soon square Libor’s natal Neptune. The conjunction of Mars in Libra to Barclays’ natal Neptune indicates action related to a scandal over falsifying its cost to borrow from other banks. Jupiter in Gemini squaring Barclays natal Mars in Pisces describes lawsuits from multiple jurisdictions arising from the Libor scandal such as the $453 million settlement by multiple UK and US authorities. Barclays Chairman Marcus Agius announced the day before the Full Moon he would resign as soon as a replacement could be found. Reportedly under pressure from leaders at the Bank of England, the Financial Services Authority and even Whitehall, CEO Bob Diamond resigned on the Full Moon along with Chief Operating Officer Jerry Del Messier. The cardinal signs (Aries, Cancer, Libra, Capricorn) initiate action. Multiple planets in cardinal signs indicate fast moving events and developments. When these transits impact natal and progressed planets in cardinal signs, the impact can be swift. The Capricorn Full Moon opposed Diamond’s natal Mars and Uranus in Cancer which squares natal Jupiter in Aries and Neptune in Libra. Diamond’s natal planetary pattern indicated the potential for him to become embroiled in a global financial scandal connected to banking relationships. Diamond’s natal Mars and Uranus in Cancer are ruled by the Moon which is in out-of-bounds in Venus-ruled Taurus.(1) Mars in Libra was about to conjoin Diamond’s progressed Sun and Saturn in Libra.(6) In a July 10 letter to the UK Treasury Select Committee investigating the scandal, Diamond wrote: “The comments made at today's hearing have had a terribly unfair impact on my reputation, which is of paramount concern to me."In defending his reputation before the committee, Diamond described an October 29, 2008 phone call from Paul Tucker, now Deputy Governor of the Bank of England and considered to be the successor to Governor Mervyn King. Diamond believed Tucker suggested that Barclays could lower the rates they submitted to be more in line with rates submitted by the other participating banks. Mercury in Libra squared Jupiter in Capricorn and Mars in Scorpio squared Neptune that day. Diamond who conveyed the conversation to Del Messier, might have misinterpreted Tucker’s suggestion as a direct request to instruct Barclays staff responsible for Libor to submit lower rates. Mars in Libra opposing his natal Sun in Aries along with Mercury exactly conjoining his natal Uranus in Leo as the Full Moon exactly squared his progressed Venus in Aries, put Paul Tucker in the hot seat before the parliamentary committee. Born with Mars in Aquarius opposing Uranus in Leo squaring Jupiter and Neptune, Tucker would not be immune from being embroiled in a major global scandal either. The Bank of England (July 27, 1694) was born with Venus in Gemini conjunct Uranus squaring Mars in Virgo opposite Neptune in Pisces. Transiting Venus in Gemini stationed retrograde May 15, 2012 conjoining BoE’s natal Venus; the July 3 Full Moon conjoined the BoE’s progressed Saturn in Capricorn. These influences describe the BoE playing both sides with Barclays. The BoE wanted Barclays’ rates to be in line with the rates reported by the other participating banks while not giving the appearance it condoned such behavior. Like the Fed, the BoE was using the lower than actual Libor rates as a tool of monetary policy. Although Barclays had managed to stay afloat during the financial crisis without government assistance, UK authorities might have been worried that if Barclays’ interbank loan rates stood above the other banks, it too might require government support. Born with the Sun in Aries opposite Neptune in Libra, the Uranus/Pluto square is impacting Mervyn King’s natal Sun. The July 3 Capricorn Full Moon opposed progressed Venus in Cancer (which is stationing retrograde) and squared natal Neptune in Libra. Gov. King is yet another example of the players involved in this drama born with prominent Neptune energies. It is difficult to imagine that Gov. King did not give the order to shall we say “suggest” that Barclays report a lower rate. Major legal action in the Libor scandal could occur in September when Pluto in Capricorn stations direct September 18, the day before the second exact square between Uranus and Pluto which exactly impacts the Libor chart’s natal Venus in Capricorn. Mercury in Libra impacts the Uranus/Pluto square September 20, and the First Quarter Moon in Capricorn on the day of the Autumn Equinox conjoins the Libor Neptune. The Aries Full Moon on September 28, 2012 activates the Uranus/Pluto square once again on Libor’s natal Venus. Jupiter in Gemini opposed Libor’s natal Saturn in Sagittarius at the time of the July 3 Full Moon. The hypocrisy is that just as the global economy appears to be slowing down, regulators and politicians on both sides of the pond risk weakening the health of the financial system with political theatre. While global authorities should criminally prosecute individuals who engaged in insider trading connected to Libor rate rigging, today’s technology is capable of reporting the rates banks actually pay to borrow from other banks. The Libor scandal is further proof that there is a clear conflict of interest between central bankers’ economic and monetary intentions and regulation of the health and safety of financial institutions. While it may have been beneficial in confidence building for banks to underreport Libor, it allowed investors to perceive that banks were stronger than they actually were. Notice the imagery of Neptune in Pisces in the world perceive. As I’ve stated earlier, it’s clear to me; but that does not lessen central bankers’ conflict of interest. (1) A planet is “out-of-bounds” when it has moved beyond the maximum boundaries of its normal degree of declination (23 degrees 27 minutes) which represents the celestial latitude of a planet north or south of the celestial equator. (2) The Ascendant or rising sign, is the zodiac sign rising on the eastern horizon at the moment of birth. (3) Eclipses disrupt the normal flow of energies streaming into Earth. (At a Lunar Eclipse, the Earth blocks the Moon from receiving the Sun’s light.) Eclipses tend to increase market volatility. Looking in the records I keep tracking the day’s core market data for 8/28/07, I see I scribbled in the title of a story by the AP that day: “Volatility returned to Wall St.” The Dow declined 280 points to close at 13,041.85. Venus retrograde conjoining the Sun in Leo on August 17 marked the start of Venus in its morning star phase in 2007. Excluding other major planetary alignments, the time each year when Venus rises before the Sun tends to correspond to when the stock market reaches its high for the year. Venus beginning its morning star phase in Leo, the sign of speculation together with expansive Jupiter in its home sign Sagittarius helped fuel the optimism to propel the Dow and S&P to record highs in early October 2007. (See the section on Venus Cycles and the Stock Market within my post, “The Twin Currencies of Venus in Gemini and the Venus/Stock Market Cycle” for more information.) (4)According to a Reuters report, it is not known whether Geithner and Dudley actually attended the meeting. (5) Founded in 1690, Barclays merged its UK and international divisions to become Barclays PLC on January 1, 1985, exactly one year before the birth of Libor. (6)Progressions move the natal planets and chart positions forward in time, symbolizing the individual or entity’s progression through life. Bob Diamond: July 27, 1951 time unknown Concord, MA Paul Tucker: March 24, 1958 time unknown Wolverhampton(?), England Mervyn King: March 30, 1948 time unknown Chesham Bois, England Shopping at Amazon.com through this link helps support my efforts to bring you the most interesting and entertaining content possible!

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Protein kinase R Protein kinase RNA-activated also known as protein kinase R (PKR), interferon-induced, double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase, or eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2-alpha kinase 2 (EIF2AK2) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the EIF2AK2 gene. PKR protects against viral infections. Mechanism of action Protein kinase-R is activated by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), introduced to the cells by a viral infection. PKR can also be activated by the protein PACT or by heparin. PKR contains an N-terminal dsRNA binding domain (dsRBD) and a C-terminal kinase domain, that gives it pro-apoptotic (cell-killing) functions. The dsRBD consists of two tandem copies of a conserved double stranded RNA binding motif, dsRBM1 and dsRBM2. PKR is induced by interferon in a latent state. Binding to dsRNA is believed to activate PKR by inducing dimerization and subsequent auto-phosphorylation reactions. In situations of viral infection, the dsRNA created by viral replication and gene expression binds to the N-terminal domain, activating the protein. Once active, PKR is able to phosphorylate the eukaryotic translation initiation factor eIF2α. This inhibits further cellular mRNA translation, thereby preventing viral protein synthesis. Since ElF2α is involved in the commonly initiation translation from an AUG codon, the alternative non-AUG initiation takes place instead. An example of mRNAs using non-AUG initiation are mRNAs for the heat shock proteins. Active PKR is also able to mediate the activation of the transcription factor NFkB, by phosphorylating its inhibitory subunit, IkB. Activated NFkB upregulates the expression of Interferon cytokines, which work to spread the antiviral signal locally. Active PKR is also able to activate tumor suppressor PP2A which regulates the cell cycle and the metabolism. Through complex mechanisms, active PKR is also able to induce cellular apoptosis, to prevent further viral spread. PKR stress pathway PKR is in the center of cellular response to different stress signals such as pathogens, lack of nutrients, cytokines, irradiation, mechanical stress, or ER stress. PKR pathway leads to stress response through activation of other stress pathway such as JNK, p38, NFkB, PP2A and phosphorylation of eIF2α. ER stress caused by excess of unfolded proteins leads to inflammatory responses. PKR contributes to this response by interacting with several inflammatory kinases such as IKK, JNK, ElF2α, insulin receptor and others. This metabolically activated inflammatory complex is called metabolic inflammasome or metaflammasome. Viruses have developed many mechanisms to counteract the PKR mechanism. It may be done by Decoy dsRNA, degradation, hiding of virus dsRNA, dimerization block, dephosphorylation of substrate or by a pseudosubstrate. For instance, Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) uses the gene EBER-1 to produce decoy dsRNA. This leads to cancers such as Burkitt's lymphoma, Hodgkin's Disease, nasopharyngeal carcinoma and various leukemias. |Decoy dsRNA||Adenovirus||VAI RNA| |hide viral dsRNA||Vaccinia virus||E3L| |Dimerization block||Influenza virus||p58IPK| |Hepatitis C virus||NS5A| |Dephosphorylation of substrate||Herpes simplex virus||ICP34.5| Memory and learning Neuronal degeneration disease First report in 2002 has been shown that immunohistochemical marker for phosphorylated PKR and eIF2α was displayed positively in degenerating neurons in the hippocampus and the frontal cortex of patients with Alzheimer's Disease (AD), suggesting the link between PKR and AD. Additionally, many of these neurons were also immunostained with an antibody for phosphorylated Tau protein. Activated PKR was specifically found in the cytoplasm and nucleus, as well as co-localized with neuronal apoptotic markers. Further studies have assessed the levels of PKR in blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of AD patients and controls. The result of an analysis of the concentrations of total and phosphorylated PKR (pPKR) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in 23 AD patients and 19 control individuals showed statistically significant increased levels of the ratio of PKR/ phosphorylated PKR in AD patients compared with controls. Assessments of CSF biomarkers, such as Aβ1-42, Aβ1-40, Tau, and phosphorylated Tau at threonine 181, have been a validated use in clinical research and in routine practice to determine whether patients have CSF abnormalities and AD brain lesions. A study found that "total PKR and pPKR concentrations were elevated in AD and amnestic mild cognitive impairment subjects with a pPKR value (optical density units) discriminating AD patients from control subjects with a sensitivity of 91.1% and a specificity of 94.3%. Among AD patients, total PKR and pPKR levels correlate with CSF p181tau levels. Some AD patients with normal CSF Aß, T-tau, or p181tau levels had abnormal total PKR and pPKR levels". It was concluded that the PKR-eIF2α pro-apoptotic pathway could be involved in neuronal degeneration that leads to various neuropathological lesions as a function of neuronal susceptibility. PKR and beta amyloid Activation of PKR can cause accumulation of amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) via de-repression of BACE1 (ß-site APP Cleaving Enzyme) expression in Alzheimer Disease patients. Normally, the 5′untranslated region (5′UTR) in the BACE1 promoter would fundamentally inhibit the expression of BACE1 gene. However, BACE1 expression can be activated by phosphorylation of eIF2a, which reverses the inhibitory effect exerted by BACE1 5′UTR. Phosphorylation of eIF2a is triggered by activation of PKR. Viral infection such as Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) or oxidative stress can both increase BACE1 expression through activation of PKR-eIF2a pathway. In addition, the increased activity of BACE1 could also lead to β-cleaved carboxy-terminal fragment of β-Amyloid precursor protein (APP-βCTF) induced dysfunction of endosomes in AD. Endosomes are highly active β-Amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing sites, and endosome abnormalities are associated with upregulated expression of early endosomal regulator, rab5. These are the earliest known disease-specific neuronal response in AD. Increased activity of BACE1 leads to synthesis of the APP-βCTF. An elevated level of βCTF then causes rab 5 overactivation. βCTF recruits APPL1 to rab5 endosomes, where it stabilizes active GTP-rab5, leading to pathologically accelerated endocytosis, endosome swelling and selectively impaired axonal transport of rab5 endosomes. PKR and Tau phosphorylation It is reported earlier that phosphorylated PKR could co-localize with phosphorylated Tau protein in affected neurons. A protein phosphatase-2A inhibitor (PP2A inhibitor) – Okadaic acid (OA) – is known to increase tau phosphorylation, Aβ deposition and neuronal death. It is studied that OA also induces PKR phosphorylation and thus, eIF2a phosphorylation. eIF2a phosphorylation then induces activation of transcription factor 4 (ATF4), which induces apoptosis and nuclear translocation, contributing to neuronal death. Glycogen Synthase Kinase Aβ (GSK-3β) is responsible for tau phosphorylation and controls several cellular functions including apoptosis. Another study demonstrated that tunicamycin or Aβ treatment can induce PKR activation in human neuroblastoma cells and can trigger GSK3β activation, as well as tau phosphorylation. They found that in AD brains, both activated PKR and GSK3β co-localize with phosphorylated tau in neurons. In SH-SY5Y cell cultures, tunicamycin and Aβ(1-42) activate PKR, which then can modulate GSK-3β activation and induce tau phosphorylation, apoptosis. All these processes are attenuated by PKR inhibitors or PKR siRNA. PKR could represent a crucial signaling point relaying stress signals to neuronal pathways by interacting with transcription factor or indirectly controlling GSK3β activation, leading to cellular degeneration in AD. Fetal alcohol syndrome PKR also mediates ethanol-induced protein synthesis inhibition and apoptosis which is linked to fetal alcohol syndrome. Protein kinase R has been shown to interact with: - STAT1, and - "Entrez Gene: EIF2AK2 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2-alpha kinase 2". - Feng GS, Chong K, Kumar A, Williams BR (June 1992). "Identification of double-stranded RNA-binding domains in the interferon-induced double-stranded RNA-activated p68 kinase". 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Lay summary – canada.com. - Chang RC, Wong AK, Ng HK, Hugon J (December 2002). "Phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor-2alpha (eIF2alpha) is associated with neuronal degeneration in Alzheimer's disease". NeuroReport. 13 (18): 2429–32. doi:10.1097/01.wnr.0000048020.74602.bb. PMID 12499843. - Page G, Rioux Bilan A, Ingrand S, Lafay-Chebassier C, Pain S, Perault Pochat MC, Bouras C, Bayer T, Hugon J (2006). "Activated double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase and neuronal death in models of Alzheimer's disease". Neuroscience. 139 (4): 1343–54. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.01.047. PMID 16581193. - Paccalin M, Pain-Barc S, Pluchon C, Paul C, Besson MN, Carret-Rebillat AS, Rioux-Bilan A, Gil R, Hugon J (2006). "Activated mTOR and PKR kinases in lymphocytes correlate with memory and cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease". Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders. 22 (4): 320–6. doi:10.1159/000095562. PMID 16954686. - Mouton-Liger F, Paquet C, Dumurgier J, Lapalus P, Gray F, Laplanche JL, Hugon J (May 2012). "Increased cerebrospinal fluid levels of double-stranded RNA-dependant protein kinase in Alzheimer's disease". Biological Psychiatry. 71 (9): 829–35. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.11.031. PMID 22281122. - Ill-Raga G, Palomer E, Wozniak MA, Ramos-Fernández E, Bosch-Morató M, Tajes M, Guix FX, Galán JJ, Clarimón J, Antúnez C, Real LM, Boada M, Itzhaki RF, Fandos C, Muñoz FJ (2011-06-28). "Activation of PKR causes amyloid ß-peptide accumulation via de-repression of BACE1 expression". PLOS One. 6 (6): e21456. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021456. PMC 3125189. PMID 21738672. - Mouton-Liger F, Paquet C, Dumurgier J, Bouras C, Pradier L, Gray F, Hugon J (June 2012). "Oxidative stress increases BACE1 protein levels through activation of the PKR-eIF2α pathway". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1822 (6): 885–96. doi:10.1016/j.bbadis.2012.01.009. PMID 22306812. - Kim S, Sato Y, Mohan PS, Peterhoff C, Pensalfini A, Rigoglioso A, Jiang Y, Nixon RA (May 2016). "Evidence that the rab5 effector APPL1 mediates APP-βCTF-induced dysfunction of endosomes in Down syndrome and Alzheimer's disease". Molecular Psychiatry. 21 (5): 707–16. doi:10.1038/mp.2015.97. PMC 4721948. PMID 26194181. - Peel AL, Bredesen DE (October 2003). "Activation of the cell stress kinase PKR in Alzheimer's disease and human amyloid precursor protein transgenic mice". Neurobiology of Disease. 14 (1): 52–62. PMID 13678666. - Kim SM, Yoon SY, Choi JE, Park JS, Choi JM, Nguyen T, Kim DH (September 2010). "Activation of eukaryotic initiation factor-2 α-kinases in okadaic acid-treated neurons". Neuroscience. 169 (4): 1831–9. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.06.016. PMID 20600673. - Bose A, Mouton-Liger F, Paquet C, Mazot P, Vigny M, Gray F, Hugon J (March 2011). "Modulation of tau phosphorylation by the kinase PKR: implications in Alzheimer's disease". 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Ciudad Obregón is the second largest city in the northern Mexican state of Sonora and named for Sonoran revolutionary general and president of Mexico, Álvaro Obregón. It is situated 525 km south of the state's northern border with the U. S. state of Arizona. It is the municipal seat of Cajeme municipality, located in the Yaqui Valley; the city named Cajeme, takes its name from Mexican Revolutionary Álvaro Obregón, a native of nearby Huatabampo, Sonora. Álvaro Obregón became president of Mexico after the Revolution and initiated an "agricultural revolution" in the Yaqui Valley, introducing modern agricultural techniques and making this valley one of the most prosperous agricultural regions in the country. Renowned U. S. agronomist Dr. Norman Borlaug, the architect of the "Green Revolution" worked here after successful developments in increasing the resistance of wheat. For his efforts he was awarded the Nobel Prize. Ciudad Obregón has a desert climate featuring long hot summers and short, warm winters with cool mornings. It is frequent that in summer the temperature reach 40 °C or more, with overnight lows greater than 24 °C and sometimes reaching 30 °C. Sunny skies and clear nights can be expected through all the year. Many severe thunderstorms with sandstorms reach the region in summer. Rainfall is scarce but it is more prominent it the summer. In the winter, daytime temperatures can be hotter than 26 °C but at night the temperature can fall to 2 °C. Snow in Ciudad Obregón is nonexistent; the extreme temperatures recorded in the box below between 1961 and 2016 were recorded at the Downtown Station of Ciudad Obregón, Sonora. Cajeme Municipality has as its head Ciudad Obregón, its first settlers established themselves in the neighborhood called Plano Oriente, as irrigation canals made by the Richardson company around 1910 and two years the South Pacific railroad established a station called Cajeme. The town of Cajeme was a part of Cocorit Municipality until its elevation to Municipal Seat on September 28, 1927. The first city government was established on January 1, 1928. The July 28, 1928 decree stated that “the city is known now with the name of Ciudad Obregón, the town known as Cajeme.” In 1937 another legislation stated that Cajeme be the name of the Municipality and Ciudad Obregón its seat. In 1950 Ciudad Obregon had a population on 120,000; the Yaqui people are settled in eight towns, Huirivis, Cocorit, Vicam and Belem. seven kilometres from the city is the first of the eight Yaqui towns that make the autonomous territory of these people known for their independent character, because it is one of the few American ethnic groups not dominated militarily by Spanish colonialists. Yaqui history is covered with acts of heroic resistance for the defense of their territory and culture, an ancestral culture enriched by rites and traditions of which the Deer Dance stands out, a symbolic representation of the hunt for this animal whose aesthetic richness has awakened interest the world over. In the rites of Passover and Easter, or in the Day of the Dead celebration, Yaqui culture reaches its highest splendor and shows us the survival of mystery, the unity of man with the universe and the intimate relationship between people and the nature that surrounds them. One day the wind of Passover takes the Pharisees to roam the nearby cities hidden behind leather masks. Men and women that practice traditional medicine apply ancient knowledge passed on by their ancestors and with herbs and ointments cure the sickness of their relatives. Dance, traditional medicine and Yaqui festivities are the expression of a magical world of religion that coexists in harmony with western culture. Obregon City is Birthplace to one of its most notorious past inhabitants: El huilito Rojas from the first settlement in obregon city: plano oriente of Cardenas Ave. and Guerrerro. Ciudad Obregón is the second largest city in Sonora with a 2010 census population of 298 625 People, its municipality of Cajeme had a population of 409,310. As of 2005 the per capita income for the municipality of Cajeme was $10,940 and the Human Development Index was 0.8635. The position of city mayor formal equivalent in Mexico is municipal president; the city is served by Ciudad Obregón International Airport. The primary economic activities in the city are agriculture, cattle farming, commerce and tourism. Agriculture is still the primary economic activity; the city has seen considerable investment in commercial activity over the past decade. The following institutions of higher education are based in Ciudad Obregón: Instituto Tecnológico de Sonora - Campus Obregón and Campus Náinari Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Cajeme Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey - Campus Obregón Universidad La Salle - Campus Obregón Universidad TecMilenio - Campus Obregón Universidad Tecnológica del Sur de Sonora Universidad del Valle de México Campus Ciudad Obregón Universidad del Desarrollo Professional Ciudad Obregón Universidad Vizcaya de las Américas Instituto Tecnológico del Valle del Yaqui Universidad Durango Santander Universidad Interamericana de Desarrollo Instituto de Capacitación para el trabajo Icatson-Cajeme A peculiar tourist attraction, a product of man's whimsy is the artificial “Nainari Lagoon” with a 2 kilometres perimeter located at the western city Professional boxing, or prizefighting, is regulated, sanctioned boxing. Professional boxing bouts are fought for a purse, divided between the boxers as determined by contract. Most professional bouts are supervised by a regulatory authority to guarantee the fighters' safety. Most high-profile bouts obtain the endorsement of a sanctioning body, which awards championship belts, establishes rules, assigns its own judges and referee. In contrast with amateur boxing, professional bouts are much longer and can last up to twelve rounds, though less significant fights can be as short as four rounds. Protective headgear is not permitted, boxers are allowed to take substantial punishment before a fight is halted. Professional boxing has enjoyed a much higher profile than amateur boxing throughout the 20th century and beyond. In Cuba professional boxing is banned. So was the case in Sweden between 1970 and 2007, Norway between 1981 and 2014. In 1891, the National Sporting Club, a private club in London, began to promote professional glove fights at its own premises, created nine of its own rules to augment the Queensberry Rules. These rules specified more the role of the officials, produced a system of scoring that enabled the referee to decide the result of a fight. The British Boxing Board of Control was first formed in 1919 with close links to the N. S. C. and was re-formed in 1929 after the N. S. C. Closed. In 1909, the first of twenty-two belts were presented by the fifth Earl of Lonsdale to the winner of a British title fight held at the N. S. C. In 1929, the B. B. B. C. Continued to award Lonsdale Belts to any British boxer who won three title fights in the same weight division; the "title fight" has always been the focal point in professional boxing. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, there were title fights at each weight. Promoters who could stage profitable title fights became influential in the sport, as did boxers' managers; the best promoters and managers have been instrumental in bringing boxing to new audiences and provoking media and public interest. The most famous of all three-way partnership was that of Jack Dempsey, his manager Jack Kearns, the promoter Tex Rickard. Together they grossed US$8.4 million in only five fights between 1921 and 1927 and ushered in a "golden age" of popularity for professional boxing in the 1920s. They were responsible for the first live radio broadcast of a title fight. In the United Kingdom, Jack Solomons' success as a fight promoter helped re-establish professional boxing after the Second World War and made the UK a popular place for title fights in the 1950s and 1960s. In the early twentieth century, most professional bouts took place in the United States and Britain, champions were recognised by popular consensus as expressed in the newspapers of the day. Among the great champions of the era were the peerless heavyweight Jim Jeffries and Bob Fitzsimmons, who weighed less than 12 stone, but won world titles at middleweight, light heavyweight, heavyweight. Other famous champions included light heavyweight Philadelphia Jack O'Brien and middleweight Tommy Ryan. On May 12, 1902 lightweight Joe Gans became the first black American to be boxing champion. Despite the public's enthusiasm, this was an era of far-reaching regulation of the sport with the stated goal of outright prohibition. In 1900, the State of New York enacted the Lewis Law, banned prizefights except for those held in private athletic clubs between members. Thus, when introducing the fighters, the announcer added the phrase "Both members of this club", as George Wesley Bellows titled one of his paintings; the western region of the United States tended to be more tolerant of prizefights in this era, although the private club arrangement was standard practice here as well, San Francisco's California Athletic Club being a prominent example. On December 26, 1908, heavyweight Jack Johnson became the first black heavyweight champion and a controversial figure in that racially charged era. Prizefights had unlimited rounds, could become endurance tests, favouring patient tacticians like Johnson. At lighter weights, ten round fights were common, lightweight Benny Leonard dominated his division from the late teens into the early twenties. Prizefighting champions in this period were the premier sports celebrities, a championship event generated intense public interest. Long before bars became popular venues in which to watch sporting events on television, enterprising saloon keepers were known to set up ticker machines and announce the progress of an important bout, blow by blow. Local kids hung about outside the saloon doors, hoping for news of the fight. Harpo Marx fifteen, recounted vicariously experiencing the 1904 Jeffries-Munroe championship fight in this way. In the 1920s, prizefighting was the pre-eminent sport in the United States, no figure loomed larger than Jack Dempsey, who became world heavyweight champion after brutally defeating Jess Willard. Dempsey was one of the hardest punchers of all time and as Bert Randolph Sugar put it, "had a left hook from hell", he is remembered for his iconic fight with Luis Ángel Firpo, followed by a lavish life of celebrity away from the ring. The enormously popular Dempsey would conclude his career with a memorable two bouts with Gene Tunney, breaking the $1 million gate threshold for the first time. Although Tunney dominated both fights, Dempsey retained the public's sympathy after the controversy of a "long count" in their second fight. This fight introduced the new rule that the counting of a downed opponent w The United States of America known as the United States or America, is a country composed of 50 states, a federal district, five major self-governing territories, various possessions. At 3.8 million square miles, the United States is the world's third or fourth largest country by total area and is smaller than the entire continent of Europe's 3.9 million square miles. With a population of over 327 million people, the U. S. is the third most populous country. The capital is Washington, D. C. and the largest city by population is New York City. Forty-eight states and the capital's federal district are contiguous in North America between Canada and Mexico; the State of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east and across the Bering Strait from Russia to the west. The State of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean; the U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, stretching across nine official time zones. The diverse geography and wildlife of the United States make it one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries. Paleo-Indians migrated from Siberia to the North American mainland at least 12,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century; the United States emerged from the thirteen British colonies established along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the colonies following the French and Indian War led to the American Revolution, which began in 1775, the subsequent Declaration of Independence in 1776; the war ended in 1783 with the United States becoming the first country to gain independence from a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, with the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, being ratified in 1791 to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties; the United States embarked on a vigorous expansion across North America throughout the 19th century, acquiring new territories, displacing Native American tribes, admitting new states until it spanned the continent by 1848. During the second half of the 19th century, the Civil War led to the abolition of slavery. By the end of the century, the United States had extended into the Pacific Ocean, its economy, driven in large part by the Industrial Revolution, began to soar. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the country's status as a global military power; the United States emerged from World War II as a global superpower, the first country to develop nuclear weapons, the only country to use them in warfare, a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. Sweeping civil rights legislation, notably the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Fair Housing Act of 1968, outlawed discrimination based on race or color. During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union competed in the Space Race, culminating with the 1969 U. S. Moon landing; the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the world's sole superpower. The United States is the world's oldest surviving federation, it is a representative democracy. The United States is a founding member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States, other international organizations. The United States is a developed country, with the world's largest economy by nominal GDP and second-largest economy by PPP, accounting for a quarter of global GDP; the U. S. economy is post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge-based activities, although the manufacturing sector remains the second-largest in the world. The United States is the world's largest importer and the second largest exporter of goods, by value. Although its population is only 4.3% of the world total, the U. S. holds 31% of the total wealth in the world, the largest share of global wealth concentrated in a single country. Despite wide income and wealth disparities, the United States continues to rank high in measures of socioeconomic performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP, worker productivity. The United States is the foremost military power in the world, making up a third of global military spending, is a leading political and scientific force internationally. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a world map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America in honor of the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci; the first documentary evidence of the phrase "United States of America" is from a letter dated January 2, 1776, written by Stephen Moylan, Esq. to George Washington's aide-de-camp and Muster-Master General of the Continental Army, Lt. Col. Joseph Reed. Moylan expressed his wish to go "with full and ample powers from the United States of America to Spain" to seek assistance in the revolutionary war effort; the first known publication of the phrase "United States of America" was in an anonymous essay in The Virginia Gazette newspaper in Williamsburg, Virginia, on April 6, 1776. The second draft of the Articles of Confederation, prepared by John Dickinson and completed by June 17, 1776, at the latest, declared "The name of this Confederation shall be the'United States of America'". The final version of the Articles sent to the states for ratification in late 1777 contains the sentence "The Stile of this Confederacy shall be'The United States of America'". In June 1776, Thomas Jefferson wrote the phrase "UNITED STATES OF AMERICA" in all capitalized letters in the headline of his "original Rough draught" of the Declaration of Independence; this draft of the document did not surface unti The Iraq War was a protracted armed conflict that began in 2003 with the invasion of Iraq by a United States-led coalition that overthrew the government of Saddam Hussein. The conflict continued for much of the next decade as an insurgency emerged to oppose the occupying forces and the post-invasion Iraqi government. An estimated 151,000 to 600,000 or more Iraqis were killed in the first three to four years of conflict. In 2009, official US troops were withdrawn, but American soldiers continued to remain on the ground fighting in Iraq, hired by defence contractors and private military companies; the U. S. became re-involved in 2014 at the head of a new coalition. The invasion occurred as part of a declared war against international terrorism and its sponsors under the administration of U. S. President George W. Bush following the unrelated September 11 terrorist attacks. In October 2002, President Bush obtained congressional approval from a Democrat-led Senate and Republican-led House authorizing war-making powers. The Iraq war began on 19 March 2003, when the U. S. joined by the U. K. and several coalition allies, launched a "awe" bombing campaign. Iraqi forces were overwhelmed as U. S. forces swept through the country. The invasion led to the collapse of the Ba'athist government. However, the power vacuum following Saddam's demise and the mismanagement of the occupation led to widespread sectarian violence between Shias and Sunnis, as well as a lengthy insurgency against U. S. and coalition forces. Many violent insurgent groups were supported by al-Qaeda in Iraq; the United States responded with a troop surge in 2007, a build up of 170,000 troops. The surge in troops gave greater security to Iraq’s government and military, was a success; the winding down of U. S. involvement in Iraq accelerated under President Barack Obama. The U. S. formally withdrew all combat troops from Iraq by December 2011. However, with no stay-behind agreement or advisers left in Iraq, a new power vacuum was created and led to the rise of ISIS. Nine months after President Trump was elected, U. S.-backed forces captured Raqqa. The Bush administration based its rationale for the war principally on the assertion that Iraq, viewed by the U. S. as a rogue state since the 1990–1991 Gulf War, possessed weapons of mass destruction and that there was concern about an active WMD program, that the Iraqi government posed a threat to the United States and its coalition allies. Select U. S. officials accused Saddam of harbouring and supporting al-Qaeda, while others cited the desire to end a repressive dictatorship and bring democracy to the people of Iraq. Hundreds of chemical weapons were found in Iraq, which were determined to be produced before the 1991 Gulf War, intelligence officials determined they were "so old they couldn't be used as designed." From 2004 to 2011, US troops and American-trained Iraqi troops encountered, on six reported occasions were wounded by, chemical weapons from years earlier in Saddam Hussein's rule. 5,000 chemical warheads, shells or aviation bombs were discovered. The rationale of U. S. pre-war intelligence faced heavy criticism both domestically and internationally. From 2009 to 2011, the UK conducted a broad inquiry into its decision to go to war chaired by Sir John Chilcot; the Chilcot Report, published in 2016, concluded military action may have been necessary but was not the last resort at the time and that the consequences of invasion were underestimated. In the aftermath of the invasion, Iraq held multi-party elections in 2005. Nouri al-Maliki became Prime Minister in 2006 and remained in office until 2014; the al-Maliki government enacted policies that were seen as having the effect of alienating the country's Sunni minority and worsening sectarian tensions. In the summer of 2014, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant launched a military offensive in Northern Iraq and declared a worldwide Islamic caliphate, eliciting another military response from the United States and its allies; the Iraq War caused over a hundred thousand civilian deaths and tens of thousands of military deaths. The majority of deaths occurred as a result of the insurgency and civil conflicts between 2004 and 2007. Strong international opposition to the Saddam Hussein regime began after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990; the international community condemned the invasion, in 1991 a military coalition led by the United States launched the Gulf War to expel Iraq from Kuwait. Following the Gulf War, the US and its allies tried to keep Saddam in check with a policy of containment; this policy involved numerous economic sanctions by the UN Security Council. The inspections were carried out by the United Nations Special Commission. UNSCOM, in cooperation with the International Atomic Energy Agency, worked to ensure that Iraq destroyed its chemical and nuclear weapons and facilities. In the decade following the Gulf War, the United Nations passed 16 Security Council resolutions calling for the complete elimination of Iraqi weapons of mass destruction. Member states communicated their frustration over the years that Iraq was impeding the work of the special commission and failing to take its disarmament obligations. Iraqi officials harass Mexico the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States. Covering 2,000,000 square kilometres, the nation is the fifth largest country in the Americas by total area and the 13th largest independent state in the world. With an estimated population of over 120 million people, the country is the eleventh most populous state and the most populous Spanish-speaking state in the world, while being the second most populous nation in Latin America after Brazil. Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and Mexico City, a special federal entity, the capital city and its most populous city. Other metropolises in the state include Guadalajara, Puebla, Tijuana and León. Pre-Columbian Mexico dates to about 8000 BC and is identified as one of five cradles of civilization and was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations such as the Olmec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its politically powerful base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, administered as the viceroyalty of New Spain. Three centuries the territory became a nation state following its recognition in 1821 after the Mexican War of Independence. The post-independence period was tumultuous, characterized by economic inequality and many contrasting political changes; the Mexican–American War led to a territorial cession of the extant northern territories to the United States. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, two empires, the Porfiriato occurred in the 19th century; the Porfiriato was ended by the start of the Mexican Revolution in 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the country's current political system as a federal, democratic republic. Mexico has the 11th largest by purchasing power parity; the Mexican economy is linked to those of its 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement partners the United States. In 1994, Mexico became the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. The country is considered both a regional power and a middle power, is identified as an emerging global power. Due to its rich culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas and seventh in the world for number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Mexico is an ecologically megadiverse country, ranking fourth in the world for its biodiversity. Mexico receives a huge number of tourists every year: in 2018, it was the sixth most-visited country in the world, with 39 million international arrivals. Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus group of the UN, the Pacific Alliance trade bloc. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely the Valley of Mexico and surrounding territories, with its people being known as the Mexica, it is believed to be a toponym for the valley which became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result, although it could have been the other way around. In the colonial era, back when Mexico was called New Spain this territory became the Intendency of Mexico and after New Spain achieved independence from the Spanish Empire it came to be known as the State of Mexico with the new country being named after its capital: the City of Mexico, which itself was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan. Traditionally, the name Tenochtitlan was thought to come from Nahuatl tetl and nōchtli and is thought to mean "Among the prickly pears rocks". However, one attestation in the late 16th-century manuscript known as "the Bancroft dialogues" suggests the second vowel was short, so that the true etymology remains uncertain; the suffix -co is the Nahuatl locative, making the word a place name. Beyond that, the etymology is uncertain, it has been suggested that it is derived from Mextli or Mēxihtli, a secret name for the god of war and patron of the Mexica, Huitzilopochtli, in which case Mēxihco means "place where Huitzilopochtli lives". Another hypothesis suggests that Mēxihco derives from a portmanteau of the Nahuatl words for "moon" and navel. This meaning might refer to Tenochtitlan's position in the middle of Lake Texcoco; the system of interconnected lakes, of which Texcoco formed the center, had the form of a rabbit, which the Mesoamericans pareidolically associated with the moon rabbit. Still another hypothesis suggests that the word is derived from Mēctli, the name of the goddess of maguey; the name of the city-state was transliterated to Spanish as México with the phonetic value of the letter x in Medieval Spanish, which represented the voiceless postalveolar fricative. This sound, as well as the voiced postalveolar fricative, represented by a j, evolved into a voiceless velar fricative during the 16th century; this led to the use of the variant Méjico in many publications in Spanish, most notably in Spain, whereas in Mexico and most other Spanish–speaking countries, México was the preferred spelling. In recent years, the Real Academia Española, which regulates the Spanish l Delicias is a city in the Mexican state of Chihuahua and serves as the seat of the municipality of the same name. It is located southeast of Chihuahua. Delicias was declared an official municipality of the state of Chihuahua on January 7, 1935. Delicias is a small industrial city and a major agricultural center located in the Conchos River Valley; as of 2015, the city of Delicias had a population of 148,045 inhabitants, while the metropolitan area had a population of 223,993 inhabitants. It was founded on 30 April 1933; the municipality of Delicias is one of the smallest in the state in terms of size area. Prehistoric artifacts have been found in the Conchos River Valley that show evidence that indigenous people lived in the area for centuries before European settlers arrived in the area. Several indigenous mummies were found in the valley and are on display in the Museum of Paleontology in Delicias; the area of present-day Delicias began to attract settlers in 1884 when the Central Mexican Railroad Company built a railroad station to fulfill the transportation demands for agricultural products from the Old Delicias Hacienda. In 1888, German settlers built Hacienda Polvorosa. However, the German settlers were forced to leave after continuous persecution by the Villistas; the Old Delicias Hacienda and Hacienda Polvorosa were the beginnings of the Delicias settlement. Hacienda Polvorosa was renamed El Hotel del Norte. During the next few decades, the surrounding area began to grow and many small municipalities like Rosales and Saucillo began to sprout. In 1932, the Chihuahua State Congress recognized this area as an important agricultural region, named it Region 5; the city of Delicias was founded in 1933 after the Mexican Revolution and was declared a municipality on January 7, 1935. In 1939 cotton in the Conchos River Valley helped build a foundation for a small industrial sector in Delicias. Cotton Gins and American Petroleum Refineries were built to provide services and products needed to fuel the agriculture sector; the Francisco I. Madero Dam was built, which grew the population in the valley. During the 1940s, Cotton became such a dominant cash crop that by 1943 it replaced many vineyards in the surrounding area. Cotton continued to be the dominant crop of the Conchos River Valley until 1953, when the price of cotton plunged and forced many farmers in the area to diversify the agriculture economy. The modern layout of Delicias was designed by Carlos G. Blake and was approved by the National Commission of Irrigation on September 30, 1960; the Chihuahua State Congress recognized Delicias as a city on October 29, 1960. That same year, a geological study on the Conchos River was conducted in Region 5 in attempts to build the largest dam in the state of Chihuahua. By 1960, Delicias was the fourth most populous city in the state of Chihuahua. Delicias continued to grow as a successful agricultural center. Delicias had an agricultural based economy until 1980 when important exporting maquiladoras moved to the city which helped increase the manufacturing sector. By 1990, Delicias was home to seven maquiladoras, making it one of the most important municipalities of the state of Chihuahua. Delicias is located at 28º11’35" N Latitude and 105º28’18" W Longitude, 1,170 metres above sea level. Delicias lies in the rich Conchos River Valley and Meoqui to the north and Saucillo to the south and Rosales to the west. The Conchos River flows north on the west side of Delicias. About 30 miles south of Delicias, La Boquilla Reservoir holds back the Conchos River that begins in the highest parts of the heartland of the Sierra Madre Occidental. La Boquilla Reservoir, the largest dam in the state of Chihuahua, provides sustainable water supply to the valley along federal highway 45 including Delicias and the surrounding towns. In September 2008, La Boquilla Reservoir reached its maximum capacity; the western side of Delicias is dominated by the edge of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range that runs northwest to southeast. Southeast of the city the Sierra del Diablo mountain range runs southwest to northeast. Northeast of the city the dominant solonchaks and extreme arid conditions do not allow the land to be used for agriculture, but in the rest of the surrounding plains and mountains rich soils are found. Delicias has a semi-arid climate, receiving only 334.2 millimetres of rainfall per year. On average, Delicias observes 42 days of rain and a seven-month frost free period each year with a relative humidity of 45%; the prevalent winds come from the southwest. In the winter, days are mild and nights are cold with frequent frosts from November to February, while snowfall occurs once or twice a year. During spring, strong winds are common due to the last cold fronts from the north. In the summer months, days are hot and nights are warm with moderate rainfall by major thunderstorms. Agriculture is so important to the municipality that it is known informally as the'breadbasket' of the state apiaries. Delicias has a diversified agriculture economy. Delicias is one of the most important dairy production areas in Mexico. Delicias is home to Alpura, the second largest dairy in Mexico; the economy is dependent upon manufacturing, in the form of maquiladores. Delicias is a major producer of Silver Spurs Arena The current Silver Spurs Arena is an 8,000-seat, 33,946 square foot multi-purpose arena, in Kissimmee, Florida. It was built in 2003, it replaced the original Silver Spurs grand stand. Both are home to the Silver Spurs Rodeo a semi-annual rodeo event. Concerts, family shows, school graduations, sporting events are held there; the arena, part of the Osceola Heritage Park entertainment complex, features 12 luxury suites, four locker rooms and additional amenities. The arena was home to the Florida Seals of the Southern Professional Hockey League from October 2005 until January 4, 2007. During the 2005 season, it was home to the Kissimmee Kreatures of the National Indoor Football League. During 2006, the team was to be known as the Osceola Outlaws but changed their name to Osceola Football as another team in the NIFL located in Billings, Montana held that nickname. For the 2007 season the team changed its nickname to Osceola Ghostriders and played in the World Indoor Football League. Over 600,000 people annually attend a wide variety of our events such as concerts, festivals and professional sports, trade shows and much more. The arena has hosted Sugarland, Van Morrison, Alan Jackson, Pearl Jam, Hall & Oates, Jacksonville's Lynyrd Skynyrd, Toby keith, Def Leppard, Norah Jones, Amy Grant & Vince Gill, Jeff Dunham, Sesame Street Live, The Wiggles, Don King Productions World Championship Boxing, Silver Spurs Rodeo, World Extreme Fighting, basketball, Sysco Food Show, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, Sarah Palin, Former President Bill Clinton, Former President Barack Obama. Silver Spurs Arena Official Website

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Fiqh is briefly defined as “the knowledge of inferring (istinbāṭ) aḥkām sharʻī”. The term istinbāṭ (inference) literally means appearing after being hidden, so extracting water from the depth of a well is called nibṭ. Therefore extracting and discovering aḥkām sharʻī from authoritative sources, which needs deliberation and presenting arguments, is named istinbāṭ. Literal and Technical Meaning of Fiqh and Ijtihad Fiqh literally means understanding. In Islamic terminology, it is the science of Islamic subsidiary legal rulings derived from Islamic main and detailed sources. This is the most famous definition of fiqh that includes some points and features such as: The first point is that there are two types of rulings. Sometimes it is legislated by God, and sometimes it is codified by a person or group of people. The first type is called ḥukm sharʻī (religious verdict; a particular ruling in a given case; plural: aḥkām sharʻī) like wujūb (obligation) and ḥurmah (prohibition). Legislation initially and in the first place is only God’s right, who is omniscient of all advantages and disadvantages of human life, and His rules guarantee human’s salvation and well-being in this world and the Hereafter. The rules legislated by God, which are practical guidelines for human being and encompass all aspects of our life, are called Sharia, and God is called Shāriʻin this respect. On the other side, the rules that are codified by a person or group of people based on their own reasoning and without considering Sharia, are called qawānīn mawḍūʻa (statute), whose best examples are the laws passed by parliaments in different countries. Qawānīn mawḍūʻah could be in accordance or in conflict with Sharia. These rules are not supposed to be stable and the factors like the development of human life, the growth of knowledge, and intellectual revolution sex pose them to change. In contrast, Sharia is stable and immutable, and changes are perceived only in particulars while adjusting them with general rules. The word “legal” in the definition is added to the exclusion of the rulings of other kinds such as rational, philosophical, lexical, literary, and even juridical. The second point is that the word “subsidiary” excludes the legal rulings that are concerned to the principles of beliefs and the principles of jurisprudence, such as the obligation to believe in God and the holy Prophet (s.a.w), and the necessity of acting on reliable narrations. Such matters are discussed in theology and uṣūl al-fiqh (the science of the principles of jurisprudence). The third point is that, our knowledge about subsidiary legal rulings is sometimes on the strength of ijtihad and obtained from main sources, that are, the Holy Quran, Sunna, Ijmāʻ, and Intellect (Aql); and sometimes it is based on taqlīd (imitation) and acquired from the fatwas of a mujtahid (the qualified person to exercise ijtihad). However a mujtahid’s fatwas somehow considered as a source of legal rulings for a muqallid (one performing taqlid of a mujtahid), but it is the undetailed source, while the Holy Quran, Sunna, Ijmāʻ, and Intellect are called detailed sources. Thus, an ordinary person who is knowledgeable about subsidiary aḥkām sharʻī (legal rulings)is not considered as a faqīh (jurist, a person trained in fiqh) because his knowledge is not on the ground of detailed source. Fiqh is briefly defined as “the knowledge of inferring (istinbāṭ) aḥkām sharʻī”. The term istinbāṭ (inference)derives from three-letter Arabic verbal root of ن- ب- ط (N-B-T, nibṭ) which literally means appearing after being hidden, so extracting water from the depth of a well is called nibṭ. Therefore extracting and discovering aḥkām sharʻī from authoritative sources, which needs deliberation and presenting arguments, is named istinbāṭ. The term ijtihad is a derivation from the Arabic verbal root of ج – ه – د (J-H-D, jahada) which in its literal meaning refers to an effort, and expending thorough exertion in hard work. In its technical sense, ijtihad refers to a particular effort: attempt to drive aḥkām sharʻī from the legal sources of reasoning. Ijtihad in this meaning is synonymous with istinbāṭ. As an example, for understanding the legitimacy or illegitimacy of usurious contract and recognizing its soundness or unsoundness, a mujtahid must refer to the legal sources of reasoning like Quranic verses and hadiths of the infallibles (a.s) and infer the precept. However, it does not mean that everyone can exercise ijtihad and infer aḥkām sharʻī by reading and thematically classifying the verses of Holy Quran and hadiths; because: Firstly, the Holy Quran and hadiths are in Arabic language and understanding the precise meaning of their words and expressions needs to be well acquainted with the ins and outs of Arabic literature, which are unknown even to native Arabic speakers. Secondly, scrutinizing isnād (the chain of transmission accompanying each hadith) of hadiths and distinguishing an authentic hadith from the false one is a complicated hard job which needs expertise. Thirdly, understanding the meaning of the text and refining there as ones needs professional work. To be skilled in the language of the Quran and Sunnah is very important, especially at the present that is far away from Revelation era and the time that hadiths were issued. Fourthly, sometimes two or more textual evidence, whether the Holy Quran or the traditions, come into conflict with each other in their outward aspects. It is the mujtahid’s duty to find and consider all the evidence concerned with the issue and, in the case of inconsistency, find a right way to reconcile and solve their contradiction or prefer the right evidence, which also needs a high level of proficiency. Considering above-mentioned points, ijtihad without preliminaries, just like other professional jobs, will be of no avail, and those who want to perform it must be qualified so that their ijtihad results in the correct conclusion. In addition to scientific knowledge, ijtihad takes a lot of practice in order to develop a mujtahid’s ability to apply general rules. Just like a doctor who must be skillful in making the diagnosis of diseases and checking their signs with general rules of medicine; a mujtahid should know that which rule deduced from the Quran, Sunnah, and other authoritative sources is applicable in a particular issue to obtain the legal precept. Ijtihad is summarized in this stage which is construed as “checking particular cases against general rules”. This expression is borrowed from the hadiths in which the purified Imams (a.s) ask their companions to perform ijtihad and apply the general principles to particular cases; for example, Imam Sadiq (a.s) says: “Our duty is to teach the principles and yours to ramify.” There is another similar hadith from Imam Rizā (a.s) that says: Thus, Mirza Qumi defines ijtihad as: “ijtihad means to put a lot of effort into inferring subsidiary aḥkām sharʻī from authoritative sources by a qualified person who is well-aware of the sources and the condition of the sources, and is endowed with a blessed talent to apply general rules to particular cases.”Other Shi’a and Sunni scholars of uṣūl al-fiqh have also presented a similar definition of ijtihad. Istinbāṭ and, in another word, ijtihad is inferring aḥkām sharʻī from authoritative sources considering specific conditions and rules. So indeed, performing ijtihad is not only permitted, but would be appreciated, and a mujtahid would hold an honorable place for performing it. However, it is surprising that some of our jurists condemn it, and exonerate Shi’a scholars from exercising ijtihad. What makes it more surprising is that the condemners themselves are among great Shi’a mujtahids. How it is possible that on the one hand ijtihad is regarded as a condemned forbidden job, and on the other hand it is an ideal, even, a collective obligation? There is no way but to say that ijtihad conveys a double meaning. One meaning refers to the Sunni viewpoint of ijtihad which is not acceptable for Shi’a scholars, and the other one is the meaning accepted by Shi’a jurist. The truth of the matter is that ijtihad was applied in its negative sense in the beginning. Whenever one of the companions or their successors changed God’s decrees and converted a halal (lawful) into haram (unlawful) or a haram into halal on their own judgment and personal opinion, their best justification was to say that: “I exercised ijtihad“. That was an acceptable excuse because according to Sunni School the person who performs ijtihad would be exculpated, even rewarded when he goes wrong. The way that the Sunni scholars exercised ijtihad from the beginning, sometimes resulted in the contradiction between ijtihad and naṣ (revealed text), which was not acceptable to Shi’a under any circumstances. Consequently, Shi’a scholars would always condemn it explicitly, and strongly objected that how an ijtihad could be more authoritative than the Holy Quran and Sunnah? And, how it is possible that a mujtahid possesses such a prominent position that his personal opinion becomes a source of sharia? Thus, the concept of the word ijtihad became so condemned and negative among Shi’as that they avoided to call their scholars as mujtahids and, instead, used the term “faqīh“(jurist)for those who were responsible for recognizing and presenting aḥkām sharʻī. The traditions received from infallible Imams (a.s) regarding ijtihad, which are resorted by the Akhbaristo prove that ijtihad is forbidden in Shi’a School, are as concerned with the Sunni reading of ijtihad. Shaikh Kulainihas gathered most of these traditions in his book al-Kāfī. As an example the holy Prophet (s.a.w) says: Those who act on the basis of analogy (qiyās) will face their destruction and lead others to their destruction. Those who give fatwas without the knowledge of the abrogating (nāsikh) and the abrogated (mansūkh), the clear text (muḥkam) and that which requires interpretation (mutashābih), they will face destruction and lead others to their destruction. According to another tradition, a man asked Imam Sādiq (a.s) about an issue and the Imam replied him. The man then asked again about the Imam’s own opinion. The Imam then said, “Stop, whatever I said in answer was from the holy Prophet (s.a.w). We are not of “our own opinion” peoplein anything.”This tradition obviously shows the mentality of the followers of Abu Hanafi and other Sunni prominent leaders, that they were expecting their leaders’ personal opinion. Books on the Objection of Ijtihad The companions and narrators of the infallible Imams (a.s) persisted with denouncing ijtihad so they wrote some books to refute it, such as Al-Istafādah fi al-Ṭuʻūnʻalá al-Awāʼilwa al-RaddʻaláAṣḥāb al-Ijtihādwa al-Qiyās, written by Abdullah bin Abd al-RaḥmānZubairī; and Al-Raddʻalá man RaddaᾹthār al-RasūlwaIʻtamadaʻaláNatāʼij al-ʻUqūl, written by Hilāl bin Ibrāhīm bin Abī al-Fatḥ Madanī. After the age of appearance and around the age of minor occultation (of the twelfth infallible Imam) Ismāʻīl bin Ali bin Isḥāq bin Abī Sahl Nawbakhtī wrote a book to disprove ʻῙsá bin Abān’s work concerning ijtihad. Najāshī have mentioned about these three books in his compilation of narrators in their writers’ entry. At the end of fourth Hejra century, Shaikh Mufīd wrote a book under the title of al-Naqḍʻalá ibn Junayd fi Ijtihād al-Raʼy. Then, Sayyid Murtaḍá wrote al-DharīʻahiláUṣūl al-Sharīʻah, in which he says: “ijtihad is considered as void, and acting upon conjecture (zann), opinion (raʼy) and ijtihad is forbidden among Imamiya.”Shaikh Ṭūsī in his book ʻUddah al-Uṣūl specifies that “analogy (qiyās) and ijtihad are not regarded as legal reasons among us; moreover, using them to infer aḥkām sharʻī is forbidden.” At the end of sixth Hejra century ibn Idrīs in his book al-Sarāʼirstipulates that “according to our School, analogy, juristic preference (istiḥsān) and ijtihad are prohibited.” Until the seventh Hejra century, Imami jurists were condemning ijtihad, and they used to show their disapproval in different ways. From seventh Hejra century on, the sense of ijtihad evolved into a new meaning that could be applicable to Shi’a School. The oldest Shi’a text that refers to this semantic changebe logs to Muhaqqiq Ḥillī (d. 676 AH). He explores the reality of ijtihad at the beginning of the ninth chapter of his book, Maʻārij al-Uṣūl: Ijtihad in the language of jurists denotes putting effort into inferring aḥkām sharʻī, so ijtihad is driving religious precepts from legal sources. Aḥkām sharʻī are not extracted from the apparent sense of the texts, and their recognitionis grounded on the theoretical rules, including analogy (qiyās). Thus, the analogy is a kind of ijtihad. If someone says that in this sense the Imamiya will be regarded as those who exercise analogy, the answer would be that is right. But the analogy is not considered as an authentic method for ijtihad. So, after excluding analogy, we are among those who employ ijtihad while inferring aḥkām sharʻī in presumptive methods. With the passage of time, the jurists noted that inferring aḥkām sharʻī even from the apparent sense of the texts is not an easy work that every person can carry out, and it requires prequalification and some preliminary steps which could be followed only by a mujtahid. So ijtihad has a general meaning that is any effort to infer aḥkām sharʻī from legal sources, whether by recourse to the apparent sense of the texts or the other way. Moreover, ijtihad is not limited to inferring aḥkām sharʻī from legal sources, because in some cases there is no any relevant document from which a mujtahid can deduce a precept, while he, in general, knows that Shāriʻ has directions for all situations. In the case that we do not know the decree, God has instructions to follow in order to save His servants from quandary and lead them to His way. Such cases bring ijtihad to another phase that a mujtahid should determine people’s duty about these issues, by employing special reasons presented for such situations (called as, Uṣūlal-ʻAmalīyah, meaning Practical Principles). Therefore, ijtihad in the contemporary sense means a jurist’s effort to conclude legal rulings from the sources, whether through inferring them from the apparent sense of the texts or other reasons, or by determining practical duty in case of the absence of legal reason. This sense of ijtihad is synonymous to istinbāṭ, and it is the true nature of fiqh (jurisprudence) and fiqāhah (expertise in jurisprudence) which has been, and still is, the constant need of every person. That is what the infallible Imams (a.s) used to advise their companions to exercise and admire the companions who have achieved to that level of knowledge. Moreover, they (a.s) would always call people to follow jurists and the experts that are capable of performing ijtihad and recognizing God’s orders. These traditions confirm the authenticity of ijtihad among Shi’as, on the one hand; and prove the necessity of taqlīd (following mujtahids) for ordinary people, on the other hand. The following traditions are just a few examples: - The traditions which show that while asking about religious matters, the infallible Imams (a.s) would refer people to their qualified companions such as: Muhammad bin Muslim, Yūnis bin ʻAbd al-Raḥmān, Faḍl bin Shādhān, and Abān bin Taghlab. Indeed, these scholars were employing ijtihad while resorting to the legal sources and answering the questions. Shaikh Kashshī has mentioned these traditions in his famous collection of narrators’ biography in the entry of every companion. - There is a tawqīʻ (epistle) from Imam Mahdi (a.s) that says: If an incident occurs, then refer for it to the narrators of our traditions. For surely, they are my proof on you and I am the proof of Allah upon them. - Through a narration Imam sādiq (a.s) says: “…They must look for one among you who have narrated our hadith and have studied what is lawful and unlawful in our teachings and have learned our laws. Then they must agree to settle their dispute according to his judgment because I have made him over you a ruler. - Imam sādiq (a.s) says: “assign someone as a judge among you who knows what is halal and what is haram in our teachings, indeed I have made such a person over you a judge. - Imam Hasan ʻAskarī (a.s) says: “whoever from the jurists is preserving of himself, guarding his religion, opposing his desires, obeying the command of his master (Imam), then it is for the layman to follow him.” It is noteworthy that at present, as Waḥīd Bihbahānī says, the terms like mujtahid, faqih (jurist), mufti, qāḍī (judge), and ḥākim sharʻ (Islamic judge) all refer to the same position, but every term indicates a particular feature of it. Similarly, a mujtahid for being qualified of ijtihad is also entitled muhaddith (traditionist), mutakallim (theologian), uṣūlī (skilled in the principles of jurisprudence), and rijālī (expert in narrators’ biographical evaluation). The Selection Taken from the “An Introduction to Islamic Jurisprudence (fiqh)” by Reza Islami and translated into English by Ijtihadnetwrok. – الفقه هو العلم بالأحکام الشرعیۀ الفرعیۀ عن ادلتها التفصیلیۀ. (See: ShahīdAwwal, al-Qawāʻidwa al-Fawāʼid; Sheikh Hasan b.Zain al-Din,Maʻālim al-Uṣūl. – قوانین موضوعۀ. – علم الفقه هو علم استنباط الأحکام الشرعیۀ. (Muhammad BāqirṢadr, Durūs fi ʻIlm al-Uṣūl, al-Ḥalqah al-ʻūlá) – رد الفروع علی الأصول. – إنما علینا أن نُلقیَ إلیکم الأصول و علیکم أن تفَرَّعوا. – علینا إلقاء الأصول و علیکم التفریع. – See: Muḥaddith Qumī, Safīnah al-Biḥār, the entry of Aṣl (أصل); Sheikh ḤurrʻᾹmilī, Wasāʼil al-Shīʻah, bābṣifāt al-qāḍī (صفات القاضی), chapter 6, hadiths 51 &52. – الإجتهاد هو استفراغ الوسع فی تحصیل الحکم الشرعی الفرعی من ادلته لمن عرف الأدلۀ و أحوالها و کان له قوۀ القدسیۀ التی یتمکن بها عن مطلق رد الفرع إلی الأصل. (Qawānīn al-Uṣūl, V.2, P.101) – The scholars who reject the use of reasoning in deriving verdicts, and believe the Quran and hadith as the only source of Sharia. – مَنْ عَمِلَ بِالْمَقَايِيسِ فَقَدْ هَلَكَ وَ أَهْلَكَ وَ مَنْ أَفْتَى اَلنَّاسَ بِغَيْرِ عِلْمٍ وَ هُوَ لاَ يَعْلَمُ اَلنَّاسِخَ مِنَ اَلْمَنْسُوخِ وَ اَلْمُحْكَمَ مِنَ اَلْمُتَشَابِهِ فَقَدْ هَلَكَ وَ أَهْلَكَ. (الکافی، کتاب فضل العلم، باب النهی عن القول بغیر علم، حدیث9) (Sheikh Kulaynī, Al-Kafi, The Book on Virtue of Knowledge, Ch. 11, h 9 ) – Ibid, bāb al- bidʻwa al-raʼywa al-maqāʼīs (باب البدع و الرأی والمقائیس), hadith 21. – الإستفادۀ فی الطعون علی الأوائل و الرد علی اصحاب الإجتهاد والقیاس. – الرد علی من رد آثار الرسول واعتمد علی نتایج العقول. – Abu al-ʿAbbās Ahmad b. Ali b. Ahmad b. al-ʿAbbās al-Najāshī al-Asadī (b. 372/982 – d. After 463/1071), famously known as al-Najāshī (النجاشی) or Ibn al-Kūfī (ابن الکوفی), is one of the great Shi’a scholars of biographical evaluation (ʻilm al-rijāl). His book, FihristAsmāʼMuṣannifi al-Shi’a, also known as Rijal al-Najāshī, is one of the prominent sources of biographical evaluation among the Shi’a. – النقض علی ابن جنید فی إجتهاد الرأی. – الذریعۀ الی أصول الشریعۀ. – عدۀ الأصول. – See: Muhammad BāqirṢadr, Durūs fi ʻIlm al-Uṣūl, al-Ḥalqah al-ʻūlá, jawāzʻamalīyah al-istinbāṭ (جواز عملیۀ الإستنباط); Sheikh ḤurrʻᾹmilī, al-Fawāʼid al-Ṭūsīyah, fāyidah 76. – See: Muhammad BāqirṢadr, Durūs fi ʻIlm al-Uṣūl, al-Ḥalqah al-Thāniyah (جواز عملیۀ الإستنباط). – Abū Amr Muhammad b. Umar b. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Kashshī (d. circa 340/951-2), known as al-Kashshi (الکشي), was a Shi’a scholar, a reliable transmitter of hadiths, and a scholar of ʻilm al-rijal. He is the author of Maʻrifah al-nāqilīnʻan al-Aʼimmah al-Ṣādiqīn, which provides biographies of the transmitters of hadiths. The book was summarized by al-Shaikh al-Ṭūsī under the title of IkhtiyārMaʻrifah al-Rijal, known as Rijal al-Kashshi. What is available today is the summary, rather than the original work. – أمّا الحوادث الواقعۀ فارجعوا فيها إلي رواه حديثنا؛فإنّهم حجّتي عليکم و أنا حجّۀ الله عليهم. – مَن کان منکم مِمَّن قد روی حدیثَنا و نَظَر فی حَلالِنا و حَرامِنا عَرف احکامَنا فلیَرضوا بِهِ حکماً؛ فَإنّی قد جَعلتُه علیکم حاکماً. – إجعَلوا بَینکم رجلاً قد عَرِف حلالَنا و حرامَنا؛ فإنّی قد جَعلتُه علیکم قاضیاً. – These three hadiths, together with other reasons, are presented in imam Khomeini’s book, Wilāyat-e Faqīh. – فأما من کان من الفُقَهاء صائناً لِنَفسه، حافظاً لِدینه، مخالفاً علی هواه مطیعاً لِأمر مولاه فَلِلعَوام أن یُقَلِّدوه. (Ṭabarsī, Ahmad ibn Ali, al-Iḥtijāj, Iḥtijājāt Imam Hasan ʻAskarī.) – al-Fawāʼid al-Ḥāʼirīyah, fawāʼid al-jadīdah, al-fāʼidah 33.

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After having spent a few days in Cape Town and after a long day of travel to Okiep and an early departure from Okiep for the final stretch to the border between South Africa and Namibia, it finally happened. After crossing the South African border and going through the necessary border formalities, The Wandelgek drove through No man’s land towards the Namibian border, and the road crossed the Orange River, which acts as a border river. Then a large sign that read Welcome to Namibia was passed, which lent itself well for pictures and then the Namibian border was reached and was crossed after the neccesary formalities. The Wandelgek was now in Namibia. A major difference between South Africa and Namibia was the temperature. You had dry desert air and even though it was the middle of winter here, it was (unlike in Cape Town where it was 17 to 18 degrees Celsius when The Wandelgek was there) well over 20 degrees Celsius. The more The Wandelgek traveled north, the more the temperature rose to over 30 degrees Celsius. Namibia (/nəˈmɪbiə/, /næˈ–/), officially the Republic of Namibia (German: Republik Namibia; Afrikaans: Republiek van Namibië), and formerly German South-West Africa and then South West Africa, is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and east. Although it does not border Zimbabwe, less than 200 metres of the Zambezi River (essentially a small bulge in Botswana to achieve a Botswana/Zambia micro-border) separates them at their closest points. It gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990, following the Namibian War of Independence. Its capital and largest city is Windhoek. Namibia is a member state of the United Nations (UN), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the African Union (AU), and the Commonwealth of Nations. The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by San, Damara, and Namaqua, and since about the 14th century AD by immigrating Bantu who came with the Bantu expansion. Most of the territory became a German Imperial protectorate in 1884 and remained a German colony until the end of World War I. In 1920, the League of Nations mandated the country to South Africa, which imposed its laws and, from 1948, its apartheid policy. The port of Walvis Bay and the offshore Penguin Islands had been annexed by the Cape Colony under the British crown by 1878 and had become an integral part of the new Union of South Africa at its creation in 1910. Uprisings and demands by African leaders led the UN to assume direct responsibility over the territory. It recognised the South West Africa People’s Organisation (SWAPO) as the official representative of the Namibian people in 1973. Namibia, however, remained under South African administration during this time as South-West Africa. Following internal violence, South Africa installed an interim administration in Namibia in 1985. Namibia obtained full independence from South Africa in 1990, with the exception of Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands, which remained under South African control until 1994. Namibia has a population of 2.1 million people and a stable multi-party parliamentary democracy. Agriculture, herding, tourism and the mining industry – including mining for gem diamonds, uranium, gold, silver, and base metals – form the basis of Namibia’s economy. Given the presence of the arid Namib Desert, it is one of the least densely populated countries in the world. Namibia enjoys high political, economic and social stability. The name of the country is derived from the Namib Desert, considered to be the oldest desert in the world. Before its independence in 1990, the area was known first as German South-West Africa (Deutsch-Südwestafrika), then as South-West Africa, reflecting the colonial occupation by the Germans and the South Africans (technically on behalf of the British crown reflecting South Africa’s dominion status within the British Empire). The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by San, Damara, Nama and, since about the 14th century AD, by immigrating Bantu who came with the Bantu expansion from central Africa. From the late 18th century onwards, Orlam clans from the Cape Colony crossed the Orange River and moved into the area that today is southern Namibia. Their encounters with the nomadic Nama tribes were largely peaceful. The missionaries accompanying the Orlams were well received by them, the right to use waterholes and grazing was granted against an annual payment. On their way further northwards, however, the Orlams encountered clans of the Herero tribe at Windhoek, Gobabis, and Okahandja which were less accommodating. The Nama-Herero War broke out in 1880, with hostilities ebbing only when Imperial Germany deployed troops to the contested places and cemented the status quo between Nama, Orlams, and Herero. The first Europeans to disembark and explore the region were the Portuguese navigators Diogo Cão in 1485 and Bartolomeu Dias in 1486; still the region was not claimed by the Portuguese crown. However, like most of Sub-Saharan Africa, Namibia was not extensively explored by Europeans until the 19th century, when traders and settlers arrived, principally from Germany and Sweden. In the late 19th century Dorsland trekkers crossed the area on their way from the Transvaal to Angola. Some of them settled in Namibia instead of continuing their journey. Namibia became a German colony in 1884 under Otto von Bismarck to forestall British encroachment and was known as German South-West Africa (Deutsch-Südwestafrika). However, the Palgrave mission by the British governor in Cape Town had determined that only the natural deep-water harbour of Walvis Bay was worth occupying – and this was annexed to the Cape province of British South Africa. From 1904 to 1907, the Herero and the Namaqua took up arms against the Germans and in calculated punitive action by the German occupiers, the ‘first genocide of the Twentieth Century’ was committed. In the Herero and Namaqua genocide, 10,000 Nama (half the population) and approximately 65,000 Hereros (about 80% of the population) were systematically murdered. The survivors, when finally released from detention, were subjected to a policy of dispossession, deportation, forced labour, racial segregation and discrimination in a system that in many ways anticipated apartheid. Most Africans were confined to so-called native territories, which later under South African rule post-1949 were turned into “homelands” (Bantustans). Indeed, some historians have speculated that the German genocide in Namibia was a model used by Nazis in the Holocaust. The memory of genocide remains relevant to ethnic identity in independent Namibia and to relations with Germany. The German government formally apologized for the Namibian genocide in 2004. South African rule South Africa occupied the colony in 1915 after defeating the German force during World War I and administered it from 1919 onward as a League of Nations mandate territory. Although the South African government desired to incorporate ‘South-West Africa’ into its territory, it never officially did so, although it was administered as the de facto ‘fifth province’, with the white minority having representation in the whites-only Parliament of South Africa, as well as electing their own local administration the SWA Legislative Assembly. The South African government also appointed the SWA administrator, who had extensive powers. As a former German colony, Namibia originally drove on the right. After South Africa occupied South West Africa (now Namibia) during World War I, it was made a South African mandate by the League of Nations, and as such, drivers were ordered to drive on the left soon afterwards. Following the League’s replacement by the United Nations in 1946, South Africa refused to surrender its earlier mandate to be replaced by a United Nations Trusteeship agreement, requiring closer international monitoring of the territory’s administration (along with a definite independence schedule). The Herero Chief’s Council submitted a number of petitions to the UN calling for it to grant Namibia independence during the 1950s. During the 1960s, when European powers granted independence to their colonies and trust territories in Africa, pressure mounted on South Africa to do so in Namibia. In 1966 the International Court of Justice dismissed a complaint brought by Ethiopia and Liberia against South Africa’s continued presence in the territory, but the U.N. General Assembly subsequently revoked South Africa’s mandate, while in 1971 the International Court of Justice issued an “advisory opinion” declaring South Africa’s continued administration to be illegal. In response to the 1966 ruling by the International Court of Justice, South-West Africa People’s Organisation (SWAPO) military wing, People’s Liberation Army of Namibia, a guerrilla group began their armed struggle for independence, but it was not until 1988 that South Africa agreed to end its occupation of Namibia, in accordance with a UN peace plan for the entire region. During the South African occupation of Namibia, white commercial farmers, most of whom came as settlers from South Africa and represented 0.2% of the national population, owned 74% of the arable land. Outside the central-southern area of Namibia (known as the “Police Zone” since the German era and which contained the main towns, industries, mines and best arable land), the country was divided into “homelands”, the version of South African bantustan applied to Namibia, although only a few were actually established because indigenous Namibians often did not cooperate. In 1978 the UN Security Council passed UN Resolution 435 which planned a transition toward independence for Namibia. Attempts to persuade South Africa to agree to the plan’s implementation were not successful until 1988 when the transition to independence finally started under a diplomatic agreement between South Africa, Angola and Cuba, with the USSR and the USA as observers, under which South Africa agreed to withdraw and demobilise its forces in Namibia. As a result, Cuba agreed to pull back its troops in southern Angola sent to support the MPLA in its war for control of Angola with UNITA. A combined UN civilian and peace-keeping force called UNTAG (United Nations Transition Assistance Group) under Finnish diplomat Martti Ahtisaari was deployed from April 1989 to March 1990 to monitor the peace process, elections and supervise military withdrawals. As UNTAG began to deploy peacekeepers, military observers, police, and political workers, hostilities were briefly renewed on the day the transition process was supposed to begin. After a new round of negotiations, a second date was set and the elections process began in earnest. After the return of SWAPO exiles (over 46,000 exiles), Namibia’s first one-person one-vote elections for the constitutional assembly took place in November 1989. The official election slogan was “Free and Fair Elections”. This was won by SWAPO although it did not gain the two-thirds majority it had hoped for; the South African-backed Democratic Turnhalle Alliance (DTA) became the official opposition. The elections were peaceful and declared free and fair. The Namibian Constitution adopted in February 1990 incorporated protection for human rights, compensation for state expropriations of private property, an independent judiciary and an executive presidency (the constituent assembly became the national assembly). The country officially became independent on 21 March 1990. Sam Nujoma was sworn in as the first President of Namibia watched by Nelson Mandela (who had been released from prison the previous month) and representatives from 147 countries, including 20 heads of state. Walvis Bay was ceded to Namibia in 1994 upon the end of Apartheid in South Africa. Since independence Namibia has successfully completed the transition from white minority apartheid rule to parliamentary democracy. Multiparty democracy was introduced and has been maintained, with local, regional and national elections held regularly. Several registered political parties are active and represented in the National Assembly, although the Swapo Party has won every election since independence. The transition from the 15-year rule of President Sam Nujoma to his successor Hifikepunye Pohamba in 2005 went smoothly. The Namibian government has promoted a policy of national reconciliation and issued an amnesty for those who had fought on either side during the liberation war. The civil war in Angola had some impact on Namibians living in the north of the country. In 1998, Namibia Defence Force (NDF) troops were sent to the Democratic Republic of the Congo as part of a Southern African Development Community (SADC) contingent. In August 1999, a secessionist attempt in the northeastern Zambezi Region was successfully quashed. At 825,615 km2 (318,772 sq mi), Namibia is the world’s thirty-fourth largest country (after Venezuela). It lies mostly between latitudes 17° and 29°S (a small area is north of 17°), and longitudes 11° and 26°E. Being situated between the Namib and the Kalahari deserts, Namibia is the country with the least rainfall in sub-Saharan Africa. The Namibian landscape consists generally of five geographical areas, each with characteristic abiotic conditions and vegetation with some variation within and overlap between them: the Central Plateau, the Namib Desert, the Great Escarpment, the Bushveld, and the Kalahari Desert. The Central Plateau runs from north to south, bordered by the Skeleton Coast to the northwest, the Namib Desert and its coastal plains to the southwest, the Orange River to the south, and the Kalahari Desert to the east. The Central Plateau is home to the highest point in Namibia at Königstein elevation 2,606 metres (8,550 ft). The Namib Desert is a broad expanse of hyper-arid gravel plains and dunes that stretches along Namibia’s entire coastline. It varies between 100 to many hundreds of kilometres in width. Areas within the Namib include the Skeleton Coast and the Kaokoveld in the north and the extensive Namib Sand Sea along the central coast. The Great Escarpment swiftly rises to over 2,000 metres (6,562 ft). Average temperatures and temperature ranges increase further inland from the cold Atlantic waters, while the lingering coastal fogs slowly diminish. Although the area is rocky with poorly developed soils, it is significantly more productive than the Namib Desert. As summer winds are forced over the Escarpment, moisture is extracted as precipitation. The Bushveld is found in north eastern Namibia along the Angolan border and in the Caprivi Strip. The area receives a significantly greater amount of precipitation than the rest of the country, averaging around 400 mm (15.7 in) per year. The area is generally flat and the soils sandy, limiting their ability to retain water. The Kalahari Desert, an arid region shared with South Africa and Botswana, is one of Namibia’s well-known geographical features. The Kalahari, while popularly known as a desert, has a variety of localised environments, including some verdant and technically non-desert areas. One of these, known as the Succulent Karoo, is home to over 5,000 species of plants, nearly half of them endemic; Approximately 10 percent of the world’s succulents are found in the Karoo. The reason behind this high productivity and endemism may be the relatively stable nature of precipitation. Namibia’s Coastal Desert is one of the oldest deserts in the world. Its sand dunes, created by the strong onshore winds, are the highest in the world. Because of the location of the shoreline – at the point where the Atlantic’s cold water reaches Africa – there is often extremely dense fog. Near the coast there are areas where the dunes are vegetated with hammocks. Namibia has rich coastal and marine resources that remain largely unexplored. Namibia extends from 17°S to 25°S: climatically the range of the sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt, arid is the overall climate description descending from the Sub-Humid (mean rain above 500 mm) through Semi-Arid between 300 and 500 mm (embracing most of the waterless Kalahari) and Arid from 150 to 300 mm (these three regions are inland from the western escarpment) to the Hyper-Arid coastal plain with less than a 100 mm mean. Temperature maxima are limited by the overall elevation of the entire region: only in the far south, Warmbad for instance, are mid-40 °C maxima recorded. Typically the sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt, with frequent clear skies, provides more than 300 days of sunshine per year. It is situated at the southern edge of the tropics; the Tropic of Capricorn cuts the country about in half. The winter (June – August) is generally dry, both rainy seasons occur in summer, the small rainy season between September and November, the big one between February and April. Humidity is low, and average rainfall varies from almost zero in the coastal desert to more than 600 mm in the Caprivi Strip. Rainfall is however highly variable, and droughts are common. The last bad rainy season with rainfall far below the annual average occurred in summer 2006/07. Weather and climate in the coastal area are dominated by the cold, north-flowing Benguela current of the Atlantic Ocean which accounts for very low precipitation (50 mm per year or less), frequent dense fog, and overall lower temperatures than in the rest of the country. In Winter, occasionally a condition known as Bergwind (German: Mountain breeze) or Oosweer (Afrikaans: East weather) occurs, a hot dry wind blowing from the inland to the coast. As the area behind the coast is a desert, these winds can develop into sand storms with sand deposits in the Atlantic Ocean visible on satellite images. The Central Plateau and Kalahari areas have wide diurnal temperature ranges of up to 30 °C. Efundja, the annual flooding of the northern parts of the country, often causes not only damage to infrastructure but loss of life. The rains that cause these floods originate in Angola, flow into Namibia’s Cuvelai basin, and fill the Oshanas (Oshiwambo: flood plains) there. The worst floods so far occurred in March 2011 and displaced 21,000 people. Namibia is the driest country in sub-Saharan Africa and depends largely on groundwater. With an average rainfall of about 350 mm per annum, the highest rainfall occurs in the Caprivi in the northeast (about 600 mm per annum) and decreases in a westerly and southwesterly direction to as little as 50 mm and less per annum at the coast. The only perennial rivers are found on the national borders with South Africa, Angola, Zambia, and the short border with Botswana in the Caprivi. In the interior of the country surface water is available only in the summer months when rivers are in flood after exceptional rainfalls. Otherwise, surface water is restricted to a few large storage dams retaining and damming up these seasonal floods and their runoff. Thus, where people don’t live near perennial rivers or make use of the storage dams, they are dependent on groundwater to provide for their water needs. From a geographic and water consumer viewpoint, it is therefore clear that a very large proportion of the Namibian population is dependent on groundwater for their (economic) livelihood. Despite considerable investment in drilling, borehole design and construction as well as pumping and maintenance, groundwater is usually the most economic way of supplying water. The advantage of using groundwater sources is that even isolated communities and those economic activities located far from good surface water sources such as mining, agriculture, and tourism can be supplied from groundwater over nearly 80% of the country. More than 100,000 boreholes have been drilled in Namibia over the past century. One third of these boreholes have been drilled dry; therefore, better and more sustainable groundwater exploration methods are needed. Communal Wildlife Conservancies Namibia is one of few countries in the world to specifically address conservation and protection of natural resources in its constitution. Article 95 states, “The State shall actively promote and maintain the welfare of the people by adopting international policies aimed at the following: maintenance of ecosystems, essential ecological processes, and biological diversity of Namibia, and utilisation of living natural resources on a sustainable basis for the benefit of all Namibians, both present and future.” In 1993, the newly formed government of Namibia received funding from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) through its Living in a Finite Environment (LIFE) Project. The Ministry of Environment and Tourism with the financial support from organisations such as USAID, Endangered Wildlife Trust, WWF, and Canadian Ambassador’s Fund, together form a Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) support structure. The main goal of this project is promote sustainable natural resource management by giving local communities rights to wildlife management and tourism. Mining and electricity Providing 25% of Namibia’s revenue, mining is the single most important contributor to the economy. Namibia is the fourth largest exporter of non-fuel minerals in Africa and the world’s fourth largest producer of uranium. There has been significant investment in uranium mining and Namibia is set to become the largest exporter of uranium by 2015. Rich alluvial diamond deposits make Namibia a primary source for gem-quality diamonds. While Namibia is known predominantly for its gem diamond and uranium deposits, a number of other minerals are extracted industrially such as lead, tungsten, gold, tin, fluorspar, manganese, marble, copper and zinc. There are offshore gas deposits in the Atlantic Ocean that are planned to be extracted in the future. According to “The Diamond Investigation”, a book about the global diamond market, from 1978, De Beers, the largest diamond company, bought most of the Namibian diamonds, and would continue to do so, because “whatever government eventually comes to power they will need this revenue to survive”. Domestic supply voltage is 220V AC. Electricity is generated mainly by thermal and hydroelectric power plants. Non-conventional methods of electricity generation also play some role. Encouraged by the rich uranium deposits the Namibian government plans to erect its first nuclear power station by 2018, also uranium enrichment is envisaged to happen locally. Tourism is a major contributor (14.5%) to Namibia’s GDP, creating tens of thousands of jobs (18.2% of all employment) directly or indirectly and servicing over a million tourists per annum. The country is among the prime destinations in Africa and is known for ecotourism which features Namibia’s extensive wildlife. There are many lodges and reserves to accommodate eco-tourists. Sport Hunting is also a large, and growing component of the Namibian economy, accounting for 14% of total tourism in the year 2000, or $19.6 million US dollars, with Namibia boasting numerous species sought after by international sport hunters. In addition, extreme sports such as sandboarding, skydiving and 4x4ing have become popular, and many cities have companies that provide tours. The most visited places include the Caprivi Strip, Fish River Canyon, Sossusvlei, the Skeleton Coast Park, Sesriem, Etosha Pan and the coastal towns of Swakopmund, Walvis Bay and Lüderitz. Namibia has the second-lowest population density of any sovereign country, after Mongolia. The majority of the Namibian population is of Bantu-speaking origin – mostly of the Ovambo ethnicity, which forms about half of the population – residing mainly in the north of the country, although many are now resident in towns throughout Namibia. Other ethnic groups are the Herero and Himba people, who speak a similar language, and the Damara, who speak the same “click” language as the Nama. In addition to the Bantu majority, there are large groups of Khoisan (such as Nama and San), who are descendants of the original inhabitants of Southern Africa. The country also contains some descendants of refugees from Angola. There are also two smaller groups of people with mixed racial origins, called “Coloureds” and “Basters”, who together make up 8.0% (with the Coloureds outnumbering the Basters two to one). There is a large Chinese minority in Namibia. Whites (mainly of Afrikaner, German, British and Portuguese origin) make up about 7.0% of the population. Although their percentage of population is decreasing due to emigration they still form the second-largest population of European ancestry, both in terms of percentage and actual numbers, in Sub-Saharan Africa after that of South Africa. Most Namibian whites and nearly all those of mixed race speak Afrikaans and share similar origins, culture, and religion as the white and coloured populations of South Africa. A smaller proportion of whites (around 30,000) trace their family origins directly back to German colonial settlers and maintain German cultural and educational institutions. Nearly all Portuguese settlers came to the country from the former Portuguese colony of Angola. The 1960 census reported 526,004 persons in what was then South-West Africa, including 73,464 whites (14%). Namibia conducts a census every ten years. After independence the first Population and Housing Census was carried out in 1991, further rounds followed in 2001 and 2011. The data collection method is to count every person resident in Namibia on the census reference night, wherever they happen to be. This is called the de facto method. For enumeration purposes the country is demarcated into 4,042 enumeration areas. These areas do not overlap with constituency boundaries to get reliable data for election purposes as well. The 2011 Population and Housing Census counted 2,113,077 inhabitants of Namibia. Between 2001 and 2011 the annual population growth was 1.4%, down from 2.6% in the previous ten–year period. The Christian community makes up 80%–90% of the population of Namibia, with at least 50% of these Lutheran. 10%–20% of the population hold indigenous beliefs. Missionary activities during the 1800s resulted in many Namibians to convert to Christianity. While most Namibian Christians are Lutheran, there also are Roman Catholic, Methodist, Anglican, African Methodist Episcopal, Dutch Reformed, Rhenish Christians, and Mormons (the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints). Namibia is home to a small Jewish community of about 100 members. Since 1991 English is the only official language, though only about 3% of the population speaks it as a home language. Its implementation is focused on the civil service, education and the broadcasting system. Up to 1990, German and Afrikaans were also official languages. Long before Namibia’s independence from South Africa, SWAPO was of the opinion that the country should become officially monolingual, choosing this approach in contrast to that of its neighbour South Africa (which granted all 11 of its major languages official status), which was seen by them as “a deliberate policy of ethnolinguistic fragmentation.” Consequently, SWAPO instituted English as the sole official language of Namibia. Some other languages have received semi-official recognition by being allowed as medium of instruction in primary schools. It is expected of private schools to follow the same policy as state schools, and “English language” is a compulsory subject. Half of all Namibians speak Oshiwambo as their first language, whereas the most widely understood and spoken language is Afrikaans. Among the younger generation, English is rapidly gaining hold. Both Afrikaans and English are used primarily as a second language reserved for public communication, but small first-language groups exist throughout the country. Portuguese has been added as a second language of instruction in the schools. According to the 2011 census, the most common languages are Oshiwambo (the most spoken language for 49% of households), Nama/Damara (11.3%), Afrikaans (10.4%), Kavango (9%), Otjiherero (9%). While the official language is English, most of the white population speaks either German or Afrikaans. Even today, 99 years after the end of the German colonial era, the German language plays a leading role as a commercial language. Afrikaans is spoken by 60% of the white community, German is spoken by 32%, English is spoken by 7% and Portuguese by 1%. Geographical proximity to Portuguese-speaking Angola explains the relatively high number of Portuguese speakers; in 2011 these were estimated to be 100,000, or 4–5% of the total population. or even better Follow Wandelgek on:

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Neuroethology is the evolutionary and comparative approach to the study of animal behavior and its underlying mechanistic control by the nervous system. This interdisciplinary branch of behavioral neuroscience endeavors to understand how the central nervous system translates biologically relevant stimuli into natural behavior. For example, many bats are capable of echolocation which is used for prey capture and navigation. The auditory system of bats is often cited as an example for how acoustic properties of sounds can be converted into a sensory map of behaviorally relevant features of sounds. Neuroethologists hope to uncover general principles of the nervous system from the study of animals with exaggerated or specialized behaviors. As its name implies, neuroethology is a multidisciplinary field composed of neurobiology (the study of the nervous system) and ethology (the study of animal behavior in natural conditions). A central theme of the field of neuroethology, delineating it from other branches of neuroscience, is this focus on natural behavior, which may be thought of as those behaviors generated through means of natural selection (i.e. finding mates, navigation, locomotion, predator avoidance) rather than behaviors in disease states, or behavioral tasks that are particular to the laboratory. - 1 Philosophy - 2 History - 3 Modern neuroethology - 4 Application to technology - 5 Case studies - 6 Computational neuroethology - 7 Model systems - 8 See also - 9 References - 10 Sources - 11 Further reading - 12 External links Neuroethology is an integrative approach to the study of animal behavior that draws upon several disciplines. Its approach stems from the theory that animals' nervous systems have evolved to address problems of sensing and acting in certain environmental niches and that their nervous systems are best understood in the context of the problems they have evolved to solve. In accordance with Krogh's principle, neuroethologists often study animals that are "specialists" in the behavior the researcher wishes to study e.g. honeybees and social behavior, bat echolocation, owl sound localization, etc. The scope of neuroethological inquiry might be summarized by Jörg-Peter Ewert, a pioneer of neuroethology, when he considers the types of questions central to neuroethology in his 1980 introductory text to the field: - How are stimuli detected by an organism? - How are environmental stimuli in the external world represented in the nervous system? - How is information about a stimulus acquired, stored and recalled by the nervous system? - How is a behavioral pattern encoded by neural networks? - How is behavior coordinated and controlled by the nervous system? - How can the ontogenetic development of behavior be related to neural mechanisms? Often central to addressing questions in neuroethology are comparative methodologies, drawing upon knowledge about related organisms' nervous systems, anatomies, life histories, behaviors and environmental niches. While it is not unusual for many types of neurobiology experiments to give rise to behavioral questions, many neuroethologists often begin their research programs by observing a species' behavior in its natural environment. Other approaches to understanding nervous systems include the systems identification approach, popular in engineering. The idea is to stimulate the system using a non-natural stimulus with certain properties. The system's response to the stimulus may be used to analyze the operation of the system. Such an approach is useful for linear systems, but the nervous system is notoriously nonlinear, and neuroethologists argue that such an approach is limited. This argument is supported by experiments in the auditory system, which show that neural responses to complex sounds, like social calls, can not be predicted by the knowledge gained from studying the responses due to pure tones (one of the non-natural stimuli favored by auditory neurophysiologists). This is because of the non-linearity of the system. Modern neuroethology is largely influenced by the research techniques used. Neural approaches are necessarily very diverse, as is evident through the variety of questions asked, measuring techniques used, relationships explored, and model systems employed. Techniques utilized since 1984 include the use of intracellular dyes, which make maps of identified neurons possible, and the use of brain slices, which bring vertebrate brains into better observation through intracellular electrodes (Hoyle 1984). Currently, other fields toward which neuroethology may be headed include computational neuroscience, molecular genetics, neuroendocrinology and epigenetics. The existing field of neural modeling may also expand into neuroethological terrain, due to its practical uses in robotics. In all this, neuroethologists must use the right level of simplicity to effectively guide research towards accomplishing the goals of neuroethology. Critics of neuroethology might consider it a branch of neuroscience concerned with 'animal trivia'. Though neuroethological subjects tend not to be traditional neurobiological model systems (i.e. Drosophila, C. elegans, or Danio rerio), neuroethological approaches emphasizing comparative methods have uncovered many concepts central to neuroscience as a whole, such as lateral inhibition, coincidence detection, and sensory maps. The discipline of neuroethology has also discovered and explained the only vertebrate behavior for which the entire neural circuit has been described: the electric fish jamming avoidance response. Beyond its conceptual contributions, neuroethology makes indirect contributions to advancing human health. By understanding simpler nervous systems, many clinicians have used concepts uncovered by neuroethology and other branches of neuroscience to develop treatments for devastating human diseases. The field of neuroethology owes part of its existence to the establishment of ethology as a unique discipline within the discipline of Zoology. Although animal behavior had been studied since the time of Aristotle (384–342 BC), it was not until the early twentieth century that ethology finally became distinguished from natural science (a strictly descriptive field) and ecology. The main catalysts behind this new distinction were the research and writings of Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen. Konrad Lorenz was born in Austria in 1903, and is widely known for his contribution of the theory of fixed action patterns (FAPs): endogenous, instinctive behaviors involving a complex sequence of movements that are triggered ("released") by a certain kind of stimulus. This sequence always proceeds to completion, even if the original stimulus is removed. It is also species-specific and performed by nearly all members. Lorenz constructed his famous "hydraulic model" to help illustrate this concept, as well as the concept of action specific energy, or drives. Niko Tinbergen was born in the Netherlands in 1907 and worked closely with Lorenz in the development of the FAP theory; their studies focused on the egg retrieval response of nesting geese. Tinbergen performed extensive research on the releasing mechanisms of particular FAPs, and used the bill-pecking behavior of baby herring gulls as his model system. This led to the concept of the supernormal stimulus. Tinbergen is also well known for his four questions that he believed ethologists should be asking about any given animal behavior; among these is that of the mechanism of the behavior, on a physiological, neural and molecular level, and this question can be thought of in many regards as the keystone question in neuroethology. Tinbergen also emphasized the need for ethologists and neurophysiologists to work together in their studies, a unity that has become a reality in the field of neuroethology. Unlike behaviorism, which studied animals' reactions to non-natural stimuli in artificial, laboratory conditions, ethology sought to categorize and analyze the natural behaviors of animals in a field setting. Similarly, neuroethology asks questions about the neural bases of naturally occurring behaviors, and seeks to mimic the natural context as much as possible in the laboratory. Although the development of ethology as a distinct discipline was crucial to the advent of neuroethology, equally important was the development of a more comprehensive understanding of neuroscience. Contributors to this new understanding were the Spanish Neuroanatomist, Ramon y Cajal (born in 1852), and physiologists Charles Sherrington, Edgar Adrian, Alan Hodgkin, and Andrew Huxley. Charles Sherrington, who was born in Great Britain in 1857, is famous for his work on the nerve synapse as the site of transmission of nerve impulses, and for his work on reflexes in the spinal cord. His research also led him to hypothesize that every muscular activation is coupled to an inhibition of the opposing muscle. He was awarded a Nobel Prize for his work in 1932 along with Lord Edgar Adrian who made the first physiological recordings of neural activity from single nerve fibers. Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley (born 1914 and 1917, respectively, in Great Britain), are known for their collaborative effort to understand the production of action potentials in the giant axons of squid. The pair also proposed the existence of ion channels to facilitate action potential initiation, and were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1963 for their efforts. As a result of this pioneering research, many scientists then sought to connect the physiological aspects of the nervous and sensory systems to specific behaviors. These scientists – Karl von Frisch, Erich von Holst, and Theodore Bullock – are frequently referred to as the "fathers" of neuroethology. Neuroethology did not really come into its own, though, until the 1970s and 1980s, when new, sophisticated experimental methods allowed researchers such as Masakazu Konishi, Walter Heiligenberg, Jörg-Peter Ewert, and others to study the neural circuits underlying verifiable behavior. The International Society for Neuroethology represents the present discipline of neuroethology, which was founded on the occasion of the NATO-Advanced Study Institute "Advances in Vertebrate Neuroethology" (August 13–24, 1981) organized by J.-P. Ewert, D.J. Ingle and R.R. Capranica, held at the University of Kassel in Hofgeismar, Germany (cf. report Trends in Neurosci. 5:141-143,1982). Its first president was Theodore H. Bullock. The society has met every three years since its first meeting in Tokyo in 1986. Its membership draws from many research programs around the world; many of its members are students and faculty members from medical schools and neurobiology departments from various universities. Modern advances in neurophysiology techniques have enabled more exacting approaches in an ever-increasing number of animal systems, as size limitations are being dramatically overcome. Survey of the most recent (2007) congress of the ISN meeting symposia topics gives some idea of the field's breadth: - Comparative aspects of spatial memory (rodents, birds, humans, bats) - Influences of higher processing centers in active sensing (primates, owls, electric fish, rodents, frogs) - Animal signaling plasticity over many time scales (electric fish, frogs, birds) - Song production and learning in passerine birds - Primate sociality - Optimal function of sensory systems (flies, moths, frogs, fish) - Neuronal complexity in behavior (insects, computational) - Contributions of genes to behavior (Drosophila, honeybees, zebrafish) - Eye and head movement (crustaceans, humans, robots) - Hormonal actions in brain and behavior (rodents, primates, fish, frogs, and birds) - Cognition in insects (honeybee) Application to technology Neuroethology can help create advancements in technology through an advanced understanding of animal behavior. Model systems were generalized from the study of simple and related animals to humans. For example, the neuronal cortical space map discovered in bats, a specialized champion of hearing and navigating, elucidated the concept of a computational space map. In addition, the discovery of the space map in the barn owl led to the first neuronal example of the Jeffress model. This understanding is translatable to understanding spatial localization in humans, a mammalian relative of the bat. Today, knowledge learned from neuroethology are being applied in new technologies. For example, Randall Beer and his colleagues used algorithms learned from insect walking behavior to create robots designed to walk on uneven surfaces (Beer et al.). Neuroethology and technology contribute to one another bidirectionally. Neuroethologists seek to understand the neural basis of a behavior as it would occur in an animal's natural environment but the techniques for neurophysiological analysis are lab-based, and cannot be performed in the field setting. This dichotomy between field and lab studies poses a challenge for neuroethology. From the neurophysiology perspective, experiments must be designed for controls and objective rigor, which contrasts with the ethology perspective – that the experiment be applicable to the animal's natural condition, which is uncontrolled, or subject to the dynamics of the environment. An early example of this is when Walter Rudolf Hess developed focal brain stimulation technique to examine a cat's brain controls of vegetative functions in addition to other behaviors. Even though this was a breakthrough in technological abilities and technique, it was not used by many neuroethologists originally because it compromised a cat's natural state, and, therefore, in their minds, devalued the experiments' relevance to real situations. When intellectual obstacles like this were overcome, it led to a golden age of neuroethology, by focusing on simple and robust forms of behavior, and by applying modern neurobiological methods to explore the entire chain of sensory and neural mechanisms underlying these behaviors (Zupanc 2004). New technology allows neuroethologists to attach electrodes to even very sensitive parts of an animal such as its brain while it interacts with its environment. The founders of neuroethology ushered this understanding and incorporated technology and creative experimental design. Since then even indirect technological advancements such as battery-powered and waterproofed instruments have allowed neuroethologists to mimic natural conditions in the lab while they study behaviors objectively. In addition, the electronics required for amplifying neural signals and for transmitting them over a certain distance have enabled neuroscientists to record from behaving animals performing activities in naturalistic environments. Emerging technologies can complement neuroethology, augmenting the feasibility of this valuable perspective of natural neurophysiology. Another challenge, and perhaps part of the beauty of neuroethology, is experimental design. The value of neuroethological criteria speak to the reliability of these experiments, because these discoveries represent behavior in the environments in which they evolved. Neuroethologists foresee future advancements through using new technologies and techniques, such as computational neuroscience, neuroendocrinology, and molecular genetics that mimic natural environments. Jamming avoidance response In 1963, Akira Watanabe and Kimihisa Takeda discovered the behavior of the jamming avoidance response in the knifefish Eigenmannia sp. In collaboration with T.H. Bullock and colleagues, the behavior was further developed. Finally, the work of W. Heiligenberg expanded it into a full neuroethology study by examining the series of neural connections that led to the behavior. Eigenmannia is a weakly electric fish that can generate electric discharges through electrocytes in its tail. Furthermore, it has the ability to electrolocate by analyzing the perturbations in its electric field. However, when the frequency of a neighboring fish's current is very close (less than 20 Hz difference) to that of its own, the fish will avoid having their signals interfere through a behavior known as Jamming Avoidance Response. If the neighbor's frequency is higher than the fish's discharge frequency, the fish will lower its frequency, and vice versa. The sign of the frequency difference is determined by analyzing the "beat" pattern of the incoming interference which consists of the combination of the two fish's discharge patterns. Neuroethologists performed several experiments under Eigenmannia's natural conditions to study how it determined the sign of the frequency difference. They manipulated the fish's discharge by injecting it with curare which prevented its natural electric organ from discharging. Then, an electrode was placed in its mouth and another was placed at the tip of its tail. Likewise, the neighboring fish's electric field was mimicked using another set of electrodes. This experiment allowed neuroethologists to manipulate different discharge frequencies and observe the fish's behavior. From the results, they were able to conclude that the electric field frequency, rather than an internal frequency measure, was used as a reference. This experiment is significant in that not only does it reveal a crucial neural mechanism underlying the behavior but also demonstrates the value neuroethologists place on studying animals in their natural habitats. Feature analysis in toad vision The recognition of prey and predators in the toad was first studied in depth by Jörg-Peter Ewert (Ewert 1974; see also 2004). He began by observing the natural prey-catching behavior of the common toad (Bufo bufo) and concluded that the animal followed a sequence that consisted of stalking, binocular fixation, snapping, swallowing and mouth-wiping. However, initially, the toad's actions were dependent on specific features of the sensory stimulus: whether it demonstrated worm or anti-worm configurations. It was observed that the worm configuration, which signaled prey, was initiated by movement along the object's long axis, whereas anti-worm configuration, which signaled predator, was due to movement along the short axis. (Zupanc 2004). Ewert and coworkers adopted a variety of methods to study the predator versus prey behavior response. They conducted recording experiments where they inserted electrodes into the brain, while the toad was presented with worm or anti-worm stimuli. This technique was repeated at different levels of the visual system and also allowed feature detectors to be identified. In focus was the discovery of prey-selective neurons in the optic tectum, whose axons could be traced towards the snapping pattern generating cells in the hypoglossal nucleus. The discharge patterns of prey-selective tectal neurons in response to prey objects – in freely moving toads – "predicted" prey-catching reactions such as snapping. Another approach, called stimulation experiment, was carried out in freely moving toads. Focal electrical stimuli were applied to different regions of the brain, and the toad's response was observed. When the thalamic-pretectal region was stimulated, the toad exhibited escape responses, but when the tectum was stimulated in an area close to prey-selective neurons, the toad engaged in prey catching behavior (Carew 2000). Furthermore, neuroanatomical experiments were carried out where the toad's thalamic-pretectal/tectal connection was lesioned and the resulting deficit noted: the prey-selective properties were abolished both in the responses of prey-selective neurons and in the prey catching behavior. These and other experiments suggest that prey selectivity results from pretecto-tectal influences. Ewert and coworkers showed in toads that there are stimulus-response mediating pathways that translate perception (of visual sign stimuli) into action (adequate behavioral responses). In addition there are modulatory loops that initiate, modify or specify this mediation (Ewert 2004). Regarding the latter, for example, the telencephalic caudal ventral striatum is involved in a loop gating the stimulus-response mediation in a manner of directed attention. The telencephalic ventral medial pallium („primordium hippocampi"), however, is involved in loops that either modify prey-selection due to associative learning or specify prey-selection due to non-associative learning, respectively. Computational neuroethology (CN or CNE) is concerned with the computer modelling of the neural mechanisms underlying animal behaviors. Together with the term "artificial ethology," the term "computational neuroethology" was first published in literature by Achacoso and Yamamoto in the Spring of 1990, based on their pioneering work on the connectome of C. elegans in 1989, with further publications in 1992. Computational neuroethology was argued for in depth later in 1990 by Randall Beer and by Dave Cliff both of whom acknowledged the strong influence of Michael Arbib's Rana Computatrix computational model of neural mechanisms for visual guidance in frogs and toads. CNE systems work within a closed-loop environment; that is, they perceive their (perhaps artificial) environment directly, rather than through human input, as is typical in AI systems. For example, Barlow et al. developed a time-dependent model for the retina of the horseshoe crab Limulus polyphemus on a Connection Machine (Model CM-2). Instead of feeding the model retina with idealized input signals, they exposed the simulation to digitized video sequences made underwater, and compared its response with those of real animals. - Bat echolocation – nocturnal flight navigation and prey capture; location of objects using echo returns of its own call - Oscine bird song – zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata), canary (Serinus canaria) and white-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys); song learning as a model for human speech development - Electric fish – navigation, communication, Jamming Avoidance Response (JAR), corollary discharge, expectation generators, and spike timing dependent plasticity - Barn owl auditory spatial map – nocturnal prey location and capture - Toad vision – discrimination of prey versus predator – Video "Image processing in the toad's visual system: behavior, brain function, artificial neuronal net" - Circadian rhythm – influence of various circadian controlled behaviors by the suprachiasmatic nucleus - Cricket song – mate attraction and corollary discharge - Fish Mauthner cells – C-start escape response and underwater directional hearing - Fly – Microscale directional hearing in Ormia ochracea, sex differences of the visual system in Bibionidae, and spatial navigation in chasing behavior of Fannia canicularis - Noctuid moths – ultrasound avoidance response to bat calls - Aplysia sea hares – learning and memory in startle response - Rat – spatial memory and navigation - Salmon homing – olfactory imprinting and thyroid hormones - Crayfish – escape and startle behaviors, aggression and formation of social hierarchies - Cichlid fish – aggression and attack behaviors - Honey bee – learning, navigation, vision, olfaction, flight, aggression, foraging - Monarch butterfly – navigational mechanisms - More Model Systems and Information - Niko Tinbergen - Karl von Frisch - Konrad Lorenz - Erich von Holst - Theodore H. Bullock - Jörg-Peter Ewert - Eric Knudsen - Masakazu Konishi - Hoyle, G. (1984) The scope of Neuroethology. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 7: 367–412. - Ewert, P. (1980) Neuroethology. Springer-Verlag. New York. - Camhi, J. (1984) Neuroethology. Sinauer. Sunderland Mass. - Suga, N. (1989). "Principles of auditory information-processing derived from neuroethology." J Exp Biol 146: 277–86. - Bullock T.H. (1999) Neuroethology has pregnant agendas. J. Comp. Physiol. A 185(4): 291-295 - Ewert J.-P., Borchers H.-W. (1974) Antwort von retinalen Ganglienzellen bei freibeweglichen Kröten (Bufo bufo L.). [Responses of retinal ganglion cells in freely moving toads] Abstract available. J. Comp. Physiol. 92: 117-130 - Schürg-Pfeiffer E., Spreckelsen C., and Ewert J.-P. (1993) Temporal discharge patterns of tectal and medullary neurons chronically recorded during snapping toward prey in toads Bufo bufo spinosus. J. Comp. Physiol. A 173: 363-376 - Zupanc, Günther K.H. (2004). Behavioral Neurobiology an Integrative Approach. Oxford University Press. New York. - Stan Franklin (1998). Artificial Minds. MIT Press. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-0-262-56109-9. - Margaret A. Boden (2006). Mind as machine. Oxford University Press. p. 1291. ISBN 978-0-19-924144-6. - Achacoso, Theodore B.; Yamamoto, William S. (1990). "Artificial Ethology and Computational Neuroethology: A Scientific Discipline and Its Subset by Sharpening and Extending the Definition of Artificial Intelligence". Perspectives in Biology and Medicine. 33 (3): 379–390. doi:10.1353/pbm.1990.0020. ISSN 1529-8795. - Achacoso, Theodore B.; Fernandez, Victor; Nguyen, Duc C.; Yamamoto, William S. (1989-11-08). "Computer Representation of the Synaptic Connectivity of Caenorhabditis Elegans". Proceedings of the Annual Symposium on Computer Application in Medical Care: 330–334. ISSN 0195-4210. PMC 2245716. - "Ay's Neuroanatomy of C. Elegans for Computation". CRC Press. Retrieved 2019-10-16. - Yamamoto, William S.; Achacoso, Theodore B. (1992-06-01). "Scaling up the nervous system of Caenorhabditis elegans: Is one ape equal to 33 million worms?". Computers and Biomedical Research. 25 (3): 279–291. doi:10.1016/0010-4809(92)90043-A. ISSN 0010-4809. - Randall D. Beer (1990). Intelligence as Adaptive Behavior: An experiment in computational neuroethology. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-084730-2. - D. Cliff (1990) Computational Neuroethology: A provisional manifesto. In J.-A. Meyer and S. W. Wilson (editors): From Animals to Animats: Proceedings of the First International Conference on the Simulation of Adaptive Behaviour (SAB90). MIT Press Bradford Books, 1991, pp. 29–39. - M. A. Arbib (1987) Levels of Modeling of Mechanisms of Visually Guided Behavior. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:407–465. - D. Cliff (2003) Neuroethology, Computational. In M. A. Arbib (editor): The Handbook of Brain Theory and Neural Networks. Second Edition. MIT Press Bradford Books. pp. 737–741. - Robert B. Barlow, Jr., Ramkrishna Prakash, and Eduardo Solessio (1993). The Neural Network of the Limulus Retina: From Computer to Behavior. American Zoologist 33(1):66-78 - Beer D., Randall, Roy E. Ritzmann, Thomas McKenna (1993) Biological neural networks in invertebrate neuroethology and robotics. Boston : Academic Press. - Camhi, J.M. (1984) Neuroethology: Nerve cells and the Natural behavior of Animals, Sinauer Associates. - Carew, T.J. (2000) Feature analysis in Toads. Behavioral Neurobiology, Sunderland, MA: Sinauer, pp. 95–119. - Carew, T.J. (2000) Behavioral neurobiology: The Cellular Organization of Natural Behavior, Sinauer Associates. - Ewert, J.-P. (1974) The neural basis of visually guided behavior. Scientific American 230(3):34-42 - Ewert J.-P. (2004) Motion perception shapes the visual world of amphibians. In: Prete F.R. (Ed.) Complex Worlds from Simpler Nervous Systems. Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, pp. 117–160 - Hoyle, G. (1984) The scope of Neuroethology. Behavioural Brain Science 7:367-412. Graham Hoyle put forth a rather narrow definition of the goals and subject matter of neuroethology and links the field to the field of ethology. This is followed by commentaries from many prominent neuroethologists. It makes for fascinating reading. - Metzner, W. (1993) The Jamming avoidance response in Eigenmannia is controlled by two separate motor pathways. The Journal of Neuroscience. 13(5):1862-1878 - Pfluger, H.-J. and R. Menzel (1999) Neuroethology, its roots and future. J Comp Physiol A 185:389-392. - Zupanc, G.K.H. (2004) Behavioral Neurobiology: An Integrative Approach. Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK. - Sillar, K.T., Picton, L.P., Heitler, W.J. (2016) The Neuroethology of Predation and Escape. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York. - Zupanc, G.K.H. (2004) Behavioral Neurobiology an Integrative Approach. Oxford University Press, New York. - Carew, T.J. (2000) Behavioral Neurobiology: The Cellular Organization of Natural Behavior. Sinauer, Sunderland Mass. - Simmons, P., Young, D. (1999) Nerve Cells and Animal Behaviour. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press, New York. - Simmons, P., Young, D. (2010) Nerve Cells and Animal Behaviour. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press, New York. - Camhi J. (1984) Neuroethology: Nerve Cells and the Natural Behavior of Animals. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland Mass. - Guthrie, D.M. (1980) Neuroethology: An Introduction. Wiley, New York. - Ewert, J.-P. (1980) Neuroethology: An Introduction to the Neurophysiological Fundamentals of Behaviour. Springer-Verlag, New York. - Ewert, J.-P. (1976) Neuroethologie: Einführung in die neurophysiologischen Grundlagen des Verhaltens. HT 181. Springer-Verlag Heidelberg, Berlin, New York. - Kandel, E.R. (1976) Cellular Basis of Behavior: An Introduction to Behavioral Neurobiology. W.H. Freeman - Roeder, K.D. (1967) Nerve Cells and Insect Behavior. Harvard University Press, Cambridge Mass. - Marler, P., Hamilton, W.J. (1966) Mechanisms of Animal Behavior. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York. - Leslie Brothers & Brian Ring (1992), "A neuroethological framework for the representation of minds", Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 4 (2): 107–118, doi:10.1162/jocn.1922.214.171.124 - Günther K. H. Zupanc (2010), Neuroethology, Scholarpedia, 5(10):5306.

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United States involvement in regime change in Latin America The neutrality of this article is disputed. (September 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The United States involvement in regime change in Latin America was most prominent during the Cold War, in part due to the Truman Doctrine of fighting Communism, although some precedent exists especially during the early 20th century. In Argentina, military forces overthrew the democratically elected President Isabel Perón in the 1976 Argentine coup d'état, starting the military dictatorship of General Jorge Rafael Videla, known as National Reorganization Process, resulting with around 30,000 forced disappearances. Both the coup and the following authoritarian regime was eagerly endorsed and supported by the United States government with US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger paying several official visits to Argentina during the dictatorship. Among the many human rights violations committed during the period were extrajudicial arrest, mass executions, torture, rape, disappearances of political prisoners and dissenters, and illegal relocations of children born from pregnant women (both pregnant before their imprisonment or made pregnant by the continuous rape). According to Spanish judge Baltazar Garzón, Kissinger was a witness to these crimes. Brazil experienced several decades of authoritarian governments, especially after the US-backed 1964 Brazilian coup d'état against social democrat João Goulart promoted, according to then President John F. Kennedy, to "prevent Brazil from becoming another Cuba". After the democratic election of President Salvador Allende in 1970, an economic war ordered by President Richard Nixon, among other things, caused the 1973 Chilean coup d'état with the involvement of the CIA due to Allende’s democratic socialist leanings. What follows was the decades-long US-backed military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet. In 1988 a presidential referendum was held in order to confirm Pinochet’s ruling for 8 more years. The oppositional Concertation of Parties for Democracy endorsed the “No” option, winning the referendum and ending Pinochet’s rule democratically. After that free elections were held in 1989 with Concertation winning again. Costa Rica was the only country in Latin America that never had a long lasting authoritarian government in the 20th century. Its only dictatorship during the period was after the 1917 Costa Rican coup d'état lead by Minister of War Federico Tinoco Granados against President Alfredo González Flores after González attempted to increase tax to the wealthiest, and it lasted only two years. In fact, the US government lead by Democratic President Woodrow Wilson did not recognize Tinoco's rule and, despite the fact that the United Fruit Company was one of the affected companies by González' tax reform, helped the opposition that quickly overthrew Tinoco after a few months of warfare. Years later Christian socialist medic Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia of the National Republican Party would reach power through democratic means, promoting a general social reform and allied to the Costa Rican Communist Party. Tensions between government and the opposition, supported by the CIA, caused the short-lived Costa Rican Civil War of 1948 that ended Calderón's government and led to the short de facto rule of 18 months by José Figueres Ferrer. However Figueres also held some left-leaning ideas and continued the social reformation. In any case, after the war democracy was quickly restored and a two-party system encompassed by the parties of the Calderonistas and Figueristas developed in the country for nearly 60 years. After several peasant and workers uprisings in the country against the oligarchic and anti-democratic governments, often under the control of powerful American companies' interests like the United Fruit Company, with the appearance of figures like Farabundo Martí who lead these social revolts and were violently crushed, efforts to take the power democratically were often thwarted by US intervention. Civil war spread with US-endorsed governments in El Salvador facing guerrillas. Peasants and workers (mostly of indigenous descent) revolt during the first half of the Guatemalan 20th century due to harsh conditions and abuse from landlords and the government-supported American United Fruit Company were brutally repressed. This led to the democratic election of Jacobo Arbenz. Arbenz was overthrown during the US-backed 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état leading to authoritarian governments endored by the United States. and nearly 40 years of civil war in the Central American country. United States president Ronald Reagan, who sought to prevent the spread of communism in Central American countries near the United States, officially met with Guatemalan dictator Efraín Ríos Montt, accused of crimes against humanity, in Honduras, giving a strong support to his regime. Panamanian de facto ruler Omar Torrijos' unexpected death in a plane crash has been attributed to US agents in collaboration with Manuel Noriega. According to John Perkins's book Confessions of an Economic Hit Man the motive behind it was Torrijo's negotiations with Japanese businessmen to expand the Panama Canal excluding American firms. Torrijos was also a supporter of the anti-Somoza FSLN rebel group in Nicaragua which stained his relationship with Reagan. Torrijos was succeeded by more pro-American dictator Manuel Noriega, who sided with the US interests during Torrijos government. Conservative Colorado Party in Paraguay ruled the country for 65 consecutive years, including the American-supported brutal dictatorship of Alfredo Stroessner that lasted 35 years, from 1954 to 1989. Paraguay is one of the poorest countries of South America. This dominant-party authoritarian system was temporarily broken in the 2008 Paraguayan general election, when practically the entire opposition united in the Patriotic Alliance for Change manage to elect former Bishop Fernando Lugo of the Christian Democratic Party as President of Paraguay. Lugo's government was praised for its social reforms including such as investments in low-income housing, the introduction of free treatment in public hospitals, the introduction of cash transfers for Paraguay's most impoverished citizens and indigenous rights. After 150 years of traditional parties governments in Uruguay, a civic-military dictatorship of Uruguay backed by the United States started after the military-led 1973 Uruguayan coup d'état that suppressed the Constitution of Uruguay of 1967, empowering President Juan María Bordaberry as dictator. Trade union leaders and political opponents were arrested, killed or exiled, and human rights violations were abundant. Democracy was finally restored in the 1984 Uruguayan general election. In April 2002, president Hugo Chávez was briefly ousted from power in the 2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt. Members of the Bush administration held meetings with opposition leaders four months before the coup attempt and Chávez accused the United States of being involved. The OAS and all of Venezuela's neighbours denounced the coup attempt, but the United States acknowledged the new government. Chávez used the judiciary in order to detain or intimidate opposition politicians or NGOs accused of receiving such civil society assistance purportedly in order to overthrow the government. Chávez died in office in 2013, and was succeeded by Nicolás Maduro. Maduro's presidency has coincided with a decline in Venezuela's socioeconomic status, with crime, inflation, poverty and hunger increasing. Analysts and critics have attributed Venezuela's decline to both Chávez and Maduro's economic policies, while Maduro has blamed speculation and economic warfare waged by his political opponents. In early 2015, the Maduro government accused the United States of attempting to overthrow him. The Venezuelan government performed elaborate actions to respond to such reported attempts and to convince the public that its claims were true. The reactions included the arrest of Antonio Ledezma in February 2015, forcing American tourists to go through travel requirements and holding military marches and public exercises "for the first time in Venezuela's democratic history". After the United States ordered sanctions to be placed on seven Venezuelan officials for human rights violations, Maduro used anti-U.S. rhetoric to bump up his approval ratings. Venezuelan political scientist Isabella Picón estimated that about 15% of Venezuelans took the coup allegations seriously, while for the rest it was "entertainment". In 2016, Maduro again claimed that the United States was attempting to assist the opposition with a coup attempt. On 12 January 2016, Secretary General of the Organization of American States (OAS), Luis Almagro, threatened to invoke the Inter-American Democratic Charter, an instrument used to defend democracy in the Americas when threatened, when opposition National Assembly member were barred from taking their seats by the Maduro-aligned Supreme Court. Human rights organizations such as Human Rights Watch, and the Human Rights Foundation called for the OAS to invoke the Democratic Charter. After more controversies and pursuing a recall on Maduro, on 2 May 2016, opposition members of the National Assembly met with OAS officials to ask for the body to implement the Democratic Charter. Two days later on 4 May, the Maduro government called for a meeting the next day with the OAS, with Venezuelan Foreign Minister Delcy Rodríguez stating that the United States and the OAS were attempting to overthrow Maduro. On 17 May 2016 in a national speech, Maduro called OAS Secretary General Luis Almagro "a traitor" and stated that he worked for the CIA. Almagro sent a letter rebuking Maduro, and refuting the claim. On 20 May 2018, Maduro was reelected into the presidency in an election that had the lowest voter turnout in Venezuela's modern history, which as a result was described by some analysts as a show election, The majority of nations in the Americas and the Western world refused to recognize the validity of this election and of the pro-Maduro Constituent Assembly, initiating their own sanctions against him and his administration as well, although allies such as China, Cuba, Iran, Russia and Turkey offered support and denounced what they described as interference in Venezuela's domestic affairs. Maduro was inaugurated for a new term on that date, which resulted in widespread condemnation. On 23 January 2019, the President of the National Assembly, Juan Guaidó, was declared the acting President by that body. Guaidó was recognized as the legitimate president by several nations, including the United States and the Lima Group, as well as the Organization of American States. Maduro disputed Guaidó's claim and broke off diplomatic ties with several nations who recognized Guaidó's claim. Maduro's government says the crisis is a coup d'état orchestrated by the United States to topple him and control the country's oil reserves. 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Ezra 2 – List of the Returning Exiles A. Those returning from exile. 1. (1-2) Those immediately associated with Zerubbabel. Now these are the people of the province who came back from the captivity, of those who had been carried away, whom Nebuchadnezzar the king of Babylon had carried away to Babylon, and who returned to Jerusalem and Judah, everyone to his own city. Those who came with Zerubbabel were Jeshua, Nehemiah, Seraiah, Reelaiah, Mordecai, Bilshan, Mispar, Bigvai, Rehum, and Baanah. The number of the men of the people of Israel: a. Now these are the people of the province who came back from the captivity: Here begins the list of the families and individuals who made the return to Judah and Jerusalem now that it was a province of the Persian Empire. i. “The returning exiles were described as ‘children of the province’ (Ezra 2:1) – i.e., of the Persian province of Judea – and their leader bore the title of a Persian governor (Tirshatha, Ezra 2:63). Zerubbabel was no new Moses.” (Adeney) ii. The word province is medina. “That Medina, a city in Arabia, holdeth this Medina in hard subjection; making her children pay for the very heads they wear; and so grievously affecting them, that they have cause enough to take up anew Jeremiah’s elegy over their doleful captivity” (Trapp). b. Those who came with Zerubbabel: Here are eleven names mentioned, yet the list probably should contain twelve names (comparing with Nehemiah 7:7 and noting the twelve sacrificial bulls of Ezra 8:35). i. “There are eleven names here, but Nehemiah’s copy of the list preserves one more, that of Nahamani (Nehemiah 7:7), which has evidently dropped out of this verse in the course of copying. The choice of twelve, like that of the twelve apostles, was a tacit declaration that the community they led was no mere rump or fragment by the embodiment of the people of Israel.” (Kidner) ii. Nehemiah… Mordecai: “Not that famous Nehemiah nor that renowned Mordecai so much spoken of in the Book of Esther, but others of the same name.” (Trapp) c. Zerubbabel: Zerubbabel was the appointed governor over the province of Judah. He was also a descendent of the last reigning Judean king. i. “He was the lineal descendant of the royal house, the heir to the throne of David. This is a most significant fact. It shows that the exiles had retained some latent national character to the return, although, as we have already observed, the main object of it was religious.” (Adeney) ii. He is probably the same person mentioned in Ezra 1:8 as Sheshbazzar. Ezra 5:16 says that Sheshbazzar laid the foundation of the temple; Ezra 3:8 seems to attribute that work to Zerubbabel. This strengthens the idea that they were in fact the same person. d. Jeshua: Haggai 2:1-5 and several other passages among the post-exilic prophets mention this notable co-worker with Zerubbabel. i. “Jeshua the High Priest (Zechariah 3:1), whose name (in Greek, ‘Jesus’) is spelt Joshua in Haggai and Zechariah, was Zerubbabel’s fellow-leader.” (Kidner) 2. (3-35) A listing of the families returning to Judah and Jerusalem. The people of Parosh, two thousand one hundred and seventy-two; the people of Shephatiah, three hundred and seventy-two; the people of Arah, seven hundred and seventy-five; the people of Pahath-Moab, of the people of Jeshua and Joab, two thousand eight hundred and twelve; the people of Elam, one thousand two hundred and fifty-four; the people of Zattu, nine hundred and forty-five; the people of Zaccai, seven hundred and sixty; the people of Bani, six hundred and forty-two; the people of Bebai, six hundred and twenty-three; the people of Azgad, one thousand two hundred and twenty-two; the people of Adonikam, six hundred and sixty-six; the people of Bigvai, two thousand and fifty-six; the people of Adin, four hundred and fifty-four; the people of Ater of Hezekiah, ninety-eight; the people of Bezai, three hundred and twenty-three; the people of Jorah, one hundred and twelve; the people of Hashum, two hundred and twenty-three; the people of Gibbar, ninety-five; the people of Bethlehem, one hundred and twenty-three; the men of Netophah, fifty-six; the men of Anathoth, one hundred and twenty-eight; the people of Azmaveth, forty-two; the people of Kirjath Arim, Chephirah, and Beeroth, seven hundred and forty-three; the people of Ramah and Geba, six hundred and twenty-one; the men of Michmas, one hundred and twenty-two; the men of Bethel and Ai, two hundred and twenty-three; the people of Nebo, fifty-two; the people of Magbish, one hundred and fifty-six; the people of the other Elam, one thousand two hundred and fifty-four; the people of Harim, three hundred and twenty; the people of Lod, Hadid, and Ono, seven hundred and twenty-five; the people of Jericho, three hundred and forty-five; the people of Senaah, three thousand six hundred and thirty. a. The people of: This list names the heads of families, with the numbers of the men of those families. It means that the total number of people would be more, because they are listed and counted by heads of families. i. “The thousands of homecomers are not lumped together, but (in characteristic biblical fashion) related to those local and family circles which humanize a society and orientate an individual. Such is God’s way, who ‘setteth the solitary in families’ (Psalm 68:6).” (Kinder) b. The people of Arah, seven hundred and seventy-five: This differs with the record at Nehemiah 7:10, and points to the often-difficult correlation of numbers between the two passages. It seems that perhaps copyist error is the fault, but others have suggested alternative solutions. i. “In Nehemiah 7:10, they were only six hundred and fifty-two. It seems seven hundred and seventy-five marched out of Babylon, or gave in their names that they would go; but some of them died, others changed their minds, others were hindered by sickness, or other casualties, happening to themselves or their near relations; and so there came only six hundred and fifty-two to Jerusalem… And the like is to be said in the like differences; which it suffices to hint once for all.” (Poole) ii. “There are many difficulties in this table of names; but as we have no less than three copies of it that contained here from Ezra 2:1-67, a second in Nehemiah 7:6-69, and a third in 1 Esdras 5:7-43, on a careful examination they will be found to correct each other.” (Clarke) c. Parosh… Shephatiah… Arah: These names reflect the variety of influences that came in and among the children of Israel during the exile. Many of the names are connected to Biblical ideas, and others have connections to their exilic culture. i. “The practice of giving Babylonian or Persian names to Jews in captivity (Esther 2:7; Daniel 1:7) is richly illustrated by the archives of Murashu.” (Yamauchi) ii. The names themselves give a personal flavor. · Parosh means flea. · Shephatiah means Yahweh has judged. · Arah means wild ox. · Zaccai means either pure or is a shortened form of Zechariah. · Bani is a shortened form of Benaiah, meaning Yahweh has built. · Bebai means pupil of the eye. · Azgad means Gad is strong. · Adonikam means my Lord has arisen. · Adin means voluptuous. · Ater means lefty. · Bezai is a shortened form of Bezaleel and means in the shadow of God. · Jorah means autumn rain. · Hashum means broad nose. · Gibbar means strong man. 3. (36-57) A listing of the priests, Levites, and temple workers returning from exile. The priests: the sons of Jedaiah, of the house of Jeshua, nine hundred and seventy-three; the sons of Immer, one thousand and fifty-two; the sons of Pashhur, one thousand two hundred and forty-seven; the sons of Harim, one thousand and seventeen. The Levites: the sons of Jeshua and Kadmiel, of the sons of Hodaviah, seventy-four. The singers: the sons of Asaph, one hundred and twenty-eight. The sons of the gatekeepers: the sons of Shallum, the sons of Ater, the sons of Talmon, the sons of Akkub, the sons of Hatita, and the sons of Shobai, one hundred and thirty-nine in all. The Nethinim: the sons of Ziha, the sons of Hasupha, the sons of Tabbaoth, the sons of Keros, the sons of Siaha, the sons of Padon, the sons of Lebanah, the sons of Hagabah, the sons of Akkub, the sons of Hagab, the sons of Shalmai, the sons of Hanan, the sons of Giddel, the sons of Gahar, the sons of Reaiah, the sons of Rezin, the sons of Nekoda, the sons of Gazzam, the sons of Uzza, the sons of Paseah, the sons of Besai, the sons of Asnah, the sons of Meunim, the sons of Nephusim, the sons of Bakbuk, the sons of Hakupha, the sons of Harhur, the sons of Bazluth, the sons of Mehida, the sons of Harsha, the sons of Barkos, the sons of Sisera, the sons of Tamah, the sons of Neziah, and the sons of Hatipha. The sons of Solomon’s servants: the sons of Sotai, the sons of Sophereth, the sons of Peruda, the sons of Jaala, the sons of Darkon, the sons of Giddel, the sons of Shephatiah, the sons of Hattil, the sons of Pochereth of Zebaim, and the sons of Ami. a. Jedaiah… Immer… Pashhur… Harim: These families represent only four of the twenty-four divisions of the priesthood established by King David in 1 Chronicles 24:8. Most of the priests stayed behind in Babylon. b. The sons of Hanan: “‘Hanan’ (‘[God] is gracious’) is derived from the verb hanan (‘to be gracious’), and its derivatives are the components of numerous names borne by fifty-one persons in the Old Testament. These include Baalhanan, Elhanan, Hananel, Hanani, Hananiah, Hannah, Hanun, Henadad, Jehohanan, and Tehinnah. ‘Johanan’ (‘Yahweh is gracious’) has given us the name John. The woman’s name Hannah gives us Anna, Ann, Nan, and Nancy” (Yamauchi). i. Bakbuk means “bottle,” referring to an earthenware container with a neck and a bulging body. Mr. Babkuk man have earned his nickname by his big belly; or because his constant chatter sounded like the bubbling sound of water poured out from a bottle. c. The Levites: The total number of Levites was actually less than the number of priests that returned. This means that a remarkably small percentage of the Levites returned from Babylon. i. “An examination of this list is remarkable principally from the small number of Levites who returned. Nearly ten times as many priests as Levites went back to the land. This, of course, was an inversion of the original order.” (Morgan) ii. Some speculate that the Levites were particularly invested in worship at the high places, scattered on the hills all around pre-exilic Israel and Judah. The purifying fires of exile effectively burned out this idolatrous impulse, and therefore few Levites wanted to return to the Promised Land. 4. (58) Two special groups who came back from exile. All the Nethinim and the children of Solomon’s servants were three hundred and ninety-two. b. All the Nethinim: These seem to be the descendants of the Gibeonites, who were made special servants of the Levites and the priests at the temple. i. “These were those Gibeonites that, have saved their lives by a lie, were made drawers of water to the temple as a punishment… Their employment was to minister to the Levites.” (Trapp) ii. “It seems likely that the more menial tasks fell to these men; and the presence of some foreign-looking names in the list may indicate that some of these groups came into Israel from David’s conquests, whether as immigrants or perhaps as prisoners of war.” (Kidner) b. The children of Solomon’s servants: Most believe that these were those employed by Solomon who came from other people groups. They came into Israel as foreign proselytes. i. “These also were strangers, that had been employed by Solomon, and becoming proselytes, were incorporated into the commonwealth of Israel. God is no respecter of persons.” (Trapp) 5. (59-63) Those among the priests with uncertain genealogies who returned from exile. And these were the ones who came up from Tel Melah, Tel Harsha, Cherub, Addan, and Immer; but they could not identify their father’s house or their genealogy, whether they were of Israel: the sons of Delaiah, the sons of Tobiah, and the sons of Nekoda, six hundred and fifty-two; and of the sons of the priests: the sons of Habaiah, the sons of Koz, and the sons of Barzillai, who took a wife of the daughters of Barzillai the Gileadite, and was called by their name. These sought their listing among those who were registered by genealogy, but they were not found; therefore they were excluded from the priesthood as defiled. And the governor said to them that they should not eat of the most holy things till a priest could consult with the Urim and Thummim. a. These sought their listing among those who were registered by genealogy, but they were not found: This shows an admirable respect for God’s law respecting the priesthood of Israel. These were those who had some claim to a priestly lineage but could not prove their genealogy. They were therefore excluded from the priesthood as defiled. i. “So shall all be at the last day that are not written among the living in Jerusalem, that are not registered in the Lamb’s book of life.” (Trapp) ii. “Barzillai was a name that carried considerable weight; its bearer had been a staunch supporter of David, and a man of wealth (2 Samuel 19:32). It may be that in adopting this family’s name (and becoming its heir?) the ancestor of these claimants had laid himself open to the charge that he had renounced his own birthright, the priesthood.” (Kidner) b. They should not eat of the most holy things till a priest could consult with the Urim and Thummim: Those with questionable genealogies were not permanently excluded; each case required more research and seeking God. i. “The Urim and Thummim, together with the Ark and the Shekinah, are named by the rabbis among the precious things that were never recovered.” (Adeney) 6. (64-67) The summary of the returning exiles. The whole assembly together was forty-two thousand three hundred and sixty, besides their male and female servants, of whom there were seven thousand three hundred and thirty-seven; and they had two hundred men and women singers. Their horses were seven hundred and thirty-six, their mules two hundred and forty-five, their camels four hundred and thirty-five, and their donkeys six thousand seven hundred and twenty. a. The whole assembly together: The size of this entire group is here stated to be about 50,000. However, this was only the first wave of repatriation to Israel from the Babylonian captivity and includes only the heads of families. The approximate total of the returned exiles was probably somewhere between 100,000 and 150,000. This was only a small percentage of those who had been exiled and their descendants; the great majority stayed behind in Babylon. i. As a whole, Israelites had some reason to feel comfortable in Babylon. The Murashu tablets were discovered in 1873 and are records from Murashu and his sons, wealthy bankers and brokers of the late period of exile, who seemed to loan out almost anything for a price. “Among their customers are listed about sixty Jewish names from the time of Artaxerxes I, and forty from the time of Darius II. These appear as contracting parties, agents, witnesses, collectors of taxes, and royal officials. There seems to have been no social or commercial barriers between the Jews and the Babylonians. Their prosperous situation may explain why some chose to remain in Mesopotamia.” (Yamauchi) ii. Indeed, Josephus wrote, “many remained in Babylon, being unwilling to leave their possessions” (Antiquities XI, 8). iii. One should not think that there was no spiritual life among the Jewish exiles; Ezekiel (who went into exile after 597 or 586 b.c.) describes what we might call a “home Bible study” at his home with the elders of Judah (Ezekiel 8:1). “Deprived of the temple, the exiles laid great stress on the observation of the Sabbath, on the laws of purity, and on prayer and fasting. It has often been suggested that the development of synagogues began in Mesopotamia during the Exile.” (Yamauchi) Indeed, “In the Talmud it is said that only the chaff returned, while the wheat remained behind.” (Adeney) iv. When the exiles came back to Judah, they found a much smaller state than their forefathers had before the Babylonians conquered Judah. One estimate cited in Yamauchi says that the post-exilic province of Judah was about 25 miles from north to south and about 32 miles from east to west. The total area was about 800 square miles, about one third of which was uncultivable desert. v. “Depending on one’s estimate of the numbers deported and the number of returning exiles, we have widely varying estimates for the population of postexilic Judah: 20,000 to 50,000 by W.F. Albright, 60,000 by H. Kreissig, 50,000 to 80,000 by J. de Fraine, 85,000 by R. Kittel, 100,000 by S. Mowinckel, 150,000 by J. Weinberg, and 235,000 by A. Schultz. An estimate of 150,000 is more probably correct than Albright’s estimate.” (Yamauchi) vi. “The figure of 42,360 appears as the total also in Nehemiah 7:66 and 1 Esdras 5:41, yet the individual items add up to three different totals, as follows: Ezra 29,818; Nehemiah 31,089; 1 Esdras 30:143. There have been attempts to explain the missing thousands: as members of the northern tribes, or as women, or as adolescents. But the narrative is silent on such points.” (Kidner) b. Their horses… their mules… their camels… their donkeys: This group did not return with much, but they also did not return with nothing. i. “They went into captivity, stripped of everything; they now return from it, abounding in the most substantial riches… Thus we find that God, in the midst of judgment, remembered mercy, and gave them favour in the land of their captivity.” (Clarke) B. The returned exiles make their home in the Promised Land. 1. (68-69) The offerings made for the rebuilding of the temple. Some of the heads of the fathers’ houses, when they came to the house of the LORD which is in Jerusalem, offered freely for the house of God, to erect it in its place: According to their ability, they gave to the treasury for the work sixty-one thousand gold drachmas, five thousand minas of silver, and one hundred priestly garments. a. Offered freely for the house of God: Because of prominence of those who made this offering (the heads of the fathers’ houses) and the priority in this record, we see how important it was for the leaders and the people to sacrificially give to the work of rebuilding the temple. b. According to their ability: These people gave generously, as generously as they could according to their ability. This showed how highly valued the house of God was in their eyes. i. “The phrase, according to their ability, does credit to these donors, and Paul may have had it in mind in his charge to the Corinthians to give in proportion to their gains (1 Corinthians 16:2)” (Kidner). Yet Paul also noted those who gave even beyond their ability (2 Corinthians 8:3). 2. (70) The restoration of a substantial Israeli presence in the Promised Land. So the priests and the Levites, some of the people, the singers, the gatekeepers, and the Nethinim, dwelt in their cities, and all Israel in their cities. a. The priests and the Levites… dwelt in their cities: This shows that Jerusalem was once again populated, even though it was a humble beginning. i. “There would soon be daily sacrifices to offer, many worshippers to attend to, and much work to supervise.” (Kidner) ii. “Later Nehemiah would be compelled to move people by lot to reinforce the population of Jerusalem, as the capital city had suffered the severest loss of life at the time of the Babylonian attacks.” (Yamauchi) b. Dwelt in their cities, and all Israel in their cities: After two generations in exile, there was again a substantial presence of Jewish people in the land that was promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. This was a wonderful fulfillment of God’s promise to bring Israel back from exile. i. “For during their abode in Babylon Judaea law utterly waste and uninhabited. The land kept her Sabbaths, resting from tillage, and God, by a wonderful providence, kept the room empty till the return of the natives.” (Trapp) ii. “Almost the whole community of Babylonian exiles who stayed when Babylon was destroyed came to this country then years ago – and their number was nearly thrice the number of those who returned to Zion in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah.” (David Ben-Gurion, cited in Yamauchi describing the modern emigration of Jews from Iraq to Israel) ©2018 David Guzik – No distribution beyond personal use without permission

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NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Social Science History Chapter 2 The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China Q.1. Write a note on (a) What was meant by the ‘civilizing mission’ of the colonisers ? (b) Huynh Phu So. Ans. Like the British in India, the French claimed that they were bringing modem civilisation to the Vietnamese. They were of the opinion that Europe had developed the most advanced civilization. So it became the duty of the Europeans to introduce modem ideas in their colonies. (i) They introduced modern education. (ii) Tonkin Free Schools were opened to provide modern education. Motive : The real motive behind this motion was to exploit the natural and human resources of Vietnam. (b) Huynh Fhu So was a Buddhist religious scholar who was a native of the Mekong river delta. His role in arousing the anti-imperialist sentiments : - Founder of Hoa Hao Movement: Huynh Phu was the founder of the Hoa Hao Movement which drew on religious ideas popular in the anti-French uprisings of the nineteenth century. - Social reformer : He was a great social reformer as he opposed the sale of child brides, gambling, and the use of alcohol and opium. - Struggle against foreign rule: Huynh Phu So faced a great deal of trouble when he began to spread his ideas of religion, because most of his followers were Vietnamese nationalists. The colonial government declared him mad, called him the Mad Bonze, and put him in a mental asylum. The French authorities exiled him to Laos, and sent many of his followers to concentration camps. Q.2. Explain the following – (a) Only one-third of the students in Vietnam would pass the school-leaving examinations. (b) The French began building canals and draining lands in the Mekong delta. (c) The government made the Saigon Native Girls School take back the students it had expelled. [CBSE 2014(D)] Why did a major protest erupt in 1926 in the Saigon Native Girls School in Vietnam ? Explain. [CBSE 2014] Describe the incident that took place in 1926 in Saigon Native Girls School. (d) Rats were most common in the modern, newly built areas of Hanoi. (a) This was largely because of a deliberate policy of failing students, particularly in the final year, so that they could not qualify for the better-paid jobs. Usually, as many as two-thirds of the students were failed, (b) The French began by building canals and draining lands in the Mekong delta to increase cultivation. The vast system of irrigation works – canals and earthworks – built mainly with forced labour, increased rice production, and allowed the export of rice to the international market. The area under rice cultivation went up from about 274,000 hectares in 1873 to around 1.1 million hectares in around 1900 and about 2.2 million in 1930. Vietnam exported two- thirds of its rice production and by 1931, had become the third largest exporter of rice in the world. (b) In 1926, a major protest erupted in the Saigon Native Girls School. A Vietnamese girl sitting in one of the front seats was asked to move to the back of the class, and allow a local French student to occupy the front bench. She refused. The principal, also a colon (French people in the colonies), expelled her. When angry students protested, they too were expelled, leading to a further spread of open protests. Seeing the situation getting out of control, the government forced the school to take the students back. (c) The French part of Hanoi was built as a beautiful and clean city with wide avenues and a well-laid-out sewer system, while the ‘native quarter’ was not provided with any modem facilities. The refuge from the old city drained straight but into the river or, during heavy rains or floods, overflowed into the streets. Thus, what was installed to create a hygienic environment in the French city became the cause of the plague. The large sewers in the modern part of the city, a symbol of modernity, were an ideal and protected breeding ground for the rats. The sewers also served as a great transport system, allowing the rats to move around the city without any problem. And rats began to enter the well-cared homes of the French through the sewage pipes. More Resources for CBSE Class 10 - NCERT Solutions - NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science - NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Maths - NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Social - NCERT Solutions for Class 10 English - NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Hindi - NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Sanskrit - NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Foundation of IT - RD Sharma Class 10 Solutions Q.3. Describe the ideas behind the Tonkin Free School. To what extent was it a typical example of colonial ideas in Vietnam ? [CBSE 2009 (F), 2013 (O)] Ans. Ideas behind Tonkin Schools : - Spread of Western style Education : These schools were started in 1907 to provide a Western style education. This education included classes in science, hygiene and French (these classes were held in the evening and had to be paid for separately). - To consolidate their power : The French were faced with yet another problem in the sphere of education: the elites in Vietnam were powerfully influenced by Chinese culture. To consolidate their power, the French had to counter this Chinese influence. So they systematically dismantled the traditional educational system and established French schools for the Vietnamese. - Educated labour for administration : The French needed an educated local labour force. - To demonstrate superiority of French culture : Many scholars believed that by learning the language, the Vietnamese would be introduced to the culture and civilisation of France. This would help create an ‘Asiatic France solidly tied to European France’. The educated people in Vietnam would respect French sentiments and ideals, see the superiority of French culture, and work for the French It was a typical example of colonial ideas as - Civilising Mission : Like the British in India, the French claimed that they were bringing modern civilisation to the Vietnamese. They took for granted that Europe had developed the most advanced civilisation. So it became the duty of the Europeans to introduce these modern ideas to the colony even if this meant destroying local cultures, religions and traditions, because these were seen as outdated and prevented modem development. - Racial Discrimination policy : The French considered themselves as superior race. They started policy of discrimination even in schools also. The front rows in the schools were reserved for the French students only. - Justification of French rule : School textbooks glorified the French and justified colonial rule. The Vietnamese were represented as primitive and backward, capable of manual labour but not of intellectual reflection; they could work in the fields but not rule themselves; they were ‘skilled copyists’ but not creative. School children were told that only French rule could ensure peace in Vietnam. - Use of education to change the values and culture : By introducing French schools the French tried to change the values, norms and perceptions of the people, to make them believe in the superiority of French civilisation and the inferiority of the Vietnamese. - Failing the Vietnamese in the final year : Only the Vietnamese elite – comprising a small fraction of the population – could enroll in the schools, and only a few among those admitted ultimately passed the schoolleaving examination. This was largely because of a deliberate policy of failing students, particularly in the final year, so that they could not qualify for the better-paid jobs. Q. 4. What was Phan Chu Trinh’s objective for Vietnam ? How were his ideas different from those of Phan Boi Chau ? [CBSE March 2011] Ans.Both Phan Boi Chau and Phan Chau Trinh were Vietnamese nationalists to the core. Both were absolutely anti-colonialists and worked to free Vietnam from the French domination. Chau and Trinh, both wanted to modernise Vietnam. In short, both Chau and Trinh were looking at the same end – a free sovereign modern Vietnam. However, they differed on the means to pursue the same end. Their views on different issues can be briefly tabulated as follows : Q. 5. How did the textbooks represent Vietnamese during the period of French colonization ? Explain. [CBSE 2014] - School textbooks glorified the French and justified colonial rule while Vietnamese were represented as primitive and backward. - They were capable of manual labour but not of intellectual reflection. - They could work in the fields but not rule themselves. - They were ‘skilled copyists’ but not creative. - School children were told that only French rule could ensure peace in Vietnam. Since the establishment of French rule, the Vietnamese peasant no longer lives in constant terror of pirates. Q.6. To counter the Chinese influence what steps did the French take in the sphere of education ? What were the two broad opinions on this question ? [CBSE 2012] Ans. (1) To counter Chinese influence, French took the following steps: - They dismantled the traditional education system of Vietnam. - They established French school of Vietnamese. - They propagated Western culture among Vietnamese youths. - The few who learnt French and acquired French culture were to be rewarded with French citizenship. (2) Two broad opinions: - Some emphasized the need to use the French language as medium of instruction. - Others were opposed to French being the only medium of instruction. They suggested French to be taught in higher classes and Vietnamese in lower classes. Q.7. How was the idea of “looking modem” implemented in Tonkin Free School ? Explain. [CBSE 2012] - Students were suggested to adopt Western style of education. - This education included classes in science, hygiene and French. - Traditionally, Vietnamese youths kept long hair. They were asked to cut their hair short. - These schools encouraged students to wear western clothes to play western games. - French promoted the youths to study Western customs. Q.8. How did the long war between the US and Vietnam come to an end ? Describe. [CBSE 2012] - The US failed to achieve its objective. Vietnam’s resistance could not be crushed. - It proved costly to the US. There were high casualties on the US side. - It was the first war shown on the television. Battles were shown on daily news world over. - People were disillusioned with the US and its policy of war was criticized. - Widespread questioning of government policy strengthened moves to end war. Finally, a peac treaty was signed in Paris in January, 1974. Q.9. Explain the reasons for the French Colonisers to scrap the bounty programme for rat hunting in 1902-03. [CBSE 2014] What was the purpose to start ‘Rat Hunt’ programme by the French in Vietnam in 1902 ? How the purpose got defeated ?[CBSE 2012] Describe the ‘Rat Hunt’ activity introduced by the French in Vietnam. [CBSE 2015 (O)] - The modern part of Hanoi was struck by bubonic plague. To fight the plague, French started Rat Hunt programme in 1902. - The people were paid for each rat they hunted. - The purpose of rat hunt was finally defeated. - The French hired Vietnamese workers to catch the rats and paid them for the same. This proved a failed attempt. - Vietnamese befooled the government by just showing the tail and allowing the rate to go free. - They took it as a way to earn profit. Defeated by the resistance of the weak, the French were forced to scrap the bounty programme. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Why was the Tonkin Free School started in 1907 in Vietnam? [AI 2012] (a) To provide modern education. (b) To provide western-style education. (c) To provide education to Vietnamese only. 2. Who among the following was the founder of ‘Hoa Hoa Movement in Vietnam’. [AI 2012] (a) Phan Chu Trinh (b) Liang Qichao (c) Phan Boi Chau (d) Huynh Phu So 3. Which one of the following was NOT an impact of the Great Depression of 1930’s on Vietnam? [Delhi 2011] (a) Vietnam was occupied by Japan. (b) The price of rice and rubber fell. (c) There was an increase in unemployment. (d) There were rural uprisings. 4. Which one of the following was an impact of the Great Depression of 1930s on Vietnam? [AI 2011] (a) Japan defeated and occupied Vietnam. (b) Price of rice and rubber increased. (c) There was decrease in unemployment. (d) There were uprisings in rural areas. 5. Which one of the following statements is not true about the Trung sisters of Vietnam? [AI 2011] (a) The Trung sisters fought against French domination. (b) They fought against Chinese domination. (c) Phan Boi Chau wrote a play on the lives of the Trung sisters. (d) They chose death over surrender to enemies. 6. Which one of the following is true about Phan Chu Trinh? [Foreign 2011] (a) He was educated in the Confucian tradition. (b) He was influenced by Liang Qichao. (c) He wrote the book, ‘The History of the Loss of Vietnam’. (d) He wanted Vietnam to be a democratic republic. 7. In which famous battle were the French defeated ? (a) Dien Bien Phu (c) Nghe An (d) Phan Boi 8. Which European country colonised Vietnam ? 9. Which society did Phan Boi Chau form ? (a) Hoa Hao (b) Revolutionary Society (d) Party of Young Annan 10. In which of the following areas of Vietnam did the French build a canal to increase the cultivation for export ? (a) in Hanoi (b) in Laos (c) in the region of Mekong delta (d) in the region of South Vietnam 11. By whom was the Democratic Republic of Vietnam formed ? (a) Ho Chi Minh (b) Bao Dai (c) Phan Boi Chau (d) Ngo Dinh Diem 12. At which of the following places were the French finally defeated by the Vietnamese in 1954 ? (b) Dien Bien Phu 13. By which of the following persons was the Vietnamese Communist Party established in 1930? (a) Ngo Dinh Diem (b) Bao Dai (c) Sun Yat Sen (d) Ho Chi Minh 14. What does NLF stand for ? (a) National Liberation Force (b) National Liberation Front (c) National Land Force (d) National Legal Foundation 15. What is referred to as the Ho Chi Minh Trail ? (a) A long road made by Ho Chi Minh. (b) A road which connected Eastern Vietnam with Western Vietnam. (c) An immense network of roads made to transport men and material from North to South. (d) A trail made in Vietnam for rock climbing. 16. In Indo-China who was referred to as ‘Colon’ ? (a) The Vietnamese who could speak French. (b) The French citizens living in Vietnam. (c) Residents of a colony. (d) Colonised part of Indo-China. 17. Which of the following was the most important cause of colonisation of Vietnamese by the French ? (a) Need for surplus labour. (b) Need for French industrial goods. (c) Need for land for housing. (d) Need for constant supply of raw materials. 18. Which of the following best explain civilizing mission ? (a) A belief that the Europeans are the most superior and has a duty to civilize the natives of colonies. (b) A mission sent from Europe to spread Christianity among the natives. (c) A mission to destroy culture of the natives. 19. Why did the French followed a deliberate policy of failing the Vietnamese students in the final year ? (a) So that the Vietnamese could not qualify for better paid jobs. (b) Because the students were not intelligent enough to pass. (c) Because the Vietnamese could not grasp the French language well. 20. In 1926 why was there a major protest movement in Saigon Native School ? (a) The girls were ordered to cut their hair short. (b) Many girls were made to fail in the examination. (c) A Vietnamese girl sitting in the front was asked to move to the back seat. (d) The Vietnamese girls were inspired to protest against the school authorities. 21. What kind of party was the party of Young Annan, set up in 1920 ? (a) A political party (b) A social activist party (c) A religious party (d) A reformist party 22. Which of the following statements best explains syncretic tradition ? (a) An ancient tradition (b) A modern tradition (c) A tradition that combines Buddhism with local beliefs (d) A tradition that reflects only the local beliefs. 23. The Trung sisters were well-known in Vietnamese history because (a) They were saintly and beautiful. (b) They ruled Vietnam between BC 39 – BC 43. (c) They were patriots who fought to save Vietnam from the Chinese attack. (d) They were well-known poets of ancient Vietnam. 24. Indentured labour referred to (a) slave labour. (b) labour of the colonies. (c) contracted labour of plantations. (d) bonded labour 25. Which of the following movements started in Vietnam in 1868 against the spread of Christianity by the French ? (a) The Scholars Revolt (b) The Hoa Hao Movement (c) Go East Movement (d) The Liberation Movement 26. By which country was the ‘Domino Effect’ theory advocated ? 27. When and where was the Peace Settlement signed to end the conflict between Vietnam and USA ? (a) 1970 — in New York (b) 1972 — in Saigon (c) 1973 — in Hanoi (d) 1974 — in Paris 28. Which of the following was the most visible form of French control of Vietnam ? (a) Cultural domination (b) Military and economic control (c) Industrial development (d) Religious domination 29. According to the French the best way to civilize the natives was (a) to introduce agriculture (b) to develop industries (c) to introduce western education among the natives (d) to introduce religious reforms 30. With what main aim did the French introduce French language as medium of instruction ? (a) The educated Vietnamese would be able to handle office work better. (b) The French believed that educated in French, the Vietnamese would respect French sentiments. (c) They believed that the educated Vietnamese would become French teachers. (d) None of the above. 31. Why did America decide to intervene in Vietnamese Civil War ? (a) America wanted to occupy Vietnamese territories. (b) America wanted to check the spread of communism by destroying communist Vietnamese Government. (c) America wanted to help Ngo Dinh Diem, the autocratic ruler of South Vietnam. (d) America wanted to control the natural resources of Vietnam. 32. In 1603 why did the rat hunt begin in Vietnam ? (a) the rats spoil food grains. (b) people were unable to control breeding of rats. (c) rats began to enter the homes of well-cared. (d) the rat carried the germs of bubonic plague.

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- Television pilot A television pilot is a test episode of an intended television series. It is an early step in the development of a television series, much like pilot lights or pilot studies serve as precursors to start of larger activity. Networks use pilots to discover whether an entertaining concept can be successfully realized. After seeing this sample of the proposed product, networks will then determine whether the expense of additional episodes is justified. [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/P/htmlP/pilotprogram/pilotprogram.htm Piot programs at The Museum of Broadcast Communications] ] They are best thought of as prototypes of the show that is to follow, because elements often change from pilot to series. "Variety" estimates that only a little over a quarter of all pilots made for American television succeed to the series stage, [ [http://www.variety.com/index.asp?layout=slanguage_result&slang=busted+pilot&x=0&y=0 "Variety" defines "busted pilot"] ] although the figure may be even lower. As distinguished from "first episode" The television industry uses the term differently from most viewers. Viewers frequently consider the pilot to be the first episode available for their consumption. They therefore assume that the first episode broadcast is also the episode that sold the series to the network. For instance, the episode " Invasion of the Bane" was not a pilot for " The Sarah Jane Adventures" because the BBChad committed to the first season before seeing any filmed content [Cook, Benjamin. "Doing it for the Kids". "Doctor Who Magazine" (378) p. 37.] —yet it is routinely referred to as a pilot. [http://blogcritics.org/archives/2007/01/08/180012.php Criswell, Casey. "TV Review: "The Sarah Jane Adventures". "Blog Critics Magazine". 8 January 2007.] [ [http://www.behindthesofa.org.uk/sarah_jane_adventures/ Various reviews of "Invasion of the Bane" at Behind the Sofa] ] Sometimes, too, viewers will assign the word "pilot" to a work that represented the first appearances of characters and situations later employed by a series—even if the work was not initially intended as a pilot for the series. A good example of this is "Love and the Happy Days", an episode of " Love, American Style" which featured a version of the Cunningham family. It was in fact a failed pilot for the proposed 1972 series, "New Family in Town", not a successful pilot for 1974's " Happy Days". [ [http://www.sitcomsonline.com/loveamstyle.html "Love and the Happy Days" at sitcomsonline.com] ] So firmly embedded is the notion of it as a "Happy Days" pilot, however, that even series actor Erin Moranviews it as such, as well as its creator, Garry Marshall. [ [http://www.popcultureaddict.com/close/erinmoran.htm Pop Culture Addict interview with Erin Moran.] ] On other occasions, the pilot is never broadcast on television at all. Viewers of "Temple Houston", for example, would likely have considered "The Twisted Rope" its pilot because "The Man from Galveston" was only publicly exhibited in cinemas four months later. Even then, "The Man from Galveston" had an almost completely different cast, and its main character was renamed to avoid confusion with the then-ongoing series. Types of pilot Pilots are expensive to produce. Before a network commits to funding an entire pilot episode, it often requests a pilot presentation, a one-day shoot that, when edited together, gives a general idea of the look and feel of the proposed show. Some pilots can be just a few minutes long (e.g: 10 minutes or less); however, such pilots will not be shown on the air unless more material is subsequently added to them to make them at least twenty-two minutes in length, the actual duration of a nominally "thirty minute" program (taking into account commercials). Occasionally, more than one pilot is commissioned for a particular proposed television series to evaluate what the show would be like with modifications. "" and " All in the Family" are famous examples of this situation. An example of change between the making of a pilot and the making of a series is " To Tell the Truth" in 1956. The original title of the pilot was "Nothing But the Truth" and the show was hosted by Mike Wallace. The program host was changed to Bud Collyer, and the title changed. Pilots usually run as the first episode of the series, unless the series ended up being so different from the pilot that it wouldn't make sense (in this case the pilot (or portions of it) is often re-shot or rewritten to fit the rest of the series). The pilot for " Gilligan's Island", for instance, showed the castaways becoming stranded on the island. However, three roles were recast before going to series, with the characters either modified or completely altered to the point where the pilot could no longer be used as a regular episode. The series began with the second produced episode, with the characters already on the island. The story from the pilot was largely reworked into a flashback episode which aired later, although with several key scenes re-shot. Even the theme song, which was originally done as a calypso number was rewritten to be completely different. There have been exceptions to this rule when a network or a producer has chosen to run the pilot at a later date. Series for which this has happened include the first "" series, where the second, modified pilot (" Where No Man Has Gone Before") was aired as the third episode, and footage from the original pilot ("The Cage") was edited into newer footage to produce the two-part episode "The Menagerie". (However, at the time it was common for a series' episodes to be shown out of the order in which they were produced.) Previously many unsuccessful pilots were shown as episodes of anthology seriesthat were popular in the 50's and early 60's. The more recent television show "Firefly" set a particularly curious example, where the series was officially canceled before the pilot aired as the final televised episode. Critics of the "Firefly" move complained that the networks decision to air the series out of sequence made it difficult for audiences to understand what was going on; when the series was subsequently released on DVD, the episodes were listed in Joss Whedon's intended order, with the two hour pilot as the first episode. Unsuccessful pilots were often previously broadcast as episodes of an anthology series, for example " Seven Against the Sea" was a one hour war drama that became the half hour situation comedy " McHale's Navy". Occasionally pilots that fail to launch a series are nonetheless broadcast as TV-movies, shown outside the United States as a feature film ("To Trap a Spy" the 1963 " The Man From U.N.C.L.E." pilot), or as specials, usually as filler or as attempts by networks to recoup some of their investment in the production. Examples include the one-hour 1982 pilot for a never-produced " Modesty Blaise" series, and a 1986 pilot for " The Saint in Manhattan", which had failed to launch a new series of Simon Templaradventures for television. Presumably, strong ratings for such broadcasts are capable of changing the network's mind, but this rarely occurs. On some occasions, a pilot film for a televised series will air separately long after the series itself has been cancelled. Such was the case with the pilot film for " A Man Called Sloane", which featured a different actor in the title role. After it was not picked up for the 2006 fall season, the "Aquaman" pilot became available on the iTunes Store. A few cable networks, such as the now defunct Trio, showed various pilots (and even episodes) of failed or canceled television series. The pilot episode of " The A-Team" features a different actor ( Tim Dunigan) in the role of Face, the part that Dirk Benedictwould become well known for in the following series. In fact, creators Stephen J. Cannelland Frank Lupohad wanted Benedict from the beginning, after seeing him as Starbuck in "Battlestar Galactica", but network executives insisted on a different actor in the role. Upon completion of the pilot (given the title 'Mexican Slayride' in syndication), they changed their minds, feeling that Dunigan wasn't right for the part, and the role was given to Benedict after all. [ [http://www.blockbuster.co.uk/dirkbenedictfull/interview.aspx blockbuster.co.uk interview with Dirk Benedict] . Accessed January 23, 2007] In addition to the occasional occurrence of a different actor or actress playing a lead character, the main set may be different — sometimes substantially — than the one used during the rest of the series. For instance, on " The Cosby Show", the Huxtables' living and dining rooms in the pilot episode are different from the ones used in subsequent episodes. This is also the case with the first official episode of " The Dick Van Dyke Show", which was filmed several months before the rest of the series. The television show " Even Stevens" had a unique way of airing its pilot. The original pilot was made two years before the show was picked up so the actors looked younger than they did when the series eventually aired. Taking advantage of this, "Even Stevens"' tenth episode used the pilot as a flashback for when the characters were much younger. Newer footage was mixed in to show the main characters daydreaming about the events in the pilot while being trapped on a Ferris wheel. The pilot originally contained inconsistencies too, such as the Stevens' last name being the Spiffys. Because of this, some dialogue was overdubbed before it aired. Since the mid 1990s, television producers and networks have increasingly used presentation tapes called "demos" in lieu of full-length pilots. These demos tend to be substantially shorter than a standard episode, and make limited use of original sets and post-productionelements. The idea is merely to showcase the cast and the writing. These types of pilots are rarely broadcast, if ever, although the material is sometimes partially retrofitted onto a future episode of the resulting series. A backdoor pilot is a "pilot episode filmed as a standalone movie so it can be broadcast if not picked up as a series". [ [http://www.variety.com/index.asp?layout=slanguage_result&slang=backdoor+pilot&x=0&y=0 Backdoor pilot as defined by "Variety"] ] It is distinguished from a simple pilot in that it has a dual purpose. It has an inherent commercial value of its own while also being "proof of concept for the show, that's made to see if the series is worth bankrolling". [http://complicationsensue.blogspot.com/2005/02/backdoor-pilots.html Alex Epstein on Backdoor Pilots] ] A historically important venue for backdoor pilots has been the anthology series. They have variously been used as a place to show work still being actively considered for pickup, and as a venue for completed work already rejected by the network. With the decline of anthology series, backdoor pilots have increasingly been seen as episodes of existing series, one-off television movies, and mini-series. As backdoor pilots have either failed to sell or are pending the outcome of the broadcast, networks will not advertise them as pilots. It is thus often unclear to initial viewers of backdoor pilots that they're seeing a pilot of any kind, unless they have been privy to knowledgeable media coverage of the piece. Mini-series or movie pilots * The two hour pilot episode of the ABC series "Lost" was originally intended as a mini-series, but ABC/Disney executives, with the exception of Michael Eisner, loved the pilot so much that "Lost" debuted as a full series. * The ABC mini-series " Dinotopia" was turned into a short-lived series. The 4400" on USA Network was initially broadcast as a miniseries, and was later picked up as a full series on the same network. * The reimagined "Battlestar Galactica" was initially broadcast as a miniseries on the Sci Fi Channel, and enormous popularity caused it to be picked up by the network. Cartoon Networkseries " Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends" and " Samurai Jack" debuted as television movies and were later picked up as series. Doctor Who" telemovie was to serve as a backdoor pilot for a new series with the Eighth Doctor, played by Paul McGann. The series was not picked up, but the series was later revived in 2005 by BBC Wales. Prior to that, McGann would reprise his role for a series of Big Finishaudio adventures licensed by the BBC. * The "2008 Knight Rider movie" served as a backdoor pilot for NBC's reprisal of the 1982-86 original TV series, which was picked up and debuted on September 24, 2008. Pilots within other series All in the Family" served as backdoor pilots to three different shows. ** The first was for " Maude" in which Archie & Edith are invited to Maude's daughter's wedding only to be ruined by Archie calling the cops on the bachelor party. ** A second backdoor pilot was done for " The Jeffersons" where the Jeffersons move out of Queens and into a new condo in Manhattan. ** The third backdoor pilot was done when the show became " Archie Bunker's Place" and served as the launching board for the show "Gloria". Happy Days" also served as backdoor pilot to three different shows. ** The first launched the successful series " Laverne and Shirley" in 1976 after the airing of the shows where the characters were dates with Ritchie and Fonzie. ** The second was created for the 1978-1982 series " Mork and Mindy". The character of Mork first appeared in the season-five episode "My Favorite Orkan" and returned in later episodes. ** The third was for the 1982-1983 short-lived series " Joanie Loves Chachi" The Andy Griffith Show: In May 1964, on the season-four finale, Andy's friend, Gomer Pyle, enlisted in the United States Marine Corpsin a backdoor pilot for " Gomer Pyle U.S.M.C." Also, in May 1968, the series finale was actually a backdoor pilot for " Mayberry R.F.D." * "The Twilight Zone" itself was a development from a backdoor pilot ("The Time Element") written for " Playhouse 90" but finally airing as an installment of the "Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse": the cover page of the shooting script refers to "The Twilight Zone". The airing of a second, more conventional, pilot episode (" Where Is Everybody?") followed 11 months later and served as the first official episode of the legendary series. [http://www.tvparty.com/unseentwilight.html] * The military investigative drama "NCIS" began as a two-part episode of " * ' began as an episode of ', which itself began as an episode of "". Both spin-off series featured crimes being investigated by the CSI units from both cities/series. Top of the Heap", a short-lived television series starring future "Friends" cast member Matt LeBlanc, began as an episode of " Married...With Children". *The pilot episode of " Private Practice" (a spin off from " Grey's Anatomy") was first shown on May 3, 2007, in a special two hour episode of the main show. Boston Legal", a spin off from " The Practice", was introduced through a six-episode story arc that saw James Spader's character being fired and the collapse of the firm from "The Practice". *An episode of the " The Cosby Show" also served as a pilot for the spin-off series "A Different World" *The popular show ' had its starting premises on two episodes of ' (first season's "The Warrior Princess" and "The Gauntlet"). The two shows would also frequently share characters (Ares, Joxer, Autolycus, Callisto, Salmoneus, etc.) and have intertwining plots. * An episode of " The Golden Girls" served as a backdoor pilot to the series "Empty Nest" (although the pilot had undergone a number of changes before the series aired). * A late episode of " The Rockford Files" depicted other private investigators Lance ( Tom Selleckof later " Magnum P.I." fame) and a young Richie Brockelmann. The latter had a brief spin-off series " Richie Brockelman, Private Eye", which only lasted a few episodes. * An episode from February 1960 of " The Danny Thomas Show" served as a backdoor pilot for " The Andy Griffith Show". In the episode, Danny Thomas' character is arrested by Sheriff Andy Taylor ( Andy Griffith) of Mayberry, North Carolina for running a stop sign. "The Andy Griffith Show" was retooled from this episode and debuted on October 3, 1960. Magnum, P.I.": After playing the very similar character of pilot Grady Dancer in two episodes of "Magnum" co-creator Donald P. Bellisario's 1982-3 series " Tales of the Gold Monkey", William Luckingwas introduced as ace pilot Sam Hunter, a treasure hunter like Grady. Again a series wasn't picked up (although Bellisario went on to rework the 'adventures of an ace pilot' concept in " Airwolf"). Robin Williamsappeared as "Mork" on the series "Happy Days". His overnight success led to his own series, " Mork and Mindy". *An episode of " Diff'rent Strokes" featured a woman who taught a class of immigrants a course on English. The show was never picked up, however this premise for a series was used in the 1986-87 syndicated sitcom What a Country. * In 1976, the character of Huggy Bear( Antonio Fargas) had become so popular in " Starsky & Hutch" that producers considered giving him a spin-off. The second season episode "Huggy Bear and the Turkey" (which would have been the name of the proposed series) saw Huggy paired with former Sheriff "Turkey" Turquet ( Dale Robinette) as Private Investigators. The idea flopped and the series was never made. * Two second season (1979) episodes of " The Dukes of Hazzard", "Jude Emery" and "Mason Dixon's Girls", served as backdoor pilots for would-be series. The former concerns a Texas Ranger, and the latter is about a traveling Private Investigator and his beautiful assistants; both were written by "Dukes" creator Gy Waldronin hope of launching new shows, but neither episode led to a series being commissioned. ** The first season (1981) episode titled "J. Digger Doyle" presented the character of security expert Joy "Digger" Doyle ( Erin Gray) of the episode title, in hope of launching her own series, but the idea didn't follow through. ** The third season (1983) episode "Two Birds of a Feather" again served as a potential pilot for a new show. * The feature-length (later airing in two parts in syndication) second season (1984) " Knight Rider" story "Mouth of the Snake" (a.k.a. "All That Glitters") introduced Charles Tayloras bionically enhanced David Dalton (the story is notable for little inclusion of series leads Michael Knightand K.I.T.T., or few other series regulars or locations). On this occasion, the concept actually was picked up, leading to several TV movies featuring Dalton in 1986; However they were not successful and a full series did not appear. * The first two seasons of the original "Twilight Zone" had several instances of backdoor pilots, none of which were successful in establishing a new series. Two episodes of the series were intended as backdoor pilots, both (possibly) coincidentally about guardian angels. One was called " Mr. Bevis," which starred Orson Beanas a down-on-his-luck man; the other was called " Cavender Is Coming," which starred Carol Burnettas a down-on-her-luck woman and Jesse White as her angel. Neither were picked up, and neither were particularly well-received by "Twilight Zone" fans. Producer Buck Houghtonhas expressed particular disappointment with "Mr. Bevis." * "Star Trek" provides a famous example of the latter "backdoor pilot"-type with the episode "" where the crew of the "Enterprise" encounters Gary Seven, an Earth-man raised and trained by an advanced and unknown alien race to oversee and protect Earth in a story that was intended to introduce the character and other supporting characters and their adventures in a proposed spin-off series. It failed to become a series, however. * The ' episode "" featured isolated groups of the primary and supporting cast in semi-standalone stories throughout the ship. One of these, featuring Chief O'Brien and Ensign Ro, was intended to test the characters' chemistry and ability to hold audience interest, in preparation for the planned series '. Colm Meaney went on to reprise his role as O'Brien as a main character on "DS9", but Michelle Forbes(Ensign Ro) did not sign on for the series; the "DS9" character was rewritten as Major Kira, played by Nana Visitor. *"Sabrina, the Teenage Witch": a backdoor pilot featuring a witchand her two daughters (also witches, played by Sabrina actress Melissa Joan Hart's real life sisters) fell in love with a mortal man with two sons. The show was never picked up. *In the first season of " The Cosby Show", the Huxtable family spent the weekend at a youth center run by a young Hispanic man played by Tony Orlandoand his girlfriend/wife. This show was never picked up. *On the Disney Channel series " That's So Raven", a backdoor pilot featuring a young girl who acted on a fictional show about the 1950s called "Better Days" was shown. The series would have followed the girl's attempts to balance her acting career with her normal life as a middle schooler. The series was not picked up, but it did inspire the Disney show Hannah Montana The Fairly Oddparents" had a backdoor pilot which starred Timmy Turner's television hero, Crash Nebulain 2004. The series was never picked up. The Brady Bunch" also had a backdoor pilot called "Kelly's Kids" in which Ken Berryplayed a friend of the Bradys as he and his wife adopted not only a white orphan but also his black and Asian best friends as well, much to his bigoted neighbor's chagrin. This pilot was not picked up either, although it was reworked into the 1986 show Together We Stand. *Episode 47 (2nd season) of "The Nanny", entitled "The Chatterbox," was an unsuccessful backdoor pilot for a show based in a hair salon, starring *In the 2007 series " Chowder", the episode "Froggy Apple Crumple Thumpkin" characters had different looks and voices, mostly Shnitzel, being voice by Kevin Michael Richardson, and Chowder was thin, mung had real big ears, and truffles did not have a movable material. Pilots within anthology series Television shows that spun off from anthology seriesusually started as a one-episode story but showed potential for a series. * British Cop Drama " The Bill" was originally an episode of the anthology series "Storyboard" [http://imdb.com/title/tt0400036/] called "Woodentop". Rumpole of the Bailey" first appeared on " Play for Today". * Popular British comedies " Steptoe and Son", " Til Death Us Do Part", " All Gas and Gaiters", " The Liver Birds", " Are You Being Served?", and " Last of the Summer Wine" all began as episodes of the " Comedy Playhouse" strand. * The 2008 BBC series "Freezing" was expanded from the first episode (also titled "Freezing") of the 2007 BBC comedy anthology series "Tight Spot". [cite_web| url=http://primetime.unrealitytv.co.uk/freezing-debuts-on-bbc-two/| title=Freezing Debuts On BBC Two| publisher= [http://primetime.unrealitytv.co.uk Unreality TV] | date=2008-02-20| accessdate=2008-02-21] In some cases, a series is created specifically to showcase pilots. * Both " Prisoner and Escort" (which led to "Porridge") and " Open All Hours" first appeared as part of Ronnie Barker's " Seven of One" series. * BBC2's series of comedy pilots which aired under the title "Comic Asides" spawned the series " The High Life", "KYTV", " Mornin' Sarge" and " Tygo Road". While, as listed above, there are many telemovies or episodes within series intended as pilots, there are often telemovies or episodes within other series which are so popular that they inspire later TV series. A popular example is " The Simpsons", which started as a set of shorts on The Tracy Ullman Show. Another example is South Park, which started as a cartoon with an extremely low budget which was created for a class at the University of Colorado, which the creators Trey Parkerand Matt Stonewere attending at the time. Another use is the Larry shortsby Seth MacFarlanefor Family Guyprototypes which made Larry go to Peter Griffinand Steve go to Brian Griffin. Only with his first cartoon from his Rhode Island college called, "Life with Larry" which is made in 1995 and another called, "Larry & Steve" in which, this is the cartoon where Seth worked for Hanna-Barbera after graduation in 1996 produced for Cartoon Networkpart of the What a Cartoon!show. A put pilot is an agreement between a network and a studio, where the network will incur substantial penalties if the pilot episode is not aired. This is a virtual guarantee that a pilot will be picked up. [ [http://www.variety.com/index.asp?layout=slanguage_result&slang=put+pilot&page=Slanguage&display=put+pilot "Put pilot" as defined by "Variety".] ] Unsold television pilots are pilots developed by a company that is unable to sell it to a network for showing. American television, pilots are generally sought at a specific time of year, called "pilot season". A phenomenon of the shape of the traditional broadcast season, pilot season occurs between mid-March and early May. During this time, the networks must decide what should go on the fall schedule. The networks look at the large pool of pilots, and then decide which ones they will keep for series. These are announced as part of the fall schedule or as mid-season replacements. Sometimes during pilot season it is not unusual for a pilot to be shopped to another network after it has been rejected.To put it simply, a pilot episode is the first episode of a series. Channel 101and Channel 102, venues for the public exhibition of demos quote|Well, the way they pick the shows onTV is they make one show, and thatshow's called a pilot. And they showthat one show to the people who pickthe shows, and on the strength ofthat one show, they decide if theywant to make more shows. Some getaccepted and become TV programs, andsome don't, and become nothing. Shestarred in one of the ones that becamenothing.|Pulp Fiction about television pilot * [http://www.omglists.com/article/80233/7-great-tv-pilots-that-never-got-off-the-ground/ 7 Great TV Pilots That Never Got Off The Ground] Wikimedia Foundation. 2010. Look at other dictionaries: Pilot — can refer to:Paper publications* Pilot (short story) by Stephen Baxter *, a historical fiction novel by James Fenimore Cooper *The Virginian Pilot, newspaper serving the Hampton Roads part of Virginia *The Pilot (Lewisporte, Newfoundland and… … Wikipedia Pilot — Saltar a navegación, búsqueda Pilot puede referirse a: Pilot (banda), el grupo musical que se formó en 1973 en Edimburgo, Escocia. El episodio piloto de alguna serie de televisión: Pilot (Gilmore Girls), primer episodio de la serie estadounidense … Wikipedia Español Television crew — positions are derived from those of film crew, but with several differences. Pre production Everything before the shooting of the film is known as the pre production stage. People involved in this stage include the director, the producer, the… … Wikipedia pilot film — Television. pilot (def. 9). [1950 55] * * * … Universalium pilot tape — Television. pilot (def. 9). * * * … Universalium pilot tape — Television. pilot (def. 9) … Useful english dictionary Pilot (Cold Feet) — Cold Feet Promotional material Genre Comedy drama Format Television pilot … Wikipedia Pilot (Gossip Girl) — Infobox Television episode Colour = #B1E673 Series = Gossip Girl Title = Pilot Season = 1 (2007 ) Caption = Serena and Dan meet for the first time. Episode = 1 Airdate = September 18, 2007 (CTV) September 19, 2007 (The CW) Writer = Josh Schwartz… … Wikipedia Television film — Telefilm redirects here. For the Canadian government s film and television funding agency, see Telefilm Canada. MOTW redirects here. For the band commonly abbreviated as such, see maudlin of the Well. A television film (also known as a TV film,… … Wikipedia pilot film — noun a program exemplifying a contemplated series; intended to attract sponsors • Syn: ↑pilot program, ↑pilot • Hypernyms: ↑television program, ↑TV program, ↑television show, ↑TV show * * * … Useful english dictionary

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Template:StatusFossil Template:Taxobox image Template:Taxobox begin placement Template:Taxobox regnum entry Template:Taxobox phylum entry Template:Taxobox classis entry Template:Taxobox superordo entry Template:Taxobox authority Template:Taxobox end placement Template:Taxobox section subdivision Saurischia Template:Taxobox end Dinosaurs are animals that dominated the terrestrial ecosystem for over 100 million years. Non-avian dinosaurs became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous period, 65 million years ago. Knowledge about dinosaurs comes from both fossil and nonfossil records, including fossilized bones, feces, trackways, gastroliths, feathers, impressions of skin, internal organs and "soft tissues." Since the first dinosaur was recognized in the 19th century, their mounted skeletons have become major attractions at museums around the world. Dinosaurs have become a part of world culture and remain consistently popular, especially among children. They have been featured in best-selling books and blockbuster films such as Jurassic Park, and new discoveries are regularly covered by the media. The term is also used informally to describe any prehistoric reptile, such as the pelycosaur Dimetrodon, the winged pterosaurs, and the aquatic ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and mosasaurs, though none of these are dinosaurs. The on-going dinosaur renaissance began in the 1970s and was triggered, in part, by John Ostrom's discovery of Deinonychus-- an active, vicious predator that may have been warm-blooded (homeothermic), in marked contrast to the prevailing image of dinosaurs as sluggish cold-blooded reptiles. Vertebrate paleontology has also become a global science, with major new discoveries in previously unexploited regions, including South America, Madagascar, Antarctica, and most significantly the amazingly well-preserved feathered dinosaurs in China, which have further solidified the link between dinosaurs and their living descendants, the 9,000+ species of modern birds . The widespread application of cladistics, which rigorously analyzes the relationships between biological organisms, has also proved tremendously useful in classifying dinosaurs, which are still known from an incomplete fossil record. - 1 What is a dinosaur? - 2 Study of dinosaurs - 3 Areas of debate - 3.1 Warm-blooded? - 3.2 Feathered dinosaurs and the bird connection - 3.3 Evidence for Cenozoic non-avian dinosaurs - 3.4 Bringing dinosaurs back to life - 3.5 Discovery of probable soft tissue from dinosaur fossils - 4 Extinction theories - 5 History of discovery - 6 In popular culture - 7 See also - 8 References - 9 External links and sources What is a dinosaur? The superorder or clade "Dinosauria" was formally named by the English scientist Richard Owen in 1842. The term is a combination of the Greek words deinos ("terrible" or "fearfully great" or "formidable") and sauros ("lizard" or "reptile"). Contrary to popular perception, the name was chosen to express Owen's awe at the size and majesty of the extinct animals, not out of fear or trepidation at their size and formidable arsenal. There is an almost universal consensus among paleontologists that birds are the descendants of theropod dinosaurs. Using the strict cladistical definition that all descendants of a single common ancestor are related, modern birds are dinosaurs and dinosaurs are, therefore, not extinct: Ask your average paleontologist who is familiar with the phylogeny of vertebrates and they will probably tell you that yes, birds (avians) are dinosaurs. Using proper terminology, birds are avian dinosaurs; other dinosaurs are non-avian dinosaurs, and (strange as it may sound) birds are technically considered reptiles. —DinoBuzz, hosted by University of California Museum of Paleontology However, birds are morphologically distinct from their reptilian ancestors, and referring to birds as "avian dinosaurs" and to all other dinosaurs as "non-avian dinosaurs" is clumsy. Birds are still birds, at least in popular usage and among ornithologists. It is also technically correct under the older Linnaean classification system, which accepts taxa that exclude some descendants of a single common ancestor (paraphyletic taxa). Paleontologists mostly use cladistics in their classifications, which classifies birds as dinosaurs, but many other scientists do not. As a result, this article will use "dinosaur" as a synonym for "non-avian dinosaur," and "bird" as a synonym for "avian dinosaur." Only a tiny percentage of animals ever fossilize, and most of these remain buried in the earth. As a result, the smallest and largest dinosaurs will probably never be discovered. Even among those specimens that are recovered, few are known from complete skeletons, and impressions of skin and soft tissue are rare. Reconstructing a skeleton by comparing the size and morphology of bones to those of similar, better-known species is inexact, and restoring the muscles and other organs is, at best, educated guesswork. While the largest and smallest dinosaurs will probably remain unknown, and comparisons between existing specimens is imprecise, it is clear that, as a group, dinosaurs were large. By dinosaur standards the sauropods were gigantic. The smallest sauropods were larger than anything else in their habitat, and the largest were an order of magnitude more massive than anything that has ever walked the Earth. The tallest and heaviest dinosaur known from a complete skeleton is the Brachiosaurus, which was discovered in Tanzania between 1907–12. It is now mounted in the Humboldt Museum of Berlin and is 12 m (38 ft) tall and probably weighed between 30,000–60,000 kg (30–65 tons). The longest dinosaur is the 27 m (89 ft) long Diplodocus, which was discovered in Wyoming and mounted in Pittsburgh's Carnegie Natural History Museum in 1907. There are bigger dinosaurs, but they are known from only a small handful of bones. The current record holders all date from the 1970s or later, and include the massive Argentinosaurus, which may have weighed 80,000–100,000 kg (90–110 tons); the longest, the 40 m (130 ft) long Supersaurus; and the tallest, the 18 m (60 ft) Sauroposeidon, which could have reached a sixth-floor window. No other group of terrestrial animals even comes close to the size of dinosaurs. The largest elephant on record weighed a mere 12,000 kg (13.5 tons), and the tallest giraffe was just 6 m (20 ft) tall. Even giant prehistoric mammals like the Indricotherium and the Columbian mammoth were dwarfed by the giant sauropods. Only a small handful of aquatic animals approach it in size, of which the blue whale is largest, reaching up to 190,000 kg (210 tons) and 33.5 m (110 ft) in length. Not including modern birds like the bee hummingbird, the smallest dinosaurs known were about the size of a crow or a chicken. The Microraptor, Parvicursor, and Saltopus were all under 60 cm (2 ft) in length. Interpretations of behavior based on the pose of a body fossil and its habitat, computer simulations of their biomechanics, and comparison with modern animals in similar ecological niches rely on speculation and promise to generate controversy for the foreseeable future. However, it is likely that at least the behaviors common in both of their closest living relatives, crocodiles and birds, are also common among dinosaurs. It should be of note that nearly all interpretations of evidence are subject to change, as theories surrounding dinosaurs evolve continuously. The first evidence of herding behavior was the 1878 discovery of 31 Iguanodon that perished together in Bernissart, Belgium , and similar mass deaths and trackways suggest that herd or pack behavior was common among many dinosaur groups. Trackways of hundreds or even thousands of herbivores indicate that duck-bills (hadrosaurids) may have moved in great herds, like the American Bison or the African Springbok. Sauropod tracks document that they traveled in groups composed of several different species, at least in Oxford, England , and others kept their young in the middle of the herd for defense according to trackways at Davenport Ranch, Texas. Dinosaurs may have congregated in herds for defense, migration, or to care for their young. Jack Horner's 1978 discovery of a Maiasaura ("good mother dinosaur") nesting ground in Montana demonstrated parental care long after birth among the ornithopods , and similar nesting behavior and even huge nesting colonies like those of penguins have been discovered of other Cretaceous dinosaurs like the Patagonian sauropod Saltasaurus (in 1997). The Mongolian maniraptoran Oviraptor was even discovered in a chicken-like brooding position in 1993, which may mean it was covered with an insulating layer of feathers that kept the eggs warm . Trackways have also confirmed parental behavior among sauropods and ornithopods from the Isle of Skye in the United Kingdom . Nests and eggs are known from most major groups of dinosaurs, and it appears likely that dinosaurs communicated with their young, like modern birds and crocodiles. The crests and frills of some dinosaurs, like the marginocephalians, theropods and lambeosaurines, may have been too fragile for active defense, so they were probably used for sexual or aggressive displays, though little is known about dinosaur mating and territorialism. Communication is also an enigma, but the hollow crests of the lambeosaurines may have been resonance chambers used for a wide range of vocalizations. Theropods stalked their prey in Glen Rose, Texas , and a fossil of a Velociraptor attacking a Protoceratops was discovered in the Gobi Desert in 1971 . While cannibalistic behavior among theropods is no surprise , it was confirmed by tooth marks from Madagascar in 2003 . Compared to the later mammalian radiation in the Cenozoic, there seem to be no burrowing and few climbing dinosaurs. Biomechanics has given insight into how fast dinosaurs could run , whether diplodocids could create sonic booms by snapping their tails like a whip , whether giant theropods had to slow down to avoid fatal belly flops , and if sauropods could float . Study of dinosaurs Fields of study Activities include the discovery, reconstruction and conservation of dinosaur fossils and the interpretation of those fossils to understand better the evolution, classification and behavior of dinosaurs. Main article: Dinosaur classification Dinosaurs are archosaurs, like modern crocodilians. These are set apart by having diapsid skulls, having two holes where jaw muscles attach, called temporal fenestrae. Birds and most reptiles are diapsids; mammals, with only one temporal fenestra, are called synapsids; and turtles, with no temporal fenestra, are anapsids. Dinosaurs also have teeth that grow from sockets (an archosaur characteristic) rather than as direct extensions of the jaw bones, as well as various other characteristics. Within this group, the dinosaurs are set apart most noticeably by their gait. Instead of legs that sprawl out to the side, as found in lizards and crocodylians, they have legs held directly under their body. Many other types of reptiles lived at the same time as the dinosaurs. Some of these are commonly, but incorrectly, thought of as dinosaurs: these include plesiosaurs (which are not closely related to the dinosaurs) and pterosaurs, which developed separately from reptilian ancestors in the late Triassic. Main article: Saurischia Saurischians (from the Greek meaning "lizard hip") are dinosaurs that retained the hip structure of their ancestors. They include all the theropods (bipedal carnivores) and sauropods (long-necked herbivores). Main article: Ornithischia Ornithischians (from the Greek meaning "bird-hip") is the other dinosaurian order, most of which were quadrupedal herbivores. The first known dinosaurs appeared approximately 230 Ma, about 20 million years after the Permian-Triassic extinction event wiped out about 70 percent of all biological diversity on the planet. A few lines of primitive dinosaurs diversified rapidly after the Triassic, and quickly expanded until they filled most of the vacant ecological niches. During the reign of the dinosaurs, which encompassed the ensuing Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, nearly every terrestrial animal larger than 1 m in length (that we know of) was a dinosaur. The Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event, 65 Ma at the end of the Cretaceous, caused the extinction of all dinosaurs except for the line that had already led to the first birds. Areas of debate Scientists have waged a constant and vigorous debate over the temperature regulation of dinosaur blood—at first over its possibility, then over its method—a debate first popularized by Robert T. Bakker. From the first discovery of dinosaurs, paleontologists posited that they were ectothermic creatures: "terrible lizards" as their name suggested. This axiomatic expectation implied that dinosaurs were mostly slow, sluggish organisms, comparable to modern reptiles, which need the sun to heat their bodies. However, new evidence of dinosaurs in chilly temperate climates, of polar dinosaurs in Australia and Antarctica where they experienced a six-month chilly and dark winter, of feathered dinosaurs whose feathers provided regulatory insulation, and analysis of blood-vessel structures that are typical of endotherms within dinosaur bone, confirmed the possibility that some dinosaurs regulated their body temperature by internal biological methods, some aided partly by their very bulk. Skeletal structures suggest active lifestyles for theropods and other creatures, behavior more suitable for an endothermic cardiovascular system. Sauropods exhibit fewer endothermic characters. Perhaps some dinosaurs were endothermic and others not. Scientific debate over the details continues, although many paleontologists would now agree that endothermic systems are more likely. Complicating this debate, warm-bloodedness can emerge from more than one mechanism. Most discussions of dinosaur endothermia compare them to average birds or mammals, which expend energy to elevate body temperature above that of the environment. Small birds and mammals also possess insulation of some sort, such as fat, fur, or feathers, to slow down heat loss. However, large mammals, such as elephants, face a different problem due to their relatively small surface area to volume ratio (Haldane's principle). This ratio compares the volume of an animal with the area of its skin: as an animal gets bigger, its surface area increases more slowly than its volume. At a certain point, the amount of heat radiated away through the skin drops below the amount of heat produced inside the body, forcing animals to use additional methods to avoid overheating. In the case of elephants, they lack fur, and have large ears which increase their surface area, and have behavioral adaptations as well, such as using the trunk to spray water on themselves and mud wallowing. These behaviors increase cooling through evaporation. Large dinosaurs would presumably have faced the same situation: their size would dictate that they lost heat relatively slowly to the surrounding air, and so could have been what are called bulk endotherms, animals that are warmer than their environments through sheer size rather than any special adaptations like those of birds and mammals. However, so far this theory fails to explain the vast multitudes of dog- and goat-sized dinosaurs, which made up the bulk of the ecosystem in the mesozoic. Feathered dinosaurs and the bird connection Main article: Feathered dinosaurs Over a hundred distinct anatomical features are shared by birds and theropod dinosaurs. The first good specimen of a "feathered dinosaur" was the 1861 discovery of the Archaeopteryx in Germany, in the Solnhofen limestone, which is a lagerstätte; one of the rare and remarkable geological formations known for their superbly detailed fossils. Coming just two years after Darwin's seminal The Origin of Species, the evidence of a transitional fossil between reptiles and birds spurred the debates between evolutionary biology and creationism. This early bird is so dinosaur-like that, without a clear impression of feathers in the surrounding rock, the specimens are commonly mistaken for Compsognathus. Since the 1990s, a number of feathered dinosaurs have been found, providing clear evidence of the close relationship between dinosaurs and birds. Most of these specimens were local to Liaoning province in northeastern China, which was part of an island continent in the Cretaceous. However, the feathers were only preserved by the lagerstätte of the Yixian Formation; it is therefore possible that dinosaurs elsewhere in the world may have been feathered too, even though the feathers have not been preserved. The feathered dinosaurs discovered so far include Beipiaosaurus, Caudipteryx, Dilong, Microraptor, Protarchaeopteryx, Shuvuuia, Sinornithosaurus, and Sinosauropteryx, and potentially Adasaurus; and dinosaur-like birds like Confuciusornis; all of which come from the same area and formation in northern China. The dromaeosauridae family in particular seems to have been heavily feathered, and at least one dromaeosaurid, Cryptovolans, may have been capable of flight. Because feathers are often associated with birds, feathered dinosaurs are often touted as the missing link between birds and dinosaurs. However, the association of multiple skeletal features also shared by the two groups is the more important link for paleontologists. Furthermore, it is increasingly clear that the relationship between birds, dinosaurs and the evolution of flight is more complex than has been previously realized. For example, while it was once believed that birds simply evolved from dinosaurs and went their separate way, some scientists now believe that some dinosaurs, such as the dromaeosaurs, may have actually evolved from birds, losing the power of flight while keeping the feathers in a manner similar to the Ostrich and other ratites. Comparisons of bird and dinosaur skeletons, as well as cladistic analysis, strengthens the case for the link, particularly for a branch of theropods called maniraptors. Skeletal similarities include: the neck, pubis, wrists (semi-lunate carpal), arm and pectoral girdle, shoulder blade, clavicle and breast bone. A recent discovery in a Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton provided more evidence that dinosaurs and birds evolved from a common ancestor and for the first time allowed palentologists to sex a dinosaur. When laying eggs, female birds have a special type of bone, called a medullary bone, that grows in their limbs, forming a layer inside the hard outer bone. It is rich in calcium and used for making eggshells. The presence of endosteally derived bone tissues lining the interior marrow cavities of portions of the Tyrannosaurus rex specimen's hindlimb elements suggested similar reproductive strategies, and revealed the specimen to be female (Schweitzer et al., 2005). Big meat-eating dinosaurs had a complex system of air sacs similar to the setup in today's birds, according to an investigation led by Patrick O'Connor of Ohio University. The lungs of theropod dinosaurs—carnivores that walked on two legs and had birdlike feet—likely pumped air into hollow sacs in their skeletons, as is the case in birds. "What was once formally considered unique to birds was present in some form in the ancestors of birds," O'Connor said. The study, funded in part by the National Science Foundation, is detailed in the July 14 issue of the journal Nature. Modern computerized tomography (CT) scans of dinosaur chest cavities five years ago found the apparent remnants of complex four-chambered hearts more like mammals and birds. Care of young The embryo had no teeth, which suggests some parental care was required to feed the young dinosaur, possibly the adult dinosaur regurgitated nutrion into the young dinosaur's mouth. This behaviour is seen in numerous bird species; the parent birds regurgitated food into the hatchling's mouth. Evidence for Cenozoic non-avian dinosaurs It has been claimed that fossils from El Ojo, South America, represent remains of non-avian dinosaurs surviving the extinction and still thriving in the Paleocene epoch. There are also other sporadic claims of post-Cretaceous dinosaur fossils (even a very doubtful finding of dinosaur eggs as late as Eocene). While it is certainly not improbable that some scattered population of some (presumably small) dinosaur species could have survived at least some hundreds of years after the mass extinction, evidence now points to El Ojo (and most other) findings as Cretaceous fossils contaminating Paleocene strata. Nevertheless, it is still theorized that some dinosaur population could have survived the main extinction event isolated in Antarctica, and then being killed by the climatic change. Bringing dinosaurs back to life Main article: Molecular paleontology There has been much speculation about the availability of technology to bring dinosaurs back to life. The idea proposed in Michael Crichton's book Jurassic Park, using blood from fossilized mosquitos that have been suspended in tree sap since the Mesozoic and then filling in the gaps with frog genes to create the DNA of a dinosaur, is probably impossible. A problem with this theory is that DNA decays over time by exposure to air, water and radiation, thus depleting the chances of salvaging any useful DNA. Decay can be measured by a racemization test. There have been two claims about the successful extraction of ancient DNA from dinosaur fossils, but upon further inspection, neither of these reports could be confirmed (Wang et al., 1997). However, a working visual peptide of a (theoretical) dinosaur has been inferred using analytical phylogenetic reconstruction methods on gene sequences of still-living related species (reptiles and birds) (Chang et al., 2002). Discovery of probable soft tissue from dinosaur fossils In the March 2005 issue of Science, Mary Higby Schweitzer et al. announced material, after rehydrating, that resembled soft tissue was discovered inside a Tyrannosaurus rex leg bone from the Hell Creek Formation in Montana, from about 68 million years ago.. When the fossilized bone was treated over several weeks to remove mineral content (demineralize) from the fossilized bone marrow cavity, Schweitzer found evidence of intact structures such as blood vessels, bone matrix, and connective tissue (bone fibers). Scrutiny under microscope further revealed the putative dinosaur soft tissue had retained fine structures (microstructures) even at the cellular level. It has not been made clear of what this flexible material is actually composed, although many news reports immediately linked it with the movie "Jurassic Park", and the interpretation of the artifact as well as the relative importance of Dr. Schweitzer's discovery is still undecided. Main article: Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event The extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs is one of the most intriguing problems in paleontology. Only since the 1970s has the nature of this extinction become researched in detail, showing some possible causes of the dinosaur extinction. The theory first proposed by Walter Alvarez in the late 1970's, linked the extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous period to a bolide impact about 65.5 million years ago, based on a sudden change in Iridium levels in fossilized layers. The bulk of the evidence now indicates that a 10 km wide bolide hit the Yucatan Peninsula 65 million years ago, creating the 170 km wide Chicxulub Crater and causing the extinction. Scientists are still disputing whether dinosaurs were in steady decline or still thriving before the meteor struck. Some scientists state that the meteor would have caused an unnatural winter, while others claim that it would have created an unusual heat wave. Although the speed of extinction cannot be deduced from the fossil record alone, the latest models suggest the extinction was extremely rapid. It appears to have been caused by heat from the meteorite impact and the matter ejected from the crater reentering the Earth's atmosphere around the world. The Oort cloud Similar to Alvarez's theory, which involved a single comet, the Oort cloud suggests that a vast shower of comets that were dislodged in an astral phenomenon, hit the Earth at the same time, causing world wide extinction. The end result would again be an unnatural winter, ultimately freezing the dinosaurs. A less likely theory is that the evolution of flowering plants lead to the dinosaur's extinction. The theory claims that towards the late Cretaceous period, new flowering trees & plants carrying deadly toxins evolved. This would have killed the herbivores who ate them, & in turn would have killed the carnivores also from the shortage of substantial prey. The enviroment during the late Cretaceous was changing dramatically. With the shifting continents constantly creating new changes in weather, the dinosaurs may have simply not been able to adapt to the harsh changes in the environment. Other groups as well as the dinosaurs went extinct at the same time, including ammonites (nautilus-like mollusks), mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, pterosaurs, herbivorous turtles and crocodiles, most kinds of birds, and many groups of mammals. History of discovery Dinosaur fossils have been known about for millennia, though their true nature was not recognized; the Chinese considered them to be dragon bones, while Europeans believed them to be the remains of giants and other creatures killed by the Great Flood. The first dinosaur species to be identified and named was Iguanodon, discovered in 1822 by the English geologist Gideon Mantell, who recognized similarities between his fossils and the bones of modern iguanas. Two years later, the Rev William Buckland, professor of geology at Oxford University, became the first person to describe a dinosaur in a scientific journal—in this case Megalosaurus bucklandii, found near Oxford. The study of these "great fossil lizards" became of great interest to European and American scientists, and in 1842 the English paleontologist Richard Owen coined the term "dinosaur". He recognized that the remains that had been found so far—Iguanodon, Megalosaurus and Hylaeosaurus—had a number of features in common, so decided to present them as a distinct taxonomic group. With the backing of Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, husband of Queen Victoria, Owen established the Natural History Museum in South Kensington, London, to display the national collection of dinosaur fossils and other biological and geological exhibits. In 1858, the first known American dinosaur was discovered in marl pits of the small town of Haddonfield, New Jersey (although fossils had been found before, their nature had not been identified). The creature was named Hadrosaurus foulkii, after the town and the discoverer, William Parker Foulke. It was an extremely important find: Hadrosaurus was the first nearly complete dinosaur skeleton ever found and it was clearly a bipedal creature. This was a revolutionary discovery, as most scientists had thought that dinosaurs walked on four feet like lizards. Foulke's discoveries sparked a dinosaur mania in the United States, which was exemplified by the fierce rivalry of Edward Drinker Cope and Othniel Charles Marsh, who each competed to outdo the other in finding new dinosaurs in what came to be known as the Bone Wars. Their feud lasted for nearly 30 years, and only ended in 1897 when Cope died after spending his entire fortune in the dinosaur hunt. Marsh won the contest by virtue of being better funded through the US Geological Survey. Cope's collection is now at the American Museum of Natural History in New York, while Marsh's is displayed at the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University. Since then, the search for dinosaurs has been carried to every continent on Earth. This includes Antarctica, where the first dinosaur, a nodosaurid Ankylosaurus, was discovered on Ross Island in 1986, though it was 1994 before an Antarctic dinosaur, the Cryolophosaurus ellioti, was formally named and described in a scientific journal. Current "hotspots" include southern South America (especially Argentina) and China, which has produced many exceptionally well-preserved feathered dinosaurs. In popular culture Dinosaurs were highly successful life forms for some 150 million years; however, even more than their success, it is their extinction that has become part of human culture. Hence dinosaur is sometimes used as a metaphor for people and things that are perceived as being out of date or no longer in touch with the spirit of the times, and therefore ought to be extinct. An example was the manner in which the punk movement described the "progressive" bands that preceded them as "dinosaur groups." Dinosaurs, by their sizes and perceived aggressiveness have both, long fascinated and terrified the public mind in both fictional and non-fictional works. In fictional works, notable examples include Arthur Conan Doyle's book The Lost World, the 1933 movie King Kong, Godzilla, Michael Crichton's book and subsequent movie Jurassic Park. As such, the possibility of humans and dinosaurs living together as been a recurring theme in fiction: The Valley of Gwangi (1969) and One Million Years BC (1966) (famously starring Raquel Welch in a fur bikini). Ray Harryhausen brought the dinosaurs to life in both films using model animation. The development of Computer-generated imagery further enhanced that fantasy and also allowed the production of documentaries; 1999 BBC series Walking with Dinosaurs is a notable example. Dinosaurs, however are not only depicted as cold-blooded reptiles but also as warm-loving and even with friendly personalities, either to appeal to young children such as the 1970s show Land of the Lost and the more recent Barney & Friends; for cartoons: The Flintstones, and comic strips such as Calvin and Hobbes and The Far Side. - List of dinosaurs - List of dinosaur classifications - Prehistoric life - Prehistoric reptiles - Various forms of Creationism dispute the age and significance of dinosaur fossils - Kevin Padian, and Philip J. Currie. (1997). Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs. Academic Press. ISBN 0122268105. (articles are written by experts in the field) - Gregory S. Paul. (2000). The Scientific American Book of Dinosaurs. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0312262264. - M Schweitzer, JL Wittmeyer and JR Horne (2005). Gender-Specific Reproductive Tissue in Ratites and Tyrannosaurus rex. Science 308; 5727:1456-60. - David B. Weishampel (2004). "The Dinosauria" University of California Press; 2nd edition. ISBN 0520242092. - Belinda S. W. Chang, Karolina Jönsson, Manija A. Kazmi, Michael J. Donoghue and Thomas P. Sakmar. (2002). Recreating a functional ancestral archosaur visual pigment. Molecular Biology and Evolution 19 (9), 1483–1489. - Hai-Lin Wang, Zi-Yang Yan and Dong-Yan Jin. (1997). Reanalysis of published DNA sequence amplified from Cretaceous dinosaur egg fossil. Molecular Biology and Evolution 14 (5), 589–591. - For children - Prehistoric Planet from Discovery Kids (kids site, games, videos, build a dino). - Dinosaur Time Machine from MantyWeb Educational Software (kids site, games, make ecards). - Dinopedia from Yahooligans! Science - Zoom Dinosaurs from Enchanted Learning (kids site, info pages, theory, history). - Dinosaurnews the free and informative dinosaur zine with all the latest news (very popular site, links, news, merchandise). - Dinosaurs & other extinct creatures from the Natural History Museum, London (popular site, well illustrated dino directory). - Dinosaurs: Facts and Fiction from the United States Geological Survey. (popular overview) - Dinosaurs from the BBC (popular site, very well illustrated). - Discussions from DinoData (summaries of modern debates about dinos). - Dinosauria from UC Berkeley Museum of Paleontology (detailed information - scroll down for menu). - The Dinosaur News The Dino-headlines from around the world. Has an extensive link page. - OPUS: Dinosaur by Daniel Bensen A gallery of dino-paintings. - Prehistoric Planet from PaleoClones (current dino news). - A Fiery Death for Dinosaurs? by Amit Asaravala from Wired (article on the rapid extinction of dinos). - The Rex Files from the New Scientist (articles, latest news but out of date) - Palaeontologia Electronica from Coquina Press (online technical journal). - Impossible Dinosaurs (article on a gravity-based approach for the extinction) by David Talbott, Wallace Thornhill - TeV scale gravity, mirror universe, and ... dinosaurs (article from Acta Physica Polonica B) by Z.K. Silagadze - Very technical - Dinosauria On-Line (technical site, essays, pronunciation, dictionary). - The Dinosauricon by T. Michael Keesey (technical site, cladogram, illustrations and animations). - Dinosaur Supertree, from the University of Bristol (requires download of 275 kb PDF). - Dinosauromorpha Cladogram from Palaeos (a detailed and wonderful amateur site about all things paleo). - Dinobase AA dinosaur database with dinosaur lists, classification, pictures, and more. - Bird-dinosaur discussion - Archaeopteryx's Relationship With Modern Birds ("here are the derived characters with which Gauthier (in his 1986 paper) unites Archaeopteryx with modern birds") - Dinosaurian Synapomorphies Found In Archaeopteryx ("characters shared with/retained from dromaeosaurids and other related theropods and dinosaurs") - Dromaeosaurid Archaeopteryx ("All this suggests that avian flight first evolved in arboreal theropods (where they developed big brains and forward facing eyes, features not found in flying insects and pterosaurs), and that some of the flying theropods lost flight.") - Earliest beaked bird discovered ("Fossil remains of this bird were found in China last year, 1994, and paleontologists, astonished and excited by the discovery, say the findings could have revolutionary effects on thinking about bird evolution.") - Earliest bird with alula found ("new fossil that shows the first evidence of aerodynamic flight in birds") - Feathers, scutes and the origin of birds (Experiments show that the same protein (when missing before birth) that causes bird feet to stay webbed, causes reptile scales to become feathers.) - More On The Dino-bird Link (Q & A) - Very birdlike non-avian dinosaur found ("The new maniraptorid dinosaur, named Unenlagia comahuensis, is described") - The problems with (the book) "The Origin and Evolution of Birds" (Separate ancestry for birds debated.) ast:Dinosauriu bg:Динозаври ca:Dinosaure cs:Dinosauři cy:Deinosor da:Dinosaurus de:Dinosaurier es:Dinosauria eo:Dinosaŭro fr:Dinosaure gl:Dinosauro ko:공룡 it:Dinosauri he:דינוזאורים lt:Dinozauras ms:Dinosaur nl:Dinosaurus ja:恐竜 no:Dinosaurus nn:Dinosaurus pl:Dinozaury pt:Dinossauro ru:Динозавры simple:Dinosaur sk:Dinosaurus sl:Dinozaver fi:Hirmuliskot sv:Dinosaurier th:ไดโนเสาร์ tr:Dinozor uk:Динозавр zh:恐龙

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Introduction Clubfoot affects around 174 000 children born annually, with approximately 90% of these in low-income and middle-income countries (LMIC). Untreated clubfoot causes life-long impairment, affecting individuals’ ability to walk and participate in society. The minimally invasive Ponseti treatment is highly effective and has grown in acceptance globally. The objective of this cross-sectional study is to quantify the numbers of countries providing services for clubfoot and children accessing these. Method In 2015–2016, expected cases of clubfoot were calculated for all countries, using an incidence rate of 1.24/1000 births. Informants were sought from all LMIC, and participants completed a standardised survey about services for clubfoot in their countries in 2015. Data collected were analysed using simple numerical analysis, country coverage levels, trends over time and by income group. Qualitative data were analysed thematically. Results Responses were received from 55 countries, in which 79% of all expected cases of clubfoot were born. More than 24 000 children with clubfoot were enrolled for Ponseti treatment in 2015. Coverage was less than 25% in the majority of countries. There were higher levels of response and coverage within the lowest income country group. 31 countries reported a national programme for clubfoot, with the majority provided through public–private partnerships. Conclusion This is the first study to describe global provision of, and access to, treatment services for children with clubfoot. The numbers of children accessing Ponseti treatment for clubfoot in LMIC has risen steadily since 2005. However, coverage remains low, and we estimate that less than 15% of children born with clubfoot in LMIC start treatment. More action to promote the rollout of national clubfoot programmes, build capacity for treatment and enable access and adherence to treatment in order to radically increase coverage and effectiveness is essential and urgent in order to prevent permanent disability caused by clubfoot. - orthopedic surgery - public health - cross-sectional survey - health systems This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited, appropriate credit is given, any changes made indicated, and the use is non-commercial. See: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/. Statistics from Altmetric.com What is already known? Clubfoot can be treated effectively using the Ponseti method and results in life-long impairment if not treated. An increasing number of countries have accepted the Ponseti method as the gold standard of treatment in the past 2–3 decades and are providing Ponseti treatment for clubfoot. What are the new findings? More than 90% of children with clubfoot are born in lower income and middle-income countries (LMICs); an estimated 15% of these accessed Ponseti treatment in 2015. Approximately 144 000 children did not access treatment in 2015. In 2005–2015, the number of children accessing treatment in LMIC has increased from an estimated 700 in three countries to more than 24 000 in 55 countries. Of those children starting treatment, 53% remained in treatment at 2 years. 31 countries have national programmes for clubfoot, many administered as public private partnerships. Coverage in most countries is less than 25%. What do the new findings imply? Policy makers, health service providers and other agencies supporting treatment must continue to work together to advocate for, and put in place, treatment services for children with clubfoot. Clubfoot, also known as congenital talipes equinovarus affects around 174 000 children born each year, with 91% born in low-income and middle-income countries (LMIC) (Global Clubfoot Initiative (GCI), unpublished data, 2017). Clubfoot can, in up to 95% of cases, be treated successfully using a largely non-surgical technique: the Ponseti method of treatment.1 The Ponseti method is now considered to be the gold standard of treatment in the USA, and its use has spread widely throughout high-income countries (HICs),2–4 largely replacing previously used surgical and conservative techniques. It is also more cost-effective, less invasive and has lower risks of complications than surgical treatments.5 As such, it is an ideal solution for low-resource settings. Ponseti treatment is made up of two phases: Corrective phase: correction of deformity by manipulation of the foot and application of plaster casts, changed weekly, followed by a percutaneous Achilles tendon tenotomy in most cases. Maintenance phase: the feet are held in the corrected position by use of a foot abduction brace (FAB) in order to prevent relapse of deformity. The FAB is worn for 23/24 hours for the first 12 weeks, and then during sleep until 4–5 years old.6 Treatment is most effective if initiated early, ideally during infancy, but there are now numerous reports of older children being treated using the Ponseti technique.7 Without treatment, clubfoot is a severely disabling condition leading to pain and loss of ability to walk as well as stigma and exclusion from many aspects of daily life such as education and employment.8 In recent decades, the Ponseti method has been introduced in a growing number of LMIC. Many countries have established nationally coordinated programmes with the support of local or international non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in order to reach as many children as possible. The authors have completed surveys every 2 years since 2007, including as many treatment providers in LMIC as possible in order to monitor progress in ending disability caused by clubfoot.9 A small number of published studies attempt to map global Ponseti treatment provision prior to this study. Shabtai et al 10 document the large increase in published articles concerning the Ponseti method from 1972 to 2014. They performed a literature search that found that 113/193 countries worldwide had documented evidence (published or grey literature) of any Ponseti service provision. The majority of the 80 countries that did not are LMIC.10 A study in 2010 on a 10-country initiative9 is one of the first attempts to document global progress in Ponseti provision in 2007–2009. At the time, the 10 countries included, along with Uganda,8 were some of the only LMIC where comprehensive coverage was attempted and documented. This study provides the first comprehensive picture of expected numbers of cases, Ponseti treatment availability, access and coverage globally, including historical trends and analysis by income group. The authors conducted global surveys of clubfoot services every 2 years since 2007 through GCI, a UK-based charity. In 2016, known contacts were accessed through the GCI contacts database. Three categories of LMIC were defined: Countries with Ponseti services and a contact person known to GCI. Countries with some evidence of Ponseti services (scientific or grey literature) with no contact person known to GCI. Countries with no known Ponseti services or contact persons and no evidence of Ponseti services. For all category B and C countries, a literature search was carried out in order to assess whether there was any evidence for provision of Ponseti services. The inclusion criteria were: Publication in a peer-reviewed scientific journal documenting Ponseti services. A website or report from an NGO giving evidence of Ponseti services. Exclusion criteria: If there was evidence of training of a limited number (<5) of healthcare workers from a country in the Ponseti technique, but no evidence of service provision, this was not considered to be evidence for Ponseti provision. Countries were categorised as A, B or C based on the GCI contacts database and this literature search. In September–November 2016, GCI requested data from programme coordinators or, in the absence of these, individuals known to be providing Ponseti services in all category A countries (55). For category B countries, we attempted to make contact with either the authors of publications identified or other contacts identified through the literature search. A contact was found for, and data requested from, 21 out of 40 category B countries. There were 46 category C countries with no evidence of Ponseti treatment. In total, data were requested from 74 countries across categories A and B for the period January–December 2015. Data were self-reported by programme coordinators or individual practitioners using a standardised data collection form (online supplementary file 1). Supplementary file 1 Data requested included Numbers and locations of clinics providing services for children with clubfoot. Numbers and ages of children up to age 15 years enrolling for treatment (defined as: new cases starting treatment using the Ponseti method). Number of children starting FABs. Number of children completing 2 years of FAB. Types of support available for clubfoot services and from which providers. Whether there was any form of support within the country from the Ministry of Health (MoH). Where two or more respondents were working in the same country, they were asked to clarify whether the data they provided was likely to overlap, and any duplicated data were corrected. Data returned were collated and analysed using simple descriptive statistics to describe results from 2015 and compare with previous years. ‘Expected cases’ were calculated for every country and were defined as the number of children expected to be born with clubfoot in 2015, using an incidence rate of 1.24/1000 births11 and the country’s population and birth rate as reported by the World Bank.12 ‘Coverage’ was defined as the numbers of cases enrolled for treatment under the age of 1 year compared with the expected number of cases born in 2015. Where data on age at enrolment for treatment was not provided, the mean percentage of children enrolled under age 1 year from all countries was applied to provide an estimate of cases under 1 year. Per cent coverage was calculated for each country that submitted data using the following formula: Coverage=cases enrolled under age 1/expected cases [country population/number of births in 2015 per 1000×1.24]×100. Analysis by income group (low, lower middle or upper middle income) as defined by the World Bank was also performed.13 Qualitative data returned in the surveys was analysed thematically, using the questions asked as the themes. The total number of expected cases in all countries in 2015 was 173 996. Total expected cases in LMIC in 2015 were 157 935 (91%), and total expected cases in HICs were 16 061 (9%). The contacts database and literature review found that, of 141 countries, there were 55 with a known Ponseti treatment provider (category A), 40 with no Ponseti provider known to GCI but evidence of Ponseti services (category B) and 46 with no known Ponseti provider and no evidence of Ponseti provision (category C). After contacting all category A countries, and category B where a contact was identified, there was a response rate of 74%; clubfoot treatment data were submitted from 55 of the 74 countries contacted for information. Survey respondents were a mixture of representatives of international or country level NGOs supporting clubfoot services, and individual clinicians reporting on a single clinic, regional or country level. In the 55 countries that responded to the survey, there were 124 774 expected cases of clubfoot in 2015, or 79% of all expected cases of clubfoot in all LMIC (online supplementary file 2). supplementary file 2 National level data: number and age of children enrolled A total of 24 436 children were reported to have enrolled for treatment in the 55 respondent countries. There were 650 clinics providing Ponseti treatment for clubfoot, an average of 11.9 clinics per country. Thirty-eight countries provided information on the ages of children enrolled, as detailed in table 1. Details of all respondent countries are provided in appendix 2. Forty-five countries provided information on children receiving their first FAB. A total of 16 712 children or 76% of patients in these countries received their first FAB, a decrease from 2013 when 83% of children received their first FAB. Less than half (26) of countries provided data on children completing 2 years of FAB use. In these countries, 8618 children completed 2 years of FAB in 2015. We analysed the percentage of those completing 2 years of FAB by comparing numbers enrolled in 2013 with 2-year FAB use. Both pieces of data were available from 13 countries; comparison showed that, after 2 years, 4410 of 8262 patients enrolled in 2013 were still using FABs—a 53% patient retention rate. A total of 16 982 cases enrolled under the age of 1 year, representing coverage within all LMIC of 11%. Coverage within respondent countries was 14%. One of the aims of national programmes for clubfoot is to maximise the number of children born with clubfoot that are able to access treatment. We therefore grouped countries by coverage level (figure 1): Forty-five countries (82%) had coverage of less than 50%, while 10 countries (18%) had coverage of more than 50%, including Zimbabwe, Honduras, Dominican Republic, Malawi, Bangladesh, Solomon Islands, Georgia, Namibia, El Salvador and Rwanda. 2015 data compared with previous years For 14 countries, data were available from 2007 to 2015. Figure 2 shows the increase in numbers of children enrolled for treatment over 10 years in these 14 countries (Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Niger, Rwanda, Zambia, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Laos, Dominican Republic, Haiti and Honduras). The number of children enrolled for clubfoot treatment in these 14 countries has increased from 379 children in 2005 to 17 711 in 2015; a 4573% increase over 10 years. Key data were compared for all countries from which data were available from 2005, 2007, 2009, 2011 (where available), 2013 and 2015 in order to show change over time, as detailed in the table 2. Comparison between country income groups Several indicators were compared between country income groups. Countries were divided by income group as defined by the World Bank into low income, lower-middle income and upper-middle income. Comparison by country income group shows that the percentage of countries responding to our data request and reporting a national programme was highest in the lowest income countries. Coverage within respondent countries was similar across all groups, but when coverage was calculated for all countries (including non-responders) in each income category, coverage in the lowest income countries was the highest. Evidence of a national programme Of the 55 respondents, 31 reported that there was a national network of clubfoot clinics within their country and 21 reported there was not. The duration of reported national networks ranged from 1 year to 12 years, with a mean duration of 7 years. We did not provide a definition of what a national network was. A number of countries that reported no national network were known to the authors to contain a coordinated network of clinics but with less than full coverage geographically or without formal government collaboration. Support for clubfoot services Thirty-two countries indicated they have government or MoH support for clubfoot treatment, and 11 countries indicated they have no government support. In these countries support was listed from NGOs or in one case (Egypt) ‘informal’ support is provided through international network of colleagues providing secondhand braces. Table 3 shows the categories and numbers of support provided by governments for clubfoot programmes: Forty-six countries receive support from non-government agencies, predominantly international and national NGOs. Numbers of external supporting agencies ranged from 1 to 7 per country. Types of NGO support can be roughly divided into five umbrella categories: (1) direct resources (including staffing, equipment, supplies and premises), (2) funding, (3) training, (4) organisational support (including programme management and coordination) and (5) promotion and awareness. Exact proportions and sources of support could not be ascertained due to the qualitative nature of the data provided, but some clear themes emerged. For most countries, the majority of support for staff and premises comes from MoH/government with limited reference to this from other sources. Equipment and treatment supplies are reported as coming from both MoH and NGOs; the balance of this form of support cannot be determined for each country. The majority of support for training comes from NGOs with some detailed from local hospitals or professional bodies. The majority of unspecific ‘financial support’ is listed as coming from NGOs, with some from Institutional donors and foundations. Limited detail was given about awareness raising and advocacy for clubfoot treatment, but there is evidence that there is a mixture of support for these from MoH and NGOs. A few respondents mentioned support from NGOs for parent advisors. There are a range of agreements in place with the MoH and clubfoot programmes, many of which are a public–private partnership. Of 45 countries providing responses: There is no type of agreement in place with the MoH in 16 countries (36%). There is a national, formal agreement in place in 15 countries (33%). There is a national, informal agreement in place in three countries (7%). There is a subnational (regional or clinic level), formal agreement in place in five countries (11%). There is a subnational (regional or clinic-level), informal agreement in place in six countries (13%). A number of countries submitted incomplete data, defined as such if the respondent notified us that the data were incomplete or there were other potential respondents known to the authors to be providing Ponseti services that did not submit data. These countries include: Egypt, China, Pakistan, Nigeria, Afghanistan, Indonesia, Uganda and Thailand. More than 24 000 children, or 11% of all children estimated to be born with clubfoot in all LMIC, accessed Ponseti treatment in 2015. Numbers of children accessing treatment have increased steadily since 2005. The trend documented over time shows a steady increase in the numbers of countries providing data, Ponseti treatment provision and numbers of children accessing Ponseti services. Coverage within the majority of countries remains low, but some countries have achieved coverage of more than 50%, and the factors for success in doing so warrant further investigation. A positive finding was that, of the children enrolled for treatment, 73% started under age 1 year. However, for older children living with clubfoot for whom treatment using the principles of the Ponseti technique,7 clear treatment protocols and services are an area where more research and provision are urgently required. This report’s main focus is on the quantity of Ponseti service provision and access to services, but some inferences may also be drawn about the quality. In 2015, 76% of children starting treatment received their first FAB, indicative of all of the following: The child remained in treatment through the casting phase. The child’s foot was sufficiently corrected to fit into a FAB. A FAB was available. Current recommendations are for FAB use to continue until age 4–5 years in order to prevent relapse of the clubfoot deformity.14 Reported 2-year FAB use indicated that 47% of patients enrolled in 2013 did not complete 2-year FAB in 2015. This is an area where improvement is needed: at 2 years following initial treatment, the risk of relapse without FAB is high at 30%–80%.14 For Ponseti treatment to be most effective, most clinicians recommend starting as soon after birth as possible, and research shows good results in children up to age 2 years.15 Age at enrolment gives some indication of the reach of national programmes, access to them and awareness within the general population. It is a positive finding that 87% of children enrolled for treatment at 2 years of age or less increased from 66% in 2013. Six per cent (1448) of children enrolled were aged between 3 years and 15 years. More research into the factors affecting adherence with treatment, awareness and treatment seeking and treatment of older children would enable service providers to better meet the needs of the populations served. Provision within countries showed different patterns of support for elements of treatment. In many countries, government provision such as staff and clinic space was supplemented by NGO support for elements such as staff training and FAB provision. There are only a few countries where there is no support listed outside of government support suggesting that the treatment of clubfoot in LMICs continues to be a collaborative effort between national governments and non-government entities. Comparison by country income groups showed that the greatest percentage of respondents and reported national networks were in the lowest income countries. The authors believe this reflects the greater support for national coordination, monitoring and evaluation in the lowest income countries by NGOs. In countries with more developed health systems, services for clubfoot may be provided as part of a range of paediatric orthopaedic services within national health systems and therefore not coordinated or reported on separately. Anecdotal reports from clinicians within these countries provide verification of this and also indicate that, due to this, there can be problems with provision of FABs where families cannot afford to purchase these if they are not provided by MoH. This study relied on self-reported data that could not be independently verified. Although the authors made every attempt to identify and include contacts from every LMIC, it was not possible to do so, and this was also reflected in Shabtai et al’s10 study in 2014, which showed no evidence of Ponseti treatment in 80 countries. It is difficult to find accurate estimates of incidence of clubfoot for individual countries; we therefore used an incidence rate of 1.24/1000 births, based on a systematic review by Smythe et al. 11 However, without more accurate incidence data, any estimates of expected numbers of cases may be flawed. A confounding factor to the growth in number accessing treatment over time documented in this report is that the number of survey respondents increased over time. The authors acknowledge that, since data collection began in 2005, the level of interest in this survey and responses have increased. However, Figure 2 shows that, in 14 countries where data are available for all years of the survey, the trend of growth in access to treatment over time was strong in 2005–2015 and verifying our results to some extent. Based on the data collected, it is possible to make some estimates about global treatment coverage. This survey is the most comprehensive attempt known to the authors to map provision of, and access to, Ponseti treatment for clubfoot worldwide, using both original data and a literature search. The focus of this study was on LMIC, in which more than 90% of all expected cases of clubfoot are born, and 79% of all expected cases of clubfoot in LMIC in 2015 were born in countries that submitted data to this study. A wide breadth of lower and middle-income countries are therefore represented, allowing a global picture of country-level provision to be built up. Regarding depth of data, the authors are aware that, despite our best attempts to gather data from all LMIC, there are some countries where substantial numbers of children are accessing treatment from which we did not get a response, or an incomplete response. Within respondent countries there will also be providers outside the networks that responded to our surveys, such as private clinics. We therefore estimate that a further 20%–30% of children receive Ponseti treatment that are not included in our count. Adding 20% to the number of children estimated to be enrolled under the age of 1 year (16 981) gives an estimated 20 377 children to have started treatment in 2015, or 12.9% of all expected cases in LMIC. We therefore estimated that, including cases not counted by our survey, less than 15% of all children born with clubfoot in LMIC in 2015 started Ponseti treatment. More than 24 000 children, or an estimated 11%–15% of all children born with clubfoot in LMIC, accessed Ponseti treatment in 2015. Numbers of children accessing treatment have increased steadily since 2005, when it is estimated that less than 400 children in LMIC received Ponseti treatment. The 2015 results contained data from 55 countries in which 79% of all expected cases of clubfoot in LMIC were born. The vast majority of children with clubfoot remain untreated and will therefore experience life-long, limiting disability. The quality of treatment provided, compliance with treatment, coverage levels globally and within countries remain critical areas where improvement is needed. Support for services was delivered through a partnership of NGOs and MoH in most countries. More action to promote the rollout of national clubfoot programmes, training of clinicians and enable access and adherence to treatment in order to radically increase coverage and effectiveness is essential and urgent in order to prevent permanent disability caused by clubfoot. We would like to thank the GCI Global data working group, including Chesca Colloredo Mansfeld, Barbara Rau, Michiel Steenbeek and Saketh Kalathur for assistance with research design. We would also like to thank all who contributed data to the study, including Dr Nariman Abol Oyoun of Assiut University, Egypt. Handling editor Seye Abimbola Contributors All three authors designed the research together. RMO and BC carried out the data collection and initial analysis. The manuscript was reviewed, commented on, revised and approved by all three authors. Funding The research was funded by Global Clubfoot Initiative. Competing interests None declared. Patient consent Not required. Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed. Data sharing statement An early, incomplete and partial analysis of these same data was presented as an e-poster at the SICOT conference in Rome in 2016, and a small amount of the data were also included in a global clubfoot strategy document, RunFree2030, on the Global Clubfoot Initiative website. There is no other data available from this study, and this research has not been published by, nor is under consideration by any other journal. If you wish to reuse any or all of this article please use the link below which will take you to the Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink service. You will be able to get a quick price and instant permission to reuse the content in many different ways.

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Recent Blog Posts - Pweng Bee 27 posts - Yasmin 19 posts - sandra henderson 18 posts SIBO and Bloating Posted 8 months ago by Katie What is Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth (SIBO)? Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) refers to a condition in which an abnormally large number of bacteria migrate to the small intestine. The types of bacteria found here with SIBO are what you would normally see in the large intestine, and this migration can therefore interfere with normal digestion and nutrient absorption. The small intestine is approximately 20 feet long and naturally contains far fewer bacteria compared to the colon (large intestine). The issue is with the location of the bacteria rather than the type of bacteria, which is often non pathogenic. 70% of the microbes in our guts reside in our large intestine where they digest and ferment any leftover food that has not been absorbed in the small intestine. Up to 78% of Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is thought to be SIBO-related, due to the high prevalence of certain bacteria in the small intestine.1 A paradigm shift is underway in to our understanding of IBS and the role that SIBO plays in these symptoms. What we are looking at with SIBO is not necessarily the severity of the bacteria, but the location, although pathogenic strains can also be present with SIBO. These bacteria digest carbohydrates and produce gases that lead to common IBS symptoms such as gas/bloating, diarrhoea and constipation. Common SIBO gut symptoms: - Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) - Acid Reflux/Heartburn/GERD An overgrowth of microbes can lead to the production of bacterial toxins in the gut which can provoke an immune response, leading to inflammation. This has a negative effect on your gut lining and can potentially lead to a leaky gut. Therefore, SIBO can be a precursor for leaky gut in some cases. Leaky gut is associated with autoimmune conditions2, rosacea, muscle pain, headaches and fatigue. For more on this topic, you can read the article ‘Healing Leaky Gut’. Tipping the microbe balance - dysbiosis What causes SIBO? SIBO is generally caused by a lack of muscular activity in and around the small intestine, where by bacteria is not swept away into the colon as it should be, thus leading to dysbiosis. Gut transit time is an important factor to consider when looking at overall gut health, and SIBO is associated with various digestive and muscular conditions, including diverticulosis3. The majority of our ecosystem of microbes resides in the large intestine and when food reaches the colon about 80-95% of all nutrients have been digested and absorbed. Your small intestine is not meant to be microbe-rich and this is controlled by a valve known as the ileocecal valve which sits in-between the small and large intestine. This valve allows digested food to pass through and prevents bacteria and waste food from travelling back up in to your small intestine. If you have a weak valve, this may cause the translocation of food and bacteria back in to the small intestine. In a small pilot study by Miller et al. 2012 it was found that patients with SIBO had a defective ileocecal valve reflex. To maintain a healthy valve function I advise maintaining hydrated, limiting certain foods such as caffeine, alcohol, spicy foods, and raw foods, and maintaining a mindful eating schedule. By this I mean chewing your food properly, not overeating, not eating too quickly, and not eating too frequently. An osteopath can also diagnose a poor-functioning ileocecal valve. The pH of your gut may also play a part with bacterial overgrowth. The first part of the small intestine receives highly acidic food that has been digested from the stomach before being moved along swiftly by peristalsis towards the large intestine. This low pH and fast transit makes it difficult for microbes to survive, and so we only usually see highly acid-resistant strains surviving here.4 However, if you have low stomach acid due to medications, stress, or nutrient depletions the environment is more microbe friendly and so overgrowth could occur. One of the roles of stomach acid is to protect the body from microbial infections. Low stomach acid has therefore been linked to SIBO.5 Similarly, if you have decreased levels of digestive enzymes which will compromise your ability to digest your food efficiently, then undigested food is left sitting around, encouraging the growth of bacteria in the wrong place. Migrating motor complex The rate at which food moves along the gut is controlled by the major migrating complex (MMC). This is the housekeeper of the small intestine and is responsible for moving food along towards the large intestine in between meals. If you have poor gut motility, leading to a build up of fermentable food, bacteria will feed on it and multiply and SIBO can develop.6 A variety of conditions increase the risk of impaired MMC function, such as: - Certain medications, such as proton pump inhibitors, which reduce stomach acid - Inflammatory bowel diseases such as Crohns and Colitis - Coeliac disease - Gastroenteritis, C. difficile and other infections - Lyme disease - History of eating disorders These waves of digestive motility are significantly reduced in IBS patients, which means that food is left sitting around to be digested and fermented by bacteria, leading to gas, retention and bloating.7 There seems to be an association between use of certain medications and SIBO including NSAIDS, reflux medication, and antibiotics. The use of antacids or proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), prescribed for the relief of indigestion and reflux, are known to cause bacterial overgrowth. Certain foods are more easily fermented by gut bacteria and carbohydrates (sugars and fibre) are one of them. A diet high in starches and complex sugars will aggravate SIBO, leading to excessive gas, bloating, and abdominal pain. I will discuss the benefits of certain diets, including the low FODMAP diet in resolving bloating, later on in the article. Other factors to consider in the case of SIBO include food poisoning, constipation, food intolerances, hypothyroidism, endometriosis, and intestinal surgery including appendectomy, which can disrupt the normal ecology and restrict movement. All of these may play a part in disrupting the balance of bacteria in the gut. Why does bloating occur with SIBO? Bloating is a common symptom associated with SIBO (especially if it is higher up in the belly) and occurs when undigested food sits around and ferments due to a slow gut transit time. Between meals the motility of the small intestine is controlled by the MMC contractions, which cleanses the gut of food and bacteria. If we are constantly snacking throughout the day and not allowing our digestion to rest and digest between meals, it is thought that this can lead to carbohydrate malabsorption and bacterial overgrowth in the small intestine. A large percentage of IBS patients share the common symptom of bloating, and there is a possibility that SIBO may be the explanation. This is supported by many studies reporting an improvement of IBS symptoms after eradication of SIBO, such as that of Pimentel et al. In this double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study, 111 patients were drawn from the general IBS population, and a reduction in gastrointestinal symptoms was seen when eradication of SIBO was achieved. IBS has largely been considered a psychosomatic condition in the past, and so research such as this recognises that most people with IBS have distinctly different microbiotas than people without it, and that dysbiosis is the primary cause. For a small subset of IBS sufferers, however, psychological illness drives the IBS, as the indviduals' microbiotas are no different, and yet they report being depressed8. Is your gut harbouring harmful microbes? Hydrogen and methane breath tests are currently the most important diagnostic tests used for testing SIBO gut microbes. The type of gas produced by gut bacteria may be an important factor. In humans, hydrogen and methane are exclusively produced by intestinal bacteria, predominately in the large bowel in healthy people and also in the small intestine in the case of SIBO. The theory is that if food is not moving down to the bacteria quick enough, then bacteria may be moving to the site of food assimilation for fermentation and gas production to take place. Methane-producing bacteria is associated with constipation and a slow MMC. Hydrogen-producing bacteria is associated more with diarrhoea and a faster MMC. The primary test for SIBO is a lactulose or glucose breath test, which measures the levels of hydrogen and methane being produced by gut bacteria and exhaled by your lungs. The test is performed after an overnight fast and after the ingestion of a lactulose or glucose solution. The principle behind the test is that after ingestion of food, fermentation produces gas, gas enters the bloodstream, blood carries gas to the lungs, and gas is expired through the mouth which can then be measured. Breath testing is an excellent tool to assess SIBO, but there are limitations to the test, and the only way to establish whether the symptoms are caused by SIBO is to treat and eradicate the bacteria. SIBO nutrition & diet So how do we shift a dysbiotic gut to a healthier state, and optimise the health of the host and the microbiome? Bloating is very common among SIBO patients and dietary restrictions of fermentable carbohydrates can lead to symptomatic improvement. The food we consume feeds bacteria in our body, making nutrition and diet implications for patients with SIBO particularly important. Nutritional interventions are common, and can be used to starve out the bacteria population in the intestine. One effective way to reduce the symptoms of bloating and distension is to reduce the intake of carbohydrates, particularly fermentable fibres such as fructose. Fructose is a type of sugar that is found naturally in fruits and honey, but it is also found in processed foods in the form of modified high fructose corn syrup. When consumed in excess it is poorly absorbed, and is left to the gut bacteria to ferment causing excess gas and bloating. Diet tips for active SIBO: - Avoid raw food, salad, and beans, as these are harder to digest - Be careful with whole grains, nuts/seeds, and winter squash - Choose low-FODMAP fruit and vegetables (see below) - Starch may be tolerated: white rice, white potato, white flour (if able to eat gluten); often one starch is tolerated but not another - Lactose-free dairy, sugar, clover honey, and cocoa are often tolerated - Quantity matters - small amounts of individual foods may be tolerated, when larger amounts aren’t - Experimentation and customization is necessary for best success Avoid high FODMAP foods FODMAP stands for Fermentable Oligo-, Di-, Monosaccharides And Polyols, and these specific carbohydrates are found in a variety of foods and can be a problem for some people because they feed gut bacteria and encourage them to proliferate. A diet with low fermentable foods can decrease the chance of bacterial overgrowth by creating a less favourable environment for bacteria. In a small study by ONG et al looking at the effects of a low-FODMAP diet on hydrogen gas production in IBS patients, they found that those on a high-FODMAP diet produced a significantly greater amount of hydrogen gas compared to IBS patients on a low-FODMAP diet. Monash University has developed an excellent app to help you stick to a low-FODMAP diet but I would always recommend working with a practitioner as it can be very restrictive and is not advised long-term. Elemental diets may be an extremely safe and effective alternative to antibiotics but must be medically supervised. These formulations are believed to be absorbed within the first few feet of the small bowel and potentially limit the delivery of nutrients to the bacteria residing towards the end of the small bowel. The diet consists of macronutrients (high protein, low carb) broken down into liquid form allowing for fast absorption to prevent food sitting around, and also allowing time for the gut to rest. In one small-scale study, 80% of participants with SIBO had a normal breath test result after following an elemental diet for 15 days. How do I reverse SIBO? Treatments for SIBO work towards inhibiting the overgrowth of bacteria in the small intestine. The synergy of nutrients is key here as we want to accelerate the gastric emptying. Adding foods in to the diet that support bile production and pancreatic enzyme production will support the movement of food along the digestive tract. This is important because if food gets left behind in the small intestine this will promote the growth and migration of bacteria from the large intestine in to the small. Foods to include are bitter foods such as dandelion, rocket and watercress and artichoke. You can also take a herbal bitters formula that is taken prior to eating meals. Prokinetics are substances that stimulate gut motility and support your migrating motor complex. If your migrating motor complex is unable to move food along and remove waste there is a higher chance of a small intestinal bacterial overgrowth developing. Taking prokinetics in-between meals and before bed is a great way of supporting the movement of food along the digestive system. Some of my favourite prokinetics to use are: 5HTP (an amino acid involved in the synthesis of serotonin, which supports gut motility) In order to prevent a reoccurrence of SIBO, it is important to manage your stress levels due to the link between the HPA axis and microbiota. The gut is connected to the brain via the gut-brain axis, and for more on this fascinating topic you can read ‘Stress and bloating-can one cause the other?' Stress impacts the HPA axis and can impact the balance of gut microbes, gut motility, and stomach acid secretions. If you know stress is an issue for you, you could look into yoga, meditation, breath work, or massage to try and help reduce the fight-or-flight stress response. Fast intermittently and avoid snacking Constant snacking and not fasting between meals will result in a dysfunctional migrating motor complex - we are officially a nation of snacking and people aren’t allowing that fasting window to occur. Allowing your digestionperiods of rest between meals will enable your gut to clear out and your migrating motor complex to work more efficiently. Between meals the gut should be allowed to sweep away any digestive leftovers which helps to control the growth of bacteria in the small intestine. If you are eating every 1-2 hours you are not allowing that sweep to occur. Do your best to space your eating opportunities four hours apart and try not to eat right before bedtime. According to different studies, the antibiotic rifaximin improves symptoms in 33%-92% of people, and eradicates small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in up to 80% of patients9. Research also demonstrates that prebiotics and probiotics can be used to crowd out pathogenic bacteria in the gut, produce natural antibacterial substances, inhibit bacterial translocation, strengthen the immune system, reduce inflammation, and increase gut motility10. Probiotics can be useful alongside SIBO treatment as they support gut motility, and certain strains such as Bifidobacterium lactis HN019 have shown benefit alongside antibiotic therapy because of this.11 In a randomised placebo-controlled study by Waller et al, looking at the effects of B. lactis HN019 on whole gut transit time and gastrointestinal symptoms, they found that the probiotic group showed significant improvements in gut transit time and symptoms compared with the placebo group.12 If we can speed up the transit of food through the intestine then there is less likelihood of it fermenting and causing symptoms. Herbal antibiotics work in a similar way to pharmaceutical antibiotics, in that they remove bacterial and fungal overgrowths and are an option for people who want to try a more natural approach. Herbs to consider are oregano, goldenseal, echinacea, berberine, garlic, cloves, and pomegranate. As a framework for understanding IBS and other gut disorders, SIBO provides a target for exciting research. If you are having trouble getting to the bottom of your digestive symptoms, SIBO may just be the piece you were missing in your digestive puzzle. If you have already investigated common culprits like lactose intolerance, coeliac disease and irritable bowel syndrome, talk to your doctor or a registered nutritionist about testing for SIBO. Do you have more questions about SIBO, gut health or probiotics? Let us know in comments below! For more information on digestive health please see the following articles. 1 Ghoshal et al (2017), Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth and Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Bridge between Functional Organic Dichotomy, ‘Gut and Liver’, Vol 11.2, pp.196-208, [online], Available at:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5347643/#b127-gnl-11-196 [Accessed 3/3/19] 2 Fassano A (2012), Leaky Gut and Autoimmune diseases, ’Allergy and immunology’, Vol 42:1 pp.71-78 [online] Available at:https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12016-011-8291-x[Accessed 3/3/10] 3 Tursi A et al (2005), Assessment of small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in uncomplicated acute diverticulitis of the colon, ‘World Journal of Gastroenterology’, Vol 11:18, pp. 2773-6 [online] Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15884120 [Accessed 3/3/10] 4 Hao W L, Lee Y K (2004), Microflora of the gastrointestinal tract: a review. ‘Methods in Molecular Biology’, Vol 268, pp.491-502 [online] Available at:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15156063/ [Accessed 3/3/19] 5 Dukowicz A C et al (2007) Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth, 'Gastroenterology and Hepatology', Vol 3:2, pp.112-122 [online] Available at:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3099351/ [Accessed 3/3/19] 6.Roland B C et al (2015) Small Intestinal Transit Time Is Delayed in Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth, ‘Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology’, Vol 49:7, pp.571-6 [online] Available at:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25319735 [Accessed 3/3/19] 7 Henry C (2004) Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth:A Framework for Understanding Irritable Bowel Syndrome, ‘JAMA’, Vol 292-7, pp.852-858 [online] Available at:https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/199251 [Accessed 3/3/19] 8 Collen A 2015 10% Human: how your Body microbes hold the key to Health and Happiness, 2nd Ed, London, William Collins, p 65, 9 Bures J et al (2010) Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth Syndrome, ‘World Journal of Gastroenterology’ Vol 16:24 pp.2978-2990 [online] Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2890937/#B9 [Accessed 3/3/19] 10 Chung Chen W, Quigley E M (2014) Probiotics, prebiotics & synbiotics in small intestinal bacterial overgrowth: Opening up a new therapeutic horizon! ‘Indian Journal of Medical Research’, Vol 140:5 pp.582-584 [online] Available at:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4311309/ [Accessed 3/3/19] 11 Rosania R et al (2013) Effect of Probiotic or Prebiotic Supplementation on Antibiotic Therapy in the Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth: A Comparative Evaluation, ‘Current Clinical Pharmacology’, Vol 8:2 pp.169-172 [online]Available at:http://www.eurekaselect.com/108543/article [Accessed 3/3/19] 12 Waller, P. A. et al., (2011) Dose-response effect of Bifidobacterium lactis HN019 on whole gut transit time and functional gastrointestinal symptoms in adults. ‘Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology’. Vol 46:9 pp. 1057–1064 [online] Available at:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21663486 [Accessed 3/3/19] Comments — 0 Make a Comment We use Gravatar to personalise your comments, if you don't have an account, you can create one here. Don't worry, you can still post without one. Thanks!

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A man asked Gautama Buddha, “I want happiness.” Buddha said, “First remove “I,” that’s Ego, then remove “want,” that’s Desire. See now you are left with only “Happiness.” Desire is very common to all. Some desires are quite healthy, useful, and appropriate; some are not. One function of meditation practice is to help us distinguish between these. And differentiating helps support the beautiful aspiration for liberation and compassion. Your ego is your conscious mind, the part of your identity that you consider your “self.” When we engage in ego-driven activity, we’re trying to reinforce this sense of self. The sense-of-self is not a thing, instead it is a process. Enlightenment occurs when the usually automatized reflexivity of consciousness ceases, which is experienced as a letting-go and falling into the emptiness and being wiped out of existence. Stop trying to grab onto anything and the enlightenment will occur. Vipassana meditation is part of Ananpanasati Meditation. Use of the breath is the central to Ananpanasati Meditation. Observing freely where the mind wanders is vipassana. Developing focus on breath is ananpanasati. The word derives from a verb, sarati, meaning “to remember” – remember your breath. Ananpanasati was originally taught by Gautama Buddha. A smaller area of awareness = greater resistance to our minds and sharper awareness into the subtler realities. Sri Amit Ray expressed that developing inner peace and inner beauty is the first step of Ananpanasati Meditation. Inner beauty comes from love and compassion and inner peace comes from let go, positive thoughts and by activating the awareness muscles of the mind. Eight Stages of Anapanasati Meditation There are eight stages of meditation through which a meditator usually progresses, more or less in order, though it is quite possible to sometimes fall back to an earlier stage. Breathing in long, he discerns, ‘I am breathing in long’; or breathing out long, he discerns, ‘I am breathing out long.’ Or breathing in short, he discerns, ‘I am breathing in short’; or breathing out short, he discerns, ‘I am breathing out short.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in experiencing all bodies.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out experiencing all bodies.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in calming the body fabricator.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out calming the body fabricator.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in experiencing rapture.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out experiencing rapture.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in experiencing pleasure.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out experiencing pleasure.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in experiencing the mind fabricator.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out experiencing the mind fabricator.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in calming the mind fabricator.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out calming the mind fabricator. Here, ‘experiencing all bodies’ (sabba kaya), simply means experiencing both the breath & the (internal) physical (external) body together. Here, ‘bodily fabrications’ means any ‘tension’ felt anywhere in the body subtle or gross. “Mindfulness Mediation” or Vipassana Meditation is a capacity for heightened present-moment awareness that we all possess to a greater or lesser extent. “Mindfulness” are particularly effective, because they aim at changing the underlying beliefs and patterns of negative thinking that create the anxiety. Essentially, you learn how to focus mindfulness on the underlying core emotions and make them the primary object of your meditation. Generally, it is what is not seen that has most power over you, and mindfulness meditation is directed at exploring the structure of our inner feelings in great detail. Training this capacity seems to have a quieting effect on brain areas associated with our subjective appraisal of our self. By considering thoughts and feelings as transitory mental events that occur, but are separate from the self, people are able to lessen their hold on their worries and positive mental health outcomes follow. Mindfulness can be as simple as just watching the breathing. Even the most basic tasks such as washing the clothes can consume so much emotional energy that it simply becomes easier to give up. So much emotional energy is expended in this endless worrying that we are left feeling completely drained and fatigued, which makes us even less able to cope. However, what is even more important than the thoughts or beliefs at the core of anxiety conditions are the emotions, the feeling energy that empowers those thoughts and beliefs. This is what we address in Mindfulness Meditation. When you develop a mindfulness-based relationship with your inner emotions you set up a completely different inner environment that greatly facilitates transformation, resolution and healing of the emotional constructs of anxiety and fear. The simple fact is that reactivity inhibits change, while mindfulness promotes change and healing. You first learn to recognize the impulse to react with fear or panic as it arises, and to respond at a very early stage to the impulse with mindful-attention. This simple action stops the reactivity proliferating into worry and negative thinking, and opens up a brief moment of choice, a space before the reaction takes off. This is the beginning of the de-conditioning process. With practice you can develop and lengthen this space, especially in mindfulness meditation sessions, which become practice grounds for developing new ways of responding to your emotions and the associated external situations. As you develop this space, what is called the “therapeutic space of mindfulness,” you create an opportunity in which the trapped emotional energy that powers the reactions can unfold, unwind and become much more malleable. This inner freedom allows emotions to change and transform, which eventually leads to their resolution. We all know the importance of “facing our feelings.” Well Mindfulness Meditation provides the method and details of how to do that, and in a way that leads to beneficial change, rather than simply re-experiencing the emotional reactivity. It is a well-established fact that Exposure Therapy, in which you deliberately make controlled contact with your fear or phobia, is an essential part of healing, but the whole point of such therapy is not to simply re-experience the trauma, but to experience it differently. Mindfulness allows you to do this very effectively, and with your mind will rapidly learn new perceptions and new pathways of experiencing that are not based on emotional reactivity but on balanced responsiveness. This in turn naturally leads to more functional and more positive thinking and more useful core beliefs that are empowered by positive emotional energy, rather than the previous negative energy. How to Do Mindfulness Meditation: 1. The techniques of mindful meditation is not new. You just find a quiet and cozy place. Sit in a chair or at the floor along with your head, neck and back straight but not stiff. 2. Try and set aside all thoughts of the past and the longer term and stay within the present. 3. Discover your breathing, targeting the feeling of air moving out and in of your body as you breathe. Feel your belly rise and fall, the air enter your nostrils and leave your mouth. Listen in on the way in which each breath changes and is different. 4. Watch every thought come and go, whether or not it’s a worry, fear, anxiety or hope. When thoughts arise to your mind, don’t ignore or suppress them but simply note them, remain calm and use your breathing as an anchor. 5. If you end up getting over excited to your thoughts, observe where your mind went off to, without judging, and easily return for your breathing. Remember to not be hard on yourself if this occurs. Benefits of Mindfulness Meditation: Mindfulness gives rise to insights which ripen into wisdom, because the more deeply and clearly we are able to observe the reality of our mind body and world, the more we will understand how and why things are as they are. Here are 10 benefits to practice mindfulness meditation. Increases grey-matter density in the hippocampus (an area of the brain known to be important for learning and memory) and in structures associated with self-awareness, compassion and introspection. Reduces Anxiety Disorders, Including Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) Reduces Sleep Problems Improve focus, concentration, and precision. Improves Relationship Issues Enhance the quality of communications and relationships. Deepen peace of mind and sense of flow Deepen insight and intuitive wisdom. Awaken more authenticity, heart, soul, and caring in our lives and work. Each one of us is having the ability to heal ourselves. We need to learn the techniques for healing. Yoga and Vipassan are two beautiful ways to control pain and bring happiness in life. Both these techniques are scientifically proven and millions of people are getting benefits of that. Just like allopathic medicines, too much Yoga and too much Vipassana meditation is harmful for body and mind. You should be careful they should not create addiction. Great Yoga and Vipassana master Sri Amit Ray of Uttarkashi in the book “Yoga and Vipassana: An Integrated Life Style” beautifully explained the ways and means to use yoga and Vipassana for pain management and stress relief. He says “Select your own yoga posture slowly and very gently twist your body and gently focus your attention to the starting place of the physical pain. Just comfortably permit your awareness to rest in that area for few moments and then move your attention to the ….. “. The book beautifully amalgamated the two ancient meditation and yoga techniques. But Yoga and Vipassan are not the answer for all pains, particularly for acute pains you need to take proper medical advice. Yoga postures should be selected depending on the nature of pain. The concepts and methods of harmonizing body, mind, and spirit introduced centuries ago by Patanjali have been adopted by scientists, religious and spiritual leaders, and experts in the field of physical and mental health, as well as by the public at large. The concept of observing the breath and the tingling sensations of the body have been adopted by Gautam Buddha. Kriya yoga and vipassana are the two wings of a spiritual journey. If one is weak you cannot fly comfortably. God realization and stillness of mind both are important. Buddha said “It is better to conquer yourself than to win a thousand battles. Then the victory is yours. It cannot be taken from you, not by angels or by demons, heaven or hell. “ Vipassana is the art of conquering yourself. Paramahansa Yoganandanin the writer of the spiritual classic,“Autobiography of a Yogi”, said “Meditation is the science of God‑realization. It is the most practical science in the world. Most people would want to meditate if they understood its value and experienced its beneficial effects. The ultimate object of meditation is to attain conscious awareness of God, and the soul’s eternal oneness with Him. “ In the teachings of the Zen masters we observed “What we call the body and mind in the Buddha Way is grass, trees and wall rubble; it is wind, rain, water and fire.” Himalayan spiritual master Amit Ray of Uttarkashi in his book, “Yoga and Vipassana: An Integrated Life Style” said“There are three aspects in yoga, the first one is keeping the body and mind in harmony and healthy. The second one is stilling the mind and the third one is realising the inner sprit. Yoga deals with the first aspect of life. Vipassan is more about the stilling the mind and for the third one you need your own inner grace.” Ramana Maharshi the master of yoga through self-inquiry mentioned that “self-inquiry is certainly not an empty formula and it is more than the repetition of any mantra. If the inquiry `Who am I?’ were a mere mental Questioning, it would not be of much value. The very purpose of self-inquiry is to focus the entire mind at its source. It is not, therefore, a case of one `I’ searching for another `I’. Much less is self-inquiry an empty formula, for it involves an intense activity of the entire mind to keep it steadily poised in pure Self-awareness.” Self inquiry is the art of knowing yourself. Sri Aurobindo tried to amalgamate the older religions and said “Eevolution is the method by which it liberates itself; consciousness appears in what seems to be inconscient, and once having appeared is self-impelled to grow higher and higher and at the same time to enlarge and develop towards a greater and greater perfection. Life is the first step of this release of consciousness; mind is the second; but the evolution does not finish with mind, it awaits a release into something greater, a consciousness which is spiritual and supramental. The next step of the evolution must be towards the development of Super-mind and Spirit as the dominant power in the conscious being. For only then will the involved Divinity in things release itself entirely and it become possible for life to manifest perfection.” Great yogi Ramakrishna Paramhansa taught ceaselessly for fifteen years the basic truths of all religion through parables, metaphors, songs and by his own life. He said “There are pearls in the deep sea, but you must hazard all perils to get them. If you fail to get at them by a single dive, do not conclude that the sea is without them. Dive again and again, and you are sure to be rewarded in the end. So also in the quest for the Lord, if your first attempt to see Him proves fruitless, do not lose heart. Persevere in the attempt, and you are sure to realize Him at last.” About 2500 years back, Lord Buddha re-established the Vipassana meditation techniques. Vipassana meditation helps effective utilization of mental energy and life force. It brings calmness, happiness and harmony in life. The life energy is not wasted or escaped in the continuous waves of thoughts. True Vipassana meditation provides enough energy to tackle all the problems of our everyday life. In the book Yoga and Vipassana: An Integrated Lifestyle, the Himalayan meditation master Sri Amit Ray of Uttarkashi, explained “Vipassana meditation is an ongoing creative purification process. Observation of the moment-to-moment experience cleanses the mental layers, one after another. Vipassana is searching deeply within, the deeper realities of all experiences. …. Vipassana arises as you pay awareness to the inner and outer experience unfolding at the present moment. Vipassana is not associated with any rigid formula or methods. Whenever you are aware of your mental or physical feelings like tension in the muscles, movement of limbs, stiffness, heat or cold, you have begun to develop special understanding of realities.” Benefits of Vipassana meditation: The rewards of meditation of Vipassana are many. It develops patience and liberates from all secondary and the dependences. The achievements of Vipassana can be felt to even the very first meeting. In the Pali language Vipassana means looking from the other side of the river. In Vipassana, you have to think beyond ten-day Vipassana retreat. Objective of Vipassan is to go beyond suffering, beyond the cycle of birth and death. When you are aware of tension, movement, tautness, heat or cold, you have begun to develop special close understanding. Vipassana meditation strengthens digestion and keeps us free from toxins that clog the body’s channels and prevent the flow of vital energy in the body. Hindrances in Vipassana Meditations: There are five hindrances. First is sensual desire, it is the greatest hindrance to Vipassana, practice. Aversion or anger is the second hindrance. Sloth and torpor is the third hindrance. restlessness and worry is the forth hindrance. Skeptical doubt and criticism is the fifth and the last hindrance. Rapture in Vipassana Meditations: Mystical bliss, joy and rapture is part of integrated yoga and vipassana. When the mind is concentrated, purified, bright, unblemished, free from defects, pliant, malleable and steadies this positive joy arises. Vipassana Beyond Suffering: If you practice Vipassana from a true master, you will never feel pain during the practice and after the practice. You will be always filled with joy and exhilaration. Your body will always feel cool, calm, and comfortable. You will always feel great love in the heart region. You will be at extreme mental balance and finally mind itself will come to a complete stop. The term ‘Yoga Nidra’ is mentioned several times in Puranas in different context. Markandeya Purana, Vishnu Purana, Devi Bhagvat and other scriptures highlight the importance of Yoga Nidra. Yoga Nidra is very well defined by Adya Sankaracharya in his text Yoga Tadavali. Yoga Nidra means Aware Yogic Sleep. It is a state of conscious Deep Sleep. In Yoga Nidra, you leave the Waking state, go beyond the Dreaming state, and go to Deep Sleep, yet remain awake. Yoga Nidra is a tool for attenuating, and eliminating habit patterns or samskaras, which are not useful. It prepares the mind for spiritual evolution. Yoga Nidra Kriya Yoga Meditation Technique is not in the traditional Kriya yoga as popularized by Babaji and Paramhansa Yogandana. It is much different from traditional Kriya yoga. The word “Kriya” means “action or movement.’ These meditations that Yogananda’s Babaji did were mind movement exercises. There are two kinds of meditations, “Passive and Active.” Most teach “passive” meditations. In true Kriya Yoga and Siddha Yoga and Daoism/Taoism one learns “active meditations”. The reason for this is that, “active meditations” create alot of Chi (qi) energy. It is this activating your body and mind and spirit with Chi (qi) that results in one becoming physically energetic and one having what are called the Siddha abilities. (Nirodhanada) Eight Steps of Traditional Yoga Nidra: Yoga nidra should be done in a quiet place where no interruptions can take place. A meditation room is ideal. The practitioner lies down on the floor or a firm bed. The surface should be comfortable but not soft so that sleep comes easily. Lie flat on your back (Savasana) with the body stretched out, the head in straight line with the body, feet apart, arms besides the body and palms of the hands facing up. Be relaxed and comfortable. Now close your eyes. There should be no movement during yoga nidra. Remember you should not sleep, but remain awake all through the session. So say to yourself: “I will not sleep; I will remain awake.” Please follow the voice with full awareness and feeling. If your mind is distracted during the practice, do not worry. Just continue the practice. 2. Physical and Mental Relaxation Take a deep breath and as you breathe in, feel the coolness and calmness spreading throughout the body. As you breathe out, feel your cares and worries flowing out of you. Become aware of the body and relax completely. Relax your body mentally. Now be aware of the sounds in the room. Allow your hearing to follow the sounds for a few seconds, going from sound to sound, without trying to identify them. Develop awareness of the room itself… the four walls, the ceiling and the floor, and your body lying on the floor or bed. Visualize your body lying down. Feel your body lying on the floor, feel the sensations of your whole body lying down, your whole body lying on the floor. Say to yourself mentally, “I am going to practice yoga nidra. I will remain awake all through the session.” Now it is the time to make Sankalpa (resolve). State your affirmation mentally three times with feeling and awareness. 4. Rotation of Consciousness During these steps, focus your mind on the parts of your body and not on your breath. Relax each part of the body in turn. During this exercise it is helpful to see your body as an object and your mind as an instrument of your inner spirit directing the flow of prana into your body. As you go through the step of relaxing a specific part of your body, imagine that the prana, the essence of life, is flowing through this part relaxing and revitalizing the whole part, as you inhale and exhale freely. We will now rotate our consciousness through different parts of the body. Repeat the part in your mind at the same time become aware of that part of the body. Do not concentrate, but remain alert. Become aware of the right hand. Right hand thumb, second finger, third finger, fourth finger, fifth finger, palm of the hand, back of the hand, lower right arm, upper arm, the shoulder, the armpit, the right side of the torso, the right upper leg, the lower leg, the ankle, the right foot, the right toes. Left hand thumb, second finger, third finger, fourth finger, fifth finger, palm of the hand, back of the hand, lower left arm, upper arm, the shoulder, the armpit, the left side of the torso, the left upper leg, the lower leg, the ankle, the left foot, the left toes. Become aware of the right shoulderblade, the left shoulderblade, the right buttock, the left buttock, the spine, the whole back. Now go the top of the head. Become aware of the top of the head, the forehead, the right eyebrow, the left eyebrow, the space between the eyebrows, the right eye, the left eye, the right ear, the left ear, the nose, the lips, the throat, the right chest, the left chest, the middle of the chest, the navel, the lower belly. The right leg, the left leg; both legs together. The right arm, the left arm, both arms together. The back of the body, the front of the body, the head, whole body, the whole body, the whole body (repeat one more time). Are you awake? Repeat to yourself: “I am awake.” Total awareness. Awareness of the whole body. The whole body lying down. See your body lying down. Visualize your body lying down. Become aware of your breath. Feel the natural rhythm of your breath, feel your natural, spontaneous breath. Do not force the breath; just awareness 5. Awareness of Sensations Now awaken the feeling of lightness—as if the body is made of cotton. Your body seems to be floating away from the floor. Next, Feel the body getting heavy – so heavy, it’s sinking into the floor. Feel the head heavy, the arms, the torso… heavy. Feel the legs heavy and the feet heavy. The whole body is heavy… feel the whole body heavy…sinking into the floor… heavy… heaviness… the whole body is heavy. Awaken the sensation of heat, the experience of heat. The whole body is hot. Now experience bitter cold in the body. Nowfeel your body becoming alert… you are so alert. Feel yourself become alert… you are awake…you are awake…you are awake. Yoga nidra is also augmented by incorporating visualization and mediation There are many different techniques you can use. This is the final stage of yoga nidra relates to mental relaxation. Generally such images and symbols are chosen for the visualization that has universal significance. To quote a few: the mountain, river, ocean, temple, church, cross, saint, flower etc. Use your feeling, awareness, emotion and imagination to develop images in your mind. Vividly visualize yourself in your favorite place Stay in that situation for few minuses. You mentally get more more and more relaxed. Now move to next step. Once again the resolve or sankalpa is intently thought of or even visualized repeat your affirmation mentally 3 times with feeling and emphasis. Thus, consciously one tries to direct the unconscious mind about the goal in life. This time the unconscious is very susceptible and therefore may accept the suggestion from the conscious mind with more intensity. 8. Return to Full Awareness Now start taking normal natural breath, spontaneous breath. Now bring your awareness to your body lying stretched out and relaxed on the floor. Be aware of your physical existence. Become aware of the environment, room… the floor, the walls, the ceiling, and the noises in the room. Let your mind become completely external. Don’t make hurry to open your eyes. Lie quietly until your mind is completely awake and externalized. Start moving yourself slowly, stretching yourself. When you are sure you are awaken, open your eyes. Yoga Nidra and Kriya Yoga Meditation: Steps of Kriya yoga Yoga Nidra is many way different from traditional yoga nidra. I know, after doing 15 rounds of nada sanchalana, 50 rounds of pawan sanchalana, 60 rounds of shabda sanchalana and 60 rounds of chakra bhedan you will get tired. These are not Kriya Yoga. These are to keep the mind busy. True kriya yoga is beyond these activities. According to my yoga master Sri Amit Ray ji of Himalaya, Uttarkashi, “When Yoga nidra and Kriya yoga goes hand in hand you are in the hand of eternal bliss. Kriya yoga without yoga nidra is not effective. If you really want to transform your Samskars (habit patterns) and burn your bad karmas, you must practice Yoga Nidra and Kriya Yoga together in a systematic manner.” Kriya Yoga is the science of balancing life energy effectively. Kriya yoga is having enormous healing effect. Through its practice, the mind gets engrossed at the 3rd Eye, at the middle point between the eyebrows. It releases person from bondage. The yogi should mentally slowly chant ‘Om’ 15 times, concentrating just below the navel. The yogi should mentally chant ‘Om’ 25 times, concentrating on the back of the navel. The yogi should mentally chant ‘Om’ 35 times, concentrating at the back of the neck. 2nd Kriya :: The yogi should mentally chant ‘Om’ 15 times, along the imaginary tube of the spine, up and down. The yogi should mentally chant ‘Om’ 35 times, concentrating on the point between the eyebrows. 3rd Kriya :: Maha Mudra: Alternatively sit on your one foot, and try to touch your other toe. 3rd Eye Meditation: Imagine a circular light in the forehead. Very slowly do pranava japa along the circumference of the circle. Do this for few minutes and feel the sensations on the forehead and then feel the sensations on whole body. Practicing letting go is the most important art of yoga and vipassana. How do you take the practice of nowness to the next level so as to see ultimate reality clearly? The answer is: by letting go of conventional knowledge temporarily, which includes letting go of memory. Not only memories from childhood, or yesterday, or one minute ago; not only the memory of our last breath. In order to gain ultimate knowledge you have to give up, for a time, the labels and concepts of conventional knowledge. Some call this “beginner’s mind.” That means that in order to reach a high level of vipassana insight you must temporarily let go of the names for things, because naming is actually a very subtle form of remembering, a tiny reflex back to the past. But you don’t have to worry that anything will be lost— the memories and names will return as soon as you need them or as soon as you stop the period of intensive practice. What does it mean to “let go of names”? In order to understand this, let’s take a look at the process of perception as described in Buddhist philosophy. The perceptual process has two parts. Say that you’re looking at a piano. At first you see an unidentified colored shape (this is the initial moment of contact with the object, to which we referred earlier). A split-second later the mind recognizes the name of the object, “piano.” Those two moments occur one right after the other, so quickly that in daily life they’re indistinguishable. But with strong mindfulness and insight it is possible to perceive the initial moment of bare seeing before memory comes up with the name. The same stages of perception occur whenever you experience a sound, smell, taste or touch. Pure sound-waves are cognized first; in the next moment you recognize the sound. A fragrance is sensed before it is named. The same is true of touches, tastes, and mental phenomena. The truth is, although you may have general mindfulness, whenever you recognize a sight, sound, etc., you cannot be said to be staying exactly in the present moment, to the highest degree possible. “If we could focus precisely on the present moment,” Achan Sobin wrote, “"¦ the eye would not be able to identify objects coming into the area of perception. Sound, which merely has the function of entering the eardrum and causing it to vibrate, would not be concretized as speech or music, etc. In fact, it is possible to focus on the split-second between hearing sound and recognizing it in the conventional manner.” (Wayfaring: A Manual for Insight Meditation). Although it may seem impossible to be clearly aware of a form before recognizing it, this event happens naturally during vipassana practice when mindfulness and insight are very strong. With experience in meditation you will not have to believe or disbelieve, because you will know this firsthand. To know a phenomenon with mindfulness before it is overlaid with concepts is to experience reality as it actually is, in its pristine state. That does not mean that in daily life you will go around bumping into objects you don’t recognize. Again, conventional perception, along with all the names and concepts necessary for everyday functioning, will be there as soon as you need it. It can be accessed anytime. But in regard to memory, someone might think, “I cherish my happy memories. Why should I give them up?” Again, your memories will not be permanently erased. You’ll be able to recall a certain event whenever you want to. But the more you train the mind to stay in the present moment, the more you’ll see that clinging to the past and living in the future actually cause suffering. Attachment to pleasant memories makes us long for something that is gone, and this longing is in itself painful. What disappears in vipassana practice are not the memories themselves, but the distress that comes from attaching to them. In Vipassana, the object of meditation is one’s own consciousness. While we continue to use the breath as an anchor to the present moment, it is no longer the only object (as in other forms of meditation). Instead, we become aware of whatever the most prominent stimulus is in that moment, and we allow that stimulus to be our object. It may be a thought, a feeling, a physical sensation, a sound, a smell, or just about anything else. Whatever it is, we simply notice it without becoming involved in thinking about it. In this sense, we are working toward achieving an objective and non-reactive state of mind. At the same time, Vipassana is not primarily a relaxation technique and we are not trying to flee from reality or go off into a trance. The goal is active and objective observation of our subjective experience, without attachment. In terms of actual practice, try to find a quiet place where people, phones, and other distractions will not be an issue. Wear comfortable clothing and consider taking off your shoes. Sit either on the floor (perhaps on a cushion) or in a straight back chair. Place your hands on your knees or folded in your lap. Sit up straight and close your eyes. Take two or three deep breaths and begin to focus on the present moment. Use your breathing to anchor you to the here-and-now. As you continue, notice the most prominent stimulus, whatever it is, without engaging it. Try to sit still and maintain focus for 10 minutes. Just as you are not reacting impulsively to the thoughts or feelings that you have, do not react impulsively to physical discomforts as they arise. For instance, if your nose itches, do not immediately reach up to scratch it. If you want, you can choose to scratch your nose. Or, if you want, you can choose just to let it be. Whatever you decide, act in mindfulness and with great intention.

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The following article of mine was recently published in the July-Sept 2015 issue of Bibliotheca Sacra. It is a more academic treatment of my post: “Important or Impotent: How Many Sons Did Absalom Have?” posted last year on this blog. Both articles are based on the research from my book Family Portraits: Character Studies in 1 and 2 Samuel. This article is reprinted with the kind permission of Bibliotheca Sacra and Dallas Theological Seminary (© 2015 by Dallas Theological Seminary). Footnotes can be found following the article. HOW MANY SONS DID ABSALOM HAVE?: INTENTIONAL AMBIGUITY AS LITERARY ART The apparent contradictory statements about Absalom’s sons, or lack thereof, in 2 Samuel 14:27 and 18:18 have puzzled readers and scholars. This article seeks a new solution by proposing that the author of these texts deliberately created this ambiguity in order to communicate an important message about Absalom. Through the use of apparent contradiction, inclusion, and point of view, the author skillfully linked these two passages. The message communicated is a surprising reversal of Absalom’s image who is pictured before his rebellion as someone important, but by the rebellion’s end is portrayed as impotent. Anyone reading the account of Absalom’s rebellion found in 2 Samuel 13–20 is struck by the apparent contradiction between 2 Samuel 14:27, which states that Absalom had 3 sons and 1 daughter, and 2 Samuel 18:18, which states that he had no sons. This article seeks a new solution to this problem by proposing that the author of these texts deliberately created this ambiguity in order to communicate an important message about Absalom. The message conveyed is a surprising reversal of Absalom’s portrayal. He is pictured before his rebellion as someone important, but by the rebellion’s end is portrayed as impotent. The conflict in these two passages is really not about how many sons Absalom had (although it is this apparent contradiction that invites the reader to compare the texts), but the contrast between the image that Absalom projected and the reality of who he was. THE INADEQUACY OF PROPOSED SOLUTIONS In recent history, two solutions for the apparent contradiction of 2 Samuel 14:27 and 18:18 have been proposed. Furthermore, scholars who propose one or the other of these solutions sometimes take different paths in arriving at their conclusions. The first solution, proposed by some literary critics, is that the two passages are from different sources (i.e., different authorial hands) and are therefore contradictory. For example, speaking of 2 Samuel 18:18, McCarter writes, “This parenthesis is evidently a late redactional notice introduced to identify a monument well known in the time of the redactor who added it.” Thus, McCarter follows the reasoning of some before him who see 2 Samuel 18:18 as an etiology about Absalom’s monument. According to this explanation, it would appear the redactor was more concerned with explaining the continued existence of Absalom’s monument in his own day, than he was with contradicting the earlier passage in 2 Samuel 14:27. Such a proposal, although theoretically possible, makes this supposed redactor very clumsy and myopic indeed. Not all scholars sharing this viewpoint, however, agree that 14:27 has priority. Smith, for example, speaking of 18:18 states, “Of the two, this seems more likely to be original, as it is quite in place to explain why Absalom had a monument in the king’s dale” (italics his). Mauchline seems to be of the same opinion when he states, “There is no doubt that this section 25–27 has no relevance where it stands and interrupts the course of the narrative. This and the fact that 27 in its statement concerning Absalom’s family is in contradiction to 18.18 has convinced many scholars that these verses belong to a source other than that to which the bulk of chs. 9–20 belong.” This highlights an important problem with this hypothetical solution. Because the passages appear to contradict one another, these scholars assume that two different authorial hands must be at work. However, the fact that it is impossible to be sure that the texts were added by two different hands (evidenced by the confusion over which text has priority) leaves open the possibility that both passages come from the same hand. If there is a plausible explanation for considering both passages to be from the same authorial hand, then such an explanation should be considered superior to the “two hands” theory. A second problem with this solution is that it may prevent the interpreter from seeking an alternate explanation and wrestling with the two apparently contradictory texts. They can be chalked up to a redactor (or even two redactors) with conflicting data or a conflicting viewpoint. A third problem is that it proposes an irreconcilable contradiction in Scripture. Robert Alter states, “The two reports can be harmonized only with considerable strain, and it is best to view them as contradictory traditions incorporated in the final text.” This is a surprising concession from Alter who helped pioneer the contemporary literary approach to the Bible with its emphasis on viewing the text as a whole and discovering the art of the biblical authors. The second proposed solution is that Absalom’s sons must have died in childhood. This solution is suggested by many recent commentators including Auld, Bergen, Chisholm, and Firth, to name only a few. Some merely deduce this from the silence of the text and offer no corroborating evidence. Bergen, however, suggests that Absalom’s childless state is a result of a curse that is placed upon children of the disobedient (Deut. 28:18). Leithart, on the other hand, proposes that Absalom’s loss of sons “shows a similarity to David, who also lost a series of sons.” The suggestions of Bergen and Leithart at least take a more productive approach founded on factors in the wider context; nevertheless, an argument based on silence is at the very least precarious, and oftentimes mistakenly leads one in the wrong direction. The fact is that some are uncomfortable with ambiguity, and especially with texts that seem to contradict one another. The temptation is to find a quick answer to the problem and move on. However, it is possible that an apparent contradiction is an invitation to examine the text in greater detail. Could it be that by attempting to solve an ambiguity in the text too quickly or superficially, readers fail to see its intended function and, thereby, miss the intended meaning? What follows will attempt to demonstrate that 2 Samuel 14:27 and 18:18 are deliberately ambiguous in order to communicate a particular message. However, before looking at these texts, it is necessary to take a brief look at the meaning and function of ambiguity and whether it can be discerned as a device used in the books of Samuel. AMBIGUITY AS AN INTENTIONAL LITERARY DEVICE Recently Firth has examined the concept of biblical ambiguity. He utilizes a definition of ambiguity as “any verbal nuance, however slight, which gives room for alternative reactions to the same piece of language.” Firth also notes three different types of ambiguity. First, ambiguities may be the result of an author’s intention. Second, ambiguities may occur in a text unintentionally (e.g., does Saul or Samuel tear Samuel’s robe in 1 Sam. 15:27?). Third, ambiguities occur due to a reader’s misunderstanding or lack of knowledge. Firth’s focus, and the focus of this article are on the first type of ambiguity––that which is intentionally created by the author. Next, it is important to recognize the different types of ambiguity that an author may intentionally utilize. Firth proposes five different types. These include: 1) Details effective in multiple ways; 2) Multiple possibilities with a single resolution; 3) Simultaneous use of unconnected meanings; 4) Alternative meanings combine to clarify author’s intention; and 5) Apparent contradictions. The fifth type of ambiguity “apparent contradictions” preoccupies the present discussion of 2 Samuel 14:27 and 18:18. Firth lays down what may be called “the ground rules” for this type of ambiguity. The final type of ambiguity occurs when an author deliberately places together statements or concepts that appear to contradict one another so as to invite readers to see the ways in which they mutually interpret one another and cohere so as to create a single meaning. It is important to note that the contradictions employed in this type of ambiguity are apparent, not actual. . . . Where this type of ambiguity occurs, it is common for the apparent contradictions to be placed close to one another in order to highlight the paradox seemingly created by the contradiction, though it is not necessarily the case that this will happen. It is evident that 2 Samuel 14:27 and 18:18 fall into the latter category of verses that are not deliberately placed together. However, because they share the theme of sons born or not born to Absalom, the apparent contradiction ties them together. They also share other connections. Before proceeding with an examination of 2 Samuel 14:27 and 18:18 as an example of ambiguity through apparent contradiction, it is fair to ask if an authorial use of ambiguity can be found elsewhere in the books of Samuel. Firth maintains that one can not only find ambiguity in verbs (see the definition above), but that “it is also possible to create ambiguity through narrative techniques.” As a test case for this idea, Firth turns to the books of Samuel admitting, “Such a studied use of ambiguity has not normally been attributed to [them].” Examining three narratives involving Saul (1 Sam. 18:6–9; 20:24–34; 22–11-17), Firth demonstrates how category 1 (details effective in multiple ways) explains Saul’s actions, noting that “He is consistently portrayed as misunderstanding potentially ambiguous statements.” Furthermore Firth maintains that, “…through the ways in which Saul misunderstands, readers are brought to understand more clearly where his faults lie….” Other examples supplement Firth’s finding and illustrate how common the literary technique of ambiguity is in 1 and 2 Samuel. Here are two examples, focusing on the use of apparent contradictions (category 5). Yahweh’s command for Saul to “utterly destroy” the Amalekites in 1 Samuel 15, followed by the appearance of Amalekites in the chapters surrounding Saul’s death (1 Sam. 28–2 Sam. 1), provides evidence of the author’s use of ambiguity. Following Yahweh’s command for Saul to utterly destroy the Amalekites (1 Sam. 15:1-3), readers are informed that Saul utterly destroyed “all of the people with the edge of the sword” but “spared Agag” the king (vv. 8–9). Subsequently, Agag is put to death by Samuel (15:33), which seemingly puts an end to all of the Amalekites. However, in the chapters surrounding the death of Saul, readers are reminded that Saul was disobedient by not wiping out the Amalekites (1 Sam. 28:18), and Amalekites appear frequently (1 Sam. 27:8; 30:1-18; 2 Sam. 1:8, 13). The reappearance of Amalekites, long after it is assumed they have been “utterly destroyed,” often puzzles readers and appears contradictory. In fact, it is a masterful way of surprising readers and driving home the message that Saul was far more disobedient than it seemed at first. Another excellent example of the use of ambiguity through apparent contradiction can be found in the accounts of Mephibosheth and his servant Ziba in 2 Samuel. In this case, the contradiction is placed in the mouths of the characters. Both men are introduced in 2 Samuel 9 where David is said to give Mephibosheth all the land that belonged to Saul (vv. 7, 9), while Ziba is commissioned to be his servant (vv. 9–11). Later, David is met by Ziba when the king is fleeing from his son Absalom. When David inquires about Mephibosheth’s whereabouts, Ziba tells him that he stayed behind to claim the kingdom (2 Sam. 16:1-4). This revelation comes as a shock to the reader who, at this point, has no reason to doubt Ziba’s assertion. After Absalom’s defeat, and upon David’s return to Jerusalem, Mephibosheth appears before the king. His appearance, and his words, contradict the words of Ziba whom he accuses of slander (2 Sam. 19:25–28). David’s decision of dividing Saul’s inheritance between Mephibosheth and Ziba (v. 29) emphasizes the ambiguity in the situation. On the surface, it can be hard to determine who the “good guy” is, or if either man can be classified as such. Indeed, scholars have come to different conclusions on this matter. If the ambiguity causes the reader to go back over the story and search the text more carefully, then the author’s technique has been successful. As Firth states, “…carefully constructed texts are able to draw readers in through various forms of ambiguity and in so doing enable them to engage more fully with the text.” Among the insights that can be gained from a more careful investigation of the story of Mephibosheth and Ziba is the nature of servanthood. The recurring theme of servanthood, and the actions of Mephibosheth and Ziba, prompt the question, “What makes someone a real servant?” Other illustrations of ambiguity could be cited from 1 and 2 Samuel, but the above examples may be sufficient to establish that the books of Samuel use this technique. Now a close examination of 2 Samuel 14:27 and 18:18 can demonstrate that the supposed contradiction between these two verses is only apparent, while also proposing a reason for the author’s use of ambiguity in the narrative of Absalom’s rebellion. LITERARY CONNECTIONS BETWEEN 14:27 AND 18:18 AND THEIR STRATEGIC PLACEMENT As noted above, 2 Samuel 14:27 and 18:18 immediately come together in the mind of the reader through the apparent contradictory information they offer. When one reads 2 Samuel 18:18 a “wait a minute” pause occurs as mental dissonance prompts the question, “But didn’t I read a few chapters earlier that Absalom had 3 sons?” Upon turning back and rereading 2 Samuel 14:27, dissonance turns to perplexity. At this point the interested reader (not to mention the sincere believer) is forced to grapple with these texts at a deeper level. While the apparent contradiction between these two verses might initially suggest a connection between them, further investigation reveals two other important links. First, the placement of these two verses is conspicuous. 2 Samuel 14:27 occurs immediately before the story of Absalom’s introduction to David’s court (2 Sam. 14:28–33), which preludes Absalom’s rebellion. Correspondingly, 2 Samuel 18:18 occurs at the end of the story of Absalom’s rebellion, immediately following the notice of his burial in verse 17. Therefore, these verses form an inclusio around Absalom’s rebellion. Recognition of the position these verses occupy in the narrative also suggests there is more to their significance than simply an apparent contradiction. It is the ambiguity, however, that draws attention to the significant placement of these two verses in the story of Absalom’s rebellion. A second link between these verses concerns their function and viewpoint, in that both verses interrupt the flow of the narrative by using a flashback technique. In 14:27 this interruption in narrative flow is an effective way of creating suspense. After David’s harsh words that Absalom is not allowed to see his face, the reader wonders, “Will Absalom ever be allowed back into the court of David?” Then comes 14:25-27, interrupting the narrative with a description of Absalom’s physical beauty and his procreative ability. These verses serve the dual function of: 1) causing the reader to wait and wonder what David will do, just as Absalom had to wait and wonder; and 2) introducing themes (vanity, sons) that will reappear in 18:18. In one sense, 14:25-27 and 18:18 could be omitted from the story and the reader would never miss them. They are an intrusion and this is why many scholars have viewed them as redactionary comments inserted into the story. On the other hand, their omission would dilute the powerful message of which they are an integral part. Rather than intrusions by a clumsy redactor, they are deliberate insertions by the author. They function together as part of the literary artistry of the narrative and contain an important message that the author wants the reader to understand about Absalom, as more detailed examination of both passages demonstrates. ABSALOM: IMPORTANT OR IMPOTENT? (2 SAM. 14:25-27; 18:18) “Among all the various descriptions of beauty mentioned in the books of Samuel, none excels the description of Absalom who is beautiful ‘from the sole of his foot to the crown of his head.’ Indeed, there is ‘no blemish in him'” (2 Sam. 14:25). Verse 26 continues with a description of Absalom’s luxuriant head of hair. Physical descriptions are rare in biblical narrative. What should be made of Absalom’s beauty and the author’s focus on Absalom’s hair? Niditch has written about the significance of hair in ancient Israel. Her comments regarding Absalom are insightful: “It seems clear that Absalom is portrayed as trying to project a certain image with his hair. The long-haired man is special. It is no coincidence that this description is followed by the mention of offspring . . . the long hair is clearly associated with fertility and manly fecundity. . . . He looks as if he is meant to lead and as if God’s blessing is on his head. He will be an excellent warrior. . . . He is adept at projecting an image of power, an image to which the hair contributes.” Similarly, Brueggemann states, “He is handsome, and his hair bespeaks his power and virility.” Thus, Absalom’s beautiful appearance, luxuriant hair, and ability to father children (especially sons), indicate his eligibility for kingship. As noted above, it is not accidental that this description of Absalom is placed immediately before his reacceptance to the court of David which facilitates the rebellion. The description of Absalom’s beauty and power can work at several different levels. On the one hand, it might suggest that Absalom is the natural successor to David. Upon reading further, these verses could be read as an ominous warning that Absalom will usurp his father’s throne (2 Sam. 15:10–14). This concern is eventually alleviated by the statement in 2 Samuel 17:14b: “For the Lord had ordained to thwart the good counsel of Ahithophel, so that the Lord might bring calamity on Absalom,” and by the report of Absalom’s death in 2 Samuel 18:9–17. On the other hand, a discerning reader might also be mindful of the recurring theme that “looks can be deceiving,” which is reiterated throughout 1 and 2 Samuel (e.g., Eli, Saul, Eliab, etc.). In this case, the reader might anticipate Absalom’s demise, or be concerned that the kingdom is falling into the hands of an unsuitable candidate. Whatever the reader’s reaction might be, the statement that Absalom fathered three sons projects an image of power and future kingship, which is an important key to understanding the author’s purpose. Just as David had fathered many sons, demonstrating his ability to establish a dynasty (2 Sam. 3:2–5; 5:13–16), so Absalom also possessed the same trait. Once the author’s purpose is discerned regarding the insertion of 2 Samuel 14:25–27, the purpose for the insertion at 18:18 becomes clearer. Absalom’s death and burial related in 2 Samuel 18:9–17 reveals that he is not the strong virile man he appeared to be in 2 Samuel 14:27. 2 Samuel 18:18 drives this point home in several ways. First, the contrast between the heap of stones that make up Absalom’s hasty, dishonorable burial (v. 17), stand in contrast to the monument he had earlier created for himself (v. 18). Although Absalom had created the monument so that his name would be remembered honorably, the heap of stones in the forest testified to his dishonorable memory by the nation. This contrast is further emphasized by the use of the words “took” and “erect/set” which are used in verse 17 to describe Absalom’s burial, and again in verse 18 to describe his monument. Bar-Efrat captures the significance of this when he states, “The item of information concerning the erection of the monument is inserted here and not in its chronological place in order to create a sharp contrast between the imposing monument in the Valley of the King and the ignoble pit in the forest, signifying the contrast between Absalom’s aspirations, pride and self-love, on the one hand, and the calamitous results to which these aspirations gave rise, on the other. The antithesis is given additional emphasis by the repetition of the same (Hebrew) roots.” The irony that Absalom set up his monument in the “King’s Valley” also should not be overlooked. By this comment the author shows the reader that the monument set up long ago hinted at Absalom’s kingly aspirations. Now (in the author’s day) it had become a hollow memory. The books of Samuel only record one other individual erecting a monument to himself. In commemoration of his victory over the Amalekites, the act that would cost him his kingship due to disobedience, Saul had also erected a monument (1 Sam. 15:12). Thus, twice in the books of Samuel monument building (for one’s self) is connected with the loss of kingship. It turns out that Absalom shares a number of similarities with Saul besides monument building. Saul and Absalom were both “kingly” in their appearance (1 Sam. 9:2; 10:24), and both pursued David and tried to destroy him. Saul clung to a throne that had been given to David, while Absalom tried to take a throne that belonged to David. In the end, the Lord disposed of them both, while David lived on. Against this background the comment that Absalom had no son is very poignant. It is one more way that the author demonstrates Absalom’s failure. The man who looked so important in 2 Samuel 14:25-27, turns out to be impotent. Absalom’s celebrated virility turns to sterility in 18:17–18 as one stares at the heap of stones in the forest which have become his grave and hears him confess, “I have no son”! Far from a clumsy contradiction inserted by a later editor, the statements about Absalom’s sons, or lack thereof, become a powerful statement about one who appears to be something that he is not. The literary art of the author has unmasked Absalom’s true insignificance. SOLUTION FOR A REMAINING PROBLEM Although the explanation above lauds the literary art of the author, there is still a problem. Did Absalom have sons or didn’t he? Even with allowances for literary art, it still seems as though there is a contradiction. Either the statement in 2 Samuel 14:27 must be true, or the statement in 18:18 must be true, but not both. Actually, this is where scholarly conclusions have gone astray, and where our previous discussion on apparent contradictions that create ambiguity becomes important. In fact, both statements are true, and a careful examination of both passages reveals that the contradiction is more apparent than real. It is important to notice who is speaking in each passage. In 2 Samuel 14:27 it is the biblical narrator who says that Absalom had three sons. This information should be taken as factual and reliable. As Meir Sternberg has stated, “The Bible always tells the truth in that its narrator is absolutely and straightforwardly reliable.” If this assertion is accepted, then there can be no doubt that Absalom did indeed have three sons. In 2 Samuel 18:18, the declaration “I have no son” is the narrator’s quote of a statement made by Absalom. Normally, if a character’s statement contradicts an assertion by the biblical narrator, then the character is either lying, deceived, or misinformed. But none of these can be the case with Absalom. Certainly Absalom would know whether he had any sons or not, so his statement should not be doubted. But could Absalom have been lying when he made this statement? The answer must be “No.” The monument that Absalom constructed was in a public place, and therefore, he gave a public explanation for its erection: “I have no son.” If Absalom said he had no sons, when in fact he had three sons, this would have been evident to others who knew him and, therefore, this statement would have exposed Absalom as a liar and a fraud. The solution to the dilemma is not who is speaking, but the timeframe in which these assertions occur. As noted, both passages are flashbacks. They do not take place at the time that other events in the narrative are happening. Both 2 Samuel 14:27 and 18:18 interrupt the flow of the narrative and take the reader back to a previous point of time in Absalom’s life. There is little doubt that Absalom’s three sons must have been born to him before the revolt. The revolt does not seem to have lasted very long, and in any case, it is unlikely that he could have given birth to three sons and a daughter during that time. Therefore Absalom’s children appear to have been born at some unspecified time in the past prior to his rebellion. So far, so good. Few, if any, would disagree with the explanation up to this point. The critical difference in interpretation is considering the time factor of Absalom’s statement in 18:18. Because the statement in 18:18 appears after the assertion in 14:27, many commentators assume that Absalom made the statement “I have no son” after his three sons were born, and therefore conclude that his sons must have died, or that there must be a contradiction. But such an assumption fails to take into account what is known about ancient historical writing, not to mention biblical narrative. Why must it be assumed that these statements stand in chronological order? In fact, the biblical author is very vague regarding the time of Absalom’s statement about having no son. The text simply states, “Now Absalom in his lifetime.” This could well mean that Absalom made this statement before he had any sons, especially since lifting an event from its chronological context is a common technique in the books of Samuel (e.g., 2 Sam. 4:4; 21:1–14). The author has simply pulled a statement from Absalom’s past that precedes the assertion of 14:27. The positioning of this statement here reveals that having no son was just a convenient reason for Absalom to erect a monument to himself in the King’s Valley. After all, he could not state the real reason (arrogance, self-indulgence, “I want to overthrow my father,” etc.). Therefore, the apparent contradiction (made possible by dischronologizing the statement) reveals Absalom’s hypocrisy in building a monument for himself and exposes him as the megalomaniac that he was. Readers have long noted the apparent contradiction between 2 Samuel 14:27 and 18:18. The discussion above has sought to demonstrate that the two usual solutions suggested to resolve this contradiction, (clumsy editor, Absalom’s sons must have died) are both inadequate explanations. Recognizing the art of intentional authorial ambiguity provides the best explanation for the apparent contradiction. The books of Samuel provide ample evidence of this technique. In attempting to solve this ambiguity, scholars have asked the wrong question. The question is not, “How many sons did Absalom have?,” but “At what point in time were these two assertions made?” Once modern presuppositions concerning chronological order are dispensed with, the solution becomes obvious. The writer’s imprecise language in 18:18 provides a further hint via the vague expression “in his lifetime.” The purpose of the ambiguity is to contrast what appears to be a strong, virile Absalom before the rebellion (14:27) with a true picture of the man evidenced by his weakness and impotency. Absalom’s monument is shown for what it really was: a testament to his vanity and pride. Through this contrast, the author highlights one of the key messages of the books of Samuel contained in the statement: “Do not look at his appearance or at the height of his stature, because I have rejected him; for God sees not as man sees, for man looks at the outward appearance, but the Lord looks at the heart” (1 Sam. 16:7). The following article is a more in-depth treatment of a conclusion reached in my recent book, Family Portraits: Character Studies in 1 and 2 Samuel, (Bloomington: WestBow, 2013), 364–365, 379–380. I am interested in looking at the final form of the text. Therefore by author I mean the person or people responsible for putting 1&2 Samuel in its final form, which most likely took place during the exile. Among recent commentators who take a similar view see, Robert B. Chisholm Jr., 1&2 Samuel, Teach the Text Commentary Series, (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2013), 6. For example, Peter R. Ackroyd, The Second Book of Samuel, The Cambridge Bible Commentary, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 169, and Charles Conroy, Absalom Absalom! Narrative and Language in 2 Sam 13–20, Analecta Biblica 81, (Rome: Biblical Institute, 1978), 65. H. P. Smith, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Books of Samuel, International Critical Commentary, (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1899), 359. Robert Alter, The David Story: A Translation with Commentary of 1 and 2 Samuel, (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1999), 281. J. P. Fokkelman, King David: Narrative art and Poetry in the Books of Samuel, vol. I, (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1981), 150, n. 35, makes the same admission. A. Graeme Auld, I & II Samuel, The Old Testament Library, (Louisville: John Knox, 2011), 544; Robert D. Bergen, 1, 2 Samuel, The New American Commentary, (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1996), 394; Chisholm, 1&2 Samuel, 321; David G. Firth, 1&2 Samuel, Apollos Old Testament Commentary, (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2009), 447. I am aware that some (e.g., post-structuralists) would argue that we cannot discern an author’s meaning of a given text. However, Grant R. Osborne, “Literary Theory and Biblical Interpretation,” in, Words and the Word: Explorations in Biblical Interpretation and Literary Theory, eds. David G. Firth and Jamie A. Grant, (Nottingham: Apollos, 2008), 17–50, has effectively challenged this position. See also David G. Firth, “Ambiguity,” in, Words and the Word: Explorations in Biblical Interpretation and Literary Theory, 156, who states, “Provided one works only by criteria established by the text itself, then there is no problem with seeking the author’s intention, if it is recognized that it is only the intention as this can be reconstructed on the basis of the evidence of the text itself.” Firth, ibid. 151-186. Firth bases his insights on the work of William Empson, Seven Types of Ambiguity, 3rd ed. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1960). Empson’s work examines ambiguity as it is found in literature in general. Firth refines some of Empson’s categories and applies the insights to the biblical text. This article focuses on Firth’s contribution, while acknowledging the prior work of Empson. Ibid., 157. Ibid., 155. Ibid., 159. Ibid., 169. Ibid., 172. Ibid., 173. Ibid., 172. For my assessment of Mephibosheth and Ziba see Family Portraits: Character Studies in 1 and 2 Samuel, 165–182. Conroy, Absalom Absalom!, 110, states, “the presence of the non-temporal material of vv. 25–27 between v. 24 and v. 28 serves to fill out this interval of time, to suggest its length, and so to make Absalom’s subsequent actions (vv. 28–32) more understandable.” McCracken, Family Portraits, 363. The comments which follow are adapted from my book. Susan Niditch, ‘My Brother Esau is a Hairy Man’: Hair and Identity in Ancient Israel, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 79-80. Walter Brueggemann, First and Second Samuel, Interpretation Bible Commentary, (Louisville: John Knox, 1990), 296. The dishonorable nature of Absalom’s death and burial is seen in the way it parallels the death and burial of the Canaanite kings that Joshua conquered . Like Absalom, the kings were hanged on a tree, thrown into a grave and covered with “a great heap of stones” (Josh. 8:29; 10:26–27). This repetition is obscured by the NASB which uses the word “erected” in v. 17 and “set” in v. 18. Meir Sternberg, The Poetics of Biblical Narrative: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 51. John H. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Bible, (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006), 222, states, “Important elements to the ancient understanding of time and history were recurrence and endurance. This perspective is not without linear aspects, but the linear element is not the default mode.”

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Agents of Resolution of Inflammation Both omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are essential fatty acids. This means they cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be part of the diet. But why are they essential? The answer is primarily based on their role in modulating the inflammatory process that is essential for our survival. Inflammation is the foundation of our ability to fight off microbial invasions and to heal from physical injuries. Yet if that inflammatory response is not attenuated completely, the result is low-level chronic inflammation, which is the foundation of many chronic disease conditions. In other words, our survival requires a therapeutic zone of inflammation that is not too high, but not too low. Phases of inflammation There are two distinct phases of the inflammatory process: The initiation and resolution phases (1). Both are active processes that each are modulated by essential fatty acids. Omega-6 fatty acids activate the initiation phase, and omega-3 fatty acids activate the resolution phase. As a consequence, the balance of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids in the diet will have a profound impact on the balance of the two phases that constitute the overall inflammatory response. Synthetic pathways of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids The hormones that control the inflammatory process are long-chain essential fatty acids (greater than 20 carbon atoms in length) whereas most other dietary essential fatty acids consist of shorter-chain (18 carbon atoms in length) omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. It is only the longer-chain essential fatty acids that play a role in inflammation as they serve as the substrates to make the hormones that control both the initiation and resolution of inflammation. The metabolic conversion of these short-chain essential fatty acids into the longer-chain fatty acids necessary to make eicosanoids and resolvins consists of several rate-determining enzymes. Specifically, the rate-limiting enzymes are the delta-5-desaturase and delta-6 desaturase enzymes. These enzymes insert distinct double bonds into the essential fatty acid molecule until it reaches a spatial configuration that can be converted into distinct hormones that control the inflammatory process. These can be either pro-inflammatory eicosanoids coming from the long-chain omega-6 fatty acid arachidonic acid (AA) or pro-resolution resolvins coming from the long-chain omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The metabolic conversion of all three long-chain essential fatty acids (AA, EPA, and DHA) uses many of the same enzymes including the rate-limiting desaturase enzymes. Thus the levels of the omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids in the diet will a have significant impact on the types of inflammatory hormones that are eventually synthesized. Furthermore, both the rate-limiting enzymes (delta-5 and delta-6 desaturase) are also under dietary control (2-5). In particular, both desaturase enzymes are stimulated by the hormone insulin (stimulated by the levels of carbohydrate in the diet) and are also inhibited by the hormone glucagon (stimulated by the levels of protein in the diet). The metabolic pathways leading to AA and EPA are essentially the same as shown in Figure 1 Figure 1. Metabolic Pathways for the Synthesis of Arachidonic Acid (AA) and Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). The further conversion of EPA in DHA is more complicated as shown in Figure 2. Figure 2. Metabolic Pathways for the Conversion of EPA into DHA Although there are more steps in the metabolic conversion of EPA into DHA, it is an ongoing process so that DHA levels are always greater than EPA levels in the steady state. Thus the balance of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids in the diet as well as the balance of protein and carbohydrate in the diet will have an impact on the eventual balance of the precursors of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids (coming from AA) and pro-resolution resolvins (coming from EPA and DHA). Inflammation is like a faucet. Once you turn it on, you have to turn it off. If the faucet is not completely turned off either due to an overactive initiation phase or lack of a sufficient resolution phase, the result will be low-level chronic inflammation or cellular inflammation that will disrupt hormonal signaling pathways and eventually lead to a wide number of chronic conditions associated with inflammation (6). Short history of inflammation The cardinal signs of inflammation (really the initiation of inflammation) were described in ancient Roman times. These are heat, swelling, redness, and pain. In the 19th century, the German physician Virchow added loss of function as another cardinal sign of inflammation. On the other hand, much of our knowledge about resolution is far more recent. Just as there are cardinal signs of inflammation, there are also cardinal signs of resolution. These include the removal of cellular debris from the site of inflammation and the regeneration and repair of damaged tissue. With an appropriate resolution response, loss of function does not occur. In retrospect, the loss of function described by Virchow is the consequence of unresolved resolution of inflammation. Molecular events in inflammation The innate immune system is the first responder in the development of inflammation (7). Factors that activate the innate immune system include microbial infections or physical injury. The diet can also activate the innate immune system. The pathway is either through sensors on the cell surface (toll-like receptors or receptors for advanced glycosylated end products or RAGE) or the internal formation of inflammasomes for the clearance of externally damaged cell products brought into the interior of the cell by endocytosis (8). Regardless of the initiating factor, there are a number of complex events that leads to the migration of neutrophils to the site of inflammation (7,9). A key factor in this initiation phase of inflammation are pro-inflammatory eicosanoids (leukotrienes) that lead the neutrophils to the site of inflammation and also activate the key gene transcription factor nuclear factor kappaB (NF-κB) that accelerates the production of inflammatory cytokines and the COX-2 enzyme to enhance the intensity of the initial inflammatory response (10). This initial migration of neutrophils is followed by the later migration of macrophages into the same site. Whereas neutrophils are short-lived, the macrophages have a longer lifetime. Furthermore, the first wave of macrophages to reach the site of inflammation are activated to pro-inflammatory M1 stage to continue the initiation phase although at a lower intensity than the more highly active neutrophils. Resolvins catalyze the polarization of macrophages from pro-inflammatory M1 phase into the anti-inflammatory M2 phase. With that transition induced by resolvins, tissue repair and regeneration can take place (11). Time course of inflammation The time course of inflammation can be seen in Figure 3. Figure 3. Time course of inflammation and resolution What is not commonly understood is that anti-inflammatory drugs are also anti-resolution drugs. One can define anti-inflammation as the stoppage of the migration of the neutrophils to the site of inflammation. However, the neutrophils are necessary to initiate the synthesis of resolvins that cause the change in the polarization of the pro-inflammatory M1 macrophages into anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages. Therefore anti-inflammatory drugs can also be seen as anti-resolution drugs. It may be this inhibition of the resolution phase by anti-inflammatory drugs maybe a contributing factor to their side effects upon prolonged use (6). There is a need for adequate levels of both for EPA and DHA for complete resolution since both fatty acids are the substrates for the production of different types of resolvins as shown in Figure 4. Figure 4. Biosynthetic Pathways for Resolvin Synthesis This is because EPA and DHA are the substrates for very different types of resolvins that bind to different receptors and have very different physical actions as shown in Figure 5. Figure 5. Resolvin Receptors This is why you need a combination of two to optimize the resolution response. What is the appropriate intake of omega-3 fatty acids for adequate resolution? Our knowledge of resolvins that drive resolution of inflammation is very recent compared to the understanding of eicosanoids that drive initiation of inflammation. Since both pro-inflammatory eicosanoids and pro-resolution resolvins are needed for an adequate inflammatory response, the question becomes what is the optimal dietary balance of long-chain dietary omega-6 and long-chain omega-3 fatty acids in the blood? Estimates of the dietary intake of AA (the building block for pro-inflammatory eicosanoids) and EPA and DHA (the building blocks for pro-resolution resolvins) in Paleolithic populations has been estimated to been a approximately a 1:1 ratio (12). This would make teleological sense as neo-Paleolithic populations were exposed to a greater number of microbial invasions and physical injuries compared to modern man. Today our largest contributor to inflammation is not microbial invasions or physical injuries, but our diet. This is because of the massive expansion of the intake of omega-6 fatty acids coming from refined vegetable oils (corn, soy, sunflower, safflower, and others). Since refined vegetable oils are now the least expensive source of dietary calories in the world, there increased consumption has dramatically altered the balance of the omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acid precursors for the generation of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids and pro-resolution resolvins. This imbalance is further enhanced by the growing use of refined carbohydrates in the worldwide diet that increases the generation of insulin, which accelerates the conversion of omega-6 fatty acids into AA (2-5). At the same time, there has been a significant decrease in the intake of fish rich in EPA and DHA due to a combination of overfishing and increasing cost. The end result has been a growing mismatch between the precursors initiation and resolution of inflammation on a worldwide basis. Measuring adequate levels of omega-3s necessary for resolution comes from analysis of their levels in the blood. There are currently two methodologies used to do this. The first is the Omega-3 index, which is the summation of the percentage of EPA and DHA in the total fatty acid content of the blood. It is suggested that an ideal level would be greater than 8% of the total fatty acids consisting of these two omega-3 fatty acids which is similar to that found in the Japanese population (13). Unfortunately this marker tells nothing of the relative strength of the initiation to resolution phases. The other commonly used marker is the AA/EPA ratio. This provides a better indication of the strength of the two phases of the inflammation process. From a methodological perspective, measuring more than two of the 35 fatty acids commonly found in the blood will give rise to significant errors in reproducibly. The first use of the AA/EPA ratio to demonstrate its reliability as a marker of inflammatory cytokines was demonstrated in 1989 (14). DHA levels are always higher than EPA levels due to the constant metabolism of EPA into DHA. Therefore as long as the EPA levels are approximately 4% of total fatty acids, then the combined EPA and DHA will always be greater than 8%. Ideally the AA levels in the blood should be between 7 and 9% of the total fatty acids. Therefore a good clinical goal is to keep the AA/EPA ratio between 1.5 and 3. This is the range generally found in the Japanese population (15). Why Not Eat More Fish? The easiest way to improve either marker is to simply eat more fish rich in EPA and DHA. The Japanese are able to accomplish this because they are the largest consumers our fish in the world. Unfortunately, many popular fishes are lean and therefore low in omega-3 fatty acids so it requires eating large amounts of them to get adequate levels of omega-3 fatty acids needed for resolution. However, there are other problems with consuming more fatty fish to increase the levels of omega-3 fatty acids in the blood. These problems are heavy metal and chemical toxin contamination. The larger a predatory fish, the greater the levels of mercury will be found in that fish. Common edible fishes such as swordfish and tuna fall into this category. More insidious is that all fish contain chemical toxins such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). These are known neurotoxins, carcinogens and endocrine disruptors (16,17). The higher the levels of the omega-3 fatty acids in a fish, the higher the levels of PCBs since these toxins are fat-soluble. The solution to both problems (low levels of omega-3 fatty acids and high levels of chemical toxins) can be overcome by supplementation with refined omega-3 fatty acid concentrates. History of omega-3 fatty acid concentrates The history of fish concentrates started with the use of garum in ancient Roman times. Garum consisted of fermented fish intestines that were used throughout the Roman Empire as prized seasoning by all classes of individuals. The next major advance was the use of fermented cod liver oil that contained about 15% by weight of EPA and DHA. The introduction of heating in iron pots in the 1850s considerably speeded the extraction process of the fish oil from the cod liver. In the 1980s, the use of fish body began to replace cod liver oil for two reasons. One benefit was to increase the EPA and DHA content to approximately 30% of the total fatty acids and the second benefit was the reduction of Vitamin A levels in the final product to reduce potential toxicity of this vitamin. In the 1990s, manufacturing technology using molecular distillation allowed the development of even higher EPA and DHA concentrates. This is the methodology used to make current prescription drugs consisting of omega-3 fatty acids. This older manufacturing technology has been improved in recent years with the introduction of super critical fluid extraction and improved thermal fractionation techniques to obtain even higher purity omega-3 fatty acid concentrates. Measuring purity of omega-3 concentrates Regardless of how the omega-3 fatty acid concentrates are made, their purity must be constantly tested, in particular relative to PCB levels and rancidity of the final product. It is expensive to measure PCB levels, but necessary because every lot will be different because of natural variability in the fish stock used. Total Oxidation (Totox) is a marker of oil rancidity. This marker is the basis of all edible oil trading worldwide. Because of the high concentrations of EPA and DHA in omega-3 fatty acid concentrates the likelihood of developing rancidity is quite high thus the importance of ensuring adequate anti-oxidant protection to prevent the development of aldehydes and ketones during its stated shelf life. Since prescription-grade omega-3 fatty acid concentrates developed in the 1990s are now generic products, their published standards can be compared to fish oil products sold in the mass-market (health food grade) and also to the omega-3 fatty acid concentrates (high-performance grade) made by newer technologies now available. The comparison of these general standards that govern oil quality is shown in Table 1. Table 1. Purity Standards for Omega-3 concentrates |Type of oil||Upper PCB levels (ppb)||Upper Totox Levels (meq/kg)| |Health Food grade||90||26| |Generic prescription grade||50||26| It can be seen from Table 2 that omega-3 fatty acid concentrates sold by prescription only are not all that different in terms of PCB purity and rancidity from what is sold in a supermarket. However, under newer manufacturing technologies, it is possible to produce non-prescription omega-3 fatty acid concentrates of much higher purity. This is critical for long-term, high-dose applications. Forms of omega-3 concentrates There are three distinct forms of omega-3 fatty acid products sold. These are ethyl esters, free fatty acids, and reconstituted triglycerides. All three forms start out as ethyl esters since only this form can be concentrated by existing technologies. Virtually all prescription omega-3 fatty acid products available consist of the ethyl ester format since additional processing to convert them to free fatty acids or reconstituted triglycerides can oxidize the EPA and DHA molecules. As an example one could convert the ethyl ester into the free fatty acid after concentration, but the stability of free fatty acid is less than the ethyl ester. Alternatively, the ethyl ester could be reconstituted into triglyceride molecule. However, this triglyceride requires additional processing and any oxidized fatty acids cannot be removed since the increased molecular weight of the reconstituted triglyceride prevents its distillation. Furthermore, the configuration of the fatty acids in reconstituted triglycerides is very different than those found in the natural triglyceride configuration. In the natural state, most of the EPA and DHA fatty acids are located primarily on the 2-position of the triglyceride molecule. The lipases in the digestive that convert the natural triglyceride to a monoglyceride for absorption specifically cleave the fatty acids in the 1 and 3 positions of the natural triglyceride thus leaving the EPA and DHA highly concentrated in the 2-position to give it better oxidative stability. In reconstituted triglycerides, all positions have the same concentrations of omega-3 fatty acids so when the reconstituted triglyceride is absorbed approximately 2/3 of the EPA and DHA will have been are released as free fatty acids that are more prone to oxidation. Furthermore, studies have indicated no statistically significant differences of these three forms in terms of absorption (18-21). Natural fish oils cannot be concentrated or refined. Cod liver oil is rich in PCBs. Another example is krill oil, which is really an odd mixture of free fatty acids and phospholipids that have low in EPA and DHA content. Contrary to marketing statements, the absorption of krill oil is no better than ethyl esters or reconstituted triglycerides (22,23). Benefits of increasing omega-3 fatty intake The reason to increase omega-3s in the diet is to increase the precursor pool size to make resolvins thus accelerating resolution. The benefits of this can be shown in a genetically modified fat-1 mouse model in which genes have been inserted that convert omega-6 fatty acids to omega-3 fatty acids thus maintaining the AA/EPA ratio close to 1. Although a similar AA/EPA ratio can be obtained by feeding high-dose omega-3 fatty acid concentrates, the use of fat-1 mice gives a clear indication of the therapeutic benefits of maintaining a low AA/EPA without dietary intervention. In many ways, this fat-1 mice model is relatively immune to a wide range of chronic inflammatory conditions ranging from obesity to diabetes, to auto-immune conditions and neurological conditions compared to its wild-type counterparts (24-29). It has also been shown in recent clinical studies of using reasonably high-dose omega-3 fatty acids (3-4 grams of EPA and DHA per day) that resolvin levels can be increased (30). This use of high dose omega-3 fatty acids may be significant as seen in animal models with conditions associated with chronic inflammation. When the AA/EPA ratio is reduced to approximately one as seen in the transgenetic fat-1 mouse or upon supplementation with high-dose omega-3 fatty acids at the level of 100-200 mg/kg body weight per day these conditions are not apparent. This would translate to approximately 7 to 14 grams of EPA and DHA per day in a typical 70 kg human. It should be noted that these levels of daily intake of EPA and DHA are very similar to those estimated to have been consumed by neo-Paleolithic man (12). Clinical benefits of high dose omega-3 concentrates Animal models or the use of transgenetic fat-1 mice suggest that the use of high-dose omega-3 fatty acids to lower the AA/EPA ratio can bring the initiation and resolution phases of inflammation into a better balance. Are there clinical studies that support the same hypothesis? The answer appears to be yes, but only if therapeutic levels of EPA and DHA are used to lower the AA/EPA ratio where that balance of initiation and resolution is restored. It was first demonstrated in 1989 that supplementing the diet of healthy subjects with 5 grams of EPA and DHA per day could reduce the AA/EPA ratio from 21 to 2.5 within 10 weeks. In that same time period the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines from stimulated leukocytes were significantly reduced. Once the supplementation was discontinued, the AA/EPA ratio rose back to it original starting level as did the levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokines (14) The largest cardiovascular study ever done (JELIS) took individuals all taking statins and with initially low AA/EPA ratios of 1.6 and lowered them even more with the addition of high levels of EPA. The further reduction of the AA/EPA ratio to 0.8 over a 3 ½ year period demonstrated a 20% reduction in cardiovascular events compared to the control group getting supplements of olive oil that had no effect on the their starting AA/EPA ratio (31). A more recent study has demonstrated that high-dose EPA and DHA (3.4 grams per day) reduced scar tissue formation on the heart muscle surface after a heart attack (32). Two ocular studies with patients with age-related dry macular degeneration (AMD) have demonstrated significant improvements in visual acuity using between 5 and 7.5 grams of EPA and DHA per day (33,34). Studies with a much lower dose of EPA and DHA demonstrated no benefits suggesting a potential dose-response relationship (35). Likewise studies using high-dose EPA and DHA (10 to 15 grams of EPA and DHA per day) have demonstrated significant improvement in children with ADHD (36,37). Other neurological conditions such as depression have also benefited from high-dose EPA and DHA supplementation (38,39). Finally in cases of severe brain trauma administration of 15 grams of EPA and DHA per day demonstrated significant improvements in their recovery (40). Many chronic disease conditions may result from the imbalance of the initiation and resolution phases of inflammation. Thus the diet may represent an important factor in re-establishing a more appropriate balance between initiation and resolution. If so, anti-inflammatory nutrition using therapeutic levels of omega-3 fatty acids may prove a very attractive approach for management of such chronic disease conditions associated with chronic inflammation. It also suggests that maintaining a low AA/EPA ratio in the blood may have significant long-term potential in delaying the advent of chronic disease and therefore substantially reduce health costs in the future. - Serhan CN, Ward PA, and Gilroy DW, and Samir S. Fundamentals of Inflammation. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK. 2010. - Brenner RR. Nutritional and hormonal factors influencing desaturation of essential fatty acids. 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Chicago, IL (1997) - Canetti C, Silva JS, Ferreira SH, and Cunha FQ. “Tumour necrosis factor-alpha and leukotriene B(4) mediate the neutrophil migration in immune inflammation.” Br J Pharmacol 134:1619-28 (2001) - Serhan CN. “Pro-resolving lipid mediators are leads for resolution physiology.” Nature 510: 92-101 (2014) - Kuipers RS, Luxwolda MF, Dijck-Brouwer DA, Eaton SB, Crawford MA, Cordain L, and Muskiet FA. “Estimated macronutrient and fatty acid intakes from an East African Paleolithic diet.” Br J Nutr 104:1666-1687 (2010) - Stark KD, Van Elswyk ME, Higgins MR, Weatherford CA, and Salem N. “Global survey of the omega-3 fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid in the blood stream of healthy adults.” Prog Lipid Res 63:132-152 (2016) - Endres S, Ghorbani R, Kelley VE, Georgilis K, Lonnemann G, van der Meer JW, Cannon JG, Rogers TS, Klempner MS, Weber PC; et al. “The effect of dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the synthesis of interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor by mononuclear cells.” N Engl J Med 320:265-271 (1989) - Kawabata T, Hirota S, Hirayama T, Adachi N, Kaneko Y, Iwama N, Kamachi K, Araki E, Kawashima H, and Kiso Y. “Associations between dietary n-6 and n-3 fatty acids and arachidonic acid compositions in plasma and erythrocytes in young and elderly Japanese volunteers.” Lipids Health Dis 2011;10:138 (2011) - Ashley JT, Ward JS, Schafer MW, Stapleton HM, and Velinsky DJ. “Evaluating daily exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in fish oil supplements.” Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess. 8: S1944-1957 (2010). - Visser MJ. Cold, Clear, and Deadly. Michigan State University Press. East Lansing, MI (2007) - Nordoy A, et al. Absorption of the n-3 eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids as ethyl esters and triglycerides by humans. Am J Clin Nutr 53:1185-90, 1991. - Krokan HE, Bjerve KS, and Mork E. “The enteral bioavailability of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid is as good from ethyl esters as from glyceryl esters in spite of lower hydrolytic rates by pancreatic lipase in vitro. “Biochim Biophys Acta 1168:59-67, (1993) - Hansen JB, Olsen JO, Wilsgard L, Lyngmo V, and Svensson B. “Comparative effects of prolonged intake of highly purified fish oils as ethyl ester or triglyceride on lipids, haemostasis and platelet function in normolipaemic men.” Eur J Clin Nutr 47:497-507 (1993) - Reis GJ, Silverman DI, Boucher TM, Sipperly ME, Horowitz GL, Sacks FM, and Pasternak RC. “Effects of two types of fish oil supplements on serum lipids and plasma phospholipid fatty acids in coronary artery disease.” Am J Cardiol 66:1171-1175 (1990) - Salem N and Kuratko CN. “A reexamination of krill oil bioavailability studies.” Lipids Health Dis 2014;13:137 (2014) - Yurko-Mauro K, Kralovec J, Bailey-Hall E, Smeberg V, Stark JG, and Salem N. “Similar eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid plasma levels achieved with fish oil or krill oil in a randomized double-blind four-week bioavailability study.” Lipids Health Dis 14:99 (2015) - Romanatto T, Fiamoncini J, Wang B, Curi R, and Kang JX. “Elevated tissue omega-3 fatty acid status prevents age-related glucose intolerance in fat-1 transgenic mice.” Biochim Biophys Acta 1842: 186-191 (2014). - Bellenger J, Bellenger S, Bataille A, Massey KA, Nicolaou A, Rialland M, Tessier C, Kang JX, and Narce M. “High pancreatic n-3 fatty acids prevent STZ-induced diabetes in fat-1 mice: inflammatory pathway inhibition. Diabetes 60:1090-1099 (2011) - Li J, Li FR, Wei D, Jia W, Kang JX, Stefanovic-Racic M, Dai Y, and Zhao AZ. “Endogenous ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid production confers resistance to obesity, dyslipidisemia, and diabetes in mice.” Mol Endocrinol 28:1316-1328 (2014) - Lebbadi M, Julien C, Phivilay A, Tremblay C, Emond V, Kang JX, and Calon F. “Endogenous conversion of omega-6 into omega-3 fatty acids improves neuropathology in an animal model of Alzheimer’s disease.” J Alzheimers Dis 27:853-869 (2011) - Bhattacharya A, Chandrasekar B, Rahman MM, Banu J, Kang JX, and Fernandes G. “Inhibition of inflammatory response in transgenic fat-1 mice on a calorie-restricted diet.” Biochem Biophys Res Commun 349:925-930 (2006) - Mayer K, Kiessling A, Ott J, Schaefer MB, Hecker M, Henneke I, et al.. “Acute lung injury is reduced in fat-1 mice endogenously synthesizing n-3 fatty acids.” Am J Respir Crit Care Med 179:474-483 (2009) - Elajami TK, Colas RA, Dalli J, Chiang N, Serhan CN, and Welty FK. “Specialized proresolving lipid mediators in patients with coronary artery disease and their potential for clot remodeling.” FASEB J 30:2792-2801 (2016) - Yokoyama M, Origasa H, Matsuzaki M, Matsuzawa Y, Saito Y, Ishikawa Y, et al. “Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on major coronary events in hypercholesterolaemic patients (JELIS): a randomised open-label, blinded endpoint analysis.” Lancet 369:1090-1098 (2007) - Heydari B, Abdullah S, Pottala JV, Shah R, Abbasi S, Mandry D, et al. “Effect of Omega-3 Acid Ethyl Esters on Left Ventricular Remodeling After Acute Myocardial Infarction: The OMEGA-REMODEL Randomized Clinical Trial.” Circulation 134:378-391 (2016) - Georgiou T, Neokleous A, Nikolaou D, and Sears B. “Pilot study for treating dry age-related macular degeneration (AMD) with high-dose omega-3 fatty acids.” PharmaNutrition 2:8-11 (2014) - Georgiou T and Prokopiou E. “The New Era of Omega-3 Fatty Acids Supplementation: Therapeutic Effects on Dry Age-Related Macular Degeneration.” J Stem Cells 10:205-215 (2015) - Bonds DE, Harrington M, Worrall BB, Bertoni AG, Eaton CB, Hsia J, Robinson J, Clemons TE, Fine LJ, and Chew EY. “Effect of long-chain n-3 fatty acids and lutein + zeaxanthin supplements on cardiovascular outcomes: results of the Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) randomized clinical trial.” JAMA Intern Med 174:763-771 (2014) - Sorgi PJ, Hallowell EM, Hutchins HL, and Sears B. “Effects of an open-label pilot study with high-dose EPA/DHA concentrates on plasma phospholipids and behavior in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.” Nutr J 2007;6:16 (2007) - Germano M, Meleleo D, Montorfano G, Adorni L, Negroni M, Berra B, and Rizzo AM. “Plasma, red blood cells phospholipids and clinical evaluation after long chain omega-3 supplementation in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).” Nutr Neurosci 10:1-9 (2007) - Stoll AL, Severus WE, Freeman MP, Rueter S, Zboyan HA, Diamond E, Cress KK, and Marangell LB. “Omega 3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder: a preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.” Arch Gen Psychiatry 56:407-412 (1999) - McNamara RK, Perry M, and Sears, B. “Dissociation of C-reactive protein levels from long-chain omega-3 fatty acid status and anti-depressant response in adolescents with major depressive disorder: an open-label dose-ranging trial.” J Nutr Therapeutics 2:235-243 (2013) - Sears B, Bailes J, and Asselin B. “Therapeutic uses of high-dose omega-3 fatty acids to treat comatose patients with severe brain injury.” PharmaNutrition 1: 86-89 (2013)

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Toxicogenomics - Insights into the present and future Adverse drug responses are an important post-marketing public health issue, occurring many times in subsets of treatment populations. Promising new approaches to predicting physiological responses to drugs are focused on genomic responses or toxicogenomics (1). This article provides a current perspective on toxicogenomics technologies that are aimed at: 1) providing new tools and systems for more rapid, accurate and complete toxicity assessments in advance of human exposure 2) enhancing the thoroughness and accuracy of toxicity assessments achievable with currently available test systems 3) predictive assessments of individualised risk for developing adverse drug reactions Advances in drug development and characterisation technologies hold the promise of better design, execution and interpretation of efficacy and safety testing of drug candidates in advance of human exposure and market launch. Toxicogenomics is a term that has been coined to describe one of these technology areas which, in the broadest sense, can be defined as the application of genomics-based and related technologies for the assessment of the toxicological impact(s) of new chemical entities (NCEs) or established pharmaceutical compounds on biological systems (2). Pharmacogenomics, in contrast, is typically used to describe genomics-based technologies or approaches to optimise the therapeutic efficacy of drugs through the identification and/or characterisation of genetic differences in target patient populations. However, it is not difficult to identify situations in which the definitions of these terms substantially overlap. For example, polymorphisms in the multidrug resistance gene or MDR1 can impact the bioavailability of drugs, impacting aspects that affect both drug efficacy and potential drug toxicity (3) and recently it was discovered that genetic variations in the drug metabolism gene CYP3A5 may explain drug metabolism, and thus efficacy and toxicity, differences in many individuals (4). Contemporary drug-based medical interventions have fostered a tremendous impact on both human lifespan and quality of life. However, despite the advances made and the technology represented by today’s pharmaceutical-based medicines, there is enormous room for improvement in the preclinical testing and development and the clinical development and application of pharmaceutical-based therapies for human diseases. Current development and testing processes often yield therapeutics that are sub-optimally effective in many individuals and toxic to varying degrees in patient subpopulations. The impact of drug toxicity on human health is highlighted by the estimate that adverse drug reactions rank as between the fourth and sixth leading cause of mortality in the United States (5). As such, adverse drug responses are a major human health concern from both morbidity/ mortality and health economic perspectives. The application of new technologies and tools for better safety and efficacy assessments of new drugs are urgently needed. Traditional/current methods for the assessment of potential drug toxicities in humans remain heavily dependent upon whole animal models and, within these models, upon conventional clinical chemistry and histopathology endpoints for assessments of tissue damage. These test system and endpoint choices are driven predominantly by industry experience, regulatory requirements and historic precedence. The limitations associated with animal models include characterised and uncharacterised discrepancies between animal model systems and humans regarding adsorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of drugs and drug metabolites. In addition, most of the animal models used in drug development and safety testing today utilise individual animals that are genetically similar or practically identical and are subjected to homogeneous environments. In contrast, drugs that are developed and safety tested with animal systems are subsequently tested in genetically heterogeneous human populations and those that make it to the market are subsequently prescribed by clinicians for similarly heterogeneous human patient populations. What exactly are some of the limitations associated with current methods of preclinical drug toxicity testing? One of the most comprehensive studies to date was conducted by Olson, et al in which they looked at human and animal safety data that had been compiled by 12 different pharmaceutical companies for 150 compounds spanning over 200 different human toxicities. This analysis revealed an overall concordance between animal (both rodent and non-rodent species) and human toxicities of 71%. When different types of toxicities were examined, the highest concordance values between animal test model results and human toxicities were observed for hematological (91%), gastrointestinal (85%) and cardiovascular (80%) toxicity events and lowest for cutaneous toxicity (<40%) and liver toxicity (<60%). It was concluded that animal models are of considerable value for predictive toxicology, but that there is much room for improvement with and beyond these models, especially in the areas of liver toxicity and cutaneous/hypersensitivity reactions (6). The consequences of development of a drug despite its propensity to cause a particular human toxicity include the potential threat to the health of human study participants and major increases in development costs associated with aborted clinical development studies. Upwards of 75% of drug research and development costs have been attributed to compound failures, a third of which include toxicity problems (7). New methods for preclinical and clinical drug safety assessment have and are being rapidly developed as a result of: 1) completion of the Human Genome Project 2) substantial progress toward the completion of genome projects for a number of model animals that have been central to drug safety testing 3) advances in throughput capacity for gene and protein expression measurement technologies 4) the development of improved in vitro models for drug metabolism and toxicity assessments and 5) new tools for assessing metabolic changes in response to drug treatments Progress on all of these fronts is anticipated to greatly shorten drug development timelines (Figure 1), but challenges in regard to data analysis and interpretation (ie what does it all mean?) will have to be overcome before a true impact on drug development time is realised. Many technology platforms exist for toxicogenomics and related investigations, ranging from cheminformatics-based structure-toxicity assessments to gene expression and metabolism byproduct and intermediate measurements. For the purposes of this review, we have categorised and described some of the biological-based technology areas according to the type of biomolecular characterisation addressed. This categorical list is intended to provide a highlight of some of the technology areas that have and will continue to contribute to our ability to characterise and understand drug effects on in vitro, animal and ultimately human systems. Technologies to measure or compare gene expression levels are increasingly being applied to in vivo and in vitro drug toxicology and safety assessment (8,9,10). Expression technologies can be used to provide information about gene transcript levels in individual samples or to compare the levels of gene transcripts in ‘control’ samples to ‘treated’ samples. Expression measurement can be divided into the two general categories of either ‘open’ or ‘closed’ systems. Open systems are theoretically capable of identifying any gene transcript that is expressed at different levels between two samples. Examples of open expression analysis systems include some established technologies such as serial analysis of gene expression or SAGE (11) and differential display (12) and recently developed techniques such as massively parallel signature sequencing or MPSS (13). Closed systems are comprised of specific sets of genes that have been previously identified and characterised. To date, many of the reported studies of gene expressionbased changes associated with drug toxicity have relied upon microarray-based gene expression assays. See Clarke et al for a detailed review of the technologies behind microarray-based gene expression measurement (14). A large amount of effort has been applied and attention paid to technologies aimed at the identification of small variations in genes, otherwise known as single nucleotide polymorphisms or SNPs. Because SNPs occur very frequently within the human genome (one SNP in every 100-300 base pairs of DNA), they offer considerable utility as markers for finding or ‘mapping’ genes involved in complex genetic diseases and responses to environmental factors. SNPs and other genetic differences have been directly linked to variations in drug metabolism efficacy (4), with important implications regarding individual human differences in drug response. The identification of individuals who are poor metabolisers, based upon examination of key drug metabolism genes, is also useful for the identification of persons who may be predisposed to suffering adverse effects associated with a drug treatment and thus possibly at increased risk for drug toxicity. The wide inter-individual variation identified in drug metabolism contradicts the current ‘one-dose-fitsall’ philosophy that is currently applied to prescription medicines. This is further emphasised by a recent study by Wilson et al suggesting that genetic variation-based differences in drug response are common within different racial and ethnic groups. These authors conclude that too much genetic diversity exists within drug metabolism genes within these type of ‘groups’ to use general descriptors such as race to categorise human subjects in regard to drug metabolism and drug response (15). A number of drugs have been removed from the market in recent months and years due to rare adverse drug reactions or ‘idiosyncratic’ toxicities (Table 1). The identification of SNP-based differences in affected subpopulations in advance of drug exposures has the potential to provide the necessary insight for improved dosing recommendations, and avoidance recommendations for individuals who are likely to develop an adverse drug reaction due to genetic factors. Proteomics: beyond gene transcripts Protein analyses offer distinct advantages over gene expression techniques due to the role that proteins play as final functional (enzymatic) mediators of gene expression, compared to the intermediate role represented by gene transcripts. Technological approaches to protein characterisation and quantitation are generally much more complex than gene expression measurement technologies due to additional aspects of proteins, including secondary structures and post-translations modifications. Because of their complexity, proteomics technologies lag behind in their application to drug development, including toxicology studies. Two-dimensional electrophoresis has been the historical standard for analysis of complex protein mixtures. However, this technology has restrictions of speed, sensitivity and throughput that have limited wide spread application to toxicogenomic applications. Other approaches such as high performance liquid chromatography have been increasingly applied for protein separations, combined with mass spectroscopy for protein identification. A number of variations on these themes have recently been developed, including approaches using protein ‘chips’ to selectively bind individual protein components for sample analysis. The next few years will yield the development of protein analysis tools that will provide the breadth of analysis and throughput capabilities to move proteomics into the realm of widespread application for biological response characterisations. Metabonomics: byproducts and intermediates of metabolism A relatively new approach to characterisation of toxic responses is a nuclear magnetic resonance-based analysis termed ‘metabonomics’. It involves the characterisation of biofluids for byproducts and intermediates of drug metabolism and other physiological processes. This technology has the capability to complement and augment gene and protein expression characterisations of physiologic responses to toxic insults and challenges by providing information about the dynamic metabolic status of whole organisms and biological systems (16). In addition, metabonomic approaches offer the capability of capturing detailed time-course data for toxic responses, with results that can reveal the cumulative effect of multi-organ responses in whole animal models. Because of the focus on metabolism intermediates and byproducts, many of which are small molecules and/or are found in biofluids such as blood, urine and saliva, metabonomic sampling can be performed in repeated fashion. This is in contrast to gene and protein technologies that, due to sample size, the invasive nature of sampling and cost, are often limited to examination of changes or responses in a few organs across a limited number of timepoints following drug or toxicant exposure. In addition, since typical biofluid samples are more readily obtainable from human populations compared to solid tissue samples, metabonomics approaches for drug response characterisation are easily adaptable to human clinical studies. In vitro test systems: improved human response prediction capabilities In addition to new and developing technologies for characterising responses at the gene transcript, protein and metabolite level there is also substantial effort being applied toward advances in the development and optimisation of models of human metabolism, leading to better surrogates for human testing. Currently a number of in vitro model systems are being used to investigate liver metabolism characteristics of NCEs. These systems include metabolism proteins produced by recombinant DNA methods, primary cultures of human and animal hepatocytes (isolated directly from fresh tissue sources), in addition to microsomal organelles isolated from these cell sources. Such systems have the ability to provide insight about drug-drug interactions and the impact that drug metabolism gene polymorphisms have on drug metabolism efficiency and clearance (17,18). These and other in vitro models for toxicity, metabolism and pharmacokinetic testing have been the centre of recent development efforts (19) along with transgenic animal models, with emphasis placed on the establishment of animals harbouring genetic modifications with greater relevance to human metabolism (20). Applied toxicogenomics: tomorrow and beyond The development and application of new and improved toxicogenomic and related technologies for prediction and characterisation of toxic responses will ultimately provide: 1) better resolution and accuracy than current animal models used today 2) more information from alternatives to animal models such as primary cell strains, cell lines and in vitro tissue models, combined with higher throughput than current in vivo models 3) in vitro models of human systems offering more ‘human relevant’ data than current animals models for toxicity and safety 4) more and better data from human clinical studies, with renewed focus on sampling and endpoints aimed at the definition of mechanism(s) of action and overall physiological impact The ultimate goal sought from the combined contributions of all of these technologies is the development of functional and applied physiomics, a biosystem-wide characterisation and modelling of complex biological and biochemical responses to genetic and environmental factors. The availability of physiomics will enable comprehensive characterisations of mechanisms and effects involving all aspects of adsorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of drugs. In the end, these technologies will contribute to more and better medicines that will be discovered and developed in less time and for less cost. They will also provide large contributions towards the elimination of the ‘trial and error’ and ‘one drug fits all’ methods that are an inherent part of drug development and prescription medicine today. DDW This article originally featured in the DDW Winter 2001 Issue Patrick J. Vojta PhD is Clinical Toxicogenomics Program Director at Phase-1 Molecular Toxicology. Before joining Phase-1, Dr Vojta was a Clinical Studies Manager at the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences and a Clinical Research Scientist at Lineberry Research Associates, both in Research Triangle Park, NC. Previously, Dr Vojta held positions at Amgen, Inc in both biologics manufacturing and research and development. He holds a PhD in Genetics and Molecular Biology from the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Vincent P. Kazmer is CEO and President of Phase- 1 Molecular Toxicology. Previously he was Executive Vice-President and Chief Financial Office of NetGenics, Inc, a bioinformatics company. From 1995 to 1999 he served as President and Chief Executive Officer of Lark Technologies, a molecular biology contract research organisation. Prior to joining Lark, Mr Kazmer was a co-founder and President of Copernicus Gene Systems, Inc, a private gene therapy company. From January 1989 to February 1994 he served as Senior Vice-President of United States Biochemical Corporation with responsibilities for business development, marketing and sales. While at US Biochemical, Mr Kazmer was a co-founder and Vice-President of Ribozyme Pharmaceuticals Inc, a biotechnology company. Larry D. Kier PhD is the Director of Preclinical Research at Phase-1 Molecular Toxicology. He has more than 23 years experience in industrial toxicology with Monsanto/Pharmacia and has published research work in several areas including genetic toxicology, cancer mechanisms, toxicology screening and molecular toxicology. Dr Kier has served on a number of national and international scientific committees and expert work groups. These include the National Research Council Toxicology Information Program Committee, the US EPA Gene-Tox Program and several international genetic toxicology expert work groups of the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development. He received a PhD in Biochemistry from the University of California, Berkeley. 1 Although the term ‘toxicogenomics’ has been generally applied to gene expression-based methods for toxicity assessments, for the purposes of clarity, we have used it throughout this article to refer to all of the ‘-omic’ technologies discussed. 2 Nuwaysir, EF, Bittner, M, Trent, J, Barrett, JC and Afshari, CA (1999). Microarrays and toxicology: The advent of toxicogenomics. Mol. Carcinog. 24, 153–159. 3 Brinkmann, U, Roots, I and Eichelbaum, M (2001). Pharmacogenetics of the human drug-transporter gene MDR1: impact of polymorphisms on pharmacotherapy. Drug Discovery Today 6, 835-9. 4 Kuehl, P, Zhang, J, Lin, Y, Lamba, J, Assem, M, Schuetz, J, Watkins, PB, Daly, A, Wrighton, SA, Hall, SD, Maurel, P, Relling, M, Brimer, C, Yasuda, K, Venkataramanan, R, Strom, S, Thummel, K, Boguski, MS and Schuetz, E (2001). Sequence diversity in CYP3A promoters and characterization of the genetic basis of polymorphic CYP3A5 expression. Nat Genet 27, 383-391. 5 Lazarou, J, Pomeranz, BH, Corey, PN (1998). Incidence of adverse drug reaction in hospitalized patients. A metaanalysis of prospective studies. JAMA 279, 1200-05. 6 Olson, H, Betton, G, Robinson, D, Thomas, K, Monro, A, Kolaja, G, Lilly, P, Sanders, J, Sipes, G, Bracken, W, Dorato, M, Van Deun, K, Smith, P, Berger, B and Heller, A (2000). Concordance of the toxicity of pharmaceuticals in humans and in animals. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 32, 56-67. 7 Kumar, G (2001). Technology focus: industrializing tox. BioCentury, the Bernstein Report on BioBusiness 9, A1- A5. 8 Farr, S, and Dunn, RT II (1999). Concise review: Gene expression applied to toxicology. Toxicol. Sci. 50, 1–9. 9 Fielden, M and Zacharewski, TR (2000). Challenges and limitations of gene expression profiling in mechanistic and predictive toxicology. Toxicol. Sci. 60, 6-10. 10 Huang Q, Dunn, RT II, Jayadev S, DiSorbo O, Pack FD, Farr SB, Stoll RE and Blanchard KT (2001). Assessment of cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity by microarray technology. Toxicol Sci 63, 196- 207. 11 Velculescu, VE, Zhang, L, Volgelstein, B and Kinzler, KW (1995). Serial analysis of gene expression. Science 270, 484-7. 12 Liang, P and Pardee, AB (1990). Differential display of eukaryotic messenger RNA by means of the polymerase chain reaction. Science 257, 967-71. 13 Brenner, S, Johnson, M, Bridgham, J, Golda, G, Lloyd, DH, Johnson, D, Luo, S, McCurdy, S, Foy, M, Ewan, M, Roth, R, George, D, Eletr, S, Albrecht, G, Vermaas, E, Williams, SR, Moon, K, Burcham, T, Pallas, M, DuBridge, RB, Kirchner, J, Fearon, K, Mao, J and Corcoran, K (2000). Gene expression analysis by massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS) on microbead arrays. Nat Biotechnol. 18, 630-4. 14 Clarke, PA, te Poele, R, Wooster, R and Workman, P (2001). Gene expression microarray analysis in cancer biology, pharmacology and drug development: progress and potential. Biochem. Pharm. 62, 1311-36. 15 Wilson, JF, Weale, ME, Smith, AC, Gratrix, F, Fletcher, B, Thomas, MG, Bradman, N and Goldstein, DB (2001). Population genetic structure of variable drug response. Nat Genet 29, 265-9. 16 Nicholson, JK, Lindon, JC and Holmes, E (1999). ‘Metabonomics’: understanding the metabolic responses of living systems to pathophysiological stimuli via multivariate statistical analysis of biological NMR spectroscopic data. Xenobiotica 29, 1181-9. 17 Parkinson, A (1996). An overview of current cytochrome P450 technology for assessing the safety and efficacy of new materials. Toxicol. Pathology 24, 45-57. 18 FDA Guidance Document Clin 3, April, 1997, URL: www.fda.gov/cder/guidance/clin 3.pdf 19 MacGregor, JT, Collines, JM, Sugiyama, Y, Tyson, CA, Dean, J, Smith, L, Anderson, M, Curren, RD, Houston, JB, Kadluhar, FF et al (2001). Toxicol Sci 59, 17- 36. 20 Wolf, CR, Henderson, CJ (1998). Use of transgenic animals in understanding molecular mechanisms of toxicity. J Pharm Pharmacol, 50, 567-74.

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This week, we’re going to look at how the Spartan state governs itself. We’re going to lay out a broad picture of how the parts of the Spartan government function, but we are remaining focused on one main question, the one we raised last time: We know that the demographic decline in the number of spartiates was catastrophic and visible at the time. Given the severity of the crisis, why wasn’t the Spartan government able to respond effectively? This is Part V of our our look at the gap between Sparta’s place in the popular imagination and the Sparta of history (previous parts: I, II, III, IV). This week’s essay also marks a change in our focus. The last three essays focused on important parts of Spartan society which are generally rendered invisible in pop-culture and even in a lot of history classes. And so I want to re-emphasize again, before we go on, that the topics in those posts – the helots, the underclasses, women – make up something like 90% of Sparta. That meant that the ratio of ‘history to pop-culture’ on this history-and-pop-culture blog swung way towards ‘history’ because these people simply are not in the pop-culture portrayal. The relative silence of the sources often keeps these folks from showing up even in classroom discussions. But we are now turning back to the tiny, tiny fraction of Sparta that pop-culture cares about: the spartiates, and in particular their government. Sparta has had a good-government reputation since the ancient period – Aristotle says as much in his Politics, although he himself is much more skeptical that Spartan government has been successful. Assessing that impression is going to require laying out the parts of the Spartan government, but it is also going to require contrasting how that government is supposed to work with how it actually works. As a reminder, this series comes with a glossary here, in case you hit a technical term you don’t recall from a previous week (or are reading these posts out of order). How to Polis 101 Before we dive in, I want to give a brief primer on the basics of how nearly all Greek poleis – Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Plataea, Tegea, whatever – are structured, because it’ll help in understanding Sparta. (Reminder: the polis, sometimes called a city-state, is the basic unit of Greek governance – these are all independent micro-states). The standard ingredients of a Greek polis are an assembly of all adult citizen males (often called an ekklesia, meaning ‘assembly’), a smaller advisory committee (frequently called a boule), and then a set number of elected officials who carried out the laws of the other two (magistrates). I’ve given the common names for these components, but they often have different names in different poleis. Those basic units don’t change from a democracy (like Athens) to an oligarchy (like Corinth) or even a tyranny (like Syracuse) – the type of government just reflects the division of power between them, and the method of selection. In a democracy, like Athens, the ekklesia will have most of the power, being able to overrule the boule or the magistrates. Often the members of the boule can come from a wide range of wealth classes or even be randomly selected. In an oligarchy, power is generally focused in the magistrates – drawn from the upper-crust of society – and a smaller boule, with the ekklesia having much less power to restrain them. Alternately, the ekklesia may be restricted in size to only wealthy subset of the citizenry. In a tyranny, a single person (the tyrant) is able to gain control of the system, through a mix of demagoguery, charisma and well-placed cronies. Even under a tyranny, the basic three-part system still exists, it is simply subverted and controlled by one person (much like how some modern dictatorships have all of the institutions of a democracy – courts, elections, etc – but all of the power is still in one set of hands and the elections are shams). I want to note this up front because it is important to recognize that the existence of a popular assembly does not make a Greek polis a democracy, nor does the existence of a powerful magistrate make it a tyranny. As we’ll see, Sparta has an assembly, it is just laughably weak; it also has two very powerful magistrates, but their power is strongly checked. What matters is the division of power between these parts. I also wanted to start here because Sparta follows this basic model, but with some interesting variations. Knowing what the normal model looks like will make it easier to spot the variations that are unique to Sparta. So let’s walk through the basic units of Spartan governance. Starting with perhaps the most unusual: Double Kings: Well-Kicker-in-Chief Sparta – never ones to do anything by half – had two kings at all times. There were two royal lines, the Agaids and the Eurypontids. For the curious, the -id ending you see on dynastic names (Seleucid, Antigonid, Lagid, Sassanid, etc.) is the English version of the -ιδης, -ιδαι suffix put on a name which indicates “the descendants of.” Thus the Atreidai (ἀτρείδαι) would be the sons of Atreus (in the event, Agamemnon and Menelaus; of course the singular, Atreides (ἀτρειδης) can mean Agamemnon, Menelaus or – obligatory sci-fi joke – the Kwisatz Haderach). Of the two, the Agaids seem to have always been the more important, but that is hardly to say that the Eurypontids were unimportant. Notionally, the two houses had the same set of powers. As we noted last time, the kings held significant estates, carved out of perioikic land (Xen. Lac. 15.3). It isn’t clear how the inheritance of this land worked, but the kings seem to have always been the wealthiest folks in Sparta. The kingship itself passed from father to eldest son. It was not able to pass through women, nor does it appear that women could rule as regents for their sons. There is a popular idea that Gorgo ruled in some way after the death of Leonidas, but she didn’t – Cleombrotus, Leonidas’ younger brother became the regent for Leonidas’ young son (Pleistarchos); when Cleombrotus died, his son, Pausanias become regent, until Pleistarchos could rule on his own. In the absence of an heir, the nearest male relative would do – thus when Pleistarchos died without a male heir, the crown passed to Pleistoanax, son of Pausanias (the regent just before). The kings had two other powers – privileges, really – that I want to note here. First: the kings had the power to legalize the adoption of children and to secure husbands for widows and heiresses – the latter power is eventually limited if the woman’s father was still alive, but in a low life-expectancy society, this must have frequently been untrue. Second, the kings did not eat in a syssition (because they were not one of the homoioi). Instead they had a special mess of their own. Each king appointed two officials called pythioi who kept records and ate with the kings (Xen. Lac. 15.5). On campaign, the kings mess instead consisted of the top officers (the polemarchs). The king’s social circle thus essentially consisted of the most successful – in both war and peace – spartiates. In terms of formal powers, the kings were actually fairly restricted. The impression one gets (particularly from Xen. Lac. 13 and Arist. Pol. 2.1270b) is that the kings were primarily war-leaders with additional religious functions, but few governing powers. The kings don’t handle diplomacy, or make decisions on war-and-peace (famously, Archidamus, then king, cautioned the Spartans not to go to war with Athens precipitously – a war which would, perversely, bear his name, Thuc. 1.80-85), or the public treasury, or legal disputes. On the whole, the king looks quite limited. We’ll come back to this. That said, watch over the king is kept by: The Ephors: Not Actually Mutants So, to be clear, I have no idea why 300 decided that the ephors were some sort of strange, malformed priests. They were not…any of those things. I mean, obviously they were not strange, malformed mutants. But they were also not religious officials or priests. The ephors were a set of five annually chosen magistrates, with a wide range of jobs which included making sure that all of the officials of the state – especially the kings – were executing the laws (Arist. Pol. 1271a). The ephors had quite a few disparate functions – they declared war on the helots every year (Plut. Lyc. 28.4), levy fines and handle legal matters (Xen. Lac. 8.3-4), root out conspiracies (Xen. Hell. 3.3), keep an eye on the kings (Plut. Lyc. 7.1-2) and so on. The array of formal powers the ephors had was considerable. Yet we know the names of very few ephors from our sources. When they appear, they are almost always reactive, acting against some overreach by the king or in a crisis (one of the few notable exceptions is the intervention of an ephor in favor of war with Athens, Thuc. 1.86). In this, they were frequently effective – we know of quite a few kings successfully referred for prosecution – such cases were tried by the gerousia. As a check on the power of the kings to make themselves tyrants, the ephorate seems to have been very successful. But the ephors did not represent a long-term political power the way, say, the US Congress or Supreme court does. Ephors only served one year and could not serve a second time, so no ephor was liable to build up any kind of political position of his own. Moreover, as Aristotle notes, the fact that any spartiate could become an ephor made the office vulnerable to being co-opted by the wealthiest spartiates, since poor spartiates were vulnerable to bribes (Arist. Pol. 2.1271a; by whom, Aristotle does not say, but the obvious candidates would be the kings, e.g. Plut. Cleom. 6.1). The Gerousia: 30 Angry Old Men The gerousia is fantastically descriptively named – gerousia derives from gerontes (old men) and it is literally a council of old men. It consists of 28 members, all over the age of 60, plus the two kings. All members serve for life. The gerousia is the Spartan equivalent of a boule, and like a boule, it sets the agenda for the main Spartan assembly, the apella, discussed below. We’ll say more about the extent of these powers – which is far wider than they sound at first glance, but I want to make sure we have all our players on the board first. The gerousia also advises the kings, which sounds very tame until you add that it is also the court which tries the kings, should they break the law or exceed their authority (and be brought up on such charges by one of the ephors). The gerontes are elected for life by the assembly. Membership in the gerousia was a tremendous honor, the “prize allotted to virtue” (Dem. 20.107; Arist. Pol. 1270b; Plut. Lyc. 26). How might one show virtue? The normal methods in any Greek polis were conspicious leadership in war, the execution of public offices, and generosity with wealth – all three, as we’ll see, route back through the kings. Positions are gerontes were convassed for, and Paul Rahe notes that “the two royal houses played a crucial role in promoting the selection of their adherents” (The Spartan Regime (2016), 55). The Spartan equivalent of the ekklesia is generally called the Apella (Kennell (2010) contends that we ought to call it the ekklesia – the argument is technical; I am going to call it the Apella because that’s what you’ll find it called in most textbooks and the like and I don’t want to be confusing). Most pop-culture representations of the Spartan state tend to leave this body out entirely; it is, for instance, the only part of the Spartan government which does not appear at all in 300. At first glance, the Apella appears to run the Spartan state. It is the Apella which decides on the passage or failure of new legislation, the declaration of war (except for the helots) or peace, and on the election of gerontes. So on the face of it, this body has the final say in all matters of Spartan government. And this sounds pretty good, at least for the spartiate class. Of course, we must remember that more than 90% of all of the people in Sparta were completely excluded from all of these governing bodies. But appearances are deceiving, and in fact the Apella is remarkably weak compared to other Greek assemblies. There are a few crucial problems: First: the apella did not set its own agenda, nor could it debate. The agenda for the apella was set by the gerousia and the ephors. Moreover, the apella could not – like a modern legislature – craft its own solution to problem brought by the gerousia or the ephors. It could only vote yes or no to proposals provided to it. No matter how good the solution, if the 35 men – 28 gerontes, 2 kings, 5 ephors – did not propose that solution to the apella, it could never be enacted. Second: the decisions of the apella were not binding! This is the significance of the ‘Great Rhetra,’ a law attributed either to the time of Lycurgus or shortly after which specified, among other things that “if the people should adopt a crooked motion, the kings and the gerousia shall have the power to set it aside” (Plut. Lyc. 6.4). What this meant in practice was that the gerousia could veto any decision of the apella with no opportunity for the apella – or anyone – to override that veto. Finally: the apella voted by acclamation, not by a strict count. That is, when the apella voted (on if to go to war, or to pass a law or to elect a geron), they simply shouted, with the victory going to the loudest – no person-for-person vote was taken (Thuc. 1.87). Consequently, the power of the ephors and the gerontes who attempt to determine which side was loudest is considerable. So this is a voting body which can only approve or deny the motions of the officials who decide who won the votes (about if their own measure passed!) and who can also revoke the results of any vote they don’t like. This is not a system for popular decision making, it is a system for consensus building, a system to convince everyone – even if they disagree with the action – that most of the spartiates agree and that they should thus go along. Stability through Tension First, I want to note the things Sparta does well. The system of government is quite good at keeping balance between the main centers of power, the ephorate, the gerousia and the kings. Our sources amusingly differ on exactly which part of the Spartan system seemed to them most like a tyranny, some thought it was the ephors (Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle among them), some thought it was the gerousia (Demosthenes and Dionysius of Halicarnassus), while in the biographies of Plutarch, the kings seem to dominate. As a ‘mixed constitution’ – not quite democratic, oligarchic or monarchic – Sparta’s system was a success (as was Rome’s, note Plb. 6.14). We can think of this in terms of stopping any one person or part of the government from usurping complete control. The ephors can’t do it – they only serve for a single year and cannot serve twice, leaving little reason to aggrandize an office you will have to hand off to who-knows-who in just 12 months. The gerousia can’t do it, because it lacks control of the army or any direct administration of anything. The apella can’t do it, because it is laughably weak. Even the kings are controlled: the two of them must often have been in conflict (a point Rahe (2016) makes), looking to undermine the other through their friends in the ephorate and the gerousia. In turn, it would always be in the interests of the gerontes to rein in a king who was exceeding his authority (and in the interest of the other king to help them). All of which brings us back to our big question: why didn’t Sparta act to halt its decline? The men of the gerousia of 410 must have known at their own citizen body was once more than double the size it stood in their day. The same would have been true of the gerousia of 371. Some demographic declines are so slow as to be imperceptible, but the Spartan citizen population collapses by 80% in just a century, from 464 to 371. The decline would have been obvious – and evidently it was obvious. We know it was obvious because Cinadon points it out, c. 390 (Xen. Hell. 3.3.5). We know it was obvious because we can see the sad half-measures to arrest the problem: the creation of classes of freed helots (the neodamodes) to serve in the army and the increasing prominence of mothakes and hypomeiones in the years leading up to Cinadon’s conspiracy. In short, we know it was obvious because we can see our historical subjects observing it. Why couldn’t they arrest this decline? In Sparta, the Rich Eat You The problem, of course, is that if a situation ever arose within this system where the gerousia and the kings specifically had a community of interests (read: they wanted the same things) – even if it was to the disadvantage of the community as a whole – the neat system of restrained power falls apart. And that’s exactly what seems to have happened. In essence, what we have is the formation of a clique around the two kings which consisted of the wealthiest of the spartiates – the ones who had benefited the most from the steady consolidation of kleroi into ever larger and ever fewer estates. We know that the wealthiest families tended to want to marry each other in order to keep and consolidate those large estates (Plut. Lys. 30.5, Agis. 5.1-4). Success in this necessarily meant being close to the kings, because they approved of the marriages of heiresses and widows (discussed above). So friends of the kings might land favorable marriages for themselves or their children – alternately, a rich spartiate would want to make friends with a king to pursue the interests of their estates. Of course, the kings themselves were the richest men in Sparta, and so could also bestow gifts and wealth all on their own. Meanwhile, election to the gerousia was the one office actively canvassed for (ancient canvassing often more nearly resembled modern electoral bribery). The kings – in their competition with each other – had a vested interest in seeing their own friends on the gerousia. But consider what might make a spartiate’s service conspicuous enough to win election. He might have been a capable officer – positions appointed by the kings (in their role as chief warleaders), with the most successful officers dining with the kings while on campaign. He might have held some sort of public office – the ephorate is random, but the pythioi are selected by the kings. Or he might be generous with his wealth – as we’ve already established, the wealth is arrayed in a phalanx around the kings. So the friends of the king are the men in the best position to become gerontes when they turn sixty – and it will be in the king’s interest (in his competition with the other king!) to see that they become so, using his considerable influence and wealth to ease that path. While our sources don’t explicitly tell us this is what happened, we do know that the wealthiest spartiates dominated the state (e.g. Arist. Pol. 2.1270b; Plut. Agis 7.1-2), that this was the result of the inheritance system, that the kings controlled that system, and that the kings and their families ended up at the center of the web of wealth and influence running the Spartan state (Plut. Agis 9.3). It isn’t that the system lets the kings consolidate power – there are two of them, after all and the gerousia is always looking to preserve its privilege in judging the conduct of the kings. Rather, the system practically ensures that the wealthiest spartiate families will be socially arrayed around the kings and that these families will tend to be dominant in the gerousia. None of these people is going to want to redistribute land or bring the hypomeiones back into full citizenship, because that would mean de-consolidating their land holdings, in order to provide kleroi for the new spartiates it would create. The problem is that, in any case where the gerousia and the kings have a community of interest, the checks in this system immediately break down. The ephors are supposed to police the actions of the kings, but they do so by recommending the kings to prosecutions before the gerousia. So while a king might be brought low for self-aggrandizement abroad or dissolute behavior at home, one imagines that the gerontes will not be quick to convict a king for using his authority over heiresses and widows to expand the fortunes of…the gerontes and their families. And the weakness of the apella explains why the spartiate families slowly but surely falling off of the bottom of the the spartiate class were unable to do anything to help themselves. The apella can’t set its own agenda. Even if they got very lucky and one – or several! – ephors were sympathetic to their plight, the gerousia could simply set aside the decision of the apella. And, of course, to top it off, anyone who actually did fall below the financial threshold was ineligible for the apella or the ephorate. The system ‘solved’ the problem of poor spartiates by removing poor spartiates from the system. The Failure of Reform This makes sense of the half-solutions tried in the late fifth century. In order to serve in the army as a hoplite (the Greek heavy infantryman who was the basic unit of every polis army) – the key concern around the declining spartiate citizen body – a man had to have enough wealth to afford the arms and armor. In a state where – because of the oft-praised Spartan austerity – functionally all wealth was tied to the land, that meant that any new hoplites needed to be given land in order to be able to serve. But all the best land in Sparta was tied up in an ever-shrinking number of kleroi. Thus the Spartan state might grant marginal, borderland to small groups of freed helots – the neodamodes and the brasidioi – but actually bringing up the military strength of the polis in full could only be achieved by de-consolidating the kleroi – the best, most productive land (because you can only support so many hoplites on disputed, marginal land). This is one thing, of course, that the wealthy spartiates who dominated the state were unwilling to do. The mothakes and hypomeiones, pushed to the edges of Spartan society, might be brought in to make up the difference, but unless they were made equals – homoioi – this was a recipe for instability, as seen with Lysander and Cinadon. This is the other thing the spartiates were unwilling to do – if I had my guess, because for the poor spartiates who still clung to their status (and might still use the apella to block reform, even if they couldn’t use it to propose reform), that status differential was just about the only thing they had (apart from all of the slave labor they enjoyed the benefits of, of course). (A different polis might have tried to make up this difference by either hiring large numbers of mercenaries, or arming its own people at state expense, as a way of using the fortunes of the rich to fund military activity without expanding the citizenry. But, as Aristotle notes – (we’ll come back to this when we talk about Spartan war performance) the public finances of Sparta were pitiful even by ancient standards – for precisely the same reason that deconsolidating the kleroi was politically impossible: the state was dominated by the wealthy (Arist. Pol. 2.1271b). With no real source of wealth outside of landholding and all of the good land held by the spartiates, it seems that Sparta – despite being by far the largest polis in Greece and holding some of the best farmland outside of Thessaly, was never able to raise significant revenue.) Instead, the clique of wealthy spartiates arrayed about the kings did nothing, decade on decade, as the spartiate citizen body – and the military power of Sparta – slowly shrunk, until at least, in 371 it broke for good. But what is perhaps most illustrative of the disfunction in the Spartan political system is the sad epilogue of efforts in the second half of the third century (in the 240s and 220s) to finally reform the system by two Spartan kings. The first effort was by Agis IV (r. 245-241; Plut. Agis). By the time Agis came to power, there were only a few hundred spartiate households. Agis tried to reform through the system by redividing all of the kleruchal land into 4,500 plots for spartiates and another 15,000 for the perioikoi (who might also fight as hoplites). Agis gets the apella to support his motion – his offer to put his own royal estates into the redistribution put first earns him a lot of respect – but the gerousia, by a narrow margin, rejects it. Agis is eventually politically isolated and finally executed by the ephors (along with his mother and grandmother, who had backed his idea) – the first Spartan king ever executed (I have left out some of the twists and turns here. If you want to know Plutarch has you covered). Cleomenes III (r. 235-222) recognizes what Agis seemingly did not – reform to the Spartan system could not happen within the system. Instead, he stages a coup, having four of the five ephors murdered, exiled eighty citizens – one assumes these are wealthy and prominent opponents – and possibly had the other king assassinated (Plut. Cleom. 8, 10.1; Plb. 5.37). Cleomenes then redistributed the kleroi into 4,000 plots and made his own brother his co-king (Plut. Cleom. 11), essentially making him a tyrant in the typical Greek mold. he then set about continuing his war with the neighboring Achaean League in an effort to re-establish Spartan hegemony in the Peloponnese and presumably retake Messenia (which by that point was free and part of the Achaean league). It was far, far too late. Had this been done in the 380s or even the 350s, Sparta might well have resumed its position of prominence. But this was the 220s – Macedon had dominated Greek affairs now for a century and the Antigonids – the dynasty then ruling in Macedon – had no intention of humoring a resurgent Sparta. In 224, a Macedonian army marched into the Peloponnese in support of Sparta’s enemies and in 222 it smashed the Spartan army flat at Sellasia, almost entirely wiping out the spartiate citizen body – new and old – in the process (Plutarch claims only 200 adult spartiate males survived, Plut. Cleom 28.5). The victorious Macedonian – Antigonis III Doson – for his part re-crippled Sparta: he occupied it, restored its constitution to what it had been before Cleomenes and then left, presumably content that it would not threaten him again (Plut. Cleom. 30.1). The time when a state with a citizen body in the few thousands could be a major player had been over for a century and the great empires of the third century were in no mood to humor self-important poleis who hadn’t gotten the message. Sparta’s reputation for good government came from its ability to avoid the crippling political instability that plagued many Greek poleis. And, as we noted above, there is some truth to that. But much of that apparent stability was achieved by the exclusion of voices – not only the helots or the perioikoi (who were, I should remind you, completely excluded from political power) – but also the steady exclusion of the poor spartiates, one by one. The system was stable precisely because it could do nothing while the citizen body slowly died. Asking the question, “was Sparta well governed” thus immediately devolves into a question of what the purpose of government is. If the purpose of Sparta’s government was the protection of the wealth and status of its small elite, then we might say that Sparta was fantastically successful. But if the purpose of Sparta’s government was extended to even just the mere survival of its citizenry, it was a failure. Next week, the part you have all been waiting for – we’ll begin looking at the other great myth of Sparta: the myth of Spartan Military Excellence.

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The Nonintercourse Act (also known as the Indian Intercourse Act or the Indian Nonintercourse Act) is the collective name given to six statutes passed by the Congress in 1790, 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1834 to set Amerindian boundaries of reservations. The various Acts also regulate commerce between Americans and Native Americans. The most notable provisions of the Act regulate the inalienability of aboriginal title in the United States, a continuing source of litigation for almost 200 years. The prohibition on purchases of Indian lands without the approval of the federal government has its origins in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and the Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783. Text of the land provision The first four Acts expired after 4 years; the 1802 and 1834 Acts had no expiration. The version of the Act in force at the time of the illicit conveyance determines the law that applies. The courts have found few legal differences between the five versions of the Act. For example, three dissenting justices in South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe (1986) noted that the 1793 Act expanded the scope of the 1790 Act by applying the prohibition not only to lands but "claims." The original Act, passed on July 22, 1790 provides: No sale of lands made by any Indians, or any nation or tribe of Indians within the United States, shall be valid to any person or persons, or to any state, whether having the right of pre-emption to such lands or not, unless the same shall be made and duly executed at some public treaty, held under the authority of the United States. The 1793 Act provides: [N]o purchase or grant of lands, or of any title or claim thereto, from any Indians or nation or tribe of Indians, within the bounds of the United States, shall be of any validity in law or equity, unless the same be made by a treaty or a convention entered into pursuant to the constitution ... The 1796 Act provides: [N]o purchase, grant, lease, or other conveyance of lands, or of any title or claim thereto, from any Indian, or nation or tribe of Indians, within the bounds of the United States, shall be of any validity, in law or equity, unless the same be made by treaty, or convention, entered into pursuant to the constitution ... The 1799 Act provides: No purchase, grant, lease, or other conveyance of lands, or of any title or claim thereto, from any Indian, or nation or tribe of Indians, within the bounds of the United States, shall be of any validity, in law or equity, unless the same be made by treaty or convention, entered into pursuant to the constitution ... The 1802 Act provides No purchase, grant, lease, or other conveyance of lands, or of any title or claim thereto, from any Indian, or nation, or tribe of Indians, within the bounds of the United States, shall be of any validity, in law or equity, unless the same be made by treaty or convention, entered into pursuant to the constitution ... The 1834 Act, currently codified at 25 U.S.C. § 177, provides: No purchase, grant, lease, or other conveyance of land, or of any title or claim thereto, from any Indian nation or tribe of Indians, shall be of any validity in law or equity, unless the same be made by treaty or convention entered into pursuant the constitution. I am not uninformed that the six Nations have been led into some difficulties with respect to the sale of their lands since the peace. But I must inform you that these evils arose before the present government of the United States was established, when the separate States and individuals under their authority, undertook to treat with the Indian tribes respecting the sale of their lands. But the case is now entirely altered. The general Government only has the power, to treat with the Indian Nations, and any treaty formed and held without its authority will not be binding. Here then is the security for the remainder of your lands. No State nor person can purchase your lands, unless at some public treaty held under the authority of the United States. The general government will never consent to your being defrauded. But it will protect you in all your just rights. Land claims litigation The first litigation of the Nonintercourse Act by an indigenous party to reach the Supreme Court was Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), which the Court dismissed on the technicality that the court lacked of original jurisdiction, so the result was the Cherokee did not have a standing as a foreign nation, but the opinion did not rule on the merits, leaving the door open for a ruling on a resubmitted case. Former Attorney General William Wirt, the Cherokee's lawyer, argued that the challenged Georgia statute was void, inter alia, "[b]ecause it is repugnant to a law of the United States passed in 1803 entitled 'an act to regulate trade and intercourse with Indian tribes, and to preserve peace on the frontiers.'" Wirt also argued that the state statute violated the Cherokee treaties and the Contract Clause and the dormant Indian Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution. A similar argument was made in the Bill filed by Wirt in the Supreme Court. William Wirts arguments may have had a telling effect, for in a subsequent action, Worcester v. Georgia (1832) the court reversed itself, holding that the Cherokee were a sovereign nation and thus the Supreme Court did have original jurisdiction. After Cherokee Nation, the next such case to reach the Court was Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy (1896). The New York Court of Appeals had dismissed the claim based on an interpretation of the Nonintercourse Act and an invocation of the statute of limitations for the state enabling act which enabled the Seneca to sue in state court; the Supreme Court dismissed the appeal because of the adequate and independent state grounds doctrine. The Act remained essentially un-litigated by tribes until Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation (1960), where the Tuscarora attempted to avoid the condemnation of their land by the construction of a federal dam. The court held the Act inapplicable, but noted: It is certain that if [25 U.S.C. § 177] is applicable ... the mere 'expressed consent' of Congress would be vain and idle. For § 177 at the very least contemplates the assent of the Indian nation or tribe. ... [I]t follows that the mere consent of Congress, however express and specific, would avail nothing. Therefore, if § 177 is applicable ... the result would be that the Tuscarora lands, however imperative for the project, could not be taken at all. This dicta inspired Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. State v. Oneida Cnty. (1974) ["Oneida I"], where the Supreme Court held that there was federal subject-matter jurisdiction for Indian land claims based upon aboriginal title and violations of the Nonintercourse Act. In Oneida Cnty. v. Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. State (1984) ["Oneida II"], the Supreme Court held that tribes have a federal common law cause of action, not pre-empted by the Nonintercourse Act, for possessory land claims based upon aboriginal title; the court also rejected the following affirmative defenses: limitations, abatement, ratification or nonjusticiability. While Oneida II remains the only final judgement entered by a court in favor of a tribe bringing a Nonintercourse Act land claim, Oneida I inspired dozens of other land claims. After tribes won initial judgements in some of these claims, Congress reacted by extinguishing the claimed aboriginal title and compensating the tribal plaintiffs. These Indian Land Claims Settlements are collected in 25 U.S.C. tit. 19. For example, in Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton (1st Cir. 1975), after the First Circuit held that the federal government was obliged to bring a suit on the tribe's behalf claiming 60% of Maine, Congress approved a $81.5 million settlement. In the case of the Narragansett land claim (D.R.I. 1976), Congress enacted a settlement after the court struck all the defendant's affirmative defenses (laches, statute of limitations/adverse possession, estoppel by sale, operation of state law, and public policy) and denied the state's motion to dismiss on the grounds of sovereign immunity and nonjusticiability. Similarly, in Mohegan Tribe v. Connecticut (D. Conn. 1982), Congress approved the creation of the Mohegan Sun after the court struck the defendant's affirmative defenses. With the Mashantucket Pequot Tribe and Wampanoag, Congress enacted a settlement before the courts had a chance to enter any rulings. As stated in Narragansett, there are four elements to a Nonintercourse Act claim. In order to establish a prima facie case, plaintiff must show that: - it is or represents an Indian "tribe" within the meaning of the Act; - the parcels of land at issue herein are covered by the Act as tribal land; - the United States has never consented to the alienation of the tribal land; - the trust relationship between the United States and the tribe, which is established by coverage of the Act, has never been terminated or abandoned. More recently, the Second Circuit has stated: In order to establish a violation of the Non-Intercourse Act, the [plaintiffs] are required to establish that: (1) they are an Indian tribe; (2) the land at issue was tribal land at the time of the conveyance; (3) the United States never approved the conveyance, and (4) the trust relationship between the United States and the tribe has not been terminated. - Tribal status The Passamaquoddy and Narragansett cases, supra, are examples where the plaintiff has prevailed despite not being federally recognized tribes (the Passamaquoddy obtained federal recognition through the Maine Indian Claims Settlement; the Narragansett gained federal recognition in 1983, five years after the Rhode Island Claims Settlement Act). Although federal tribal status is prima facie evidence of the first element, the Act also applies to unrecognized tribes. If the tribe is unrecognized, the defendant may defeat the plaintiff's prima facie case either by showing that the Indians did not constitute a "tribe" at the time of the conveyance, or at the time of the litigation; thus, the defendant may show that the plaintiff is not the successor in interest to the tribe whose lands were illegally alienated. The leading case where the defendant's prevailed on this element is Mashpee Tribe v. New Seabury Corp. (1st Cir. 1979). Alternatively, the action may be stayed until the Bureau of Indian Affairs makes a tribal status determination (and eventually dismissed if the BIA concludes the plaintiffs are not the successors in interest). The Pueblo were initially interpreted not to be "Indians" for the purposes of the Nonintercourse Act; however, this holding was subsequently overruled. The elements given above are for a tribe. The United States, acting in its capacity as a trustee, may (and has, successfully) bring an action on behalf of a tribe. The federal government was vested with similar power to enforce the anti-alienation provisions of the Allotment Acts. Conversely, individual Indians have no standing under the Act. This is true even if individual plaintiffs attempt the certify a class of all tribal members; the tribe itself must sue. - Covered land Unlike the Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783, the Nonintercourse Act applies to land within the boundaries of a state, including the original thirteen. The First Circuit in Passamaquoddy and the Second Circuit in Mohegan Tribe, supra, held that the Nonintercourse Act applies to the entire United States, including the original thirteen. No defendant has yet persuaded a court otherwise. However, the defendant will defeat this element if the challenged conveyance occurred before 1790. The Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783 may cover conveyances between 1783 and 1790, but the only court to consider it held that the Confederation Congress had neither the power nor the intent to prohibit conveyances to states within their borders. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 may cover conveyances between 1763 and 1783; however, the only court to examine such a conveyance found that it satisfied the requirements of the Proclamation. For example, the conveyances at issue in Johnson v. M'Intosh (1823) occurred on July 5, 1773 and October 18, 1775, but neither party to the suit was indigenous. - Federal non-consent Through the policies of Indian removal in the East and Indian reservation-creation in the West, the federal government removed Native Americans from most of their ancestral land. However, examples of Congress approving a state action that alienated land are rare indeed. Congress would have to pass a statute with express language, or the Senate would have to ratify the treaty alienating the land, to secure such federal approval. The view taken by several of the Indian Land Claims Settlements is that Congress may consent to such conveyances retroactively; this view has not been tested in court, although it is likely to be upheld because the power of Congress to extinguish aboriginal title without compensation is plenary. - Trust relationship In Passamaquoddy, supra, the First Circuit held that only Congress, and only with a clear statement, can terminate a federal-tribal trust relationship; acts of state governments are irrelevant. Congress has done so with several tribes under Indian termination policy. Since South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe (1986) it has been understood that the Nonintercourse Act does not protect the lands of terminated tribes; there, the termination act was held to have triggered the state statute of limitations with respect to the land claim. Courts have considered and rejected several affirmative defenses to Nonintercourse Act suits. However, there are two affirmative defenses that have been accepted by some courts: state sovereign immunity and the equitable doctrine of laches. - State sovereign immunity The structure of the original Constitution and the text of the Eleventh Amendment gives states sovereign immunity from most suits; there are exceptions: when the state consents to suit; when the federal government abrogates sovereign immunity by statute; when the federal government is the plaintiff or plaintiff-intervenor; and the category authorized by Ex parte Young (1908). In several cases, Nonintercourse Act plaintiffs have satisfied one of these exceptions. However, the Nonintercourse Act itself does not abrogate state sovereign immunity. Moreover, the authority is clear that the Ex parte Young exception does not apply. Therefore, plaintiffs must obtain the intervention of the federal government or relegate themselves to suing local governments and private land owners. Further, in actions against states, Indians are not entitled to the presumption of 25 U.S.C. § 194, which applies only to "persons." Four dissenting justices would have barred the tribes action based on laches in Oneida County v. Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. State (1985), a question the majority did not reach. The Second Circuit adopted the view of the dissent in Cayuga Indian Nation of N.Y. v. Pataki (2d Cir. 2005), and since then no tribal plaintiff has been able to overcome this affirmative defense in that circuit. Cayuga erased a damage award of $247.9 million, the largest ever awarded under the Act. Definition of Indian country In addition to regulating relations between Indians living on Indian land and non-Indians, the 1834 Act identified an area known as "Indian country". This land was described as being "all that part of the United States west of the Mississippi and not within the states of Missouri and Louisiana, or the territory of Arkansas." This is the land that became known as Indian Territory. One of the most defining aspects of the acts was the establishment of a series of "factories" which were officially licensed trading posts where Native Americans were to sell their merchandise (particularly furs). The factories, which officially were set up to protect the tribes from unscrupulous private traders, were to be used as leverage to cause the tribes to cede substantial territory in exchange for access to the "factory" as happened with the Treaty of Fort Clark in which the Osage Nation exchanged most of Missouri in order to access Fort Clark. According to U.S. Attorney General William Wirt: [T]he United States agree to pay [the Creek Indians] certain specific sums of money, out of which payments there is a reservation of $5,000 to satisfy claims for property taken by individuals of the said nation from the citizens of the United States subsequent to the treaty of Colerain, which has been or may be claimed and established agreeably to the provisions of the act for regulating trade and intercourse with the Indian tribes, and to preserve peace on the frontiers. State nonintercourse acts The Nonintercourse Act did not pre-empt the states from legislating additional restraints on alienation of Native American lands. Many states, including nearly all of the original Thirteen, enacted similar statutes for at least some lands during at least some time periods. Other state statutes, or constitutional provisions, incorporated the English common law as it had evolved up to that point. - New York A New York State enacted March 31, 1821 provided: [I]t shall be unlawful for any person or persons, other than Indians, to settle or reside upon any lands belonging to or occupied by any nation or tribe of Indians within this state; and that all leases, contracts and agreements made by any Indians, whereby any person or persons, other than Indians, shall be permitted to reside upon such lands, shall be absolutely void; and if any person or persons shall settle or reside on any such lands, contrary to this act, it shall be the duty of any judge of any court of Common Pleas of the county within which such lands shall be situated, on complaint made to him, and on due proof of the fact of such settlement or residence, to issue his warrant, under his hand and seal, directed to the sheriff of such county, commanding him, within ten days after the receipt thereof, to remove such person or persons so settling or residing, with his, her or their families, from such lands. - South Carolina A 1739 South Carolina Provincial Council statute required a license from the Crown or Governor for a private party to purchase lands from Indians. - See, e.g., New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble, 62 U.S. (21 How.) 366, 367 (1858) ("[C]ounsel for the plaintiffs in error contended that ... [the 1834 Act] repealed so much of [the 1802 Act] as applied to the Indians west of the Mississippi, but left it operative upon the Indians east of the Mississippi ..."); see also O'Toole and Tureen, 1971, at 3 n.8. - South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc., 476 U.S. 498 (1986) (Blackmun, J., dissenting). - Act of July 22, 1790, Pub. L. No. 1-33, § 4, 1 Stat. 137, 138. - Act of March 1, 1793, Pub. L. No. 2-19, § 8, 1 Stat. 329, 330. - Act of May 19, 1796, Pub. L. No. 4-30, § 12, 1 Stat. 469, 472. - Act of March 3, 1799, Pub. L. No. 5-46, § 12, 1 Stat. 743, 746. - Act of March 30, 1802, Pub. L. No. 7-13, § 12, 2 Stat. 139, 143. - Act of June 30, 1834, Pub. L. No. 23-161, § 12, 4 Stat. 729, 730 (codified as amended at 25 U.S.C. § 177 (2006)). - 4 American State Papers 142 (1823). Text - Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 U.S. (5 Pet.) 1 (1831). - William Wirt, Opinion on the Right of the State of Georgia to Extend Her Laws Over the Cherokee Nation (June 20, 1830), reprinted in Niles' Weekly Register at 81, 88 (September 25, 1830). - The Bill Filed on behalf of the Cherokee Nation vs. the State of Georgia, in Richard Peters, The case of the Cherokee Nation against the state of Georgia 13-15 (1831). - See 1832 Opinions in Worcester v. Georgia. - Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy, 162 U.S. 283 (1896). - Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation, 362 U.S. 99, 119–20 (1960). - George C. Shattuck, The Oneida land claims: a legal history 7–8 (1991). - Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. State v. Oneida Cnty., 414 U.S. 661 (1974); see also Pueblo of Isleta ex rel. Lucero v. Universal Constructors, Inc., 570 F.2d 300 (10th Cir. 1978) (finding subject-matter jurisdiction). - Oneida Cnty. v. Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. State, 470 U.S. 226 (1985). - Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton, 388 F. Supp. 649 (D. Me.), aff'd, 528 F.2d 370 (1st Cir. 1975); see Pub. L. No. 96-420, 94 Stat. 1785 (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 1721–35). - Narragansett Tribe of Indians v. Southern R.I. Land Dev. Co., 418 F. Supp. 798 (D.R.I. 1976); Narragansett Tribe of Indians v. Murphy, 426 F. Supp. 132 (D.R.I. 1976); see Pub. L. No. 95-395, 92 Stat. 813 (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 1701–16). - Mohegan Tribe v. Connecticut, 483 F. Supp. 597 (D. Conn. 1980), aff'd, 638 F.2d 612 (2d Cir. 1980), cert. denied, 452 U.S. 968 (1981), on remand, 528 F. Supp. 1359 (D. Conn. 1982); see Pub. L. No. 103-377, 108 Stat. 3501 (codified at 25 U.S.C. § 1775). - Western Pequot Tribe of Indians v. Holdridge Enters. Inc., No. H76-cv-193 (D. Conn.); see Pub. L. No. 98-134, 97 Stat. 851 (codified at 25 U.S.C. §§ 1751–60). - Wampanoag Tribal Council of Gay Head v. Town of Gay Head, No. 74-cv-5826 (D. Mass.); see Pub. L. No. 100-95, 101 Stat. 704 (codified at 25 U.S.C. § 1771). - 418 F. Supp. at 803. - Seneca Nation of Indians v. New York, 382 F.3d 245, 258 (2d Cir. 2004). - See O'Toole and Tureen, 1971, at 19--22 & n.101--117. - Mashpee Tribe v. New Seabury Corp., 447 F. Supp. 940 (D. Mass. 1978), aff'd, 592 F.2d 575 (1st Cir. 1979). Further history: Mashpee Tribe v. Watt, 542 F. Supp. 797 (D. Mass. 1982), aff'd, 707 F.2d 23 (1st Cir. 1983); Mashpee Tribe v. Sec'y of Interior, 820 F.2d 480 (1st Cir. 1987) (Breyer, J.); 72 Fed. Reg. 8,007 (2007) (granting federal recognition); Bingham v. Massachusetts, 2009 WL 1259963 (D. Mass. 2009), aff'd, 616 F.3d 1, 6 n.7 (1st Cir. 2010) ("We do not decide what effect the Department of the Interior's 2007 designation of the Mashpee Wampanoag as a federally recognized tribe has on [the three preceding] opinions."); id. at 6 n.8 ("In April 2008, the tribe entered into an agreement with the Town in which it received certain Town lands in exchange for waiving all claims to property located within the Town."). - Golden Hill Paugussett Tribe of Indians v. Weicker, 39 F.3d 51 (2d Cir. 1994), on remand, Golden Hill Paugussett Tribe of Indians v. Rell, 463 F. Supp.2d 192 (D. Conn. 2006). - United States v. Joseph, 94 U.S. 614, 617 (1876) ("[The Nonintercourse Act was designed for] tribes whose incapacity for self-government required both for themselves and for the citizens of the country this guardian care of the general government. The pueblo Indians ... had nothing in common with this class. The[ir] degree of civilization ... their willing submission to all the laws of the Mexican government ... and their absorption ... all forbid the idea that they should be classed with the Indian tribes for whom the intercourse acts were made."); United States v. Lucero, 1 N.M. 422 (1869); see also United States v. Sandoval, 231 U.S. 28 (1913) ("[Pueblo lands] vary in quantity, but usually embrace ... fee-simple ownership under grants from the King of Spain, made during the Spanish sovereignty, and confirmed by Congress since the acquisition of that territory ..."). - United States v. Candelaria, 271 U.S. 432 (1926). See also, Pueblo Lands Act of 1924, 43 Stat. 636; Cohen, Handbook of Federal Indian Law 327 (2005). - United States v. Candelaria, 271 U.S. 432 (1926); Alonzo v. United States, 249 F.2d 189 (10th Cir. 1957); United States v. 7,405.3 Acres of Land in Macon, Clay and Swain Cntys., 97 F.2d 417 (4th Cir. 1938); United States v. Boylan, 265 F. 165 (2d Cir. 1920); United States v. Berrigan, 2 Alaska 442 (D. Ala. 1905). - Bowling v. United States, 233 U.S. 528 (1914); Gritts v. Fisher, 224 U.S. 640 (1912); Heckman v. United States, 224 U.S. 413 (1912); Franklin v. Lynch, 233 U.S. 269 (1911); Tiger v. Western Inv. Co., 221 U.S. 286 (1911); United States v. Joseph, 94 U.S. 614 (1876). But see United States v. Waller, 243 U.S. 452 (1917). - Gardner v. Wyasket, 197 Fed. Appx. 721 (10th Cir. 2005); James v. Watt, 716 F.2d 71 (1st Cir. 1983); Epps v. Andrus, 611 F.2d 915 (1st Cir. 1979); Mashpee Tribe v. Watt, 542 F. Supp. 797 (D. Mass. 1982). - Canadian St. Regis Band of Mohawk Indians v. New York, 573 F. Supp. 1530 (N.D.N.Y. 1983). - City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y., 544 U.S. 197, 205 n.2 (2005). - Del. Nation v. Pennsylvania, 2004 WL 2755545 (E.D. Pa. 2004), aff'd, 446 F.3d 410 (3d Cir. 2006) (upholding 1734 conveyance); New York v. Shinnecock Indian Nation, 523 F. Supp.2d 185 (E.D.N.Y. 2007) (upholding May 12, 1659; April 10, 1662; November 1, 1676; and December 6, 1686 conveyances). - Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. v. New York, 649 F. Supp. 420 (N.D.N.Y. 1986), aff'd, 860 F.2d 1145 (2d Cir. 1988). - Seneca Nation of Indians v. New York, 382 F.3d 245 (2d Cir. 2004) (upholding a 1764 conveyance). - Johnson v. M'Intosh, 21 U.S. (8 Wheat.) 543 (1823). - South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc., 476 U.S. 498 (1986). - Oneida County v. Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. State, 470 U.S. 226 (1985) (rejecting the affirmative defenses of statute of limitations, abatement, implicit federal ratification, and nonjusticiability); Mohegan Tribe v. Connecticut, 528 F. Supp. 1359 (D. Conn. 1982). (rejecting the affirmative defenses of Tenth and Eleventh Amendment sovereign immunity and res judicata); Schaghticoke Tribe of Indians v. Kent School Corp., 423 F. Supp. 780 (D. Conn. 1976) (rejecting the affirmative defenses of laches, statute of limitations, marketable title statute, adverse possession, and waiver and estoppel based on post-Act conduct; waiver and estoppel based on pre-Act conduct are valid); Narragansett Tribe of Indians v. Southern Rhode Island Land Development Co., 418 F. Supp. 798 (D.R.I. 1976) (rejecting the affirmative defenses of nonjusticiability, laches, statute of limitations/adverse possession, estoppel by sale, operation of state law, and public policy); Narragansett Tribe of Indians v. Murphy, 426 F. Supp. 132 (D.R.I. 1976) (rejecting the affirmative defense of sovereign immunity). - See Skokomish Indian Tribe v. France, 269 F.2d 555 (9th Cir. 1959); see also Katharine F. Nelson, Resolving Native American Land Claims and the Eleventh Amendment: Changing the Balance of Power, 39 Vill. L. Rev. 525 (1994). - Seneca Nation of Indians v. New York, 26 F. Supp. 2d 555 (W.D.N.Y. 1998), aff'd, 178 F.3d 95 (2nd Cir. 1999) (US as intervenor); United States for and on Behalf of Santa Ana Indian Pueblo v. Univ. of N.M., 731 F.2d 703 (10th Cir. 1984) (US as plaintiff); Mohegan Tribe v. Connecticut, 528 F. Supp. 1359 (D. Conn. 1982) (holding states counter-claim waived sovereign immunity). - Ysleta Del Sur Pueblo v. Laney, 199 F.3d 281 (5th Cir. 2000); see also Seminole Tribe v. Florida, 517 U.S. 44 (1996). - Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho, 521 U.S. 261 (1997); Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. v. County of Oneida, 617 F.3d 114 (2d Cir. 2010); Western Mohegan Tribe and Nation v. Orange County, 395 F.3d 18 (2d Cir. 2004); c.f. Canadian St. Regis Band of Mohawk Indians v. New York, 146 F. Supp.2d 170 (N.D.N.Y. 2001); Narragansett Tribe of Indians v. Murphy, 426 F. Supp. 132 (D.R.I. 1976). - Lauren E. Rosenblatt, Note, Removing the Eleventh Amendment Barrier: Defending Indian Land Title Against State Encroachment After Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe, 78 Tex. L. Rev. 719 (2000). - Wilson v. Omaha Indian Tribe, 442 U.S. 653 (1979). - Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. v. County of Oneida, 617 F.3d 114 (2d Cir. 2010); Cayuga Indian Nation of N.Y. v. Pataki, 413 F.3d 266 (2d Cir. 2005); Onondaga Nation v. New York, 2010 WL 3806492 (N.D.N.Y. 2010); Shinnecock Indian Nation v. New York, 2006 WL 3501099 (E.D.N.Y. 2006); see also Kathryn E. Fort, The New Laches: Creating Title where None Existed, 16 Geo. Mason L. Rev. 357 (2009); Patrick W. Wandres, Indian Land Claims, Sherrill and the Impending Legacy of the Doctrine of Laches, 31 Am. Indian L. Rev. 131 (2006). - 2 U.S. Op. Atty. Gen. 110, 128 (1828). - New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble, 62 U.S. (21 How.) 366, 370 (1858) ("Nor is this statute in conflict with any act of Congress, as no law of Congress can be found which authorizes white men to intrude on the possessions of Indians."). - Rosen, 2004, at 28 ("[S]tates ... regulated Indians' right to sell land to whites and whites' right to purchase land from Indians. Some states enacted laws echoing the federal restraints on alienation. Others, however, enacted a contradictory rule authorizing all private Indian land sales, or allowing land sales by certain Indians, or validating land sales that had been approved by a state commissioner. More often, although individual whites were not allowed to buy land from Indians, commissioners or governors were authorized or directed to purchase Indian lands"). - 1 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 1503; Va. Code Ann. § 1-11. - 16 N.Y. 203 (citing Laws of 1821, 183, §§ 1, 5 (current version at McKinney's Indian Law § 8 (2000))); see also Rosen, 2004, at 28 ("The New York legislature was particularly active in this regard, passing a number of statutes authorizing the governor to appoint commissioners to negotiate or "treat" with Indian tribes to extinguish their rights to their lands in exchange for annuities, or allowing the governor himself to conduct such negotiations or make such treaties.). - An Act to restrain and prevent the purchasing Lands from Indians, 1 The First Laws of the State of South Carolina 160-161 (J. Cushing ed. 1981). - Susan C. Antos, Comment, Indian Land Claims Under the Nonintercourse Act, 44 Alb. L. Rev. 110 (1979). - John Edward Barry, Comment, Oneida Indian Nation v. County of Oneida: Tribal Rights of Action and the Indian Trade and Intercourse Act, 84 Colum. L. Rev. 1852 (1984). - Robert N. Clinton & Margaret Tobey Hotopp, Judicial Enforcement of the Federal Restraints on Alienation of Indian Land: The Origins of the Eastern Land Claims, 31 Me. L. Rev. 17 (1979). - Daniel M. Crane, Congressional Intent or Good Intentions: The Inference of Private Rights of Action Under the Indian Trade and Intercourse Act, 63 B.U. L. Rev. 853 (1983). - William E. Dwyer, Jr., Land Claims under the Indian Nonintercourse Act: 25 U.S.C. 177, 7 B. C. Envtl. Aff. L. Rev. 259 (1978). - Francis J. O'Toole & Thomas N. Tureen, State Power and the Passamaquoddy Tribe: A Gross National Hypocrisy, 23 Me. L. Rev. 1 (1971). - Francis Paul Purcha, America Indian Policy in the Formative Years: The Indian Trade and Intercourse Acts 1790—1834 (1962). - Deborah A. Rosen, Colonization Through Law: The Judicial Defense of State Indian Legislation, 1790–1880, 46 Am. J. Legal Hist. 26 (2004). - John M.R. Paterson & David Roseman, A Reexamination of Passamaquoddy v. Morton, 31 Me. L. Rev. 115 (1979).

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Patha, aka: Pāṭhā, Pāṭha, Paṭha; 15 Definition(s) Patha means something in Hinduism, Sanskrit, Buddhism, Pali, the history of ancient India, Marathi. If you want to know the exact meaning, history, etymology or English translation of this term then check out the descriptions on this page. Add your comment or reference to a book if you want to contribute to this summary article. Ayurveda (science of life) 1) Pāṭhā (पाठा) is a Sanskrit word referring to Cissampelos pareira (velvetleaf), a species of flowering plant from the Menispermaceae family. Certain plant parts of Pāṭhā are eaten as a vegetable (śāka), according to Caraka in his Carakasaṃhitā sūtrasthāna (chapter 27), a classical Āyurvedic work. The plant is therefore part of the Śākavarga group of medicinal plants, referring to the “group of vegetables/pot-herbs”. Caraka defined such groups (vargas) based on the dietic value of the plant. The word Pāṭhā is derived from Pāṭha, which means “recitation” or “recital”. It is derived from the root paṭh. According to the Mādhavacikitsā (7th-century Āyurvedic work), this plant (Pāṭhā) is mentioned as a medicine used for the treatment of all major fevers, as described in the Jvaracikitsā (or “the treatment of fever”) chapter. According to the Rājanighaṇṭu (verses 6.119-121), Pāṭhā has the following synonyms: Ambaṣṭhā, Ambaṣṭhikā, Prācīnā, Pāpacelikā, Pāṭhikā, Sthāpanī, Śreyasī, Vṛddhikarṇikā, Ekāṣṭhīlā, Kucailī, Dīpanī, Varatiktakā, Tiktapuṣpā, Bṛhattikta, Dīpanī, Triśirā, Vṛkī, Mālavī, Varā, Devī and Vṛttaparṇī. The Rājanighaṇṭu is a 13th-century Āurvedic encyclopedia. Properties according to the Carakasaṃhitā: The vegetables of Pāṭha alleviate three doṣas and are constipating. Properties according to the Rājanighaṇṭu: Pāṭhā is bitter, heavy (guru) and hot. It relieves the vāta-pitta-jvara (fever due to vāta-pitta). It helps in uniting the fractures (bhagna-sandhāna-kṛt). It is useful in burning sensations, diarrhoea and colic. Botanical description: It is a climber shrub with pubsescent leaves on both surfaces and small yellowish flowers (male and female separate), grows abunduntly throughout India. Its two varieties, Laghupāṭhā and Rājapāṭhā) are common. Rājapāṭhā is identified as Cyclea peltata, male and female climbers are separate. 2) Pāṭhā (पाठा) is a Sanskrit word referring to the Cyclea peltata (“pata root”), a species of flowering plant from the Menispermaceae family. It is also known as Pāṭhī in the Hindi language or as Pāṭavaḷḷi in the Malayalam language. It is used throughout Āyurvedic literature such as the Caraka-saṃhitā and the Suśruta-saṃhitā. 3) Paṭha (पठ):—Another name for Padmaka (Prunus majestica), a species of medicinal plant and used in the treatment of fever (jvara), as described in the Jvaracikitsā (or “the treatment of fever”) which is part of the 7th-century Mādhavacikitsā, a Sanskrit classical work on Āyurveda.Source: Wisdom Library: Āyurveda and botany Āyurveda (आयुर्वेद, ayurveda) is a branch of Indian science dealing with medicine, herbalism, taxology, anatomy, surgery, alchemy and related topics. Traditional practice of Āyurveda in ancient India dates back to at least the first millenium BC. Literature is commonly written in Sanskrit using various poetic metres. Dharmashastra (religious law) Pāṭha (पाठ) is a Sanskrit word, identified with Stephania hernandifolia (Kashmir tree) by various scholars in their translation of the Śukranīti. This tree is mentioned as having thorns, and should therefore be considered as wild. The King shoud place such trees in forests (not in or near villages). He should nourish them by stoole of goats, sheep and cows, water as well as meat. Note that Stephania hernandifolia is possibly a synonym of Stephania japonica (snake vine). The following is an ancient Indian horticultural recipe for the nourishment of such trees: According to Śukranīti 4.4.110-112: “The powder of the dungs of goats and sheep, the powder of Yava (barley), Tila (seeds), beef as well as water should be kept together (undisturbed) for seven nights. The application of this water leads very much to the growth in flowers and fruits of all trees (such as pāṭha).”Source: Wisdom Library: Dharma-śāstra Dharmashastra (धर्मशास्त्र, dharmaśāstra) contains the instructions (shastra) regarding religious conduct of livelihood (dharma), ceremonies, jurisprudence (study of law) and more. It is categorized as smriti, an important and authoritative selection of books dealing with the Hindu lifestyle. Vyakarana (Sanskrit grammar) 1) Pāṭha (पाठ).—Recital of a sacred Vedic or Sastra work; the original recital of an authoritative text; 2) Pāṭha.—The various artificial ways or methods of such a recital; c.g. पदपाठ, क्रमपाठ (padapāṭha, kramapāṭha) etc. in the case of Vedic Literature: 3) Pāṭha.—An original recital such as the सुत्रपाठ, धातुपाठ, गणपाठ, वार्तिकपाठ (sutrapāṭha, dhātupāṭha, gaṇapāṭha, vārtikapāṭha) and परिभाषापाठ (paribhāṣāpāṭha) in the case of the several systems of Sanskrit Grammar; the five Paathas are called पञ्चपाठी (pañcapāṭhī); 4) Pāṭha.—Recitation; cf. नान्तरेण पाठं स्वरा अनुबन्धा वा शक्या विज्ञातुम् (nāntareṇa pāṭhaṃ svarā anubandhā vā śakyā vijñātum) M. Bh. on P.I.3.1 Vaart. 13; 5) Pāṭha.—Reading, variant: cf. चूर्णादीनि अप्राण्युपग्रहादिति सूत्रस्य पाठान्तरम् (cūrṇādīni aprāṇyupagrahāditi sūtrasya pāṭhāntaram) Kaas. on P.V.2.134.Source: Wikisource: A dictionary of Sanskrit grammar Vyakarana (व्याकरण, vyākaraṇa) refers to Sanskrit grammar and represents one of the six additional sciences (vedanga) to be studied along with the Vedas. Vyakarana concerns itself with the rules of Sanskrit grammar and linguistic analysis in order to establish the correct context of words and sentences. India history and geogprahy Patha (पथ) refers to a name-ending for place-names mentioned in the Gupta inscriptions (reigned from 3rd century CE). Patha means a “way”, “path”, a “road” or “route”. In the Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra we find the word janṅhā-patha (foot-path). The suffix ‘patha’ has been used as early as the later Vedic period. Originally patha meant ‘a path’, ‘a road’ but later on it came to denote ‘a country’. Even now-a-days, the suffix ‘road’ is used for inhabitations and localities.Source: archive.org: Personal and geographical names in the Gupta inscriptions Patha (पथ) refers to an “administrative unit”.—Side by side with the raṭṭha or rāṣṭra we find another group of administrative units whose names end in -patha. An early Pallava inscription refers to the Andhrāpatha in charge of an official (vāpata or Vyāpṛta) at Dhaṃñakaḍa, usually identified with Amarāvatī or some neighbouring place. Epigraphs of about the same age also mention Paiṭhāṇa-patha (apparently connected with Paiṭhaṇ on the Godāvarī), Śvetapatha, and Kāchu-patha (Kācupatha).Source: Early History Of The Deccan Pts.1 To 6: Principal Administrative Divisions from the Rise of the Sātavāhanas Patha is a term designating ‘road’, used in the inscriptions of Andhra Pradesh.—These two appellations (patha and marga) are synonymous, standing for trade-communication routes or village roads. Understands pathaka as a term similar to a pargana of later days. Divisions with these appellations occur very rarely in Andhra Pradesh. Ane-marga was a division of the Kalyana Chalukyas and Ongeru-marga-vishaya was that of the Eastern Chalukyas. The Mayidavolu plates of the Pallava king Sivaskandavarman refer to Andhra-patha which might mean not an administrative unit, but the entire Andhra region ruled by the Pallavas. In Madhya Pradesh under the Vakatakas and the Sarabhapuriyas there were a large number of marga divisions.Source: Shodhganga: A study of place names of Nalgonda district Patha is the name of a city mentioned in the “Semrā copper-plate grant of Paramardideva” (1162 A.C). Patha, as read by Cartellieri in ll. 8-9, has been identified by him with the modern place of the same name lying about 6 kms. east of Berwārā. These plates (mentioning Patha) were found at Semrā: a town in the Chatarpur District of the Bundelkhand region (formerly the state of Bijāwar) of Madhya Pradesh. They were issued by Paramardideva to record the confirmation of a grant, from his camp at Sonasara, for the sake of the increase of his own and his parent’s merit and fame.Source: What is India: Inscriptions of the Candellas, Kacchapaghatas, Pala, etc. Pātha.—(IE 8-6; IA 11), a land measure regarded as equal to 240 square feet. Note: pātha is defined in the “Indian epigraphical glossary” as it can be found on ancient inscriptions commonly written in Sanskrit, Prakrit or Dravidian languages.Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Indian Epigraphical Glossary The history of India traces the identification of countries, villages, towns and other regions of India, as well as royal dynasties, rulers, tribes, local festivities and traditions and regional languages. Ancient India enjoyed religious freedom and encourages the path of Dharma, a concept common to Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. Languages of India and abroad patha : (m.) path; way; road (in cpds.) range of, e.g. gaṇanapatha = range of calculation. || pāṭha (m.) a passage; text reading.Source: BuddhaSasana: Concise Pali-English Dictionary Pāṭha, (fr. paṭh) reading, text-reading; passage of a text, text. Very freq. in Commentaries with phrase “ti pi pāṭho, ” i.e. “so is another reading, ” e.g. KhA 78, 223; SnA 43 (°ṃ vikappeti), 178, 192, 477; PvA. 25 (pamāda° careless text), 48, 58, 86 and passim. (Page 451) — or — Patha, (of path, Ved. pathi with the 3 bases pathi, path° and panth°, of which only the last two have formed independent nouns, viz. patha and pantha (q. v.)) 1. path, road, way D. I, 63; Sn. 176 (Loc. pathe), 385, 540, 868; Nd2 485 B (+pantha, in expln of magga); J. I, 308 (Loc. pathe); II, 39; VI, 525 (Abl. pathā); Th. 1, 64; Pug. 22, 57; Mhvs 21, 24 (pathe); 36, 93 (Loc. pathi, see Geiger, Gr. § 89); Sdhp. 241.—2. Very frequent as —°, where it is sometimes pleonastic, and acts in the function of an abstract formation in °tā or °ttaṃ (cp. similar use of anta: see anta1 5; and pada: see pada 3), e.g. anila° (air) J. IV, 119; anupariyāya° A. IV, 107; ādicca° (path of the sun, sky) DhA. III, 177; ummagga° S. I, 193; kamma° DhA. I, 36; gaṇana° (range of) calculation Miln. 20; cakkhu° J. IV, 403 (=cakkhūnaṃ etaṃ nāmaṃ C.); catummahā° A. III, 28, 42, 394; dve° Vv 5317; nakkhatta° Dh. 208; yañña° (=yañña) Nd2 524; yogga° A. III, 122; rajā° S. II, 219; rāga° (sensuality) S. IV, 70; vacana° (way of saying, speech) Vv 6317 (=vacana VvA. 262), etc. See also cakkhu°, ñeyya°, dveḷhā°, manussa°, yañña°, vāda°, sagga°, hattha°; der. pātheyya.—See also byappatha.—apatha where there is no way or road, wrong way J. II, 287; ThA. 255; VvA. 337. —addhan “the journey or stretch of the path”: see under addhan. —addhi (?) so perhaps to be read for patatthi, according to Fausböll J. VI, 276. Unclear in meaning, expld by nibbiddha vīthi (frequented road?) —gamana “going on their course, ” of the stars D. I, 10 (see Dial. I. 20 “their usual course”). (Page 408) Pali is the language of the Tipiṭaka, which is the sacred canon of Theravāda Buddhism and contains much of the Buddha’s speech. Closeley related to Sanskrit, both languages are used interchangeably between religions. 1) Patha (पथ).—m S A road, way, path. patha (पथ).—f (Commonly pata) Mercantile character or repute, credit. 2) pāṭha (पाठ).—f (pṛṣṭha S) The back. Pr. pāṭhīvara mārāvēṃ pōṭāvara mārūṃ nayē Whip the back, dont clip the belly. Pr. āpalī pāṭha āpaṇāsa disata nāhīṃ Said of matters happening before one's eyes, yet unobserved--of matters close at hand yet unseen or unknown. 2 fig. The back (hinder or under side) of a thing gen. 3 fig. Aid, support, backing. v dē. 4 fig. Surface or face (as of the earth, ocean, a table or any expanse). 5 Rind, peel, the back, coat, or exterior integument. 6 (As ḍōī Head is made to signify a generation generally, so pāṭha Back, quasi at or upon the back of, is taken to denote a generation with respect to the goat.) A female kid. pāṭhacā Succeeding or subsequent to; that follows after;--used of a child with reference to its brother or sister immediately before it. Also pāṭhalā. 2 That has sought the shelter and protection of. Pr. pōṭacā dyāvā pāṭhacā dēūṃ nayē Give one's own child, but give not up a refugee. pāṭha (पाठ).—a (S) That has been committed to memory; known by heart. Ex. hā grantha malā pāṭha āhē. puḍhēṃ pāṭha māgēṃ sapāṭa Said of a person ever reading and conning and anon clean forgetting. 3) pāṭhā (पाठा).—m (Poetry. For pāḍā) Detail or minutiæ of; lengthy catalogue, account, or story of. Ex. vācē harīnāmācā pāṭhā || vyāpāra khōṭā na karavē ||. 4) pātha (पाथ).—f pāntha f C (Commonly pānta q. v.) A line or row &c. pāntha a S Relating to the road or way; a wayfarer or traveler.Source: DDSA: The Molesworth Marathi and English Dictionary 1) Patha (पथ).—m A road, way, path. 2) pāṭha (पाठ).—m Reading the Vedas. Reading in general. A lesson. A reading, a variation of copies. pāṭha karaṇēṃ To commit pāṭha (पाठ).—a That has been committed to memory; known by heart. Ex. hā grantha malā pāṭha āhē. puḍhēṃ pāṭha māgē sapāṭa Said of a person ever reading and cunning and anon clean forgetting.Source: DDSA: The Aryabhusan school dictionary, Marathi-English Marathi is an Indo-European language having over 70 million native speakers people in (predominantly) Maharashtra India. Marathi, like many other Indo-Aryan languages, evolved from early forms of Prakrit, which itself is a subset of Sanskrit, one of the most ancient languages of the world. Paṭha (पठ).—Reading, reciting. Derivable forms: paṭhaḥ (पठः). --- OR --- Patha (पथ).—A way, road; reach, course (at the end of comp.); पाणिस्पर्शाक्षमाभ्यां मृजितपथरुजो यो हरीन्द्रानुजाभ्याम् (pāṇisparśākṣamābhyāṃ mṛjitapatharujo yo harīndrānujābhyām) Bhāg.9.1.4. Derivable forms: pathaḥ (पथः). --- OR --- Pāṭha (पाठ).—[paṭh-bhāve ghañ] 1) Reciting, recitation, repeating. 2) Reading, perusal, study. 3) Studying or reciting. the Vedas (brahmayajña), one of the five daily Yajñas or sacrifices to be performed by Brāhmaṇas. 4) A particular method of reciting the text of the Veda (of which there are five:-saṃhitā, pada, krama, jaṭā and ghana). 5) The text of a book, a reading, variant; अत्र गन्धवद् गन्धमादनम् इति आगन्तुकः पाठः । प्राचीनपाठस्तु सुगन्धिर्गन्धमादनः इति पुल्लिङ्गान्तः (atra gandhavad gandhamādanam iti āgantukaḥ pāṭhaḥ | prācīnapāṭhastu sugandhirgandhamādanaḥ iti pulliṅgāntaḥ) Malli. on Ku.6.46. Derivable forms: pāṭhaḥ (पाठः). --- OR --- Pātha (पाथ).—[pīyate'daḥ pā-karmaṇi tha] 2) The sun. Derivable forms: pāthaḥ (पाथः).Source: DDSA: The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary Patha (पथ).—nt. (in Sanskrit m.), way: marutpathāni LV 117.9 (verse). See also Laṅkā-patha. --- OR --- Pāṭha (पाठ).—(-pāṭha), m. (to paṭh-; compare Sanskrit pāṭhaka), reader (other-wise only n. act.): vedasupinapāṭhā ye (so divide) LV 57.1 (verse); śāstrapāṭhān 6 (verse).Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Edgerton Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary Sanskrit, also spelled संस्कृतम् (saṃskṛtam), is an ancient language of India commonly seen as the grandmother of the Indo-European language family. Closely allied with Prakrit and Pali, Sanskrit is more exhaustive in both grammar and terms and has the most extensive collection of literature in the world, greatly surpassing its sister-languages Greek and Latin. Search found 406 related definition(s) that might help you understand this better. Below you will find the 15 most relevant articles: Dakṣiṇāpatha (दक्षिणापथ).—n. (-thaṃ) 1. The south. 2. Southern road or course. 3. Deccan. E. da... Īryapatha (ईर्यपथ).—1) the observances of a religious mendicant to obtain knowledge. 2) the fou... Kupatha (कुपथ) is a name mentioned in the Mahābhārata (cf. I.59.25, I.65) and represents one o... Uttarāpatha refers to “northern India”: a district of ancient India comprising the Punjab prope... Mahāpatha (महापथ).—m. (-thaḥ) 1. The principal path or entrance to a town or house. &c., a ... Supatha (सुपथ).—m. (-thaḥ) 1. A good road. 2. Good conduct. 3. Good course. E. su good, pathin ... Kramapāṭha (क्रमपाठ).—A method of teaching the Vedas. It is due to the insistence on strict adh... Ghaṇṭāpatha (घण्टापथ).—m. (-thaḥ) The chief road through a village, a highway. E. ghaṇṭā a bell... Tripatha (त्रिपथ).—n. (-thaṃ) 1. A place where three roads meet. 2. Three ways or paths. E. tri... Pāṭhāntara (पाठान्तर).—another reading, a variant (v. l.) Derivable forms: pāṭhāntaram (पाठान्त... Padapāṭha (पदपाठ).—An ancient system of studying the Vedas. (See under Ghanapāṭha). Dvipatha (द्विपथ).—n. (-thaṃ) A place where two roads meet. E. dvi two, pathin a road. Catuṣpatha.—(LP), a place where four roads meet. Note: catuṣpatha is defined in the “Indian epi... Devapatha (देवपथ).—f. (-thaḥ) Heaven, the firmament, the celestial path or way. E. deva a deity... Dṛṣṭipatha (दृष्टिपथ).—the range of sight. Derivable forms: dṛṣṭipathaḥ (दृष्टिपथः).Dṛṣṭipatha ... Search found 54 books and stories containing Patha, Pāṭhā, Pāṭha or Paṭha. You can also click to the full overview containing English textual excerpts. Below are direct links for the most relevant articles: Abhidhamma in Daily Life (by Nina Van Gorkom) The Book of Protection (by Piyadassi Thera) The Great Chronicle of Buddhas (by Ven. Mingun Sayadaw) Part 5 - Discourses delivered by the Buddha with Reference to Venerable Rāhula < [Chapter 31 - The Monk Sudinna, the Son of the Kalanda Merchant] Chapter 5 - The Prophecy < [The Anudīpanī (on the Great Chronicle of Buddhas)] Supplement (c): Fulfilment of the Ten Perfections < [Chapter 9 - The chronicle of twenty-four Buddhas] The Garuda Purana (by Manmatha Nath Dutt) Chapter CCXVIII - Various Recipes of fumigation-compounds, etc. < [Dhanvantari Samhita] Chapter CXCVIII - Various medicinal compounds disclosed by Hari to Hara < [Dhanvantari Samhita] Chapter CCXII - Other Medicinal Recipes < [Dhanvantari Samhita] The Mahavastu (great story) (by J. J. Jones) Rasa Jala Nidhi, vol 4: Iatrochemistry (by Bhudeb Mookerjee) Part 62 - Treatment for chronic diarrhea (34): Dvija-supti rasa < [Chapter III - Jvaratisara fever with diarrhoea] Treatment for fever (96): Kasturi-bhairava-rasa < [Chapter II - Fever (jvara)] Treatment for fever (69): Sannipata-gajankusha rasa < [Chapter II - Fever (jvara)]

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Artificial intelligence in medicine Implementation of the systems of the artificial intelligence (AI) in medicine is one of the most important modern trends of world health care. Artificial intelligence technologies in a root change a world health care system, allowing to process radically the system of medical diagnostics, development of new medicines and also in general to increase service quality of health care at simultaneous expense reduction for medical clinics. The directions of use of AI in medicine - At the level of design: forecasting of diseases, identification of groups of patients with high risk of diseases, the organization of preventive measures. - At the production rate: automation and process optimization in hospitals, automation and increase in accuracy of diagnostics. - At the level of promotion: management of pricing, risk reduction for patients. - At the level of providing service: adaptation of therapy and composition of drugs for each certain patient, use of virtual assistants for creation of a route of the patient in clinic or hospital. Artificial intelligence in radiology Main article: Artificial intelligence in radiology The artificial intelligence is actively applied in researches of development of techniques of diagnosis of cancer. In more detail in article: The medical center began to use the system of face recognition for identification of genetic deviations at newborns In the middle of November, 2019 it became known that the Chinese scientists developed and implemented the system of face recognition on the basis of artificial intelligence intended for identification of genetic anomalies when screening newborns. Read more here. Doctors began to predict death according to the ECG In the middle of November, 2019 the AI technology capable to predict failures of a warm rhythm was provided and to precisely predict risk of death at patients, even when independent cardiologists cannot distinguish the same risk factors. Read more here. Software for face recognition can recognize the person according to the MRT-picture of a brain Normal software for face recognition correctly identified volunteers in more than 80% of cases, however researchers consider that at attraction of bigger number of patients accuracy will decrease. It is supposed, however, that such software functions can threaten confidentiality of patients, laws do not manage to change as quickly as technologies. In the report of NYU scientists already warned about potential risks of application of software for face recognition. This technology is even more often used by police for shadowing and search of suspects, however regulatory standards still seriously lag behind reality. Researchers from Mayo clinic found out that thanks to the public software for face recognition they in 83% cases could compare photos of patients with MRT-pictures correctly. One of researchers, Christopher Schwarz, reported that the command of Mayo clinic decided to conduct such research, having noted high quality of the images used for studying of a brain of patients with Alzheimer's disease and dementia. Usually in MRT-pictures the head circuit, including leather and fat is visible, but bones and hair are not defined, however also this information was software enough. 84 volunteers participated in a research, and software for recognition of the person successfully correlated their MRT-pictures to photos. Despite the tremendous accuracy of software, researchers are not ready to trust in so easily received results. Professor of a radiology Eliot Siegel noted that at increase in the amount of selection the accuracy of "recognition" of photos for certain will fall. "The international medical cluster" and "National base of medical knowledge" opened in Skolkovo laboratory for AI in medicine On August 29, 2019 the National base of medical knowledge reported that it agreed with Fund of the International medical cluster about opening to Skolkovo of joint laboratory "Medical Knowledge". MMK became the customer of the meta-project of Association on creation of the national player in the global technology market in medicine and health care, and creation of a basic polygon for product development and perspective technologies – a natural step to its implementation. Read more here. CB Insights: In 2021 the market of medical AI technologies will reach $6.6 billion For the beginning of 2019, according to data of CB Insights analytical company, since 2013 the international technology startups developing artificial intelligence technologies managed to attract $4.3 billion within 576 transactions. Besides, experts claim that within the next three years the market of medical AI technologies will reach a point of $6.6 billion, increasing every year by 40%. IBM and AstraZeneca created the neuronet foretelling heart attack At the beginning of March, 2019 the companies IBM also AstraZeneca provided neuronet which can predict heart attack. Results of work of new technology are described in the published article "Clustering on the basis of Results of Patients with a Sharp Coronary Syndrome when Using Multitask Neural Network". The team of researchers collected data on age, sex, the anamnesis of life and a disease, addictions and also results of laboratory researches, information on the carried-out treatment and nearly 40 other indicators among 26,986 adult hospitalized patients in 38 city and rural hospitals of China. All data were loaded into a neuronet which had to learn whether the serious unfavorable warm event (MACE) was noted at the patient in the past and also whether he received antitrombotsitarny medicines, beta-blockers and statins – the medicines reducing manifestations of coronary insufficiency and preventing a myocardial infarction and a stroke. Further authors of article carried out a clustering by method of k-averages for distribution of patients by seven groups on the basis of the data obtained by a neuronet. As a result it turned out that in the first cluster which supported patients with frequent cardiovascular events as a heart attack and a stroke, but as low occurrence of coronary heart disease, the main predictor of the following heart attack served presence of diabetes while in other cluster which included patients with the heavy course of cardiovascular pathology without the previous heart attack advanced age and the increased systolic arterial blood pressure were the main predictors. Researchers warn that though the clustering matters for the forecast of a disease, not clearly whether these data in clinical practice can effectively be used. Nevertheless, their work shows that cluster analysis on the basis of artificial intelligence is perspective approach for classification of patients with a myocardial infarction. Future researches will focus on determination of "cluster and specific" interventions at which the efficiency is considered. of the previous treatment. The size of the market of AI technologies in health care was $1.4 billion - Zion Market Research In 2018 the amount of global market of AI technologies for health care reached $1.4 billion, counted in Zion Market Research analytical company. It is expected that by 2025 the indicator will grow to $17.8 billion, and expenses on such solutions will increase approximately by 43.8% annually. Most of all spend for medical artificial intelligence (machine learning, context-dependent calculations, natural languag processing, computer vision, speech recognition) in North America. Leadership is caused by the fact that this region is represented by such technology giants as Microsoft, IBM, Google, Nvidia, Amazon, Intel, General Electric and Xilinx. Besides, in North America transactions on merges and absorption, large partnership and start of important products are frequent. In Europe by 2019 the market of the artificial intelligence used in the medical purposes can be considered arising. In 2016 its volume was measured by $320 million, to the 2019th it will be $1.61 billion. At the same time 21% of medical institutions in Europe plan purchases of AI tools, the data of the European community of electronic health care published in April, 2019 demonstrate. One of main the catalyst of demand for AI products in medicine is deficit of doctors. According to World Health Organization, by 2019 57 countries lack about 2.3 million nurses and doctors. The factor constraining development of this market, experts call absence of qualified specialists who could follow the guidelines in the field of AI. Carry the following companies to number of the solutions AI largest producers of analytics: - GE Healthcare; - Siemens Healthineers; - General Vision; - Amazon Web Services (AWS); - Cyrcadia Health; - Pathway Genomics; - Zebra Medical Vision; - Sophia Genetics; The artificial intelligence increasing success of EKO by 20% is provided At the end of December, 2018 experts from the Cornish university in the USA and Imperial college in London showed results of the research according to which the efficiency of EKO can be increased for 10-20% if to use artificial intelligence for quality evaluation of embryos. Read more here. The beginning of installation in China of 4 thousand boxes with the AI doctors making diagnoses in minutes At the end of November, 2018 the largest online provider of medical services in China of Ping An Healthcare and Technology told that he is going to set several thousands of AI clinics of the size of a public callbox and to extend them through the whole country in three years. The first such points of delivery of health care already earned. Read more here. As the artificial intelligence will develop in medicine in 2019 According to experts, the artificial intelligence will remain an object of interest of both investors, and health workers. AI algorithms still develop, become quicker and more precisely. At the same time only a few pharmaceutical companies integrated solutions on the basis of artificial intelligence technologies in the processes. In most cases, such solutions are used only in pilot projects and did not receive due deployment yet. The health care in 2019 waits for progressive and non-standard views which will show how fully to use all opportunities of AI. Thanks to artificial intelligence "smart" telemedicine services will make qualitative medicine more available for a wide range of people and will help them to prevent development of chronic diseases thanks to timely consultations with the doctor. Analysts are sure that the algorithms connected with collecting, processing and data storage in 2019 will be of great interest and the importance to the health care industry. Thanks to sensors of new generation continuous monitoring vital important indicators of health of patients already became a reality. Modern physical diagnostic examination provides much more parts, than 30 years ago. It includes data from different sources — from family history to concentration of protein in a blood sample. Data from mobile devices create a dense data stream which needs to be processed and saved, and the 2019th should become year when progress in this direction amplifies. Japan builds AI hospitals for solution of the problem of shortage of doctors In August, 2018 it became known that the government of Japan, with assistance of business and scientific community, begins construction in the country of hospitals in which physicians will be come to the rescue by artificial intelligence. Due to AI technologies it is supposed to cope with the shortage of doctors in Japan, to unload personnel and to cut down medical expenses. Read more here. The first recommendations about use of AI in the field of health care are offered On June 18, 2018 the American medical association (AMA) offered the first-ever recommendations for use of artificial intelligence in the field of health care. In the statement which the representative of AMA announced at an annual conference in Chicago the main directions of further development of AI in this industry are specified. According to this statement, AMA she intends to implement practices in the field of artificial intelligence and other priority areas for improvement of results of treatment and for professional satisfaction of doctors. AMA is going to use the significant provision in the industry for involvement of producers, determination of priorities in development of AI and also the problem solving connected with validation and implementation of new techniques. Besides, AMA intends to develop the training plan of specialists and the report of information to patients on restrictions and opportunities which are characteristic of this category of analytical tools. AMA supports integration of carefully thought over, high-quality and clinically approved techniques of use of AI and also requires proper professional and government supervision of their safe, effective and legal use. Analytical technologies on the basis of AI, AMA considers, should be available to check and identification of systematic inaccuracies at all development stages, to conform to the leading standards of reproducibility and also to protect the interests of individuals and confidentiality of personal information. AMA considers that needs of users should be the focus of attention, and use of the AI system should be checked on representative selection within clinical trial. | ||The combination of the AI methods and irreplaceable experience of the clinical physician will undoubtedly improve the result of therapy, - the board member of AMA Jess M. Erenfeld considers (Jesse M. Ehrenfeld). – However we should participate directly in the solution of all problems arising at design, assessment and implementation of these techniques, every year the field of their application becomes wider.|| | AI taught to predict falling of arterial blood pressure during transaction In June, 2018 the results received by group of researchers which developed the prediction algorithm of potential hypotonia or abnormal falling of arterial blood pressure during transaction were published in the Anesthesiology magazine. For creation of an algorithm researchers used machine learning technology – the artificial intelligence analyzed data of 1334 patients during which transaction registration of arterial blood pressure – in total was made 545,959 minutes. On the basis of these data the prediction algorithm of hypotonia was prepared during transaction. Having approved this algorithm, researchers carried out its inspection on the second data set including indicators of arterial blood pressure of 204 patients with a general duration of 33,236 minutes. 1923 episodes of hypotonia entered these records. The algorithm precisely predicted sudden falling of arterial blood pressure in 15 minutes prior to its emergence in 84% of cases, in 10 minutes prior to its emergence - in 84% of cases and in five minutes prior to its emergence - in 87% of cases. Researchers assume that this algorithm can actively be used by anesthesiologists and surgeons for prevention of the complications connected with hypotonia such as postoperative myocardial infarction or sharp renal failure. As Maxime Cannesson, the doctor of medical sciences, the leading researcher, professor of anesthesiology and the former head of the department of perioperatsionny medicine in the Medical center UCLA in Los Angeles noted in the statement, earlier doctors had no opportunity to predict hypotonia during transaction, and certainly, in such conditions anesthesiologists had to act very quickly in response to sudden falling of arterial blood pressure. The possibility of forecasting of episodes of hypotonia during transaction will allow doctors to prevent actively development of these episodes and their complications. AI better than doctors will recognize skin cancer At the end of May, 2018 the research which showed more high efficiency of artificial intelligence in comparison with the person regarding recognition of cancer was published. However in hard-to-reach spots the computer is not so exact. Read more here. Three most prospective applications of AI in medicine Experts of Accenture analyzed the short-term value of medical solutions on the basis of artificial intelligence and selected three directions which have the largest potential in terms of financial profitability in the USA, Venturebeat reported on April 23, 2018. Carrying out surgeries using robots is recognized the most cost-efficient. During similar transactions a series of small cuts, as a rule, becomes and miniature tools are used. In this area several solutions are recognized perspective. So, cognitive surgical robotics allows to reduce duration of hospital treatment thanks to exact use of tools in each separate transaction depending on data of the patient. The complex for execution of operations of Da Vinci allows the surgeon to perform more effectively a number of difficult procedures, managing the robotic tool from the computer console. The miniature HeartLander robot allows to do heart operations through small cuts. Experts considered the second perspective solution use of virtual assistants instead of nurses that allows to keep in contact of patients with medics and at the same time to reduce the number of appeals to hospitals. In Accenture gave the Sensely project developing virtual service of health service through mobile application which in 2016 attracted $8 million for development of the project as an example. Automation of administrative document flow using AI became the third technology. First of all, it the solutions allowing to range urgent tasks and to save time on routine tasks, such as invoicing of recipes and analyses. So, the products Nuance operate with clinical stories of patients and allow suppliers of medical services to save time on a reporting preparation. In the Clevelend clinic, the large private medical center of the State of Ohio, together with IBM the technology of support of medical solutions using the fast analysis of thousands of medical documents is implemented. GE Healthcare Camden Group implemented technology of processing of operational tasks (such as resource management of divisions and accommodation of patients) in the Maryland clinic of John Hopkins which is considered as one of the largest and modern medical centers of the world. All listed solutions allow to reduce the probability of human errors and to increase efficiency of treatment. Service of program and technology complexes, their protection against failures and cyber attacks and also ensuring confidentiality of these patients becomes the main problem. The artificial intelligence was involved in ultrasonography diagnostics of pregnant women The British hospital started a new type of testing of a fruit for pathologies which the doctor is not capable to notice. In the system based on artificial intelligence 350,000 pictures classified by these or those deviations are put. On Engineer refining, ultrasonography diagnostics with artificial intelligence received the name ScanNav and is intended to supply to the doctor with the additional information in real time. As a result of AI allows the specialist not to doubt that all foreshortenings are considered. The last is especially relevant because of the movement of a fruit in mother's womb. So far the technology is approved in the test mode in obstetrics, but in the future development is going to be applied in the different fields of medicine. By the way, are laid already great hopes on AI diagnosticians in Japan having deficiency of doctors, and in China to artificial intelligence granted the medical license at all. The artificial intelligence will be engaged in search of new antibiotics Resistance to antibiotics is one of big problems of modern medicine. Thanks to universal application of antibiotics and nesoblyudeniye of instructions of the doctor of medicine ceased to influence bacteria that causes problems at treatment of both the most ordinary daily diseases, and heavy. One equipment which can cope with resistance to antibiotics is a search of options of the known antibiotics. Unfortunately, it is extremely heavy and labor-intensive process requiring time. At least, for people. When go algorithms into action, the matter of time stops being so significant. Group of the American and Russian researchers created an antibiotic algorithm which, quickly sorting databases, can open in 10 times more of options of antibiotics, than was open for all the time of similar researches in previous years. The algorithm known as VarQuest, is described in article published in the last issue Nature Microbiology. Hossein Makhimani, professor of the university Carnegie-Mellon, says in the press release that VarQuest completed search which would take with methods of traditional calculations hundreds of years. Also Mokhimani specifies that VarQuest managed to provide more than one thousand options of the peptide groups used for production of antibiotics for record-breaking short time, and thus it can give to microbiologists wider perspective, perhaps, even to warn about trends or patterns of the microbiological world which differently would pass completely unnoticed. In health care "tsunami" of AI technologies approaches In the future the artificial intelligence (AI) will play a huge role in health care, is convinced Naveen Jain, the founder of the American startup of Viome specializing in medical technologies. The interview with the philanthropist and the innovator took place on fields of the international technology forum Slush 2017 which took place in Finland from November 30 to December 1, 2017. Read more here. | ||This AI tsunami approaches. Sensors become very cheap, and we can glance in an organism and precisely learn what in it occurs — he told CNBC, having added that the artificial intelligence will allow to analyze such amounts of data which people cannot process.|| | The AI device for remote control of a dream by means of radio waves is created On August 8 it became known that engineers of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) with the assistance of specialists of the Central hospital of the State of Massachusetts developed the AI system capable to control a dream of the person by means of radio waves. According to the TNW edition, the device which by the form reminds normal router Wi-Fi remotely analyzes radio signals around the person and determines dream stages by the movement of eyes — easy, deep or fast. As radio waves are reflected from a body, any small movement of a body changes the frequency of reflected modes. The analysis of these waves helps to reveal the vital parameters of life activity of the person, such as pulse and frequency of breath and to define aberrations. For functioning the device does not require sensors and is adapted for application in house conditions. | ||Imagine that your Wi-Fi-router knows when something dreams you, and can control whether it is enough to you time for a stage of a deep sleep that is necessary for recovery of normal work of memory" — Dina Katabi, professor of MIT heading researches noted.|| | It is supposed that monitoring of a dream in real time under natural conditions will allow to answer many questions connected with its frustration. As envisioned by scientific MIT, their development will turn as a result into the full-fledged tool which will allow attending physicians to trace dream parameters at distance, adjusting it in case of need. The experiment on cloning of pigs in China was made by robots with AI For the first time in the history of mankind the Chinese scientists from Institute of robotics and automated information systems at Nankai University of the city of Tianjin carried out successful cloning of pigs using robots, China People's Daily tells. At the beginning of January, 2017 510 cloned embryos were placed in six substitute sows. As a result of an experiment two sows at the end of April, for the 110th day of pregnancy gave birth to 13 healthy artificially brought pigs. When carrying out an experiment on cloning of pigs scientists for the first time used special robotic micromanipulators analyzers which executed all operations on collecting and transfer of DNA from donor animals to substitute carriers. Universal micromanipulators under control of artificial intelligence for transactions with DNA integrate in themselves functions of sampling of tests, testing and operating. In the course of the cloning of pigs which is carried out in cooperation with Institute of livestock production and a veterinary research (Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Research Institute) the so-called technology of nuclear transfer of somatic cages (Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer, SCNT) which is usually used for selection was involved — when the core of a somatic cage is transferred to an ovum without core. Advantage of this technique is the guarantee of high-quality insemination of an ovum, and a shortcoming — the low level of a successful completion of experiments because of big percent of defects in the course of cloning. The main problem of process of cloning with nuclear transfer is in avoiding destruction of sensitive cages. Researchers made the preliminary analysis of the power necessary for the tool for safe work with cages during removal of cores, and then adjusted it at minimum possible level. Thanks to it extent of deformation of cages decreased from 30-40 mm to 10-15 mm that improved the subsequent development of a cage and increased chances of success. It is supposed, the data on interrelation obtained as a result of a research microtransaction over cages and further development of cages will be able to help other scientists to make the following discoveries in this area. Artificial intelligence taught to predict a heart attack better than doctors In April, 2017 scientists from the University of Nottingham provided the artificial intelligence technology capable to predict approach of heart attack. Developers claim that forecasting accuracy is higher, than at doctors. During the research compared efficiency of recommendations of physicians to work of four programs written using algorithms of machine learning. Scientists pursued the aim to find patterns in records more than 378 thousand patients. In the computer 22 criteria, including age, nationality, presence of arthritis and diseases of kidneys, cholesterol level in blood were put. The conclusions drawn by artificial intelligence about risks of development of a heart attack verified with data for 2015, and they were more exact, than the predictions of doctors based on the recommendations of the American college of cardiology (American College of Cardiology, ACC) and the American association of heart (American Heart Association, AHA): from 74.5% to 76.4% of accuracy against 72.8%. By approximate calculations of authors of the project, the computer could save 355 lives more, than a technique of ACC and AHA. Scientists intend to increase efficiency of an intelligent system, having added to it accounting of such risk factors as a way of life and genetic data. It is interesting that algorithms did not consider influence of diabetes which was always considered as risk factor in the ACC and AHA system. According to the epidemiologist of the University of Nottingham Stephen Weng, the biological systems have a set of interrelations which part is unknown to doctors: for example, the increased fat content in an organism under certain conditions can protect from sharp deviations in work of heart. Similar interactions are unevident, it is difficult to notice and explain them, but the computer program is capable to trace communication, having analyzed huge amounts of data, he considers. 1970'e: Creation of the MYCIN system for diagnosing of bacteria The Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the medical sphere began to be applied still in the seventies the last century when scientists of Stanford University on the basis of expert system of DENDRAL which is used in the field of organic chemistry created the MYCIN system for diagnosing of the bacteria which are catalysts of development of heavy infections — meningitis and bacteremia. Besides, the MYCIN system allowed to prepare individual recommendations about a dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the body weight of the patient. MYCIN is considered to be an example of the first use of artificial intelligence in medicine. You See Also - Telemedicine (Russian market) - Telemedicine (world market) - Remote monitoring of health of patients - Robots (robotics) - Robotics (world market) - In the industry, medicine, fighting - Service robots - Collaborative robot, cobot (Collaborative robot, kobot) - IoT - IIoT - Artificial intelligence (AI, Artificial intelligence, AI) - Artificial intelligence (market of Russia) - In banks, medicine, radiology - National Association of Participants of the Market of Robotics (NAPMR) - Russian association of artificial intelligence - National center of development of technologies and basic elements of robotics - The international Center for robotics (IRC) based on NITU MISIS - ↑ Facial-recognition software is now so advanced that it can identify you only from an MRI scan of your brain, new study reveals - ↑ AI predicts precursors to heart attacks - ↑ Global Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Healthcare Market Will Reach USD 17.8 Billion By 2025: Zion Market Research - ↑ Tech consultancy predicts telemedicine and AI-based healthcare growth in 2019 - ↑ AMA offers recommendations on AI in healthcare - ↑ AI algorithm predicts low blood pressure during surgery - ↑ Experts defined three most prospective applications of AI in medicine - ↑ [https://iot.ru/meditsina/iskusstvennyy-intellekt-privlekli-k-uzi-diagnostike-beremennykh Artificial intelligence - ↑ involved in ultrasonography diagnostics of pregnant women] - ↑ of Search of new antibiotics the artificial intelligence will be engaged - ↑ Computational method speeds hunt for new antibiotics - ↑ Researchers created an AI system which can control a dream of the person - ↑ The artificial intelligence learned to clone the higher organisms - ↑ Can machine-learning improve cardiovascular risk prediction using routine clinical data?

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In conclusion: It is still unclear whether use of cellular technology is associated with an increased risk to develop malignant and benign tumors, but taking into account the results of recent studies, the Ministry of Health adopts the precautionary principle and follows the recommendations listed in the “Ministry of Health Recommendations” (below). The studies are notable for their sizes. Researchers at the National Toxicology Program, a federal interagency group under the National Institutes of Health, tested 3,000 rats and mice of both sexes for two years—the largest investigation of RF radiation and cancer in rodents ever undertaken in the U.S. European investigators at the Ramazzini Institute in Italy were similarly ambitious; in their recent study they investigated RF effects in nearly 2,500 rats from the fetal stage until death. The Stewart report recommended that children should only use mobile phones in emergencies. The recommendation was based on the theory that children could be more at risk from the radiowaves emitted by mobile phones. This is because their brains are still developing and their skulls are thinner, making it easier for the radiowaves to penetrate them. Also if they start using mobiles at a young age, their cumulative lifetime use will be higher than adults. According to the Advisory Group on Non-Ionising Radiation, “little has been published specifically on childhood exposures” since 2000. As a result, children are still advised only to use mobile phones in emergencies. However, surveys suggest that many children are ignoring the advice. A survey of 1,000 British children, carried out in 2001, found 90% of under-16s own a mobile and one in 10 spends more than 45 minutes a day using it. RF waves from cell phones have also been shown to produce “stress” proteins in human cells, according to research from Martin Blank, Ph.D., a special lecturer in the department of physiology and cellular biophysics at Columbia University and another signer of the recent letter to the WHO and U.N. “These proteins are used for protection,” Blank says. “The cell is saying that RF is bad for me and it has to do something about it.” So you are careful about NOT putting your radiation emitting mobile near your head. That’s good. But think about this: what body parts get the radiation when you put the thing on your pocket, bra, hat, purse, holster or elsewhere on your body? Now your vital and sometimes private organs are basically in contact with the source of the microwaves, getting the largest dose possible. Pocket Sticker is a high performance shielding patch that you stick onto your clothing which reflects that radiation away from your body. This 2017 systematic review and meta-analysis, published in PLOS One, looked at mobile phone use in case-control studies and the risk of glioma. “Our results suggest that long-term mobile phone use may be associated with an increased risk of glioma,” they wrote. The researchers found an association between mobile phone use and low-grade glioma in the people who used cellphones regularly or for 10 years or more. “However, current evidence is of poor quality and limited quantity,” they added, and called for prospective studies to confirm the results. The ultra thin (1mm) RadiCushion by Cellsafe slips into the cell phone case and redirects radiation away from the face of the phone. It's available in black or white but not recommended for use with aluminum or metallic cell phone cases. Test results show a SAR reduction of 96%. A slightly thicker (2mm) RadiCushion is available for iPad and iPad mini; it adheres to the back of the device and also provides SAR reductions of 96%. Visit their website for more information or watch this independent test which shows an 80% reduction and also compares it to the BlocSock: They determined there is “clear evidence” that male rats exposed to high levels of radio frequency radiation — typical of 2G and 3G networks when the study was designed — developed heart schwannomas. There was also “some evidence” of brain and adrenal gland tumors, again in the male rats, but the exposed female rats, and male and female mice, did not have consistent patterns of disease. As a rule, modern medical equipment is well protected against exposure to radiowave radiation. Therefore, there is generally no need for concern regarding the effects of mobile phones on the normal function of the equipment. Nevertheless, the Ministry of Health recommends not to have a mobile phone in the immediate proximity (a distance of 30-50 cm from the portable medical equipment or from medical equipment implanted in the patient's body). The authors found a consistent effect, in both types of studies, that cellphone radiation leads to decreased sperm motility (ability to swim) and viability, but not a decrease in overall concentration. While it’s unclear if these specific changes are enough to affect men’s fertility, the authors wrote, “mobile phone exposure may form part of a cumulative effect of modern day environmental exposures, that collectively reduce sperm quality and explain current trends in infertility.” I love these radiation protection cases. It's a great size for my iphone, and I can even talk on the phone with the phone inside the pouch - perfect sound quality. The only thing I would recommend is that a snap be added to the opening -- it is slippery material. You can tell the company took care in producing a quality product -- it is constructed very well. I recommend this product to cell phone users! Oh, I also got this so quickly!! It arrived within 2-3 days of ordering, and it comes from the UK!! Amazing service!! Experts consulted by France considered it was mandatory that the main antenna axis should not to be directly in front of a living place at a distance shorter than 100 metres. This recommendation was modified in 2003 to say that antennas located within a 100-metre radius of primary schools or childcare facilities should be better integrated into the cityscape and was not included in a 2005 expert report. The Agence française de sécurité sanitaire environnementale (fr) as of 2009, says that there is no demonstrated short-term effect of electromagnetic fields on health, but that there are open questions for long-term effects, and that it is easy to reduce exposure via technological improvements. The researchers found other strange effects that muddied the interpretation of the studies: The rats exposed to cellphones seemed to outlive the rats in the control group, for example. There was no clear linear relationship between higher levels of cellphone exposure and more cancer at some tissue sites, and the cancer rate in the control group was lower than it should have been at other tissue sites. One of the studies reports that male rats exposed to very high levels of radiofrequency radiation grew tumors around their hearts. Female rats exposed to the radiation didn’t, and neither male nor female mice showed obvious health problems in a second study. Neither study turned up clear evidence that radiofrequency radiation causes brain tumors, although the researchers are continuing to investigate. The studies are drafts that haven’t yet been reviewed by outside scientists. Studies in people: Another type of study looks at cancer rates in different groups of people. Such a study might compare the cancer rate in a group exposed to something like cell phone use to the rate in a group not exposed to it, or compare it to what the expected cancer rate would be in the general population. But sometimes it can be hard to know what the results of these studies mean, because many other factors that might affect the results are hard to account for. Radiation is all around us. Power lines, appliances, and electronic devices all emit electromagnetic frequencies. One source that many of us keep close, perhaps too close, are cell phones, tablets, and other mobile devices. They all use radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic energy, a form of non-ionizing radiation, to communicate. Research has shown that this type of radiation is not benign or harmless to the human body, especially children. Exposure to cell phone and Wifi radiation has been linked to fatigue, dizziness, mental fog, and even worse. As a result, the demand for products that reduce exposure to device radiation is on the rise. In fact, "How can I protect myself from cell phone radiation? What do you recommend?" is a question we get all the time. So, to help, I wanted to offer my thoughts on five products I've found that I believe are worth a look if you're interested in reducing your exposure to cell phone and mobile device radiation. There’s a broad range of radiation types, and lots of harmless things emit radiation — like bananas, Brazil nuts, and granite countertops, according to Cincinnati Children’s Hospital. The type of radiation that comes out of our cellphones isn’t the same radiation that’s released by nuclear fallout or X-rays. Cellphone radiation, also known as radiofrequency radiation, is much weaker — so it can’t cause the same kind of cell damage that can lead to cancer. The Working Group indicated that, although the human studies were susceptible to bias, the findings could not be dismissed as reflecting bias alone, and that a causal interpretation could not be excluded. The Working Group noted that any interpretation of the evidence should also consider that the observed associations could reflect chance, bias, or confounding rather than an underlying causal effect. In addition, the Working Group stated that the investigation of risk of cancer of the brain associated with cell phone use poses complex methodologic challenges in the conduct of the research and in the analysis and interpretation of findings. Using a speaker/personal speakerphone or earplug (not wireless) during conversation - distancing the mobile phone from the user’s body reduces his exposure to the radiowave radiation. Therefore, keep the mobile phone at a distance from the body (do not carry it on the body, such as in the belt, pocket or on a neck strap). Obviously, reducing the amount and duration of calls on the mobile phone is another simple measure to reduce exposure. Well, Loyd really does seems like a guy with great intentions! However, he has put too much faith in Pong’s SAR testing, and SAR guidelines in general — to the point he no-longer believes his own eye’s when nothing is observed on his trusty RF meter. Which proves (Using an RF Meter) there is absolutely no real reduction in actual radiation coming from the front of the phone when a pong cell phone case is used. Forced to take action, the cell phone industry set up a non-profit organization, Wireless Technology Research (WTR), to perform the study. Dr. Carlo developed the program outline and was asked to head the research. Oversight of the issue was charged to the FDA, though it could have and probably should have gone to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which fought hard for jurisdiction. But the industry had enough influence in Washington to get whatever overseer it wanted. It simply didn’t want to tangle with EPA because, says Dr. Carlo, “… the EPA is tough.” To check for radiowave emissions, use an RF meter with Near Field antenna. Again, position the antenna loop on the phone (because the entire antenna stem has some sensitivity, it is best to position the entire antenna over the area that will be shielded). Note carefully where the loop is positioned. Make a call and watch the readings. Notice the highest and lowest readings, and make a mental note of the "average" reading. Now, insert the shield, and repeat. This 2017 review, published in Neurological Sciences, looked at case-control studies on cellphone use, focusing on glioma, meningioma, and acoustic neuromas. This review was interesting because the researchers divided the studies by quality, and higher-quality studies — which tended to be funded by the government and not the cellphone industry — showed a trend toward an increased risk of brain tumors, while lower-quality studies did not. Overall, though, their meta-analysis found an increased risk of brain cancers (mostly gliomas) among people who were using cellphones for 10 or more years, and no increase in the risk of acoustic neuroma. The science is still out on whether the long-term use of cell phones—which emit electromagnetic radiation when they send and receive signals from towers or WiFi devices—can affect human health. But for people who want to reduce their exposure to this type of energy, the California Department of Public Health has published new guidelines on how to do just that. It isn’t just cell phones. When you get the phantom twitch, it is not from a nervous system reaction to the phone vibrator as many suggest. Why do I say that? One, I rarely experience phone vibration, yet I get the phantom twitch. Two, as I have to use a rental car for work and they always give you two electronic keys (they do NOT vibrate), that is in my pocket with my own car key, bringing the total of non-vibrating keys to three. They do not vibrate, but I still get the phantom twitch. Specifically, we looked for studies that measured rates of acoustic neuromas, gliomas, meningiomas, and thyroid cancers. We also narrowed our search to studies that looked at the effect of radio-frequency radiation originating from an actual cellphone, rather than experimental equipment. We did this because we wanted evidence that could apply to real life, not specific laboratory settings or hypothetical outcomes. When you talk, your voice is transmitted from the antenna as radio frequency radiation (RFR) between 800 MHz and 2,200 MHz. A range equal to the middle of microwave frequency and 20% to 80% of the radiation emitted is deposited in the user's head. The microwave radiation is absorbed and penetrates the area around the head, some reaching an inch, to an inch and a half into the brain. Exposure to this microwave RFR has shown to have serious health consequences. Laboratory studies have shown that radiation from cell phones expose the user to a wide range of health problems including: "On the same [IARC] scale that said phone use was possibly carcinogenic, smoking is at the highest level. They are class 1 carcinogens; that's beyond doubt, they definitely do cause cancer ... There's an absolute difference between substances, where the evidence says that there is no doubt about the fact that they cause cancer, compared to mobile phones, where they say it is still possible because the data over ten years use still isn't in." The program began, but Dr. Carlo soon discovered that everyone involved had underlying motives.“The industry wanted an insurance policy and to have the government come out and say everything was fine. The FDA, which looked bad because it didn’t require pre-market testing, could be seen as taking steps to remedy that. By ordering the study, law makers appeared to be doing something. Everyone had a chance to wear a white hat.” The three most common brain tumor types — and the ones most cellphone and human health studies focused on — are gliomas (malignant tumors of the brain and spinal cord), meningiomas (mostly noncancerous tumors of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord, though a small percentage are cancerous), and acoustic neuromas (noncancerous tumors on the main nerve that leads from the inner ear to the brain). Note that of these, gliomas are the main concern — they generally have more severe outcomes than meningiomas and acoustic neuromas. Cell phone radiation emissions present the greatest potential health risks when directly touching the body, especially the head, breasts and reproductive organs. This is referred to as zero distance to the body. Moving your cell phone away from your body just a few inches reduces the health risks. As a rule of thumb, when a cell phone is moved at least one foot away from the head or body, cell phone radiation is reduced by as much as 80%. Searching PubMed for studies published in the past 10 years, we found 102 studies that ultimately resulted in 12 relevant systematic reviews. To limit bias in our assessment of the literature, we used a validated critical appraisal tool called AMSTAR to determine the quality of each review. Eight of the reviews were critically low quality, two were low quality, and two were moderate quality. This is why it’s important to always use either your phone’s speakerphone or an appropriate wired earpiece whenever possible, avoiding direct contact between your phone and your ear or hand. The best earpieces are those equipped with hollow tubing between the antenna in the wire and the earpiece, as these help maximize the distance between the radiation-emitting antenna and your head. One of the most robust animal studies in the world comes from the US government. In 1999, during the Clinton administration, the Food and Drug Administration asked the National Toxicology Program (NTP) to study the toxicity and cancer-causing capability of cellphone radio-frequency radiation. At the time, health officials felt epidemiological studies in humans wouldn’t answer these questions, so the NTP embarked on studies in rats and mice. Could you please provide me with evidence that non-ionizing radiation is damaging to humans? In another post illustrating the threats of non-ionizing radiation you have said that this radiation is damaging to children, and link an article by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. However, this linked page contains no mention of non-ionizing radiation, and instead suggests that children are simply addicted to use of mobile phones, thus using them instead of sleeping. You also provided a link to a PubChem page on the negative effects of this radiation, but this page appears to no longer exist. Cell-phone designs have changed a lot since the studies described above were completed. For example, the antennas—where most of the radiation from cell phones is emitted—are no longer located outside of phones near the top, closest to your brain when you talk, but are inside the phone, and they can be toward the bottom. As a result, the antenna may not be held against your head when you’re on the phone. That’s important because when it comes to cell-phone radiation, every millimeter counts: The strength of exposure drops dramatically as the distance from your body increases. Since 2001, the FCC has allowed manufacturers to test phones at a distance of up to one inch from the body to account for the use of a holster. In a 2012 report, however, the Government Accountability Office, the Congressional watchdog agency, noted that many cell phone owners actually keep and use their phones right next to the body, so these outdated testing policies could result in radiofrequency (RF) radiation exposure greater than the FCC’s legal limit (GAO 2012). The GAO report concluded: As Jonathan Samet — the dean of the Colorado School of Public Health, who advised the World Health Organization on cellphone radiation and cancer — told me, you can argue anything based on the science we currently have “because there’s not enough evidence to start with.” Actually, there’s not enough high-quality evidence. Before we get into why, and what we know, we need a quick primer on cellphone radiation. From the FCC website: "The FCC ID number is usually shown somewhere on the case of the phone or device. In many cases, you will have to remove the battery pack to find the number. Once you have the number proceed as follows. Go to the following Web address: www.fcc.gov/oet/ea/fccid. Once you are there... Enter the FCC ID number (in two parts as indicated: 'Grantee Code' is comprised of the first three characters, the 'Equipment Product Code' is the remainder of the FCC ID). Then click on 'Start Search.' The grant of equipment authorization for this particular ID number should appear. The highest SAR values reported in the equipment certification test data are usually included in the comments section of the grant of equipment certification." Dr. Carlo, wrote a Medical Alert ten years ago. He cautioned people with EMF sensitivity against relying upon widely-available EMR Protection Products to prevent the effects of EMF exposure. He noted that EMF sensitive individuals were reporting the opposite effect: people found their symptoms and/or sensitivity worsened. Specifically, severe “symptom relapses.” Dr. Carlo noted: Taken together, the findings “confirm that RF radiation exposure has biological effects” in rats, some of them “relevant to carcinogenesis,” says Jon Samet, a professor of preventive medicine and dean of the Colorado School of Public Health, who did not participate in either study. Samet, however, cautioned the jury is still out as to whether wireless technology is similarly risky to people. Indeed, heart schwannomas are exceedingly rare in humans; only a handful of cases have ever been documented in the medical literature.

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What will production look like in 20 years time? Will familiar jobs in both manufacturing and the services be taken over by robots? And if so, which ones? What will be the effect on wages and on unemployment? Will most people be better off, or will just a few gain while others get by with minimum-wage jobs or no jobs at all? The BBC has been running a series looking at new uses for robots and whether they will take people’s jobs? This complements three reports: one by Boston Consulting one by Deloitte and an earlier one by Deloitte and Michael Osborne and Carl Frey from Oxford University’s Martin School. As Jane Wakefield, the BBC’s technology reporter states: Boston Consulting Group predicts that by 2025, up to a quarter of jobs will be replaced by either smart software or robots, while a study from Oxford University has suggested that 35% of existing UK jobs are at risk of automation in the next 20 years. Jobs at threat from machines include factory work, office work, work in the leisure sector, work in medicine, law, education and other professions, train drivers and even taxi and lorry drivers. At present, in many of these jobs machines work alongside humans. For example, robots on production lines are common, and robots help doctors perform surgery and provide other back-up services in medicine. A robot may not yet have a good bedside manner but it is pretty good at wading through huge reams of data to find possible treatments for diseases. Even if robots don’t take over all jobs in these fields, they are likely to replace an increasing proportion of many of these jobs, leaving humans to concentrate on the areas that require judgement, creativity, human empathy and finesse. These developments raise a number of questions. If robots have a higher marginal revenue product/marginal cost ratio than humans, will employers choose to replace humans by robots, wholly or in part? How are investment costs factored into the decision? And what about industrial relations? Will employers risk disputes with employees? Will they simply be concerned with maximising profit or will they take wider social concerns into account? Then there is the question of what new jobs would be created for those who lose their jobs to machines. According to the earlier Deloitte study, which focused on London, over 80% of companies in London say that over the next 10 years they will be most likely to take on people with skills in ‘digital know-how’, ‘management’ and ‘creativity’. But even if new jobs are created through the extra spending power generated by the extra production – and this has been the pattern since the start of the industrial revolution some 250 years ago – will these new jobs be open largely to those with high levels of transferable skills? Will the result be an ever widening of the income gap between rich and poor? Or will there be plenty of new jobs throughout the economy in a wide variety of areas where humans are valued for the special qualities they bring? As the authors of the later Deloitte paper state: The dominant trend is of contracting employment in agriculture and manufacturing being more than offset by rapid growth in the caring, creative, technology and business services sectors. The issues of job replacement and job creation, and of the effects on income distribution and the balance between work and leisure, are considered in the following videos and articles, and in the three reports. What is artificial intelligence? BBC News, Valery Eremenko (13/9/15) What jobs will robots take over? BBC News, David Botti (15/8/14) Could a robot do your job? BBC News, Rory Cellan-Jones (14/9/15) Intelligent machines: The robots that work alongside humans BBC News, Rory Cellan-Jones (14/9/15) Intelligent machines: Will you be replaced by a robot? BBC News, John Maguire (14/9/15) Will our emotions change the way adverts work? BBC News, Dan Simmons (24/7/15) Could A Robot Do My Job? BBC Panorama, Rohan Silva (14/9/15) Technology has created more jobs in the last 144 years than it has destroyed, Deloitte study finds Independent, Doug Bolton (18/8/15) Technology has created more jobs than it has destroyed, says 140 years of data The Guardian, Katie Allen (18/8/15) Will a robot take your job? BBC News (11/9/15) Intelligent Machines: The jobs robots will steal first BBC News, Jane Wakefield (14/9/15) Robots Could Take 35 Per Cent Of UK Jobs In The Next 20 Years Says New Study Huffington Post, Thomas Tamblyn (14/9/15) The new white-collar fear: will robots take your job? The Telegraph, Rohan Silva (12/9/15) Does technology destroy jobs? Data from 140 years says no Catch news, Sourjya Bhowmick (11/9/15) Takeoff in Robotics Will Power the Next Productivity Surge in Manufacturing Boston Consulting Group (10/2/15) Agiletown: the relentless march of technology and London’s response Deloitte (November 2014) Technology and people: The great job-creating machine Deloitte, Ian Stewart, Debapratim De and Alex Cole (August 2015) - Which are the fastest growing and fastest declining occupations? To what extent can these changes be explained by changes in technology? - What type of unemployment is caused by rapid technological change? - Why, if automation replaces jobs, have jobs increased over the past 250 years? - In what occupations is artificial intelligence (AI) most likely to replace humans? - To what extent are robots and humans complementary rather than substitute inputs into production? - “Our analysis of more recent employment data also reveals a clear pattern to the way in which technology has affected work.” What is this pattern? Explain. - Why might AI make work more interesting for workers? - Using a diagram, show how an increase in workers’ marginal productivity from working alongside robots can result in an increase in employment. Is this necessarily the case? Explain. The World Economic Forum has been holding its annual meeting in the up-market Swiss ski resort of Davos. Many of the world’s richest and most powerful people attend these meetings, including political leaders, business leaders and representatives of various interest groups. This year, one of the major topics has been the growth in inequality across the globe and how to reverse it. According to a report by Oxfam, Wealth: Having it all and wanting more: The richest 1 per cent have seen their share of global wealth increase from 44 per cent in 2009 to 48 per cent in 2014 and at this rate will be more than 50 per cent in 2016. Members of this global elite had an average wealth of $2.7m per adult in 2014. Of the remaining 52 per cent of global wealth, almost all (46 per cent) is owned by the rest of the richest fifth of the world’s population. The other 80 per cent share just 5.5 per cent and had an average wealth of $3851 per adult – that’s 1/700th of the average wealth of the 1 per cent. Currently, the richest 85 people in the world have the same amount of wealth as the poorest 50% of the world’s population. It might seem odd that those with the wealth are talking about the problem of inequality. Indeed, some of those 85 richest people were at the conference: a conference that boasts extremely luxurious conditions. What is more, many delegates flew into the conference in private jets (at least 850 jets) to discuss not just poverty but also climate change! Yet if the problem of global inequality is to be tackled, much of the power to do so lies in the hands of these rich and powerful people. They are largely the ones who will have to implement policies that will help to raise living standards of the poor. But why should they want to? Part of the reason is a genuine concern to address the issues of increasingly divided societies. But part is the growing evidence that greater inequality reduces economic growth by reducing the development of skills of the lower income groups and reducing social mobility. We discussed this topic in the blog, Inequality and economic growth. So what policies could be adopted to tackle the problem. Oxfam identifies a seven-point plan: ||Clamp down on tax dodging by corporations and rich individuals; ||Invest in universal, free public services such as health and education; ||Share the tax burden fairly, shifting taxation from labour and consumption towards capital and wealth; ||Introduce minimum wages and move towards a living wage for all workers; ||Ensure adequate safety-nets for the poorest, including a minimum income guarantee; ||Introduce equal pay legislation and promote economic policies to give women a fair deal; ||Agree a global goal to tackle inequality. But how realistic are these policies? Is it really in the interests of governments to reduce inequality? Indeed, some of the policies that have been adopted since 2008, such as bailing out the banks and quantitative easing, have had the effect of worsening inequality. QE drives up asset prices, particularly bond, share and property prices. This has provided a windfall to the rich: the more of such assets you own, the greater the absolute gain. The following videos and articles look at the problem of growing inequality and how realistic it is to expect leaders to do anything significant about it. Videos and podcasts Income inequality is ‘brake on growth’, Oxfam chief warns Davos France 24, Winnie Byanyima (22/1/15) Davos dilemma: Can the 1% cure income inequality? Yahoo Finance, Lizzie O’Leary and Shawna Ohm (21/1/15) Richest 1% ‘Will Own Half The World’s Wealth By 2016’ ITN on YouTube, Sarah Kerr (19/1/15) The Price of Inequality BBC Radio 4, Robert Peston (3/2/15 and 10/2/15) Richest 1% will own more than all the rest by 2016 Oxfam blogs, Jon Slater (19/1/15) Global tax system can cut inequality The Scotsman, Jamie Livingstone (23/1/15) A new framework for a new age Financial Times, Tony Elumelu (23/1/15) The global elite in Davos must give the world a pay rise New Statesman, Frances O’Grady (22/1/15) New Oxfam report says half of global wealth held by the 1% The Guardian, Larry Elliott and Ed Pilkington (19/1/15) Davos is starting to get it – inequality is the root cause of stagnation The Guardian, Larry Elliott (25/1/15) Inequality isn’t inevitable, it’s engineered. That’s how the 1% have taken over The Guardian, Suzanne Moore (19/1/15) Why extreme inequality hurts the rich BBC News, Robert Peston (19/1/15) Eurozone stimulus ‘reinforces inequality’, warns Soros BBC News, Joe Miller (22/1/15) Hot topic for the 1 percent at Davos: Inequality CNBC, Lawrence Delevingne (21/1/15) Global inequality: The wrong yardstick The Economist (24/1/15) A Richer World (a compendium of articles) BBC News (27/1/15) OECD Income Distribution Database: Gini, poverty, income, Methods and Concepts OECD The effects of taxes and benefits on household income ONS - Why has inequality increased in most countries in recent years? - For what reasons might it be difficult to measure the distribution of wealth? - Which gives a better indication of differences in living standards: the distribution of wealth or the distribution of income? - Discuss the benefits and costs of using the tax system to redistribute (a) income and (b) wealth from rich to poor - Go through each of the seven policies advocated by Oxfam and consider how practical they are and what possible objections to them might be raised by political leaders. - Why is tax avoidance/tax evasion by multinational companies difficult to tackle? - Does universal access to education provide the key to reducing income inequality within and between countries? What is the relationship between the degree of inequality in a country and the rate of economic growth? The traditional answer is that there is a trade off between the two. Increasing the rewards to those who are more productive or who invest encourages a growth in productivity and capital investment, which, in turn, leads to faster economic growth. Redistribution from the rich to the poor, by contrast, is argued to reduce incentives by reducing the rewards from harder work, education, training and investment. Risk taking, it is claimed, is discouraged. Recent evidence from the OECD and the IMF, however, suggests that when income inequality rises, economic growth falls. Inequality has grown massively in many countries, with average incomes at the top of the distribution seeing particular gains, while many at the bottom have experienced actual declines in real incomes or, at best, little or no growth. This growth in inequality can be seen in a rise in countries’ Gini coefficients. The OECD average Gini coefficient rose from 0.29 in the mid-1980s to 0.32 in 2011/12. This, claims the OECD, has led to a loss in economic growth of around 0.35 percentage points per year. But why should a rise in inequality lead to lower economic growth? According to the OECD, the main reason is that inequality reduces the development of skills of the lower income groups and reduces social mobility. By hindering human capital accumulation, income inequality undermines education opportunities for disadvantaged individuals, lowering social mobility and hampering skills development. The lower educational attainment applies both to the length and quality of education: people from poorer backgrounds on average leave school or college earlier and with lower qualifications. But if greater inequality generally results in lower economic growth, will a redistribution from rich to poor necessarily result in faster economic growth? According to the OECD: Anti-poverty programmes will not be enough. Not only cash transfers but also increasing access to public services, such as high-quality education, training and healthcare, constitute long-term social investment to create greater equality of opportunities in the long run. Thus redistribution policies need to be well designed and implemented and focus on raising incomes of the poor through increased opportunities to increase their productivity. Simple transfers from rich to poor via the tax and benefits system may, in fact, undermine economic growth. According to the IMF: That equality seems to drive higher and more sustainable growth does not in itself support efforts to redistribute. In particular, inequality may impede growth at least in part because it calls forth efforts to redistribute that themselves undercut growth. In such a situation, even if inequality is bad for growth, taxes and transfers may be precisely the wrong remedy. Inequality ‘significantly’ curbs economic growth – OECD BBC News (9/12/14) Is inequality the enemy of growth? BBC News, Robert Peston (6/10/14) Income inequality damages growth, OECD warns Financial Times, Chris Giles (8/10/14) OECD finds increasing inequality lowers growth Deutsche Welle, Jasper Sky (10/12/14) Revealed: how the wealth gap holds back economic growth The Guardian, Larry Elliott (9/12/14) Inequality Seriously Damages Growth, IMF Seminar Hears IMF Survey Magazine (12/4/14) Warning! Inequality May Be Hazardous to Your Growth iMFdirect, Andrew G. Berg and Jonathan D. Ostry (8/4/11) Economic growth more likely when wealth distributed to poor instead of rich The Guardian, Stephen Koukoulas (4/6/15) So much for trickle down: only bold reforms will tackle inequality The Guardian, Larry Elliott (21/6/15) Record inequality between rich and poor OECD on YouTube (5/12/11) The Price of Inequality The News School on YouTube, Joseph Stiglitz (5/10/12) Reports and papers FOCUS on Inequality and Growth OECD, Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs (December 2014) Trends in Income Inequality and its Impact on Economic Growth OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, Federico Cingano (9/12/14) An Overview of Growing Income Inequalities in OECD Countries: Main Findings OCED (2011) Redistribution, Inequality, and Growth IMF Staff Discussion Note, Jonathan D. Ostry, Andrew Berg, and Charalambos G. Tsangarides (February 2014) Measure to Measure Finance and Development, IMF, Jonathan D. Ostry and Andrew G. Berg (Vol. 51, No. 3, September 2014) OECD Income Distribution Database: Gini, poverty, income, Methods and Concepts OECD The effects of taxes and benefits on household income ONS - Explain what are meant by a Lorenz curve and a Gini coefficient? What is the relationship between the two? - The Gini coefficient is one way of measuring inequality. What other methods are there? How suitable are they? - Assume that the government raises taxes to finance higher benefits to the poor. Identify the income and substitution effects of the tax increases and whether the effects are to encourage or discourage work (or investment). - Distinguish between (a) progressive, (b) regressive and (c) proportional taxes? - How will the balance of income and substitution effects vary in each of the following cases: (a) a cut in the tax-free allowance; (b) a rise in the basic rate of income tax; (c) a rise in the top rate of income tax? How does the relative size of the two effects depend, in each case, on a person’s current income? - Identify policy measures that would increase both equality and economic growth. - Would a shift from direct to indirect taxes tend to increase or decrease inequality? Explain. - By examining Tables 3, 26 and 27 in The Effects of Taxes and Benefits on Household Income, 2012/13, (a) explain the difference between original income, gross income, disposable income and post-tax income; (b) explain the differences between the Gini coefficients for each of these four categories of income in the UK. In his 1971 book, Income Distribution, Jan Pen, a Dutch economist, gave a graphic illustration of inequality in the UK. He described a parade of people marching by. They represent the whole population and the parade takes exactly one hour to pass by. The height of each person represents his or her income. People of average height are the people with average incomes – the observer is of average height. The parade starts with the people on the lowest incomes (the dwarfs), and finishes with those on the highest incomes (the giants). Because income distribution is unequal, there are many tiny people. Indeed, for the first few minutes of the parade, the marchers are so small they can barely be seen. Even after half an hour, when people on median income pass by, they are barely waist high to the observer. The height is growing with tantalising slowness, and forty-five minutes have gone by before we see people of our own size arriving. To be somewhat more exact: about twelve minutes before the end the average income recipients pass by. In the final minutes, giants march past and then in the final seconds: the scene is dominated by colossal figures: people like tower flats. Most of them prove to be businessmen, managers of large firms and holders of many directorships and also film stars and a few members of the Royal Family. The rear of the parade is brought up by a few participants who are measured in miles. Indeed they are figures whose height we cannot even estimate: their heads disappear into the clouds and probably they themselves do not even know how tall they are. Pen’s description could be applied to most countries – some with even more dwarfs and even fewer but taller giants. Generally, over the 43 years since the book was published, countries have become less equal: the giants have become taller and the dwarfs have become smaller. The 2011 Economist article, linked below, uses changes in Gini coefficients to illustrate the rise in income inequality. A Gini coefficient shows the area between the Lorenz curve and the 45° line. The figure will be between 0 and 1 (or 0% and 100%). a figure of 0 shows total equality; a figure of 1 shows a situation of total inequality, where one person earns all the nation’s income. The higher the figure, the greater the inequality. The chart opposite shows changes in the Gini coefficient in the UK (see Table 27 in the ONS link below for an Excel file of the chart). As this chart and the blog post Rich and poor in the UK show, inequality rose rapidly during the years of the 1979–91 Thatcher government, and especially in the years 1982–90. This was associated with cuts in the top rate of income tax and business deregulation. It fell in the recession of the early 1990s as the rich were affected more than the poor, but rose with the recovery of the mid- to late 1990s. It fell again in the early 2000s as tax credits helped the poor. It fell again following the financial crisis as, once more, the rich were affected proportionately more than the poor. The most up-to-date international data for OECD countries can be found on the OECD’s StatExtracts site (see chart opposite: click here for a PowerPoint). The most unequal developed county is the USA, with a Gini coefficient of 0.389 in 2012 (see The end of the American dream?), and US inequality is rising. Today, the top 1% of the US population earns some 24% of national income. This compares with just 9% of national income in 1976. Many developing countries are even less equal. Turkey has a Gini coefficient of 0.412 and Mexico of 0.482. The figure for South Africa is over 0.6. When it comes to wealth, distribution is even less equal. The infographic, linked below, illustrates the position today in the USA. It divides the country into 100 equal-sized groups and shows that the top 1% of the population has over 40% of the nation’s wealth, whereas the bottom 80% has only 7%. So is this inequality of income and wealth desirable? Differences in wages and salaries provide an incentive for people to work harder or more effectively and to gain better qualifications. The possibility of increased wealth provides an incentive for people to invest. But are the extreme differences in wealth and income found in many countries today necessary to incentivise people to work, train and invest? Could sufficient incentives exist in more equal societies? Are inequalities in part, or even largely, the result of market imperfections and especially of economic power, where those with power and influence are able to use it to increase their own incomes and wealth? Could it even be the case that excessive inequality actually reduces growth? Are the huge giants that exist today accumulating too much financial wealth and creating too little productive potential? Are they spending too little and thus dampening aggregate demand? These arguments are considered in some of the articles below. Perhaps, by paying a living wage to the ‘tiny’ people on low incomes, productivity could be improved and demand could be stimulated. Wealth Inequality in America YouTube, Politizane (20/11/12) The rise and rise of the cognitive elite The Economist (20/1/11) Inequality in America: Gini in the bottle The Economist (26/11/13) Pen’s Parade: do you realize we’re mostly dwarves? LVTFan’s Blog (21/2/11) Here Are The Most Unequal Countries In The World Business Insider, Andy Kiersz (8/11/14) Inequality in the World Dollars & Sense, Arthur MacEwan (Nov/Dec 14) Britain is scared to face the real issue – it’s all about inequality The Observer, Will Hutton (19/1/14) The tame inequality debate FundWeb, Daniel Ben-Ami (Nov 14) Is inequality the enemy of growth? BBC News, Robert Peston (6/10/14) GINI index World Bank data List of countries by income equality Wikipedia The Effects of Taxes and Benefits on Household Income, 2012/13 ONS (see table 27) Income Distribution and Poverty: Gini (disposale income) OECD StatExtract - Distinguish between income and wealth. Is each one a stock or a flow? - Explain how (a) a Lorenz curve and (b) a Gini coefficient are derived. - What other means are there of measuring inequality of income and wealth other than using Gini coefficients (and giants and dwarfs!)? - Why has inequality been rising in many countries over the years? - How do (a) periods of rapid economic growth and (b) recessions affect income distribution? - Define ‘efficiency wages’. How might an increase in wages to people on low incomes result in increased productivity? - What is the relationship between the degree of inequality and household debt? What implications might this have for long-term economic growth and future financial crises? Is inequality the ‘enemy of growth’? The ONS has just released its annual publication, The Effects of Taxes and Benefits on Household Income. The report gives data for the financial year 2012/13 and historical data from 1977 to 2012/13. The publication looks at the distribution of income both before and after taxes and benefits. It divides the population into five and ten equal-sized groups by household income (quintiles and deciles) and shows the distribution of income between these groups. It also looks at distribution within specific categories of the population, such as non-retired and retired households and different types of household composition. The data show that the richest fifth of households had an average pre-tax-and-benefit income of £81,284 in 2012/13, 14.7 times greater than average of £5536 for the poorest fifth. The richest tenth had an average pre-tax-and-benefit income of £104,940, 27.1 times greater than the average of £3875 for the poorest tenth. After the receipt of cash benefits, these gaps narrow to 6.6 and 11.0 times respectively. When the effect of direct taxes are included (giving ‘disposable income’), the gaps narrow further to 5.6 and 9.3 times respectively. However, when indirect taxes are also included, the gaps widen again to 6.9 and 13.6 times. This shows that although direct taxes are progressive between bottom and top quintiles and deciles, indirect taxes are so regressive that the overall effect of taxes is regressive. In fact, the richest fifth paid 35.1% of their income in tax, whereas the poorest fifth paid 37.4%. Taking the period from 1977 to 2012/13, inequality of disposable income (i.e. income after direct taxes and cash benefits) increased from 1977 to 1988, especially during the second two Thatcher governments (1983 to 1990) (see chart opposite). But then in the first part of the 1990s inequality fell, only to rise again in the late 1990s and early 2000s. However, with the Labour government giving greater cash benefits for the poor, inequality reduced once more, only to widen again in the boom running up to the banking crisis of 2007/8. But then, with recession taking hold, the incomes of many top earners fell and automatic stabilisers helped protect the incomes of the poor. Inequality consequently fell. But with the capping of benefit increases and a rise in incomes of many top earners as the economy recovers, so inequality is beginning to rise once more – in 2012/13, the Gini coefficient rose to 0.332 from 0.323 the previous year. As far as income after cash benefits and both direct and indirect taxes is concerned, the average income of the richest quintile relative to that of the poorest quintile rose from 7.2 in 2002/3 to 7.6 in 2007/8 and then fell to 6.9 in 2012/13. Other headlines in the report include: Since the start of the economic downturn in 2007/08, the average disposable income has decreased for the richest fifth of households but increased for the poorest fifth. Cash benefits made up over half (56.4%) of the gross income of the poorest fifth of households, compared with 3.2% of the richest fifth, in 2012/13. The average disposable income in 2012/13 was unchanged from 2011/12, but it remains lower than at the start of the economic downturn, with equivalised disposable income falling by £1200 since 2007/08 in real terms. The fall in income has been largest for the richest fifth of households (5.2%). In contrast, after accounting for inflation and household composition, the average income for the poorest fifth has grown over this period (3.5%). This is clearly a mixed picture in terms of whether the UK is becoming more or less equal. Politicians will, no doubt, ‘cherry pick’ the data that suit their political position. In general, the government will present a good news story and the opposition a bad news one. As economists, it is hoped that you can take a dispassionate look at the data and attempt to relate the figures to policies and events. The Effects of Taxes and Benefits on Household Income, 2012/13 ONS (26/6/14) Reference tables in The Effects of Taxes and Benefits on Household Income, 2012/13 ONS (26/6/14) The Effects of Taxes and Benefits on Household Income, Historical Data, 1977-2012/13 ONS (26/6/14) Rates of Income Tax: 1990-91 to 2014-15 HMRC Inequality is on the up again – Osborne’s boast is over New Statesman, George Eaton (26/6/14) Disposable incomes rise for richest fifth households only Money.com, Lucinda Beeman (26/6/14) Half of families receive more from the state than they pay in taxes but income equality widens as rich get richer Mail Online, Matt Chorley (26/6/14) Rich getting richer as everyone else is getting poorer, Government’s own figures reveal Mirror, Mark Ellis (26/6/14) The Richest Households Got Richer Last Year, While Everyone Else Got Poorer The Economic Voice (27/6/14) - Define the following terms: original income, gross income, disposable income, post-tax income, final income. - How does the receipt of benefits in kind vary across the quintile groups? Explain. - What are meant by the Lorenz curve and the Gini coefficient and how is the Gini coefficient measured? Is it a good way of measuring inequality? - Paint a picture of how income distribution has changed over the past 35 years. - Can changes in tax be a means of helping the poorest in society? - What types of income tax cuts are progressive and what are regressive? - Why are taxes in the UK regressive? - Why has the fall in income been largest for the richest fifth of households since 2007/8? Does this mean that, as the economy recovers, the richest fifth of households are likely to experience the fastest increase in disposable incomes?

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Objective To assess the relationship between the 5 min Apgar score and developmental vulnerability at 5 years of age. Design Population-based retrospective cohort study. Setting Manitoba, Canada. Participants All children born between 1999 and 2006 at term gestation, with a documented 5 min Apgar score. Exposure 5 min Apgar score. Main outcome measures Childhood development at 5 years of age, expressed as vulnerability (absent vs present) on five domains of the Early Development Instrument: physical health, social competence, emotional maturity, language and cognitive development, and communication skills. Results Of the 33 883 children in the study, most (82%) had an Apgar score of 9; 1% of children had a score <7 and 5.6% had a score of 10. Children with Apgar scores <10 had higher odds of vulnerability on the physical domain at age 5 years compared with children with a score of 10 (eg, adjusted OR (aOR) for Apgar 9=1.23, 95% CI 1.05 to 1.44). Similarly, children with Apgar scores of <10 were more vulnerable on the emotional domain (eg, aOR for Apgar 9=1.20, 95% CI 1.03 to 1.41). Nevertheless, the Apgar-based prognostic model had a poor sensitivity for physical vulnerability (19%, 95% CI 18% to 20%). Although the Apgar score-based prognostic model had reasonable calibration ability and risk-stratification accuracy for identifying developmentally vulnerable children, classification accuracy was poor. Conclusions The risk of developmental vulnerability at 5 years of age is inversely associated with the 5 min Apgar score across its entire range, and the score can serve as a population-level indicator of developmental risk. - Child Psychology - Comm Child Health This is an Open Access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited and the use is non-commercial. See: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ Statistics from Altmetric.com What is already known on this topic Low 5 min Apgar scores are associated with adverse short-term and long-term cognitive outcomes and developmental impairment. A comprehensive view of the relation between Apgar scores and the child's early developmental health has been largely overlooked in the existing literature. What this study adds The 5 min Apgar score is inversely associated with a risk of developmental vulnerability in early childhood across its entire range. There is an increased risk of developmental vulnerability among children with an Apgar score of 9, compared with children with a score of 10. The Apgar score based prognostic model created reasonably acceptable categories of low and high-risk children for developing an early intervention program. Introduced by Virginia Apgar in 1952, the Apgar score measures the health status of newborn children based on heart rate, respiration, colour, muscle tone and reflex irritability.1 The Apgar score at birth and 1 min after birth was initially developed to assess the immediate condition of the newborn and the potential need for resuscitation. Subsequent studies have demonstrated the 5 min Apgar score's ability to predict longer-term cognitive outcomes such as a reduced IQ, a lower numeracy and literacy score,2 neurological disability and low cognitive function at age 19 years.3 In school-age children, low Apgar scores have been linked to minor motor, language, speech and developmental impairments.4–6 Most follow-up studies examining the long-term prognostic value of the Apgar score on child outcomes have focused on the association between extremely low 5 min Apgar scores, such as those linked to severe birth asphyxia, and distinct neurocognitive profiles such as IQ and academic ability. Virtually, no prior study has examined the developmental correlates of the Apgar score as a continuous variable, across the entire spectrum of recorded scores.2 ,7 ,8 In addition, there are no studies that have assessed the prognostic performance of the 5 min Apgar score for identifying developmental vulnerability among school-age children. A programme of early diagnosis could identify high-risk children who would potentially benefit from interventions designed to mitigate the developmental problems at school-going age. We, therefore, carried out a population-based study to comprehensively examine the relationship between the 5 min Apgar score and developmental vulnerability at 5 years of age. All children born in Manitoba, Canada, between 1 January 1999 and 31 December 2006, with a gestational age of 37 weeks or greater and a documented 5 min Apgar score, as well as a completed Early Development Instrument (EDI) assessment at age 5 years between 2005 and 2011, were included in the study cohort. Data were obtained from the Manitoba Population Health Research Data Repository, which collates information on health and social services utilisation for all residents of Manitoba.9 Two data sources were used to determine the socioeconomic status (SES) of children in the study: the provincial Employment and Income Assistance data (identifying those requiring social assistance or income supplementation) and Census data (providing mean household income by area of residence). Finally, EDI10 data, which provided information on early childhood developmental outcomes and school readiness, were accessed through linkage with the Healthy Child Manitoba Office. All data files used in this study were anonymised, and linkage at the individual level was performed using a scrambled personal health identification number. The reliability and validity of these data sources have been previously documented.11 ,12 Prognostic variables and outcomes The primary prognostic variable of interest was the routinely collected 5 min Apgar score (hereafter referred to as the ‘Apgar score’) from the hospital record. Apgar scores were analysed in several ways: (a) using conventional categories: Apgar values of 0–6, 7, 8 and 9–10; (b) revised categories: Apgar values of 0–3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 (values from 0 to 3 were grouped together because of small numbers); (c) as a continuous variable and (d) as a continuous variable with a quadratic term to evaluate the potential for a non-linear relationship with developmental outcomes. Other independent variables included in the prognostic model were infant sex (male vs female), birth weight-for-gestational age, age of the child in years at the time of EDI assessment, gestational age at birth in completed weeks (37, 38, 39, 40, 41 and ≥42), breastfeeding initiation (yes vs no) and SES. Birth weight-for-gestational age was categorised as: small (<10th percentile), appropriate (10th–90th percentile) and large (>90th percentile).13 Each child's family income was derived from the mean household income in the child's residential area (based on postal code) obtained from the 2006 Canadian Census data.14–16 This was complemented by parental receipt of income assistance at any time from the child's birth to the EDI assessment. Family SES was based on income quintile and receipt of income assistance, and was categorised as low (quintile 1 or income assistance recipients),12 medium (quintiles 2 and 3) and high (quintiles 4 and 5). The primary outcome of interest was childhood development, as measured by the EDI. The EDI was routinely administered biennially in all 37 public school divisions in Manitoba beginning in 2005/06. Teachers—remunerated by their school district—completed the EDI for each child in their kindergarten class (age range 5–7 years) midway through the school year. The EDI consists of 104 binary and Likert-scale items designed to tap five core areas of early childhood development:10 ,17 physical health and well-being; social competence, emotional maturity, language and cognitive development and communication skills and general knowledge. Children were considered vulnerable on a domain if their scores fell below the 10th percentile value18 based on the national EDI scores.19 The frequency of each Apgar-score value was calculated within categories of maternal and infant characteristics. Variables chosen as prognostic determinants were selected because of presumed association with developmental vulnerability based on the literature,18 ,20 as well as availability in our data source. Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the association between each independent variable and vulnerability on each domain of the EDI. Results were expressed as ORs with 95% CIs. Models were evaluated for goodness of fit using the Akaike information criterion (AIC). In addition to modelling vulnerability on the EDI, we also assessed the performance of the prognostic model for identifying any developmental vulnerability. The model-predicted probability of vulnerability on each EDI domain was categorised as identifying low risk (<10%), medium risk (10%–19%) and high risk (≥20%) of an adverse developmental outcome. The model-predicted probability of vulnerability on any of the EDI domains was categorised as identifying low risk (<30%), medium risk (30%–44%) and high risk (≥45%) of any adverse developmental outcome. These cut-off values were chosen based on the provincial prevalence of vulnerability, since approximately 11% of children are vulnerable on an EDI domain, and 28% of children are vulnerable on one or more domains.21 We assessed performance of the prognostic model in terms of calibration ability, stratification capacity and classification accuracy22 ,23 to identify children at high risk for developmental vulnerability. A two-sided p value <0.05 was used to define statistical significance. No adjustment was made for multiple comparisons in this exploratory study. The University of Manitoba Health Research Ethics Board sanctioned the study, and the Manitoba Health Information Privacy Committee approved data access. Analyses were performed using SAS V.9.2 (SAS Institute, Cary, North Carolina, USA). There were 33 883 children (mean age=5.7 years) with a gestational age of ≥37 weeks and complete Apgar and EDI data who were included in the study. The majority (82%) of children had an Apgar score of 9, and 1% had a score <7. Only 0.2% of children had an Apgar score ≤4 (table 1). As expected, low Apgar scores were also more common among males, small-for-gestational age live births, children of mothers who did not initiate breast feeding and those with a low SES. The prevalence of vulnerability within each of the five EDI domains by Apgar score is shown in figure 1. Overall, the prevalence of vulnerability in one or more domains of the EDI was 28%, with physical and language domains having the highest rates of vulnerability at 12% and 12%, respectively. There was a graded, decreasing trend in the rate of vulnerability on all domains of the EDI with increasing Apgar score. Vulnerability rates for the physical (23%), social (18%) and emotional (16%) domains were highest among children with an Apgar score of 5. The prognostic model for categorising children into low (<10%), medium (10%–19%) and high risk groupings (≥20%) for vulnerability on the physical domain showed reasonable calibration ability; 7.6% and 25% of low-risk versus high-risk children were found to be vulnerable on the physical domain (table 2). Similar results were obtained with regard to calibration ability on the other EDI domains. The model also successfully stratified children into reasonably sized risk categories, with a large proportion of children classified as low or medium risk, and approximately 5%–12% of children identified as being at high risk for vulnerability in each of the five EDI domains. However, the classification accuracy of the model was poor; the model had a detection rate (sensitivity) between 11% and 26% for vulnerability on the five different domains of the EDI. Similar results were obtained for the prognostic model identifying vulnerability on any of the EDI domains (table 2). Using the conventional categorisation of Apgar scores (table 3), we observed that compared with those with an Apgar score of 9–10, the odds of vulnerability on the physical domain of the EDI were significantly higher among children with an Apgar score of 0–6 (OR 1.55, 95% CI 1.17 to 2.06). A graded excess in odds of vulnerability was evident with increasing Apgar score though rates of developmental vulnerability among those with Apgar scores of 7 and 8 were not significantly different from those with an Apgar score of 9–10. Analyses with modelling Apgar scores using the revised categories, however, revealed that the odds of vulnerability on the physical domain increased in a graded fashion across the full range of scores (table 4). Children with an Apgar score of 7, 8 or 9 had significantly higher odds of vulnerability on the physical domain compared with children with an Apgar score of 10 (OR 1.45, 1.24 and 1.23 for Apgar 7, 8 and 9, respectively; table 4). Similarly, children with an Apgar score of 7, 8 or 9 had higher odds of vulnerability on the emotional domain compared with children with an Apgar score of 10 (OR 1.60, 1.24 and 1.20 for Apgar 7, 8 and 9, respectively). Children with scores <4 had 2.71 times higher odds of vulnerability in the language domain compared with children with an Apgar score of 10 (OR 2.71, 95% CI 1.22 to 6.01). Finally, analyses with Apgar score modelled as a continuous variable (see online supplementary appendix table 1) showed that unit increase in the Apgar score was associated with a significant decrease in vulnerability on the physical (OR 0.91, 95% CI 0.86 to 0.95), social (OR 0.94, 95% CI 0.89 to 0.99) and emotional domains (OR 0.93, 95% CI 0.89 to 0.98). Non-significant decreases in vulnerability were observed on the language and communication domain. Modelling Apgar scores as a continuous variable or as a continuous variable with a quadratic term did not improve model fit (as assessed by the AIC) or change the pattern of the findings. Our population-based study showed an association between the Apgar score and early childhood developmental vulnerability at 5 years of age, with lower 5 min Apgar scores being associated, in a graded continuous manner, with an increased risk of vulnerability on the physical health and well-being, emotional and social domains of the EDI. The Apgar score-based prognostic model created reasonably acceptable categories of low-risk and high-risk children for creating an early intervention programme, but failed to identify a significant proportion of children who were subsequently found to be vulnerable on one or more developmental domains. On the other hand, our study showed an increased risk of vulnerability on the physical and emotional domains even among children with an Apgar score of 9, compared with children with a score of 10. Although the literature suggests that low Apgar scores are of concern in the short and long term, our results showed that the negative association between Apgar scores and developmental adversity extended in a linear, graded fashion across the entire range of scores. Such a finding—revealing a continuous linear association with a conventionally categorical predictor variable—parallels the identification of SES as a graded, continuous, population-level predictor of morbidity, whereas previously only outright poverty was viewed as important for health and well-being.24 Our findings are consistent with previous studies showing an increased need for special education among children with Apgar scores of 7 or 8 at 5 min after birth compared with children with Apgar score 9 or 10 and the need for extra resources in kindergarten.2 ,4 ,8 ,20 A neurobiological account for why Apgar scores might be significant, continuous-level predictors of developmental outcomes cannot be provided by the data available in this study. Many of the observable physiological components of the Apgar score are mediated by shifts in autonomic nervous system (ANS) activation, and autonomic reactivity to emotional and physical stressors (stressors such as labour and birth) has been linked to chronic disease processes in adults25 and to both developmental26 and health outcomes27 in children. Mothers’ prenatal adversity, moreover, has been associated with trajectories of postnatal development of autonomic reactivity,28 suggesting that even emotional stressors antecedent to birth can influence ANS responses. Thus, the present finding—that the full range of Apgar scores predicts developmental vulnerability at kindergarten—could represent the influence of heightened stress reactivity (indexed via ANS responses to the stress of birth) on long-term developmental endpoints. Our prognostic model's findings are in line with previous studies that showed that the specificity of the Apgar score as a prognostic tool was far better than its sensitivity.3 ,29 ,30 Further, risk assessment research also shows that biological criteria alone fail to identify 65% of children who, subsequently, experience high rates of poor health and disappointing educational outcomes.31 Although our findings indicate that Apgar scores cannot be effectively used at the individual level to determine prognosis or trigger preventive intervention, our findings could have substantial public health significance as a population's Apgar profile could serve as an indicator of the burden of adverse developmental outcomes in children. Additionally, documentation of differences in 5 min Apgar profiles between populations (eg, a lower frequency of infants with a 5 min Apgar score of 9) could lead to an aetiological search for causes and interventions that improve developmental outcomes in children. The strengths of our study included the ability to access comprehensive health and education-related databases at the population level. The EDI assessment by teachers avoided reliance on parental or self-report of developmental outcomes. Nevertheless, there may have been some individual differences in teachers’ ability to evaluate developmental outcomes.19 The SES of children was determined by their SES in the first 5 years after birth, although SES at birth would have been preferable for a prognostic model. However, SES as constructed in our study is unlikely to have changed substantially during the study period. Further, our study was restricted to the comparatively healthy subset of all term live births, as children with severe chronic illnesses may not have enrolled in kindergarten or may have enrolled in special needs schools. This was not a serious limitation as our objective was to examine the role of the Apgar score as a marker of childhood development in normal children. In summary, our study showed that the risk of developmental vulnerability at 5 years of age was inversely associated with the 5 min Apgar score and that this relation extended across the entire range of scores. Thus, even a minor degree of physiological dysfunction soon after birth, reflected in the Apgar score, may indicate a slightly higher risk for developmental vulnerability in later childhood. Although the low sensitivity of the prognostic model based on the 5 min Apgar score limits the clinical utility of this model for early intervention, the Apgar score might well serve as a population-level indicator of developmental risk. Appreciation is extended to the Manitoba Health Policy Centre (MCHP) staff for providing the data under project (HIPC #2012/2013-07) and specifically to Charles Burchill at MCHP for his continuous support and guidance throughout the linkage and data analyses process. This web only file has been produced by the BMJ Publishing Group from an electronic file supplied by the author(s) and has not been edited for content. - Data supplement 1 - Online supplement Contributors NR: conceptualised and designed the study, carried out all the data analysis, drafted the initial manuscript and contributed to the acquisition of data. WTB: conceptualisation and design of the study, advised in the interpretation of data and critically reviewed and revised the manuscript. MB, DJ and HT assisted in interpretation of the data and critically reviewed the manuscript. RAM contributed to the acquisition of the data, interpretation of the data and critically reviewed the manuscript. KSJ supervised the conceptualisation and design of the study, advised in the interpretation of data and critically reviewed and revised the manuscript. All authors approved the final manuscript as submitted. Funding This work was supported by the Canadian Institute of Health Research (MOP-119393, PI Helen Tremlett). NR is funded by the Multiple Sclerosis Society of Canada (PhD Research Studentships). She has received travel grants from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) and the endMS Research and Training Network/Multiple Sclerosis Society of Canada. WTB is funded by the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research; the BC Leadership Chair in Child Development also supported this work. MB is the recipient of the Manitoba Centre for Health Policy Population-Based Child Health Research award funded by the Government of Manitoba. KSJ is the recipient of a Chair in maternal, fetal and infant health services research from the CIHR. His work is also supported by the Child and Family Research Institute. HT is funded by the Multiple Sclerosis Society of Canada (Don Paty Career Development Award), Michael Smith Foundation for Health Research, and is the Canada Research Chair for Neuroepidemiology and Multiple Sclerosis. She has received research support from the US National Multiple Sclerosis Society, CIHR, and UK MS Trust; speaker honoraria and/or travel expenses to attend conferences from the Consortium of MS Centres, US National MS Society, the University of British Columbia Multiple Sclerosis Research Program, Bayer Pharmaceutical (speaker, 2010, honoraria declined), Teva Pharmaceuticals (speaker 2011), ECTRIMS (2011, 2012, 2013), UK MS Trust (2011), the Chesapeake Health Education Program, US Veterans Affairs (2012, honorarium declined), Novartis (2012), the Consortium of MS Centers (2013) and Biogen (honorarium declined). Unless otherwise stated, all speaker honoraria are either donated to an MS charity or to an unrestricted grant for use by her research group. RAM receives research funding from CIHR, Multiple Sclerosis Society of Canada, Multiple Sclerosis Scientific Research Foundation, National Multiple Sclerosis Society, Rx & D Health Research Foundation, and has conducted clinical trials funded by Sanofi-Aventis. Competing interests None declared. Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed. If you wish to reuse any or all of this article please use the link below which will take you to the Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink service. You will be able to get a quick price and instant permission to reuse the content in many different ways.

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National Geographic Society’s Big Cats Initiative supports scientists and conservationists working to save these magnificent felines. Big cat definition is - a large wild animal of the cat family. It is a little lap cat that meows often when compared to other cat breeds. See the African lions lounging on the rocks, just inches away from you; watch the tigers prowl and splash in their stream; and find the amur leopard and snow leopards perching gracefully overhead their habitats. Contact Big Cat Rescue. big cat - any of several large cats typically able to roar and living in the wild cat family Felidae, Felidae - cats; wildcats; lions; leopards;. Tame it by right-clicking the big cat with the medallion. Cats also are known to catch and consume cotton rats and pocket gophers, and according to studies in Texas, cats consume Attwater’s prairie-chickens, meadowlarks, chicken flesh and feathers. Further details are missing. NonProfitFacts. Big cats anatomy models, from lions and tigers, to smilodon and Machairodus. With over 190 unique coffee varieties to pick from, there's a coffee for everyone's tastes. They care very much about their animals, not like a zoo or some other people centric type facility, this facility and its staff are dedicated to their cats first and foremost. In this animal science instructional activity, students listen to the sounds of the big cats, such as lions and tiger, on a suggested website. Siberian tiger siblings Tuga and Koshka, Bengal tiger Tigger and lioness Nala take turns being the choice big cat for this special adventure. The cub will eat the fish/pork and you can now use a medallion on it. From the well known tiger and lion to the lesser known serval and margay, learn about these big cats and their relatives. Students explore the sounds of big cats. This book helped to feed his desire for more knowledge and cool information! He eagerly studies this book. Of course, gray is just a generic term when it comes to cat color. If you want a really big cat, the Maine coon is your best bet. It provides a permanent home for abused and abandoned animals, as well as retired performing cats. It is about half the size of the domestic cat. Do you know the facts on big cats? Find out with this fun quiz about some of nature's fiercest felines! Out of the 37 species of cats, some reign supreme. The MegaPenny Project shows you lots and lots of pennies, up to one quintillion! And there's a chart showing how to name numbers up to 1 followed by 120 zeros. We've been through all the big cats now, and I just want to know one thing. Since Lil BUB’s BIG Fund for the ASPCA was created in February 2014, more than $400,000 (and counting!) has been raised to help special needs animals across the country. An alpha male. Big Cat is a full service marketing communications agency focused on client growth through PR, marketing, digital and branding. Want to know more about this breed and their size? Visit this page on big Maine Coons, kings of the large domestic cat breeds! Future owners of any of these large domestic cat breeds should be prepared for a "big personality" to match the size of the cat. BIGCATSINSUSSEX conducts non-intrusive research into wild big cats in Sussex,investigates sightings of big cats,also known as large wild cat, panther,black leopard or puma in both East and West Sussex,gathers photographic evidence in the form of deer and other animal kills,paw prints,fur samples etc. Bowden did most of his damage on the ground, as he ran the ball 24 times for 196 yards and 2 TDs. Authorized by Nevada Revised Statute 574. Mustang Cat is a leading Caterpillar dealer providing new and used construction equipment, machinery, power systems, rentals, service and more. 7 is proud to be the 2017 CMA Station of the Year and nominated again in for 2019. We look forward to helping even more cats and dogs in need, thanks to you and BUB!. Around 40 species of cat are currently recognized. Make it: Cut cat features from template from craft or crepe paper and attach them to an inflated balloon with glue dots. When a species is endangered, it means it is at. Directed by Phil Karlson. International Exotic Animal Sanctuary, Inc. Name brands you love at savings you can't deny. Many gray cats boast coats of blue and silver. A little while back we did a piece on the international efforts to establish and maintain a green corridor running from Mexico down to Argentina to protect the region’s jaguar population, and some people registered surprise that Belize actually has a jaguar population. CatsPlay offers cat furniture solutions for apartment dwellers with limited available space. You may be able to recognize these species at first sight, but how much do you really know about them. Come along on an adventure with Jonathan Scott, Simon King, and other professionals and camera crews as they journey through the Masai Mara game park in Kenya, Africa. What is the motivation, or at least origin, behind. 1-5 Interesting Facts About Big Cats 1. There are more than 100 big cats representing no fewer than a dozen species at this 45-acre (18-hectare) site. They'll open their eyes 12 hours after being born. Big Cat Sanctuary. The Big Cat Phantom is a value driven electric bike with more basic components but a range of accessories that make it functional. Royalty Free Graphics by Big Cat Clipart. We hope that you have enjoyed reading about the various members of the Felidae family. 00 for a big cat, or $50. This may be due to competition with the Leopard Cat, which occupies the rainforests of the mainland, but does not live in Sri Lanka. Big Cat Rescue is a sham operation that purports to rescue exotic cats. Caracal Physical characteristics (considering only males of all the cats) Weight : 8-18 kg Shoulder height (the distance from the ground to the upper joint of the f. Of course, gray is just a generic term when it comes to cat color. Big River Coon cattery is located in Southern Washington state at the edge of the spectacular Columbia River Gorge, across from Portland, Oregon. The Amur leopard. The so-called desktop survey was conducted by two researchers from the. Super Cats: A NATURE Miniseries Global pet trade in wild cats is a threat to their survival. Big Cat Rescue is an. Big cats wander around aimlessly, occasionally opening their mouths to emit roars and growls and swishing their tails. Big cats are among the most powerful animals on the planet. I only bet overs. Wisconsin Big Cat Rescue & Education Center 305 Pine Street, Rock Springs, WI 53961. It's big enough for my 20 lbs. See more ideas about Big cats, Cats and Animals beautiful. A definitive guide to the big cats that are roaming the UK wild and free, with sightings, information and a weekly diary following the two researchers in their attempts to find a black panther in East Anglia. Exotic Catz started as a small pet grooming shop in Salem, Massachusetts with a focus on giving tips on care and grooming of exotic cats. Big Cat Rescue is rated 4 Stars by Charity Navigator (their highest rating) and has the highest score of any animal based charity. , and big cats are no exception. 82 mi) Parkview Bed and Breakfast (8. The term of big cats are used to biologically classify larger cats than the other. Here are Top 10 of the Most Deadliest Big Cats Big Cats are one of the amazing animals and are amongst the best creations of the God's natural habitations on earth. 5 inches long from end to end. 95 MA, was discovered in southwest Tibet. The largest population of tigers in the world is in the USA. Tigers, lions, leopards and more! Subscribe to Big Cat Rescue today so you don't miss out on. Big Cats By Clark Ness Visit www. The big cats are the four members of the genus panthera. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) believes that only qualified, trained professionals should keep these animals, even if they are only to be pets. com for more free ebooks and stories. Siberian cats and kittens, from a small home based cattery in NE Georgia. We grew up in Abilene. One of the biggest underlying story lines of the past few weeks that has started to pick up steam are people asking what the Jacksonville Jaguars are going to do when Nick Foles is inevitably. The actress tested last week opposite Robert Pattinson. 50 Big Cat Coffees coupons now on RetailMeNot. We've gathered more than 3 Million Images uploaded by our users and sorted them by the most popular ones. There are only 20 spots available per day, so call for your spot today!!! (Must reserve at least 1 day in advance). The only relief that many are given from this nearly perpetual confinement is during their brief performances, when they are subjected to whippings and roaring crowds. Big Cats: Revised Edition [Seymour Simon] on Amazon. In 1983, the Texas Legislature created the Nongame Fund. In 1961, an estimated 28,00 Bengal Tigers populated the jungles of India and Sumatra. #pet-carrier-by-pet-gear #Cat-Carriers The Pet Carrier easily attaches to the car seat with the seat belt to keep your carrier secure in and your pet safe. Domestication is a process that takes several hundred generations of intentional breeding (or at least, favorable breeding to select for particular traits). The future for many big cats is a life of neglect and even abuse when their owners cannot handle them anymore. Characteristics and Behavioral Traits of Exotic Cats By Louis Dorfman, Animal Behaviorist. Tiger Photo Galley Click on the photo of your favorite tiger to see their portofolio (see if you can SPOT your favorite). Pick and print! Simply click the free big cat images, print the image and color until your hearts content. Since the 1760s, when William Cobbett, then a small boy, saw a large cat at Waverley Abbey near Farnborough. So why would anyone want a big cat breed? They remind you of their wild relatives like the bobcat, lynx, and jaguar, but with the temperament of the domestic cat breeds you already know and love. One of my goals with the Exotic Cats and Hybrids website is that you will learn many things about exotic cats and hybrid personalities, diets, behavior, training, and care within species specific pages. A large collection of information on health and behavior problems relating to dog and cats. Check out our wild selection of big cat gifts that are purrr-fect for any occasion or grrr-eat if you are simply shopping for yourself. “You can’t get out backwards. Large Cat Breeds just give you more cat to love and snuggle. Can you identify a big cat when you see one? Let's start with the fur. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. The liger is not present in the wild but as the largest and heaviest cat takes the first place on our list. Here’s a list (in no particular order) of super-size kitties. Wild cat species list of the 40 wild cats in the Felidae family - their common names and scientific names (species name). ” https://www. Photograph: National News and Pictures Scientists have found in the Tibetan Himalayas the. Directed by Phil Karlson. A member of our big cat team will meet you and escort you to the big cat enclosure where you will receive an important health and safety briefing. WCS is in a unique position to help—we work to conserve all seven. Many big cats are listed as Critically Endangered or Endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species. You may have seen Kay on the Family Channel, the Oxygen Channel, A&E, in the New York Times and other forms of media. Students explore the sounds of big cats. Abyssinian Cat Breeders. The cub will eat the fish/pork and you can now use a medallion on it. 5 reviews of Big Cat Coffees "If you have a Keurig coffee brewer & want to get a good deal on k-cups then you should check out Big Cat Coffee. In 1961, an estimated 28,00 Bengal Tigers populated the jungles of India and Sumatra. WHO WE ARE. Let's find a name for your big pal. Costa Rica Big Cats, Primates & Turtle Conservation with Frontier – Contribute to ongoing biological surveys to monitor the status of threatened species in key habitats. Exotic Big Cats for Sale - Captive big cat - this is what they look like when they are grown up. It is said that these cats where introduced by Vikings around 1000 AD. RESEARCHERS from Big Cats in Britain are very interested in meeting or talking to anyone who has seen a big cat or found evidence that may point towards a large feline. My name is Mike Hodgens, and I am interested in speaking to people who have concrete information on big cats in Australia. Recently the North Carolina Golf Panel Rankings have listed us among the "Top 100 Courses in North Carolina" and Golfweek's "Best Courses You Can Play, State by State" once again features Tiger's Eye and Leopard's Chase in their exclusive list. com and www. We believe that games should be free for everyone to enjoy, and ads help us achieve this goal. We organize safaris in all major national parks of Tanzania, as well as beach vacations on the island of Zanzibar. The CATS Foundation was established in June 2011 by Daniel and Patricia Lewi. A member of this family is also called a felid. Gotta go forwards to go back. BigDCats is proud to own the largest sailing party boat in Texas, The Chamonix II. In his latest wildlife book for children. Big Cats [Seymour Simon] on Amazon. Every two weeks, lions, and tigers get to enjoy this enclosure. Show your dog that same unconditional love and affection they show you every day with the very best in dog supplies. Ramsey, who’d never missed a. The cat is either a house cat or a farm cat, which are pets, or a feral cat, which ranges freely and avoids human contact. There has been some debate about this, as well as about what constitutes a purr. Originated by Ryan Pazier and Cody Kay. The term "cat" refers both to felids in general and specifically to the domestic cat (Felis catus). They care very much about their animals, not like a zoo or some other people centric type facility, this facility and its staff are dedicated to their cats first and foremost. The Big Cat Sanctuary is set in the heart of the countryside at Smarden, in Kent. Just fill in the required information below to start your Big Cat Coffee adventure. Prionailurus bengalensis Up to 13 years Rusty spotted cat. News about all big cats and wild cats. Yet all seven species are listed as Threatened or Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List, with the tiger categorized as Endangered. We’ve done our homework to find out for you, so check out our list of the eight largest domestic cat breeds in the world, for those who are looking for a feline friend that is larger than life! 1. Leopard cat. In this unprecedented series, recent scientific discoveries shed new light on the extraordinary prehistory of big cats. Royalty Free Graphics by Big Cat Clipart. BIG CAT GOALKEEPING HQ sessions in Illinois and California: Winter Weekly Clinics 2009-2011 Naperville (Jan-Mar 2020) Winter Weekly Clinics 2009-2011 Naperville (Nov. Jeff Jordan Camp, Oct 18-20, Ohio. Photo by huntingdesigns published under creative commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License Exotic Big Cats for Sale is quite a popular search term (a keyword). 7 is proud to be the 2017 CMA Station of the Year and nominated again in for 2019. You find a shop to browse through until it stops raining. Our cat population varies from 250 to 280 cats. International Exotic Animal Sanctuary, Inc. Watch videos from the Big Cat Live team - sent directly from Kenya's Masai Mara. Big Cat’s experience covers a menu of services that include traditional and new media. Some leopards even seem to have an affinity for humans and "tame" easily, something we have taken advantage of to create the house cat, one of our only benign domestication gestures. There are seven members in the big. Big Cat Habitat and Gulf Coast Sanctuary provides a sanctuary "for life" for the exotic animals currently calling the sanctuary home. These types of big cats include tiger, leopard, lion and jaguar, all of which belong to the genus Panthera. The debate over how cats purr has greatly complicated the issue of whether or not big cats can purr. By 1997 we had seen enough of the abuse and abandonment caused by the pet trade that we had previously engaged in to know that there was no reason to breed exotic animals for lives in cages. Big Cat Diary, also known as Big Cat Week or Big Cat Live, is a long-running nature documentary series on BBC television which followed the lives of African big cats in Kenya's Maasai Mara. With Simon King, Jonathan Scott, Saba Douglas-Hamilton, Toto The Cheetah. Big catBig cat. The word 'cat' is also used for other felines. Small Wild Cat Conservation. The Viccars were away, but this time three other residents of Marlow Road had the cat in view for almost thirty minutes, during which time the police were telephoned. People seek the exotic. Think you know them all? Play the Big Cats Memory Matching Game. Five of Central America’s six species of big cat are found in Panama. Tiger Haven is a Sanctuary and Rescue facility for big ca ts, much like an animal shelter for dogs and house cats. Encouraging people to use. AverageCats- Your cat is average. Although they were different from the body and size, they shared their similarities from its structure and behavior. This means few were longer or taller at the shoulder than a modern leopard or jaguar. The cat's feet went pure white as they had touched the holy man's skin. OCELOT aka Tiger Cat Habitat: rainforests Size: 70-90cm long; 10-16kg Adaptation: its coat of stripes & spots enable it to hide among the bushes & trees Diet: fish, frogs, mice, rabbits, monkeys, lizards, snakes, birds & young deer Predator(s): man hunting them for their fur. With Simon King, Jonathan Scott, Saba Douglas-Hamilton, Toto The Cheetah. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. A Victorian Government investigation has concluded it is "highly unlikely" there are wild big cats living in Victoria. There are physical attributes (hello, shedding fur!), personality. On iPlayer. Prionailurus rubiginosus Up to 12 years Fishing cat. Big Cat has followed the lives of the lions, leopards and. Click on the photos for purchasing information. Exotic Big Cats for Sale - Captive big cat - this is what they look like when they are grown up. Big Cats Printables. Authors Michael Williams and Rebecca Lang shine more light on the mystery than has ever been shone before. The Wildlife World Zoo is home to ALL of the big cats in the wild kingdom, as well as some smaller ones too! You can visit cheetahs, jaguars (spotted and black), leopards, lions, tigers, white tigers, servals and ocelots. com with free online thesaurus, antonyms, and definitions. Domestication is a process that takes several hundred generations of intentional breeding (or at least, favorable breeding to select for particular traits). The big cats in this definition roar unlike those included in the modern, more liberal definition. American Bobtail Cat Breeders. Big Cat Rescue provides the content for this zoo keeper training. Many get killed by herders retaliating. SPECIAL SALE PRICES. This set adds the majestic Black Panther to the DAZ Big Cat 2 family. Although they are often called "big cats" many of the prehistoric species were not true cats, but were cat-like mammals. The only relief that many are given from this nearly perpetual confinement is during their brief performances, when they are subjected to whippings and roaring crowds. Prionailurus bengalensis Up to 13 years Rusty spotted cat. Get up close and personal with some of the world's fiercest felines at Tampa's Big Cat Rescue, the world's largest accredited big cat rescue sanctuary. Cat skiing at Big Red Cats in Rossland BC- separate groups for expert, advanced, intermediate powdercats. How much do you know about big cats? Test your knowledge of endangered cats from around the world. com's varied collections. Big Cat Coffees has a referral program which allows customers to refer friends and save 10% on their orders. Keep your cats indoors, and do not befriend neighborhood cats while pregnant! The feline parasitic infection toxoplasmosis can be caused by a cat eating small mammals or birds. The Purple Cat was founded in 2003 to offer day-program alternatives for adults. Here are 30 Interesting Facts About Big Cats. Inteacting with the crowd he knows how to engage your guests as MC to keep the party going all night long. Though imposing of stature, Big is a gentle and easy-going, though somewhat dim-witted person with a heart of. Big Cats [Seymour Simon] on Amazon. Episode 4 | 53m 40s From the outside, a lion and tiger look very different, but once their skins are removed, even the experts find it hard to tell them apart. Tame it by right-clicking the big cat with the medallion. Hunter, a committee member of the National Geographic Big Cats Initiative, published the book to illuminate and teach everyone of all ages about the diversity of the cats and explain the importance of their conservation, and how saving them can be beneficial to us. Big cats wander around aimlessly, occasionally opening their mouths to emit roars and growls and swishing their tails. Whirly and Maytag were found in the desert of Arizona. interactive math activities for kids: exploring real-life problems, math concept-building, and math puzzles. Since its founding in 1991, the EFRC has served as a nationally recognized leader in big cat rescue, conservation and care. Spend a day in the company of some of the planet’s most endangered and iconic felines. Neko's Pages. This live cam at the Big Cat Rescue Sanctuary in Florida points a the vacation rotation area. Big Cat Crossing Overview Featured Animals Big Cat Crossing—an extension of Zoo360, Philadelphia Zoo’s revolutionary, first-in-the-world animal travel and exploration system—promises the most majestic of creatures more room to roam. " Twitter fell in love with him, and enquiries came in so fast that the Morris Animal Refuge website crashed. As a result of captivity, many big cats are overweight, while others suffer psychologically. These are another cat breeds with big eyes. A man has been attacked by a large cat-like animal which jumped out from bushes in his garden during the night. Many big cats have been killed because they either compete with humans for the same prey animals or because they occasionally attack human-raised livestock. BIGCATSINSUSSEX conducts non-intrusive research into wild big cats in Sussex,investigates sightings of big cats,also known as large wild cat, panther,black leopard or puma in both East and West Sussex,gathers photographic evidence in the form of deer and other animal kills,paw prints,fur samples etc. The Amur leopard. Lion: The Lion Also known as Panther Leo is member of big cat’s family has weight 272 kg. Get up close and personal with some of the world's fiercest felines at Tampa's Big Cat Rescue, the world's largest accredited big cat rescue sanctuary. Prionailurus bengalensis Up to 13 years Rusty spotted cat. The main difference between big cats and most of their cousins is in the noises they make. Purebred short-haired gray cats often have a coat more dense than that of a randomly bred gray feline. T&D's Cats of the World WE ARE HOPE When we are too old to do tricks When we just can't do what we used to When they expect us to jump through Fired hoops and we can't When it costs more to feed us Than we apparently earn When our expendability becomes obvious When it seems no one wants us THERE IS HOPE When we mature When we grow and become. What makes us different is we are working to. Closely related to the Siberian cat, the Norwegian Forest cat shares many of its characteristics. Generally pack animals will be smaller in stature than solitary relatives. The largest population of tigers in the world is in the USA. Suzie's Pride Inc. CLARKS SUMMIT, Pa. Big cats in evolutionary arms race with prey: study. Inspired by e-bikes around the world Vincent created an electric powered bicycle that helped his mother regain confidence, freedom, and physical activity. The world's oldest big cat has been dug up in Tibet – it could date back almost six million years. Smilodon Populator "Saber-tooth Cat" Anatomy model 1/6th scale - flesh & superficial muscle Jun's anatomy $205. Recently the North Carolina Golf Panel Rankings have listed us among the "Top 100 Courses in North Carolina" and Golfweek's "Best Courses You Can Play, State by State" once again features Tiger's Eye and Leopard's Chase in their exclusive list. It's not a size thing, it's a taxonomy thing. Initially, the term "big cat" represented the four large wild cats of tigers, lions, leopards, and jaguars that belong to the genus Panthera. com for more free ebooks and stories. catus, bred in a number of varieties. First we must note that all cats have elliptical pupils. The latest Tweets from Big Cat (@_BIGCAT). While it would be terrifyingly awesome if these anomalous felines were indeed from an unknown distant corner of outer space, the reality is likely far less interesting and far more depressing. 184 990 ESSAYS, term and research papers available for UNLIMITED access. ( IEAS) was founded in Boyd, Texas in 1988 as a 501(c)(3), nonprofit tax-exempt corporation. Today there are a variety of breeds that display this characteristic. Exciting elevation changes, undulating greens and recently renovated mini verde greens, the Big Cats challenges all levels of golfers. You immediately call for a taxi or a friend for a ride. Any size or shape. Encouraging people to use. Read about our boat, check out some great pics or make a booking. All Rights Reserved. Like newborn cubs in the real world, your WK Big Cats are born with their eyes closed. The Big Cat Sanctuary in Kent is working to help save endangered cats from extinction. The term technically includes five members of the Panthera genus, along with cougars, cheetahs, and the clouded. Today there are a variety of breeds that display this characteristic. Many of the "bigger" prehistoric big cats were compact, muscular animals. Tiger Haven is a "no kill" shelter for big cats unlike most but not all domestic animal shelters. You want to make sure that your carrier is big enough for your cat. Peter "Big Cat" van Mol became the second official member of the Bodybuilding. The Cotswolds big cat. Big Cats can only be tamed when still young. Come face to face with endangered big cats from around the world, including snow leopards, amur leopards, pumas, lions, amur tigers and jaguars. WCS is in a unique position to help—we work to conserve all seven. Explore any Animation Studio. Facts on Big Cats to sort and organise looking at key features of Non - Chronological reports. A walker in Woodchester Park found the carcass of a roe deer on 12 January 2012, with injuries suggesting the animal may have been mauled by a large felid. Its jaws are especially strong, and it kills by biting through the skull of its prey. Wild Cat Species by Size — 1 kilogram = 2. Toki Wright & Big Cats Minneapolis, Minnesota. big cat synonyms, big cat pronunciation, big cat translation, English dictionary definition of big cat. If the cat's parents were registered cats of a particular breed, then the cat is a member of that breed. The Norwegian Forest Cat has been named the national cat by King Olaf of Norway. We work with businesses to meet their ever changing needs. Big Cat Rescue has evolved since its inception in 1992. Everything and Anything Dog. The latest Tweets from Big Cat (@BarstoolBigCat). Caracal Physical characteristics (considering only males of all the cats) Weight : 8–18 kg Shoulder height (the distance from the ground to the upper joint of the f. BIG CAT GOALKEEPING HQ sessions in Illinois and California: Winter Weekly Clinics 2009-2011 Naperville (Jan-Mar 2020) Winter Weekly Clinics 2009-2011 Naperville (Nov. I've released rap records with Toki Wright, Guante, Chance York, The Tribe and Big Cats, and Ryan Kopperud. It is said that these cats where introduced by Vikings around 1000 AD. 5 WLVK - Country Radio Station in Kentucky. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Four of my last and best Jag Cats are to be sold, as well as one gorgeous Bengal and a Snow Lynx Ragdoll. Discover canvas art prints, photos, mural, big canvas art and framed wall art in GreatBigCanvas. Big Cat Rescue is the largest accredited sanctuary in the country dedicated entirely to abused and abandoned big cats. Alien Big Cats, or ABCs, are not cats from outer space. Karl Mitchell Big Cat Encounters P. Exotic Big Cats for Sale - Captive big cat - this is what they look like when they are grown up. In 1961, an estimated 28,00 Bengal Tigers populated the jungles of India and Sumatra. One of Panthera Africa's main purposes is to be an educational platform where we create awareness about conditions big cats face in captivity, and how animal welfare and enrichment play a vital role in giving them the best captive life possible. The staff take online courses to keep themselves up-to-date and well-informed. Big Cat Solutions is a local office product & furniture vendor servicing the SoCal area. A walker in Woodchester Park found the carcass of a roe deer on 12 January 2012, with injuries suggesting the animal may have been mauled by a large felid. Big cat species that have a wide range and live in a variety of habitats include leopards, mountain lions, ocelots, and jaguars. Genetic research has revealed some very interesting things but the results are not set in stone. By LARRY. Recently the North Carolina Golf Panel Rankings have listed us among the "Top 100 Courses in North Carolina" and Golfweek's "Best Courses You Can Play, State by State" once again features Tiger's Eye and Leopard's Chase in their exclusive list. Cat Tales offers the chance to feed one of our tigers or lions a special treat for only $10. 8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown. Big Cats Baseball, Greensboro. The average lifespan of sphinx is 14 years. WHAT ARE HYBRID BIG CATS? Zoos and menageries once bred exotic-looking hybrid big cats to attract the public just as hybrid small cats (Bengal, Chausie etc) are now bred as pets. Veterinary Medical Information for Dogs and Cats - Vetinfo. Enjoy these free coloring pages to color and paint for kids of all ages: toddlers, preschool, kindergarten and elementary school grades. Fandom Apps Take your favorite fandoms with you and never miss a beat. Vincent Gebbia, the company’s CEO and Founder, wanted to help his mother to get more exercise and overcome a knee injury. Choose your favorite big cat paintings from millions of available designs. Costa Rica Big Cats, Primates & Turtle Conservation with Frontier – Contribute to ongoing biological surveys to monitor the status of threatened species in key habitats. $195 + Airfare (Big Cat scholarships $250 off the total cost) Lewis & Clark, Nov 2nd, Lewis & Clark High School; Shadle Park HS, Nov 9th, Shadle Park High School. 99% On-time Shipping. October 17th Cat Country 98. As a result of captivity, many big cats are overweight, while others suffer psychologically. but if you don’t like cats, I. Providing shelter is a great way to keep cats safe from the elements and can help you monitor their ongoing well-being. It is the only domesticated species in the family Felidae and often referred to as the domestic cat to distinguish it from wild members of the family. Housing over 50 wild cats, from the world’s largest, the Amur Tiger to the most endangered, the Amur Leopard. Wikijunior:Big Cats is a featured book on Wikibooks because it contains substantial content, it is well-formatted, and the Wikibooks community has decided to feature it on the main page or in other places.

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Lymphasizing, otherwise known as rebounding or cellercising truly is a hell a lot of fun :-)! In addition to being fun, a trampoline workout, also known as rebounding has many great health benefits, particularly for your Immune System. Most people first fall in love with trampolines as children, but did you know that a trampoline workout can benefit adults just as much as they bring joy to the little ones? When researchers studied astronauts in the American Space Program while the astronauts were both weightless and under acceleration, the researchers found that the force of gravity was a very powerful factor in keeping the astronauts fit and well. When you’re vertical and using acceleration, deceleration and gravity, you’re creating the ideal conditions for cleansing your body’s cells. Rebound on a mini-trampoline to your favourite music that has a good rhythm and you’ll find that physical activity is much more convenient, relatively easy and enjoyable. If you really need to watch TV, do it while watching the latest documentary on a meaningful topic or a favourite show. Rebounding as described and mentioned in “Unlocking Your Health & Happiness” Rebounding is a true cellular exercise. You build physical cellular strength by challenging the structure of each cell. The remarkable health effect of regular rebounding is that at the bottom of a bounce, the gravity force is at a maximum– typically three times normal, and for a delightful moment at the top of the bounce you’re weightless and happy. By strengthening your cells in this way, you help protect yourself against degenerative disease. While you’re bouncing, by working against the constant gravitational pressure, you resist the earth’s pull. Gravity becomes a force that benefits your whole body. As a result, the lymphatic-system drainage of waste products is dramatically improved, because lymph circulation mostly depends on body movement. When you rebound, you improve the working of your heart muscle by both improving the tone and quality of the muscle itself and increasing the co-ordination of the fibres as they wring blood out of the heart during each beat. Rebounding is a strong aerobic exercise for developing greater lung capacity. It’s the stimulus for a free-flowing lymphatic-drainage system, which is for ridding your body of toxins, cancer cells, wastes, trapped proteins, bacteria, viruses and other waste that the cells cast off. When we rebound, we relieve tension and relax more easily. While you’re rebounding, your cells are being flooded with oxygen whereby they’re able to convert glucose to ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) and also to glycogen. You can therefore use rebounding to actually increase your ability to convert glucose into glycogen. Furthermore, you might be able to train your body (through consistent lymphasising) to store the glycogen and release it when you need it for a sudden burst of energy. When you rebound, you improve your muscle tone, strengthen every cell in your body, and improve your co-ordination and balance. At the top of the bounce, the G-force (gravity) is eliminated and your body becomes weightless for a fraction of a second. At the bottom of the bounce – the G-force suddenly becomes doubled compared with what’s normal. Commence the program gradually, by beginning with gentle bouncing for only five to seven minutes at a time. If convenient, repeat the bouncing five or six times during the day. Exercise daily or at least every second day. One of the most effective types of aerobic activity you can undertake on a rebounder is jogging or running, to enable your body to work harder for a longer period because the body isn’t absorbing the shock and stress entailed in hard-surface workouts. You simultaneously work all the major muscle groups and benefit from engaging in a calorie-burning, strength-conditioning exercise. Rebounding or cellercising is the seemingly simple exercise of jumping on a mini trampoline. With cumulating research demonstrating its phenomenal health effects, rebounding has grown in popularity as both a singular exercise and cross-training activity. I personally try to get some super fun rebounding done most days while watching a ted talk or research on YouTube to round up my daily trainings schedule but also reap all those amazing health benefits on a regular basis. But I have a confession to make: as a fitness-enthusiast, the first time I saw someone bouncing on a mini trampoline, my eyebrows moved up with shock and I crunched my lips together to hold in a burst of giggles. Yet over time, I found myself thinking about it, intrigued by the idea that this basic movement could have such profound proclaimed health implications. As I began to delve into the science behind it, I realized that rebounding is definitely not something to laugh about! Rebounding is super effective! The unique activity actually offers deep cellular reinvigoration that even the most rigorous physical training cannot otherwise provide. Rebounding may just be one of the most efficient, fun and frequently overlooked ways to tone the entire body, while reaping mind boggling health benefits that extend far beyond physical wellbeing and general health. Working out on the trampoline, or rebounding, has way less impact on the joints, soft tissue and skeleton. Due to how a trampoline is made, most often using either springs or bungee bands, it absorbs much of the impact at every bounce. Just be aware that there is a wide range of mini trampolines on the market and I personally use and recommend Bellicon as they are the market leader and provide German engineered quality and longevity. Rebounding can also be good for improving balance and coordination. It is also very good to improve Proprioception, which is the ability to sense the orientation and position of your body. When you stand on one leg with your eyes closed, proprioception is the process by which your body fires messages to your leg to make the continuous micro-adjustments that help you stay upright. Because we’re actively engaging the ocular and inner ear canal as we bounce, we’re working to improve balance, timing, coordination, and reaction time – all things which are important for just about everything we do in life. Did you actually know that rebounding can burn more calories than walking or jogging? Or that it’s a great way to work your major muscle groups because it allows you to work them through their full ranges of motion? A trampoline workout can also strengthen your body while detoxifying the cells within it. Plus, it’s a low-impact exercise option that’s very easy on the joints – something running simply can’t match. While you may think the type of large trampolines you seen in backyards may be a bit much, there are small versions that can fit right in your living room and are easy to store. So get ready to jump around and improve your health all at the same time. When oxygen reaches our cells, it helps strengthen them and provide the ability to endure more exercise efficiently, and because the body is able to increase oxygen uptake when rebounding, versus some other physical activities, it’s possible to get a much better workout. Rebounding can increase oxygen uptake because more oxygen can reach the cells due to the gravity changes that occur when bouncing. In some studies, when testing on the treadmill, the ability to uptake more oxygen was greater when working out on the trampoline. This could allow participants to perform exercise for longer periods of time. Bones are made of living tissue that is constantly being broken down and replaced. Rebounding produces up to 2-3 times vertical gravitation, which can serve as strengthening resistance for our bones. But unlike most forms of weight-bearing exercise, rebounding is very low impact, so it’s gentler on joints, cartilage, and vertebrae. Because of this, people who are already experiencing bone mineral loss and some other forms of degenerative health issues, are still able to continue exercising gently on a rebounder without aggravating their conditions. Perfect for the elderly generation too – to stay active, happy and fit! 54 of the endless & mind boggling Health Benefits Of Rebounding: 1. Helps rehabilitate existing heart problems & prevent them in the first place. Rebounding can improve seniors’ recovery from heart procedures because it encourages gentle, low-impact circulation. Rebounding is great for all ages from 1-110 and beyond. 2. Encourages collateral circulation. Having proper collateral circulation is not only important for seniors. This refers to the alternate path of circulation around a blocked artery or vein, such as a nearby blood vessel, which can prevent the aging population from experiencing strokes and prevent the younger generation from even getting to such risky state of health. 3. Easy on the joints. Rebounding has much less impact on joints and soft tissue than other exercises. Because a trampoline is made using either springs or bungee bands, it is able to absorb most of the body’s impact with every bounce. When bouncing, the pressure is more distributed throughout the body, whereas when walking or running, the pressure is mainly on the ankles and knees. There’s something special about rebounding compared to other forms of exercise. It is fun and low-impact, which means it is great for everyone. 4. Reduces the risk of falls. Research shows that it is best for older adults to do balance and muscle-strengthening activities, such as rebounding, to help reduce one’s risk of falling. 5. Improves memory. Rebounding improves blood circulation to the brain, which aids in proper brain function and memory in elderly adults but also in the younger generation. 6. Slows muscle atrophy. Rebounding helps slow down the inevitable muscle atrophy in the aging process and keeps your muscles toned. 7. Improves posture. As the body ages the curvature on the spine increases. Rebounding has been shown to help maintain proper body alignment and a strong posture. 8. Offers pain relief. Rebounding reduces common pains that come with age such as neck pains, back pains, and headaches. 9. Prevents edema. Rebounding can decrease the amount of blood that pools in the cardiovascular system’s veins, which helps prevent chronic edema. 10. Increases bone density. Rebounding can help people of all ages but especially seniors increase their bone strength and reduce the risk of developing osteoporosis. This can also help decrease the chances of getting a bone fracture, as one in two women and one in five men will break a bone because of osteoporosis. Add description1 Can reverse the impact of life-long stress. Rebounding for 30 minutes can decrease tension by increasing levels of calming brain chemicals such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. In fact, rebounding may actually work on a cellular level to help reverse the toll that stress takes on the aging process. 12. Helps you live longer. Being able to enjoy as many special moments with your family, friends and loved ones as you can is what life is really all about. Longevity should be on everyone’s radar! Keeping your body healthy to help you live longer is one of the biggest benefits of rebounding. Research has recently found that doing just 150 minutes of moderate exercise per week can increase your lifespan by 3.4 years. That’s huge! 13. Improves digestion. Many people but especially seniors suffer from digestive issues such as slow digestion and constipation. Rebounding on a regular basis helps encourage digestive health and is an excellent and pretty much” FREE Treatment” for people who suffer from gastrointestinal discomfort. 14. Reduces risk of developing dementia. Studies show that living a sedentary lifestyle in any age but especially in later years can increase one’s risk of developing dementia. Seniors who practice rebounding for exercise are less likely to develop dementia than those who do not. 15. Arthritis management. Rebounding is a great option for arthritis management. This type of exercise helps lubricate the joints and reduce the pain and stiffness that comes along with this disease. 16. Fights fatigue. After rebounding for say 10-20 minutes you can clearly feel that Buzzing in your body! Maybe immediately after rebounding you feel tired, but in the long-run, rebounding increases the strength that is needed to keep fatigue at bay. 17. Helps maintain independence as you get older. Maintaining functional independence is one thing that many aging adults want. Rebounding on a regular basis can help accomplish this if it is practiced for 30 minutes every day. 18. Reduces risk of cancer. Doing exercise such as rebounding helps lower one’s risk for developing a variety of different types of cancer. Studies have shown a 30-40% reduction in occurrences of breast cancer among women who participate in regular exercise. 19. Gives you antioxidant protection. Rebounding provides you with antioxidant protection and increases your blood flow, which can help protect the internal structure of your skin and delay signs of aging. 20. Improves sleep quality. Rebounding on a regular basis can help you relax and get a higher quality of sleep. The energy expended during rebounding stimulates your recovery processes while you sleep. 21. Can help you quit smoking or many other silly and bad habits. Rebounding can make it easier for you to quit smoking by limiting the intensity of your cravings and withdrawal symptoms. It can also reduce the weight you could possibly gain once you stop smoking. 22. Improves your sexual health. Rebounding can lower a man’s risk of erectile dysfunction or improve the sexual function of men who are already affected by erectile dysfunction. For women, exercise in general but rebounding in particular can help increase sexual arousal. 23. Reduces the urge to ruminate and helps with Happiness from within. Research has found that doing exercises such as rebounding helps prevent people from ruminating on past negative events by altering the blood flow to the areas in the brain that trigger people to repeat stressful thoughts over and over. 24. Improves balance. Rebounding increases your brain’s responsiveness to the vestibular apparatus within the inner ear, which is responsible for your sense of balance. 25. Improves the immune system. Rebounding boosts the immune system by stimulating the action of red bone marrow and supporting the repair of tissue. 26. Improves the endocrine system. Because getting rid of excess hormones and toxins is an important factor in a healthy endocrine system, rebounding is a great way to correct a hormone imbalance. 27. Improves the effects of other exercises. Studies have shown that people who rebounded for 30 seconds between each set of weight lifting saw 25% more improvement in their muscles after 12 weeks than those who didn’t rebound. That’s pretty cool to know! 28. Reduces your risk of chronic disease and keep you healthy. Rebounding helps improve insulin sensitivity, heart health, and body composition while decreasing blood pressure and blood fat. 29. Lowers blood pressure. Rebounding helps your muscles to contract, which results in the rhythmic compression of veins and arteries. This helps move fluids more effectively through the body and back to the heart, which helps lower peripheral blood pressure. 30. Increases endurance. Rebounding for over 20 minutes at a moderate level of intensity at least three times each week helps to increase your mitochondria, which benefits your overall endurance. 31. Increases lung capacity. People suffering from lung disease may experience diminished lung capacity over time. This refers to the maximum amount of oxygen your body can use and is an important part of bringing oxygen to your cells. 32. Helps circulate oxygen to tissues. Every tissue and cell in your body has to have a constant oxygen supply in order to work properly. If your tissues and cells do not get enough oxygen, every organ can be negatively impacted, especially the brain, heart, and kidneys. 33. Aids lymphatic circulation. Your lymphatic system works alongside your cardiovascular system to keep your blood and lymphatic fluid levels balanced and to flush out toxins from your body. Your lymphatic system also moves your immune cells throughout your body to create a defense against infections. 34. Gives your body an increased G-force. Having an increased G-force (or gravitational load) improves your health and helps your body by strengthening your musculoskeletal systems. 35. Pairs well with burst training and high-intensity interval training. These two popular forms of exercise that burn calories, improve endurance, and increase overall fitness can easily be done on a rebounder, making it a more convenient way to get fit in a shorter amount of time. 36. Rebounding has anti-inflammatory effects. Rebounding efficiently stimulates and helps lymphatic drainage, which has anti-inflammatory effects on your body. Medical Benefits of Rebounding are literally endless! 37. Increase self-confidence. Rebounding can help you feel better about yourself. Studies have shown that the simple act of doing exercises such as rebounding (rather than fitness itself) can help you believe that you look better. 38. Strengthens the heart. Heart disease is the #1 cause of death in Australia and the entire western world, so paying attention to your heart health is critical. 39. Is easy and portable. One of the best things about rebounding is that it is so easily accessible. You can use your rebounder inside or outside, so the weather will never prevent you from working out, but if you want to enjoy a nice day, you can take your rebounder outside. 40. Helps you maintain stable blood sugar. Rebounding can lower your blood sugar level and improve the work of your insulin. This can reduce your risk of developing metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes. If you already have one of these diseases, rebounding can help you to manage it. 41. Burns calories. To lose a pound of fat, you have to have a 3,500-calorie deficit between what you consume and the calories you burn. Rebounding helps burn those calories quickly while having a blast. 42. Tightens your tummy. Rebounding allows you to do a variety of moves to target specific areas of the body. You can do oblique twists while you jump to help define your waist. As you jump, twist your hips one way and your chest the other, and then switch sides. 43. Rebounding truly has a domino effect. If you wake up in the morning and do some rebounding, you will be happier and more productive throughout the day. 44. Keeps lost pounds off. Ninety percent of people who have been able to lose weight and keep it off for a year continue to do physical activity each day. Rebounding is a great way to maintain a newly acquired thinner physique and happily bounce around for the rest for your life. 45. Rebounding Not only Keeps on Track with Weight Issues it also Supports the Pelvic Floor for Your Sexual Health. You’ve probably heard of the pelvic floor, but you may not know exactly what it is. In short, the pelvic floor is a group of muscles that effectively form a hammock across the base of your pelvis and support the internal organs above it. Why it’s so important: Having strong and flexible pelvic floor muscles helps control the bladder, enhance orgasms, stabilize the hip joints, and connect to the deep core. By some estimates up to one in four women in the western world Australia, the US and the rest of it suffers from urinary incontinence, which is a loss of bladder control while coughing, sneezing, or even laughing or having sex. While there can be other medical reasons for this (such as pregnancy, menopause, and stress), often the problem is a weakened pelvic floor, which can be related to sitting too much, and tends to be exacerbated for moms after having kids. For most women, rebounding can have a very positive impact on re-building healthy tone in their pelvic floor area and core after they had babies. I’ve been recommending regular rebounding to all my clients for many reasons and have had amazing results—activating and toning the pelvic floor muscles with 15 to 20 minutes of bouncing a day. So, if you ever feel like you might pee yourself when someone tells a good joke, or you just want to feel generally more connected, stronger, and toned down there, rebounding can be excellent. Of course, check with your doctor first if you have any serious pelvic floor issues that may affect your ability to exercise. But if you’re cleared, and still have issues with bladder leakage while bouncing, go slowly and build up your time on the rebounder. Empty your bladder before you start the workout, and take a break if you feel the urge. As always: Listen to your body and aim for slow but constant improvements and results. 46. Helps prevent emotional eating. Rebounding helps regulate your mood with the rush of feel-good hormones you get from exercising. This has a direct impact on people who tend to eat when they’re upset because it helps improve mood. 47. Increases stamina to keep you going. Rebounding on a regular basis increases your stamina by boosting your production of neurotransmitters, which help promote energy. 48. Reduces cellulite. Cellulite is frequently caused by a stagnant lymph system. By increasing the lymphatic flow in your body, rebounding can reduce one of the main factors that lead to non-hereditary cellulite. Women often see a reduction in their cellulite after rebounding on a regular basis for just a few months. 49. Metabolic-supporting exercise. Long periods of cardio exercise may actually hinder a weight loss attempt because extended periods of “breathless” exercise can decrease your metabolism. Metabolic-supporting exercise, such as rebounding, is an important part of weight loss because it allows you to breathe comfortably for the duration of your exercise. 50. Secret Rebounding Secrets Exposed :-)! The Rebounding “Strength” Bounce Exercise Depending on your current health and physical condition you may consider to take advantage of this slightly harder Rebounding Exercise. This rebounder bounce involves jumping up as high as you can. This helps to strengthen your muscles, improves your balance, and moves your lymphatic system the most. This is the most difficult type of rebounding, which you want to eventually work up to. 51. Benefits of Rebounding for Weight Loss – Rebounding Enhances digestion and elimination. This will not only help you feel less bloated, it will also help your body get rid of nasty toxins. 52. Rebounding Stimulates Your Metabolism. Having a strong metabolism helps you burn more calories and fat throughout the day. 53. Lowers elevated cholesterol and triglyceride levels. Cholesterol and weight often go hand in hand, so lowering your cholesterol is important if you are concerned about your weight. 54. Secret Rebounder Nugget! The Pelvic Floor Bouncing Exercise A great way to connect to the pelvic floor is to hold a squishy ball between your knees as you gently bounce, which helps to engage your inner thighs and pelvic floor. Place your hands on your pubic bone and breathe into your pelvis. Exhale as you squeeze your inner thighs. Visualize pulling in and up around the hammock of your pelvic floor muscles (like a Kegel). Try going for 2-5 minutes—be sure to work your way up if you have a weak pelvic floor. After you’re done bouncing, it’s important to completely relax your abs and pelvic floor, and shake your limbs and body out, so you don’t get stuck holding tension. How to Choose a Good Rebounder? Because many injuries can occur while on a trampoline, it’s critical that you don’t go the cheaper route because cheaper trampolines tend to break or malfunction, causing injury. They also can lack the support needed to be effective. It’s important that your rebounder has at least 32 springs that taper at the end. This provides the proper flexibility and a more even bounce. Steel construction lasts longer, too. Some models offer support bars, which may be useful, especially for beginners or the elderly. Recommended trampolines: I personal have been using a Bellicon Rebounder for the last 10 years and never look back. Great quality and longevity. All in all a fantastic investment in your health and well being.

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A hamlet is a small human settlement. In different jurisdictions and geographies, hamlets may be the size of a town, village or parish, be considered a smaller settlement or subdivision or satellite entity to a larger settlement; the word and concept of a hamlet have roots in the Anglo-Norman settlement of England, where the old French hamlet came to apply to small human settlements. In British geography, a hamlet is considered smaller than a village and distinctly without a church; the word comes from Anglo-Norman hamelet, corresponding to Old French hamelet, the diminutive of Old French hamel. This, in turn, is a diminutive of Old French ham borrowed from Franconian languages. Compare with modern French hameau, Dutch heem, German Heim, Old English hām and Modern English home. In Afghanistan the counterpart of the hamlet is the qala meaning "fort" or "hamlet"; the Afghan qala is a fortified group of houses with its own community building such as a mosque, but without its own marketplace. The qala is the smallest type of settlement in Afghan society, trumped by the village, larger and includes a commercial area. In Australia a hamlet is a small village. A hamlet differs from a village in having no commercial premises, but has residences and may have community buildings such as churches and public halls. In Canada's three territories, hamlets are designated municipalities; as of January 1, 2010: Northwest Territories had 11 hamlets, each of which had a population of less than 900 people as of the 2016 census. In Canada's provinces, hamlets are small unincorporated communities within a larger municipality, such as many communities within the single-tier municipalities of Ontario or within Alberta's specialized and rural municipalities. Canada's two largest hamlets—Fort McMurray and Sherwood Park—are located in Alberta, they each have populations, within their main urban area, in excess of 60,000—well in excess of the 10,000-person threshold that can choose to incorporate as a city in Alberta. As such, these two hamlets have been further designated by the Province of Alberta as urban service areas. An urban service area is recognized as equivalent to a city for the purposes of provincial and federal program delivery and grant eligibility. During the 18th century, for rich or noble people, it was up-to-date to create their own hameau in their gardens. They were a group of some houses or farms with rustic appearance, but in fact were comfortable; the best known is the Hameau de la Reine built by the queen Marie-Antoinette in the park of the Château de Versailles. Or the Hameau de Chantilly built by Prince of Condé in Chantilly, Oise. Lieu-dit is another name for hamlet; the difference is that a hamlet is permanently inhabited. The German word for hamlet is Weiler. A Weiler has, compared to no infrastructure; the houses and farms of a Weiler can be scattered. In North West Germany, a group of scattered farms is called Bauernschaft. In a Weiler there are no street names, the houses are just numbered. In different states of India, there are different words for hamlet. In Haryana and Rajasthan it is called "dhani" or "Thok". In Gujarat a hamlet is called a "nesada". In Maharashtra it's called a "pada". In southern Bihar in the Magadh division, a hamlet is called a "bigha". All over Indonesia, hamlets are translated as kampung. They are known as dusun in Central Java and East Java, banjar in Bali, jorong or kampuang in West Sumatra. In Pakistan a hamlet is called a gron. In Poland a hamlet is called osada, is a small rural settlement differing by type of buildings or inhabited by population connected with some place or workplace, it can be a part of other settlement, like village. In Romania hamlets are called cătunuri, they represent villages that contain several houses at most, they are considered villages, statistically, they are placed in the same category. Like villages, they do not have a separate administration, thus are not an administrative division, but are part of a parent commune. In the Russian language there are several words which mean "a hamlet", but all of them are equal; the most common word is деревня. A hamlet in Russia has a church, some little shops, a school and a local culture center, in which different culture events and national holidays take place. A hamlet in Russia consists of several tens of wooden houses. In the past hamlets were the most common kind of settlement in Russia, but nowadays many hamlets in Russia are settled only during the summer as places for vacation because people go to towns and cities in order to find better North Wales Police North Wales Police is the territorial police force responsible for policing North Wales. The headquarters are in Colwyn Bay, with divisional headquarters in St Asaph and Wrexham. Gwynedd Constabulary was formed in 1950 by the amalgamation of Caernarfonshire Constabulary, Anglesey Constabulary and Merionethshire Constabulary. In 1974, the Local Government Act 1972 created an administrative county of Gwynedd covering the western part of the police area; as a result of this, the force was renamed North Wales Police on 1 April 1974. Under proposals made by the Home Secretary on 6 February 2006, the force would merge with Dyfed-Powys Police, Gwent Police and South Wales Police to form a single strategic force for all of Wales; the proposals were shelved. The North Wales Police Authority consisted of 17 members, of whom 9 were councillors, 3 were magistrates and 5 were independent members; the councillors were appointed by a Joint Committee of the unitary authority councils of Anglesey, Denbighshire, Flintshire and Wrexham. The Police Authority was replaced by the Office of the North Wales Police and Crime Commissioner in November 2012. On 4 May 2011, North Wales Police completed a major restructure, moving from 3 territorial divisions to a single North Wales-wide Policing function. North Wales Police is a partner in the following collaboration: North West Police Underwater Search & Marine Unit North Wales and Cheshire Firearms Alliance Wales Extremism and Counter Terrorism Unit In recent years North Wales Police has attracted a great deal of media attention above and beyond its size. Many have attributed this phenomenon to its former Chief Constable Richard Brunstrom, who accepts he is obsessed with speeding motorists, he has courted controversy and publicity through his vocal views on speeding motorists and the legalisation of drugs. The Sun newspaper dubbed him the "Mad Mullah of the Traffic Taleban." Despite this negative publicity he has earned respect for learning the Welsh language promoting the normalisation of its use within the force at all levels and conversing publicly through it on numerous occasions. He is credited with modernising the organisation's infrastructure in comparison with other areas of Britain. In April 2007, Brunstrom came under fire for an incident in which he showed a photograph of the severed head of a biker in a press meeting without the family's permission. Brunstrom maintains that it was a "closed" meeting, a point made both on the invitation and verbally, that no details of the picture should have been leaked, it drew criticism because the photo enabled the media to identify the deceased, since he was wearing a distinctive T-shirt with an anti-police message on it, which gained a lot of attention during the inquest. Motorcycle News magazine handed in a 1,600 signature petition to the Independent Police Complaints Commission in London requesting Brunstrom be removed, The Independent Police Complaints Commission confirmed that it would carry out an independent review into the incident. Other people note that the motorcyclist, killed, caused the accident that disabled the other car driver, so Brunstrom has a valid point that motoring is an important area to focus on. North Wales Police has attracted attention due to its investigation into allegations of anti-Welsh comments by TV personality Anne Robinson and UK Prime Minister Tony Blair. The force was believed to have carried out these investigations following complaints from members of the public; the 10-month investigation into the Prime Minister was dropped on 11 July 2006 due to a lack of evidence. It had cost £1,656, whereas the Anne Robinson investigation cost £3,800; as with all other territorial police force North Wales Police have police community support officers. As of 31 March 2011 North Wales Police have 159 PCSOs. Unlike the majority of police forces in England and Wales North Wales Police is only one out of three forces that issue its PCSOs hand cuffs The only other forces that do this are Dyfed-Powys Police and British Transport Police; the issuing of handcuffs to PCSOs has been controversial. Sir Philip Myers, 1974 to 1982 David Owen, 1982 to 1994 Michael Argent, 1994 to 2001 Richard Brunstrom, 2001 to 2009 Mark Polin, 2010 to 2018 Gareth Pritchard, Temporary Chief Constable, 2018 to Present List of police forces in Wales sorted by region Policing in the United Kingdom North Wales Fire and Rescue Service North Wales Police North Wales Police and Crime Commissioner North Wales YouTube channel Transshipment or transhipment is the shipment of goods or containers to an intermediate destination to another destination. One possible reason for transshipment is to change the means of transport during the journey, known as transloading. Another reason is to combine small shipments into a large shipment, dividing the large shipment at the other end. Transshipment takes place in transport hubs. Much international transshipment takes place in designated customs areas, thus avoiding the need for customs checks or duties, otherwise a major hindrance for efficient transport. An item handled as a single movement is not considered transshipped if it changes from one mode of transport to another at several points, it was not distinguished from transloading, since each leg of such a trip was handled by a different shipper. Transshipment is fully legal and an everyday part of world trade. However, it can be a method used to disguise intent, as is the case with illegal logging, smuggling, or grey-market goods. The transshipment of containers at a container port or terminal can be defined as the number of containers expressed in TEU, of the total container flow, handled at the port or terminal and, after temporary storage in the stack, transferred to another ship to reach their destinations. The exact definition of transshipment may differ between ports depending on the inclusion of inland water transport; the definition of transshipment may: include only seaborne transfers. Most coastal container ports in China have a large proportion of riverside "transshipment" to the hinterland. In both cases, a single, transshipped container is counted twice in the port performance, since it is handled twice by the waterside container cranes... At a break-of-gauge, cargo is transloaded from boxcars or covered goods wagons on one track to wagons on another track of a different rail gauge, or else containers are transloaded from flatcars on one track to flatcars on another track of a different gauge. Variable-gauge axles can eliminate this inconvenience. Cross-docking Customs area Entrepôt List of free ports List of world's busiest transshipment ports Milk run Transshipment problem What Is Transshipment? from Informed Trade website E. Rojas. "MCS Observers on board at-sea Transshipment Vessels." In: APO Mail Buoy Vol. 10. Pp. 8–9. 2007 Fire services in the United Kingdom The fire services in the United Kingdom operate under separate legislative and administrative arrangements in England and Wales, Northern Ireland, Scotland. Emergency cover is provided by over fifty agencies; these are known as a fire and rescue service, the term used in modern legislation and by government departments. The older terms of fire brigade and fire service survive in informal usage and in the names of a few organisations. England and Wales have local fire services which are each overseen by a fire authority, made up of representatives of local governments. Fire authorities have the power to raise a Council Tax levy for funding, with the remainder coming from the government. Scotland and Northern Ireland have centralised fire services, so their authorities are committees of the devolved parliaments; the total budget for fire services in 2014-15 was £2.9 billion. Central government maintains national standards and a body of independent advisers through the Chief Fire and Rescue Adviser, created in 2007, while Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue Services provides direct oversight. The devolved government in Scotland has HMFSI Scotland. Firefighters in the United Kingdom are allowed to join unions, the main one being the Fire Brigades Union, while chief fire officers are members of the National Fire Chiefs Council, which has some role in national co-ordination; the fire services have undergone significant changes since the beginning of the 21st century, a process, propelled by a devolution of central government powers, new legislation and a change to operational procedures in the light of terrorism attacks and threats. See separate article History of fire safety legislation in the United Kingdom Comprehensive list of recent UK fire and rescue service legislation: Fire services are established and granted their powers under new legislation which has replaced a number of Acts of Parliament dating back more than 60 years, but is still undergoing change. 1938: Fire Brigades Act 1938. This Act provided for centralised co-ordination of fire brigades in Great Britain and made it mandatory for local authorities to arrange an effective fire service. 1947: Fire Services Act 1947 This Act transferred the functions of the National Fire Service to local authorities. Now repealed in England and Wales by Schedule 2 of the Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004. 1959: Fire Services Act 1959 This Act amended the 1947 Act. It was repealed in Wales along with the 1947 Act. 1999: Greater London Authority Act 1999 This act was necessary to allow for the formation of the Greater London Authority and in turn the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority. In 2002, there was a series of national fire strikes, with much of the discontent caused by the aforementioned report into the fire service conducted by Prof Sir George Bain. In December 2002, the Independent Review of the Fire Service was published with the industrial action still ongoing. Bain's report led to a change in the laws relating to firefighting. 2002: Independent Review of the Fire Service published 2004: Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004 only applying to England and Wales. 2006: The Regulatory Reform Order 2005 This piece of secondary legislation or statutory instrument replaces several other acts that dealt with fire precautions and fire safety in premises, including the now defunct process of issuing fire certificates. It came into force on 1 October 2006. The DfCLG has published a set of guides for non-domestic premises: 2006: The Government of Wales Act 2006 gave the National Assembly for Wales powers to pass laws on "Fire and rescue services. Promotion of fire safety otherwise than by prohibition or regulation." But does not prevent future legislation being passed by the UK government which applies to two or more constituent countries. There are further plans to modernise the fire service according to the Local Government Association, its website outlines future changes, specific projects: "The aim of the Fire Modernisation Programme is to adopt modern work practices within the Fire & Rescue Service to become more efficient and effective, while strengthening the contingency and resilience of the Service to react to incidents. " The fire service in England and Wales is scrutinised by a House of Commons select committee. In June 2006, the fire and rescue service select committee, under the auspices of the Communities and Local Government Committee, published its latest report. Committee report The committee's brief is described on its website: The Communities and Local Government Committee is appointed by the House of Commons to examine the expenditure and policy of the Department for Communities and Local Government and its associated bodies. Government response This document, the subsequent government response in September 2006, are important as they outlined progress on the FiReControl, efforts to address diversity and the planned closure of HMFSI in 2007 among many issues. Both documents are interesting as they refer back to Professor Bain's report and the many recommendations it made and continue to put forward the notion that there is an ongoing need to modernise FRSs. For example, where FRSs were inspected by HMFSI, much of this work is now carried out by the National Audit Office. Fire Control On 8 February 2010 the House of Commons Communities and Local Governm Wales is a country, part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, the Bristol Channel to the south, it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon, its highest summit; the country has a changeable, maritime climate. Welsh national identity emerged among the Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Wales is regarded as one of the modern Celtic nations. Llywelyn ap Gruffudd's death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of England's conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century; the whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. Distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism and the Labour Party. Welsh national feeling grew over the century. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters. At the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, development of the mining and metallurgical industries transformed the country from an agricultural society into an industrial nation. Two-thirds of the population live in South Wales, including Cardiff, Swansea and the nearby valleys. Now that the country's traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales' economy depends on the public sector and service industries and tourism. Although Wales shares its political and social history with the rest of Great Britain, a majority of the population in most areas speaks English as a first language, the country has retained a distinct cultural identity and is bilingual. Over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the "land of song", in part due to the eisteddfod tradition. At many international sporting events, such as the FIFA World Cup, Rugby World Cup and the Commonwealth Games, Wales has its own national teams, though at the Olympic Games, Welsh athletes compete as part of a Great Britain team. Rugby union is seen as an expression of national consciousness; the English words "Wales" and "Welsh" derive from the same Germanic root, itself derived from the name of the Gaulish people known to the Romans as Volcae and which came to refer indiscriminately to all non-Germanic peoples. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Britons in particular, Wēalas when referring to their lands; the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. In Britain, the words were not restricted to modern Wales or to the Welsh but were used to refer to anything that the Anglo-Saxons associated with the Britons, including other non-Germanic territories in Britain and places in Anglo-Saxon territory associated with Britons, as well as items associated with non-Germanic Europeans, such as the walnut. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales. These words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning "fellow-countrymen"; the use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, different from other peoples. In particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage and language to the Welsh; the word came into use as a self-description before the 7th century. It is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. In Welsh literature, the word Cymry was used throughout the Middle Ages to describe the Welsh, though the older, more generic term Brythoniaid continued to be used to describe any of the Britonnic peoples and was the more common literary term until c. 1200. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh. Until c. 1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of these names, Cambrian and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales and the Welsh people. Examples include the Cambrian Mountains, the newspaper Cambrian News, the organisations Cambrian Airways, Cambrian Railways, Cambrian Archaeological Association and the Royal Cambrian Academy of Art. Outside Wales, a related form survives as the name Cumbria in North West England, once a part of Yr Hen Ogledd; the Cumbric language, thought to Caernarfon is a royal town and port in Gwynedd, with a population of 9,615. It lies along the A487 road, on the eastern shore of the Menai Strait, opposite the Isle of Anglesey; the city of Bangor is 8.6 miles to the north-east, while Snowdonia fringes Caernarfon to the east and south-east. Carnarvon and Caernarvon are Anglicised spellings that were superseded in 1926 and 1974, respectively; the villages of Bontnewydd and Caeathro are close by. The town is noted for its high percentage of native Welsh speakers. Due to this, Welsh is the predominant language of the town. Abundant natural resources in and around the Menai Strait enabled human habitation in prehistoric Britain; the Ordovices, a Celtic tribe, lived in the region during the period known as Roman Britain. The Roman fort Segontium was established around AD 80 to subjugate the Ordovices during the Roman conquest of Britain; the Romans occupied the region until the end of Roman rule in Britain in 382, after which Caernarfon became part of the Kingdom of Gwynedd. In the late 11th century, William the Conqueror ordered the construction of a motte-and-bailey castle at Caernarfon as part of the Norman invasion of Wales. He was unsuccessful, Wales remained independent until around 1283. In the 13th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, ruler of Gwynedd, refused to pay homage to Edward I of England, prompting the English conquest of Gwynedd; this was followed by the construction of Caernarfon Castle, one of the largest and most imposing fortifications built by the English in Wales. In 1284, the English-style county of Caernarfonshire was established by the Statute of Rhuddlan; the ascent of the House of Tudor to the throne of England eased hostilities between the English and resulted in Caernarfon Castle falling into a state of disrepair. The city has flourished, leading to its status as a major tourist centre and seat of Gwynedd Council, with a thriving harbour and marina. Caernarfon experienced heavy suburbanisation, its population includes the largest percentage of Welsh-speaking citizens anywhere in Wales. The status of Royal Borough was granted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1963 and amended to Royal Town in 1974. The castle and town walls are part of a World Heritage Site described as the Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd; the present city of Caernarfon grew up around and owes its name to its Norman and late Medieval fortifications. The earlier British and Romano-British settlement at Segontium was named for the nearby Afon Seiont. After the end of Roman rule in Britain around 410, the settlement continued to be known as Cair Segeint and as Cair Custoient, of the History of the Britons, cited by James Ussher in Newman's life of Germanus of Auxerre, both of whose names appear among the 28 civitates of sub-Roman Britain in the Historia Brittonum traditionally ascribed to Nennius; the work states that the inscribed tomb of "Constantius the Emperor" was still present in the 9th century. The medieval romance about Maximus and Elen, Macsen's Dream, calls her home Caer Aber Sein and other pre-conquest poets such as Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd used the name Caer Gystennin. The Norman motte was erected apart from the existing settlement and came to be known as y gaer yn Arfon, "the fortress in Arfon". A 1221 charter by Llywelyn the Great to the canons of Penmon priory on Anglesey mentions Kaerinarfon. In 1283, King Edward I completed his conquest of Wales which he secured by a chain of castles and walled towns; the construction of a new stone Caernarfon Castle seems to have started as soon as the campaign had finished. Edward's architect, James of St. George, may well have modelled the castle on the walls of Constantinople being aware of the town's legendary associations. Edward's fourth son, Edward of Caernarfon Edward II of England, was born at the castle in April 1284 and made Prince of Wales in 1301. A story recorded in the 16th century suggests that the new prince was offered to the native Welsh on the premise "that was borne in Wales and could speake never a word of English", however there is no contemporary evidence to support this. Caernarfon was constituted a borough in 1284 by charter of Edward I. The charter, confirmed on a number of occasions, appointed the mayor of the borough Constable of the Castle ex officio. The former municipal borough was designated a royal borough in 1963; the borough was abolished by the Local Government Act 1972 in 1974, the status of "royal town" was granted to the community which succeeded it. Caernarfon was the county town of the historic county of Caernarfonshire. In 1911, David Lloyd George Member of Parliament for Caernarfon boroughs, which included various towns from Llŷn to Conwy, agreed to the British Royal Family's idea of holding the investiture of the Prince of Wales at Caernarfon Castle; the ceremony took place on 13 July, with the royal family paying a rare visit to Wales, the future Edward VIII was duly invested. In 1955 Caernarfon was in the running for the title of Capital of Wales on historical grounds but the town's campaign was defeated in a ballot o Turnpike trusts were bodies set up by individual acts of Parliament, with powers to collect road tolls for maintaining the principal roads in Britain from the 17th but during the 18th and 19th centuries. At the peak, in the 1830s, over 1,000 trusts administered around 30,000 miles of turnpike road in England and Wales, taking tolls at 8,000 toll-gates and side-bars. During the early 19th century the concept of the turnpike trust was adopted and adapted to manage roads within the British Empire and in the United States. Turnpikes declined with the coming of the railways and the Local Government Act 1888 gave responsibility for maintaining main roads to county councils and county borough councils; the term "turnpike" originates from the similarity of the gate used to control access to the road, to the barriers once used to defend against attack by cavalry. The turnpike consisted of a row of pikes or bars, each sharpened at one end, attached to horizontal members which were secured at one end to an upright pole or axle, which could be rotated to open or close the gate. Pavage grants made for paving the marketplace or streets of towns, began to be used for maintaining some roads between towns in the 14th century. These grants were made by letters patent invariably for a limited term the time to be required to pay for the required works. Tudor statutes had placed responsibility on each parish vestry to maintain all its roads; this arrangement was adequate for roads that the parishioners used themselves but proved unsatisfactory for the principal highways that were used by long-distance travellers and waggoners. During the late 17th century, the piecemeal approach to road maintenance caused acute problems on the main routes into London; as trade increased, the growing numbers of heavy carts and carriages led to serious deterioration in the state of these roads and this could not be remedied by the use of parish statute labour. A parliamentary bill was tabled in 1621/22 to relieve the parishes responsible for part of the Great North Road by imposing a scale of tolls on various sorts of traffic. The toll revenue was to be used in repairing the road, the bill was defeated. During the following forty years, the idea of making travellers contribute to the repair of roads was raised on several occasions. Many parishes continued to struggle to find funds to repair major roads and in Hertfordshire way wardens on behalf of the vestries stood frequent trial at quarter sessions for their failure to keep the Old North Road in a good state of repair. In 1656 the parish of Radwell, Hertfordshire petitioned their local sessions for help to maintain their section of the Great North Road; as a result judges on the Hertfordshire and Huntingdonshire circuit represented the matter to Parliament. It passed an act that gave the local justices of the peace powers to erect toll-gates on a section of the road, between Wadesmill, Hertfordshire; the toll-gate erected at Wadesmill was the prototype in England. Parliament gave similar powers to the justices in other counties in England and Wales. An example is the first Turnpike Act for Surrey in 1696, during the reign of William III for enhanced repairs between Reigate in Surrey and Crawley in Sussex. The act made provision to erect turnpikes, appoint toll collectors. The first scheme that had trustees who were not justices was established through a Turnpike Act in 1707, for a section of the London-Chester road between Fornhill and Stony Stratford; the basic principle was that the trustees would manage resources from the several parishes through which the highway passed, augment this with tolls from users from outside the parishes and apply the whole to the maintenance of the main highway. This became the pattern for the turnpiking of a growing number of highways, sought by those who wished to improve flow of commerce through their part of a county; the proposal to turnpike a particular section of road was a local initiative and a separate Act of Parliament was required to create each trust. The Act gave the trustees responsibility for maintaining a specified part of the existing highway, it provided them with powers to achieve this. Local gentlemen and merchants were nominated as trustees and they appointed a clerk, a treasurer and a surveyor to administer and maintain the highway. These officers were paid by the trust. Trustees were not paid, though they derived indirect benefits from the better transport, which improved access to markets and led to increases in rental income and trade; the first action of a new trust was to erect turnpike gates. The Act gave a maximum toll allowable for each class of vehicle or animal – for instance one shilling and six pence for a coach pulled by four horses, a penny for an unladen horse and ten pence for a drove of 20 cows; the trustees could call on a portion of the statute duty from the parishes, either as labour or by a cash payment. The trust applied the income to pay for labour and materials to maintain the road, they were able to mortgage future tolls to raise loans for new structures and for more substantial improvements to the existing highway. The trusts applied some funds to erecting tollhouses that accommodated the pikeman or toll-collector beside the tu

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Metabolic syndrome (MS) is recognized by a set of cardiovascular risk factors (CVRF) that usually coincide with insulin resistance and hyperglycemia. These risk factors include hyperglycemia (fasting glucose > 100 mg/dl), high blood pressure (SAD ≥ 130 mmHg and TAD ≥ 85 mmHg), triglyceride increase (≥150 mg/dl), decreased HDL levels <40 mg/dl, and central obesity (waist circumference ≥102 cm in men and ≥88 cm in women). The purpose of this chapter is to review the natural history of metabolic syndrome and epidemiology and to review risk factors for the appearance of metabolic syndrome, pathophysiology, and biochemistry among the various cardiovascular risk factors and their importance within the metabolic syndrome. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a review of the pathophysiology of metabolic syndrome (MS) and the relationship between its different components. Because this is a very broad subject, not all aspects will be discussed. Throughout the chapter, a bibliographic reference is left for each topic so that this can be looked into more deeply. This is a non-systematic review of the literature through research on PubMed and Google. At an epidemiologic study conducted by Armindo Sousa Ribeiro et al, in a Portuguese population, was found that 23.8% of the population has MS more prevalent in 24 males, no smoking, no significant alcohol consumption, sedentary life style, with a high body mass index (BMI) and its prevalence increases with age . Each CVRF has different importance in the metabolic syndrome . In Western societies, cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the main cause of mortality and morbidity for both sexes. This fact entails very high social and economic costs . CVDs are the biggest cause of mortality worldwide. In the 2010 Global Burden of Disease Study, CVD is estimated to cause 15.6 million deaths per year worldwide, corresponding to 29.6% of all deaths . Although the tendency is to reduce the number of deaths in Europe due to CVD, this remains the main cause of death, corresponding to more than 4 million deaths per year, that is to say 45% of all deaths recorded in Europe . Of the CVD, coronary heart disease remains the most important cause of death in both genders, which corresponds to 19% in the male sex and 20% in the female sex. 2. Metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular risk factors (CVRF) There are several definitions of MS. MS groups a constellation of pathophysiological factors that increase the risk of developing diabetes mellitus (DM) type 2 and CVD [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. At present, attempts have been made to unify criteria to have a consensus on its diagnosis . The World Health Organization (WHO), International Diabetes Federation (IDF), National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP-ATP III), and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (AACE) have proposed their diagnostic criteria or components of MS (Figure 1) . In 2009, representatives of the IDF and the American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (AHA/NHLBI)-ATP III Guidelines discussed resolving differences between definitions of MS, unifying criteria [6, 11]. The definition of MS according to the unification of criteria (harmonizing the metabolic syndrome) is used for many international works and publications and requires the presence of three of the following five criteria: Elevation of fasting blood glucose (≥100 mg/dl) or receiving antidiabetic treatment with insulin or oral antidiabetics Elevation of systolic blood pressure (SBP) ≥ 130 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure (PAD) ≥ 85 mmHg or receiving antihypertensive drug treatment High-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol values <40 mg/dl (men) or <50 mg/dl (women) Triglycerides ≥150 mg/dl or under treatment with specific lipid lowering agents Abdominal perimeter ≥102 cm (men) or ≥88 cm (women) [6, 12] The concept of MS was carried out in a progressive manner. Its clinical importance is enormous due to the fact that it can identify patients with high risk of suffering some CVD and/or DM, allowing a preventive intervention [6, 13, 14]. The notion that CVRF has a tendency to aggregation allows an earlier diagnosis of MS, thus also leading to the early introduction of therapeutic, pharmacological, or non-pharmacological measures. 2.2 Historical evolution The interest in the MS is not something recent. Its nomenclature has evolved over the years. About 260 years ago, before the description of MS, the Italian anatomist and doctor, Morgagni, identified the association between visceral obesity, arterial hypertension (AHT), atherosclerosis, hyperuricemia, and frequent episodes of sleep apnea. In the mid-twentieth century, French physicist Vague first identified the relationship between android obesity and the increased prevalence of DM and CVD. In the 1960s Avogaro and Crepaldi attributed the name “plurimetabolic syndrome” to the simultaneous presence of obesity, AHT, and DM. They verified that all these abnormalities were frequent among the population and contributed to an increase in cardiovascular risk . A decade later, Haller related this set of risk factors with atherosclerosis . In 1980, Vague suggested that adipose tissue alone had little effect on the onset of DM in obese individuals. It is currently known that central or android obesity is a predisposing factor for DM and atherosclerosis and affects insulin secretion unlike gynoid obesity . In 1988, Reaven described this phenomenon as syndrome X, the set of hyperglycemia and insulin resistance, obesity, dyslipidemia, and hypertension. Reaven also suggested that insulin resistance and the consequent increase in blood insulin levels were the central pathophysiological features in syndrome X which in itself was a risk factor for CVD [15, 16]. In 1993, Van Gaal attributed for the first time the name MS to all comorbidities associated with visceral obesity and currently this nomenclature is being used . The concept of MS has evolved significantly in the last decade, which resulted in the presentation of multiple clinical definitions by different scientific societies. In general terms as it was widely treated, MS is defined as an aggregation of several CVRF in the same individual. The nuclear elements for the classification and diagnosis of MS are basically obesity, abnormal glycemic metabolism, iatrogenic dyslipidemia, and hypertension. The metabolic syndrome was defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1998 [13, 15]. In 2001, there was a new revision of the definition through the National Cholesterol Education Program-Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP-ATP III), where glycemia is not considered an essential factor; in this way it only becomes one of the diagnostic components of MS . With the verification of evidence of the relationship between central obesity and cardiovascular risk, there was a tendency to value this diagnostic component for MS more. Thus, in 2004, the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) created a new definition of MS, where central obesity, defined by the value of the abdominal circumference, would be essential for diagnosis [7, 19]. With the adoption of this definition, an increase in the prevalence of MS was observed in a large part of the populations studied, particularly in the elderly . In 2005, a new review of the criteria by the American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (AHA/NHLBI) maintained the criteria of the NCEP-ATP III . The justification was the fact that in that criterion a single etiology for MS does not stand out and is of simpler application. They modified only the cutoff point of fasting blood glucose from 110 to 100 mg/dl, an adjustment promoted by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) in the diagnosis of DM. However, the first Brazilian Guideline for the Diagnosis of Treatment of MS, of 2005, uses the criteria of the NCEP-ATP III, of 2001, for diagnosis [22, 23]. In the criteria of the IDF, the component of the abdominal circumference becomes essential, using a smaller waist circumference, and categorized more people as having the MS than the ATP III definition. However, higher values of abdominal circumference in older people have been related to lower values of body mass index (BMI), in relation to younger adults [24, 25, 26, 27, 28]. 2.3 Prevalence of metabolic syndrome The prevalence of MS varies according to geographic area, with age, race, sex, and classification used for diagnosis . The DARIOS study performs a pooled analysis of 11 studies in 24,670 Spanish individuals aged 35–74, using the criteria of the IDF/NHLBI/AHA-2009, and shows a prevalence of 32% in men and 29% in women [12, 30]. The West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study (WOSCOPS), one of the largest in Europe, reports a general prevalence of 26.2% The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III), in the USA showed that 7% of individuals between the ages of 20 and 29, 42% of individuals with ages between 60 and 69 years, and 44% of individuals with ages over 70 years presented MS. The overall prevalence was 23.7% in the 8814 adults who entered the study. This study showed that the incidence increased with age, mainly after 40 years, with significant variations consistent with ethnicity, being the most frequent MS in Hispanics (31.9%) compared with Caucasians (23.8%) and African-Americans (21.6%). A similar prevalence was recorded in both sexes, although it was more prevalent in males in Caucasians and in females in African-Americans and Hispanics . Based on the Diabetes Epidemiology Collaborative Analysis of Diagnostic Criteria in Europe (DECODE) study of Europe in 2004, the prevalence of MS was 15.7% in male and 14.2% in the female . Epidemiological studies on MS have suggested that the prevalence of MS in Western societies is high and is increasing due to the increase in obesity, especially in younger individuals . In Portugal there are few studies on the prevalence of MS. In 2004, an epidemiological study was carried out in Porto where the prevalence of MS was 23.9%, being more prevalent in females (27%) than in males (19.1%) . In 2008, the first study was conducted on the prevalence of MS and its cardiovascular complications in the Portuguese adult population at the primary care level in continental Portugal, Azores, and Madeira—VALSIM study (epidemiological study of the prevalence of metabolic syndrome in the Portuguese population). In this study, 719 family doctors participated. The study was carried out between April 2006 and November 2007. A total of 16,856 individuals were evaluated between the ages of 18 and 96, with averages of 58.1 ± 15.1 years. This study showed a high prevalence of MS in adults affecting 27.5% of the population analyzed, being more prevalent in females (28.7%) compared with males (26%). This study revealed an increase in the prevalence of MS related to age, body mass index, and abdominal perimeter. This study also demonstrated the association between metabolic risk factors, including MS and the occurrence of cardiac events, stroke, and DM . The prevalence of MS exhibited a regional variation, being more prevalent in Alentejo (30.99%), Madeira (29.38%), Central Region (28.79%), and North Region (28.17%) and less prevalent in Algarve (24.42%), Lisbon and Tagus Valley (25.71%), and Azores (26.05%) . 3. Insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome The pathophysiology of MS is not yet fully understood, but the most accepted hypothesis is insulin resistance, so MS is also known as insulin resistance syndrome. Insulin resistance is defined as a defect in its action at the peripheral level that results in hyperinsulinemia, required to maintain normal blood glucose [36, 37]. Predisposing factors for insulin resistance are central obesity and the release of large concentrations of free fatty acids from adipose tissue. Free fatty acids in the liver will determine the increase in glycogenesis and gluconeogenesis, increased triglyceride production, and the secretion of very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL). Insulin is a hormone with anti-lipolytic action that is produced in pancreatic beta cells and is released into the bloodstream starting its metabolic effects after binding to its receptor. The insulin receptor is a transmembrane glycoprotein composed of four subunits linked by disulfide bridges, that is, two extracellular alpha subunits that contain the insulin binding domain and two β subunits, which contain an extracellular domain, a transmembrane domain, and a intracellular domain insulin binding to the α subunit and β subunit, and tyrosine kinase activation in the β subunit is the first stage of insulin action on glucose metabolism [38, 39]. The activation of tyrosine kinase, and phosphorylation of the β subunit of the insulin receptor, catalyzes the phosphorylation reaction of several tyrosine residues in a family of proteins called insulin receptor substrate (IRS), which include IRS-1, IRS-2, IRS-3, and IRS-4, which are the most specific in the insulin signaling cascade. Other isoforms are growth factor receptor-bound protein 2 (GRB2)-associated binding protein 1 (Gab-1), Shc, and p62 [40, 41]. Structurally, the four IRS proteins have many similarities, in particular, the phosphotyrosine-binding domain (PTB), whose function is the recognition sequence of asparagine-proline glutamic phosphotyrosine acid (NPEpY) located in the juxta membrane region of the β receptor of insulin. It is involved in the interaction of IRS proteins with the insulin receptor and with the COOH-terminal domain of the proteins, capable of binding to the SH2 domains . In addition to their similarities, the four IRS proteins differ in tissue distribution . The SH2 domain consists of 100 amino acids, and it is the phosphotyrosine binding site . The activation of proteins that contain the SH2 domain is important for the transmission of the insulin signal and thus carry out its functions . The IRS-1 gene located on chromosome 2q36–37 was the first substrate that was identified. IRS-1 is involved in many of the actions of insulin, in the activation of nitric oxide (NO) synthetase, in the activation of the activity of the iN + pump, and in vascular relaxation through activated protein kinases by mitogens (MAP kinase) [39, 42]. The IRS-2 gene is found on chromosome 13q34 . The IRS-2 protein and the IRS-1 are very similar in structure and functions, and the main difference lies in the region between amino acids 591 and 789 of the IRS-2. IRS-2, unlike IRS-1, is more in the cellular cytosol . IRS-3 does not appear to be expressed in human cells . IRS-4 is a protein that consists of 1257 amino acids located in the cell membrane of various organs in which it is expressed. It was discovered initially in embryonic kidney cells. The IRS-4 gene is found on the X chromosome . Insulin causes vascular relaxation through stimulation of NO production in the endothelial cells of blood vessels and by reducing the concentration of intracellular calcium in muscle and smooth muscle cells by decreasing sensitization of the light chains of calcium (Ca2+)-myosin. These effects are mediated by the activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) signaling pathway, as well as the stimulation of glucose transport in skeletal muscle and vascular adipose tissue . In the case of insulin resistance, the increase in lipolysis produces greater amounts of fatty acids, promoting greater inhibition of the lipolytic effect of insulin, causing an increase in lipolysis [46, 47]. Insulin resistance is defined as the inability of glucose uptake by skeletal muscle and adipose tissue and the inability of the liver to inhibit gluconeogenesis in response to an increase in insulin [38, 43]. The evidence of the causal relationships between insulin resistance and hypertension is increasing . There are still many uncertainties about the mechanisms that link the two conditions, but in addition to the common genetic predisposition between insulin resistance and AHT, there are several other possible mechanisms that can explain it [48, 49]. The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is a therapeutic target for AHT. Changes in the RAAS are also important in insulin resistance, and the common molecular mechanisms of insulin resistance and AHT are not well understood [50, 51]. The RAAS thus plays an important role in MS. Angiotensinogen is a 58 kDa protein produced primarily in the liver under physiological conditions, but it can be produced in smaller amounts in adipocytes, mesangial cells, and epithelial cells of the proximal contoured tubule and in the brain (neurons and glial cells). Angiotensinogen by the action of the renin enzyme produced in the glomerular juxta cells in the kidney is subjected to cleavage in the amino-terminal acid of 10 NH2 to form angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is an inactive peptide that is hydroxylated by the enzyme angiotensin converter, forming an octapeptide designated angiotensin II . The RAAS has autocrine/paracrine activity in various tissues, especially in the skeletal muscle, smooth muscle of blood vessels, kidneys, heart, and pancreas . The angiotensin (AT) II receptor is a transmembrane protein that belongs to the family of receptors coupled to the G protein which is divided into type I (AT1) and type II (AT2) [40, 42, 53]. The genes encoding the AT1 receptor were cloned in 1992, and the genes encoding the AT2 receptor were cloned in 1994 . The binding of angiotensin II to the AT1 receptor leads to the phosphorylation of various proteins such as IRS-1 and IRS-2, making the P110/PI3K subunit the common activation mechanism for the insulin signaling pathway. Resistance to insulin is caused by the inhibition of insulin through the inhibition of the mechanisms involved in glucose transport and vasodilation [42, 45]. Skeletal muscle is important in the development of insulin resistance, which is responsible for 75–95% glucose metabolism [55, 56]. Skeletal muscle constitutes the largest insulin-sensitive tissue in the body and is the primary site for insulin-stimulated glucose utilization . Skeletal muscle resistance to insulin is fundamental to the metabolic dysregulation associated with obesity and physical inactivity and contributes to the development of the MS . Potential mechanisms contributing to reduced insulin signaling and action in skeletal muscle include adipose tissue expansion and increased inflammatory adipokines, increased RAAS activity, decreases in muscle mitochondrial oxidative capacity, increased intramuscular lipid accumulation, and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) . Angiotensin II has prooxidant and pro-inflammatory effects that regulate apoptosis, inflammation, cell growth, fibrosis, and insulin sensitivity by inducing the formation of oxygen free radicals through the enzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase . ROS are formed by the electron transport chain in the mitochondria, and it increases in situations that require the oxidation of substrates such as glucose . Multiple ROS activate transcription factors such as factor nuclear kappa B (NF-KB) protein-1 and hypoxia-inducible factor-1 HIF-1, which are involved in the mechanism of insulin resistance in skeletal muscle . Hyperinsulinemia can alter some of the components of the RAAS such as pro-fibrotic stimulants and pro-inflammatory actions mediated by angiotensin II and can cause cardiovascular disease development . 3.1 Relationship between inflammation and insulin resistance Obesity is a worldwide epidemic that has generated many scientific publications in recent years. Thus, new paradigms were emerging, while the old challenges are still to be unraveled . Obesity is a chronic disease and has become a major problem in most industrialized countries due to its increased prevalence and association with various diseases and due to its great economic impact . To preserve the energy reserves of body fat during periods of negative energy balance, the body has developed various regulatory mechanisms . This control is achieved by balancing the intestinal absorption of glucose, the production of glucose by the liver, and the absorption and metabolism of glucose by peripheral tissues . Insulin regulates blood glucose due to its action in stimulating glucose uptake in the muscle and liver and inhibiting hepatic gluconeogenesis . Despite the change in tolerance to the action of insulin initially, blood glucose is normal because pancreatic β cells have the ability to increase the ability of insulin secretion to overcome existing insulin resistance . Excess nutrients induce hypertrophy of adipocytes that promote the development of various chronic morbidities such as type 2 DM and insulin resistance, glucose intolerance, and dyslipidemia with the consequent development of cardiovascular diseases . There is also strong evidence to suggest that cell hypoxia may be an important factor in the pathophysiology of adipocytes and may be one of the causes of this dysfunction contributing to the metabolic alteration associated with obesity . Obesity is defined according to the WHO, as an abnormal or excessive accumulation of fat that can cause imbalances in the health of an individual . Males are more likely to accumulate intra-abdominal adipose tissue compared with females [32, 64]. On average, men have twice the amount of visceral fat than women and have a higher prevalence of metabolic diseases associated with obesity and MS . Obesity is associated with a higher incidence of type 2 DM, insulin resistance, AHT, dyslipidemia, some types of cancer, and CVD . Fat tissue is deposited in two main compartments, subcutaneous and central or visceral . Based on this, obesity can be divided into central and peripheral obesity. Central obesity is characterized by hyperplasia and hypertrophy of adipocytes around the intra-abdominal organs and is associated with greater development of MS . Adipocyte hypertrophy is the main consequence of excess nutrient intake, promoting the development of insulin resistance and glucose intolerance . Triglycerides present in fatty tissue are the body’s largest energy reserve, so adipose tissue is a very effective energy storage mechanism that allows survival of living beings in times of famine . Recent studies have shown that hypoxia in adipose tissue can play an important role in the cellular mechanisms of chronic inflammation, macrophage infiltration, adiponectin reduction, leptin elevation, adipocyte apoptosis, and reticulum endoplasmic and mitochondrial dysfunction in white adipose tissue in obese . Hypoxia inhibits pre-adipocyte differentiation and stimulates the secretion of leptin and vascular epithelial growth factor (VEGF) of mature adipocytes . There are several genes that regulate the action of hypoxia, such as HIF-1α (hypoxia-inducible factor 1α), vascular endothelial growth factor VEGF, glucose transporter-1 (GLUT-1), heme oxygenase-1, and pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 . It was found that, under conditions of hypoxia in adipose tissue, all genes increased their expression except for VEGF messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) . Adipose tissue is thus divided into white adipose tissue and brown adipose tissue, which have different functions. Brown adipose tissue has the function of producing heat. The understanding and vision we currently have in white adipose tissue have changed significantly in the last 15 years . Currently, white adipose tissue is considered, not only as a tissue in which energy is stored in the form of triglycerides but also as the main secretory and endocrine organ of the organism . White adipose tissue produces and secretes various proteins. Initially, these proteins were designated adipocytokines . Currently, it is universally adopted the name of adipokines to the set of proteins synthesized and secreted by adipose tissue, since not all proteins are cytokines . In addition to adipokines and fatty acids, adipose tissue produces other lipid substances such as steroid hormones, prostaglandins and prostanoids, cholesterol, and retinol (cholesterol and retinol are not synthesized by adipocytes but are stored and released from them) . In 1994, Friedman and his colleagues discovered leptin, a hormone produced by white adipose tissue. Leptin, also called OB protein, is a hormone composed of 16 kDa and is produced from a protein with molecular weight of 18 kDa. It is cleaved leading to the production of leptin protein. Leptin is expressed in many tissues including the white and brown adipose tissue, stomach, placenta, mammary gland, ovarian follicles, and others . It is expressed primarily in adipose tissue, but it is also expressed in smaller amounts in the brain and in the cerebrospinal fluid . Leptin acts both in the central nervous system (hypothalamus) and in the peripheral organs. This discovery allowed us to realize that adipose tissue is not only a tissue in which energy storage occurs but also an endocrine organ . White adipose tissue produces various adipokines, many of which are inflammatory mediators such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-β, and IL-6. The production of inflammatory interleukins increases with obesity and is involved in the development of insulin resistance and in the metabolic syndrome [62, 74]. Adipokines have various functions, in particular in the energy balance (e.g., leptin) on insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism (e.g., adiponectin), inflammation (e.g., TNF-α), immunity (e.g., adipsin), lipid metabolism (e.g., cholesterol ester transfer protein), blood pressure control (e.g., angiotensinogen) hemostasis (e.g., plasminogen activation inhibitor-1), and angiogenesis (e.g., vascular epidermal growth factor) [62, 71]. 3.2 Relationship between hypoxia and insulin resistance Obesity is characterized by a state of chronic inflammation with increased inflammatory parameters, for example, haptoglobin, IL-6, C-reactive protein (CRP), plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), and TNF-α . Large concentrations of cytokines produced by adipose tissue, such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β, and low concentrations of certain adiponectins cause chronic hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance . 3.3 Relationship between endothelial dysfunction and insulin resistance During periods of positive energy balance, there is an increase in white adipose tissue in order to be able to store excess triglycerides. Consequently, adipose tissue becomes hypoxic due to the decrease in vascularization of the same . The role of hypoxia in adipose tissue in obesity and insulin resistance is still unclear . Regulatory responses mediated by HIF-1 depend on its degree and duration . HIF-1 is a heterodimeric transcription factor induced by hypoxia and composed of two subunits, the α subunit consisting of 120 kDa and the β subunit, consisting of 91 to 94 kDa . The α subunit (HIF-1α) determines the transcriptional activity of HIF-1, and its increase occurs in response to hypoxia. The β (HIF-1β) subunit is constitutively expressed and may also be referred to as an aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator (tRNA) . Under normoxia conditions, HIF-1α is hydroxylated in proline and asparaginyl residues, catalyzed by the enzyme prolylhydroxylase (PHD), which promotes binding to an ubiquitin ligase complex. This process leads to proteosomal degradation mediated by HIF-1 [76, 78]. Under conditions of hypoxia, hydroxylation and activation of HIF-1 target genes are inhibited . HIF-1α activates fibrosis of adipose tissue, causing an increase in macrophage infiltration into adipose tissue that mediates a greater increase in inflammation and concomitant sensitivity decrease in insulin [79, 80]. VEGF is a target gene of HIF-1. VEGF promotes angiogenesis, a necessary process for the differentiation of adipocytes and the growth of adipose tissue . 4. Obesity and metabolic syndrome The endothelium is a layer of cells that lines the inner surface of the blood vessel . Endothelial dysfunction is defined as the interruption of the release of vasodilator factors such as NO and prostacyclin (PGI2) and vasoconstrictor factors such as endothelin-1 (ET-1) and angiotensin II . Alterations in vascular endothelial function at the level of adipose tissue can cause insulin resistance . In insulin resistance, the release rate of free fatty acids from the adipose tissue, which contribute to diabetic dyslipidemia, increased. HDL-cholesterol decreased, increasing low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and free fatty acids. This stimulates the inflammatory response, causing the adhesion of monocytes and lymphocytes to the endothelial cells, and increases the flow of glucose and free fatty acids to the cells, causing excessive formation of oxygen free radicals, with an increase in metabolic and hemodynamic degradation. There is an increase in free radicals and nitrites by intramitochondrial enzymatic oxy-reduction which promotes apoptosis and impaired vascular endothelial function . This alteration causes insulin metabolic dysfunction, promoting greater resistance to insulin [74, 82]. 4.1 Relationship between insulin resistance and hypertension in obesity Obesity alone is the cause of AHT in 78% of men and 65% of women . Evidence of the causal relationship between insulin resistance and AHT is increasing . Under physiological circumstances, insulin and insulin growth factor-1 (IGF-1) increase vasodilation by stimulating the production of NO and reducing the concentration of intravascular calcium in vascular smooth muscle cells. It also increases the sensitization of myosin-Ca2+ light chains. These actions are mediated through the activation of the PI3K enzyme and the Akt protein. Vascular relaxation in response to activation of PI3K/Akt pathway is mediated by endothelial cells producing NO, which involves phosphorylation of endothelial NO synthetase . Patients with AHT have an increase in fasting and postprandial insulin levels in relation to non-hypertensive patients with the same body mass index . It does not occur with secondary AHT but with essential AHT. This is related in part to the action of insulin that changes at the level of muscle tissue, which is the predominant site of glucose use stimulated by insulin . There is an association between blood pressure and the proportion of type II fibers in skeletal muscle, which are less sensitive to insulin than type I fibers . Under normal physiological conditions, there is a relationship between glucose-mediated insulin availability and increased blood flow in response to insulin. This response decreases in obese people with insulin resistance, which suggests resistance to insulin action in reference to vascular NO production . Due to the difficulty of assimilating the rapid growth of adipose tissue in a hypoxia at an early stage, conditions are created for an increase in the expression of HIF-1α [84, 85, 86, 87]. There is evidence that insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia predispose patients to the development of AHT due to cellular abnormalities in insulin signaling pathways and are associated with metabolic and hemodynamic alterations . Metabolic abnormalities are linked to hypertension caused by pathophysiological processes that involve the sympathetic-adrenergic system, the imbalance of cell cations, the increase in inflammation, the oxidative stress, and the RAAS . RAAS plays an important role in insulin resistance by being more active in visceral adipose tissue compared to peripheral adipose tissue . Insulin resistance in obese individuals is also associated, in part, with an antagonism to the action of angiotensin II (AT II) . This produces a decrease in NO production with an increase in vasoconstriction and a decrease in GLUT-4 in skeletal muscle. It also reduces glucose uptake and decreases vasodilation in tissues . Under normal conditions, the RAAS system is a mechanism for regulating blood pressure . With the increase in the activity of the RAAS, there is a greater production of ATII, which leads to stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system, insulin resistance, sodium retention, and increased intravascular volume. It also contributes to kidney disease, hypertension, insulin resistance, and left ventricular hypertrophy . There is a common genetic predisposition to insulin resistance and hypertension. Genetic defects have been described in people who had insulin resistance and AHT and mutations found on chromosome 7q, where other genes important for glycemic control, blood pressure, and obesity are also found . Hyperinsulinemia can directly stimulate the reabsorption of sodium and water in the kidney, which increases the volume in the extracellular space, causing AHT. Another mechanism by which insulin can cause hypertension involves stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) by increasing the concentration of norepinephrine. This increase is directly related to the increase in pulse and blood pressure by direct effect on the reabsorption of sodium in the kidney, peripheral vasoconstriction, and increased cardiac output . The correlation of CVRF with the metabolic syndrome differs from one another. The notion that CVRF has a tendency to aggregation allows an earlier diagnosis of MS, thus also leading to the early introduction of therapeutic, pharmacological, or non-pharmacological measures. The prevalence of MS increases with age and is present in people of working age, increasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases, work-related absences, and socioeconomic costs. The concept of MS was carried out in a progressive manner. Its clinical importance is enormous due to the fact that it can identify patients with high risk of suffering some CVD and/or DM, allowing a preventive intervention. This may explain the importance of understanding the pathophysiology of the MS, and the author hopes that at the end of the chapter, the reader can understand it. This chapter is the beginning of an explanation of metabolic syndrome that should be complemented by reading other articles.

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- Interview by - Alex Gourevitch In 1855, Herman Melville published “Benito Cereno,” a novella about a New England ship captain who suppresses a slave rebellion onboard another ship discovered off the coast of Lima, Peru. The story takes place in Melville’s favorite setting, a ship in open water, and deals with one of his main preoccupations: slavery. As it happens, it is also true. Thanks to Greg Grandin’s masterful Empire of Necessity: Slavery, Freedom, and Deception in the New World, we now know that history. The remarkable event at the core of the book is a nine-hour charade pulled off by insurgent slaves, led by two West Africans named Babo and Mori. Having been shipped across the Atlantic, led on a forced march over the Andes, and loaded onto another ship, the Tryal, they sail up the South American coast to the Lima slave market. Somewhere off the coast of what would become Chile, the slaves rise up, murdering most of their captors and taking their captain, Benito Cerreño, hostage. They hope to force Cerreño to take them home to Senegambia. However, lacking adequate sea knowledge, they are unaware that the captain has managed to keep them in South American waters. Weeks after their revolt, still adrift in the Pacific near Lima, the rebels cross paths with a New England sealer, the Perseverance, whose captain, Amasa Delano, they allow to board. At this point, they are starving and desperate. Aware their future hangs in the balance, Babo and Mori engage in a temporarily successful deception, pretending to be enslaved and forcing Cerreño to play captain. For most of the day, Delano believes that Cerreño remains in control of the ship, but when Delano returns to his own ship, Cerreño throws himself overboard, and the ruse is revealed. Outraged, Delano and his men unleash a bloodbath so gruesome that it surprises Delano himself. Lances and weapons that had been used to kill and skin seals are used to equally brutal effect on the insurgents. Having retaken the Tryal, Delano sails on to a Chilean port, where some of the leading rebels are executed, and the rest are forced back into slavery. Delano eventually receives a reward for retaking the ship, but his failed sealing voyage has left him so deeply in debt that he ends life bankrupt. He sells his ship, leaves the sea behind, and writes the memoirs that became the basis for Melville’s novella. Grandin’s book not only reconstructs these events, but in the process takes us from Duxbury, Massachusetts, to Bristol, England, to Senegambia, to Lima, to trace the complex threads of the slave trade that tied sealing captains like Amasa Delano to West African slave rebels like Babo and Mori to Latin American captains like Cerreño. Along the way we learn how capitalism, slavery, and competing notions of freedom have been historically related; how doctors used slaves in early experiments with vaccination; how the slave trade was the chrysalis out of which came modern tort law and financial instruments; that Islam spread among slaves and became the basis for a number of slave revolts; that ships were floating tyrannies and seal hunters barbarians of a special sort; and much more. What follows is an interview, edited and condensed, that Jacobin contributor Alex Gourevitch conducted with Grandin, a professor of history at New York University. Throughout, we have a sense that this is a book not just about the early entanglement of slavery and capitalism but about the persistence of that entanglement in our own time. In your mind, what exactly is the connection between the two? The structuring event of the book has the triangular symmetry of a play, centering on Delano, Benito Cerreño, who was the captain of the ship but now prisoner of the West Africans, and Mori, a slave-turned-rebel-turned-actor who for a full day tricked Delano into believing he was Cerreño’s loyal slave. There are many details to the deception, but in broad terms I take it as exposing chattel slavery’s foundational deceit, that slaves had no interior lives or thoughts of their own, that what there was on the outside was what there was on the inside. They took the things they were said not to possess — cunning, discipline, intelligence — and gave the lie to the things they were said to be: loyal, simple minded, faithful. That this event took place in 1804–5, the highpoint of what Spanish merchants called “free trade in blacks” — the privatization and deregulation of mercantile slavery, which, decades before the expansion of chattel bondage in the US south, kicked off the Atlantic World’s capitalist market revolution — allowed me to take this event and make, as you say, a larger argument about slavery and capitalism. Much of that argument is embedded in the narrative and development of the characters, but here’s what I imagined myself arguing: Scholars have long examined the ways in which slavery underwrites capitalism. I thought this story, though, allowed attention to slavery’s role in shaping not so much the social or financial dimensions of capitalism but its psychic and imaginative ones. Capitalism is, among other things, a massive process of ego formation, the creation of modern selves, the illusion of individual autonomy, the cultivation of distinction and preference, the idea that individuals had their own moral conscience, based on individual reason and virtue. The wealth created by slavery generalized these ideals, allowing more and more people, mostly men, to imagine themselves as autonomous and integral beings, with inherent rights and self-interests not subject to the jurisdiction of others. Slavery was central to this process not just for the wealth the system created but because slaves were physical and emotional examples of what free men were not. But there is more. That process of individuation creates a schism between inner and outer, in which self-interest, self-cultivation, and personal moral authority drive a wedge between seeming and being. Hence you have the emergence of metaphysicians like Melville, Emerson, and of course Marx, along with others, trying to figure out the relationship between depth and surface. What I try to do in the book is demonstrate the centrality of slavery to this process, the way “free trade in blacks” takes slavery’s foundational deception, its original deceit as captured in the con the West Africans were able to play on Amasa Delano, and acts as a force multiplier. Capitalism disperses that deception into every aspect of modern life. There’s many ways this happens. Deceit, through contraband, is absolutely key to the expansion of slavery in South America. When historians talk about the Atlantic market revolution, they are talking about capitalism. And when they are talking about capitalism, they are talking about slavery. And when they are talking about slavery, they are talking about corruption and crime. Not in a moral sense, in that the slave system was a crime against humanity. That it was. But it was also a crime in a technical sense: probably as many enslaved Africans came into South America as contraband, to avoid taxes and other lingering restrictions, as legally. Sometimes slaves were the contraband. At other times, they were cover for the real contraband, luxury items being smuggled in from France or Great Britain, which helped cultivate the personal taste of South America’s expanding gentry class. And since one of the things capitalism is at its essence is an ongoing process to define the arbitrary line that separates “self-interest” from “corruption,” slavery was essential in creating the normative categories associated with modern society. Enslaved peoples multiplied the fetish power of capital at least fivefold: they were labor, they were commodities, they were capital, collateral, and investment, they were consumers (since in many parts of South America, they were paid wages), and, in some areas, they were money, the standard on which the value of other goods was determined. They were also items of conspicuous consumption. For a rising gentry, they were adornments of their masters’ inner worth. For a declining aristocracy, rocked by the market revolution, they were objects of nostalgia, mementos of a fading world of stability, when things were what they seemed to be. Slavery helped create many of the social, financial, religious, and legal institutions we live with today. But its role in firing the physic imagination of the West is what helps explain, as you put it, the persistence of the entanglement. Could you say a bit more about how you think slavery intersected with other regimes of labor control? For instance, you note that Delano, though in some way anti-slavery, had and exercised legal power over his own sailors that was equally despotic. “Free” sailors seem to have worked in conditions not so different from slavery. In Empire of Necessity, I try to look at this question mostly through the experience of sealing, and how the violence of resource extraction fused with the violence of slavery. But other historians, including Marcus Rediker and Emma Christopher, have revealed the way that labor relations on slave ships, as well as merchant and war vessels, represented a continuum between slave and free rather than a polarity. Rediker has argued that sailing ships were the first modern factories. They paid wages, concentrating workers together in a confined place, and synchronized their movements, in relation both to each other and to the most advanced seafaring technology. At the same time, sailors on board a ship were subject to rule as feudal as the ancien régime and as brutal as the plantation. They could be flogged, tarred, feathered, keel-hauled — dunked in the ocean and dragged under the hull, barnacles doing to backs in a minute what it took the whip fifteen lashes — or executed, made to walk the plank or hung by the yard arm. Melville, in his novel White-Jacket, has a great description of how this terror helps consolidate the idea of race: “Thank God! I am a white,” says a sailor as he watches a mulatto seaman about to be whipped. But this distancing thought evaporates when the sailor remembers that he “had seen whites also scourged; for, black or white, all my shipmates were liable to that.” Melville then takes the sailor a step beyond simple solidarity to realize the role terror plays in keeping men isolated from each other and racially divided: “Still, there is something in us, somehow, that, in the most degraded condition, we snatch at a chance to deceive ourselves into a fancied superiority to others, whom we suppose lower in the scale than ourselves.” Another deep theme of the book is the complexity of the relationship between slavery and freedom. There are numerous figures who affirm the value of freedom, the right of self-government, and at least some of whom will go on to engage in republican revolution against colonial domination. Yet these same individuals show little to no sympathy for the slaves, or even participate in their re-enslavement. What is your sense of what allowed these figures, who were as different as Amasa Delano, the New England ship captain, and Juan Martinez de Rozas, a South American official who would soon lead a republican revolt against Spanish masters, to hold these seemingly contradictory positions in their head? That contradiction was the structuring contradiction of the day (and still is, no?). Spanish-American merchants wanted “more liberty,” and they defined liberty as their right to buy and sell humans as they would. In the United States, Kentucky’s 1850 “bill of rights” stated that the “right of an owner of a slave to such a slave, and its increase, is the same, and as inviolable as the right of the owner of any property whatever.” Is it your sense that the struggle against slavery itself, protracted and violent as it was, left us with the thought that we are free so long as we are not slaves? And in that way has limited our political imagination? Others have made this point, including David Brion Davis, that the struggle over slavery, both for and against, had the effect of reifying slavery as the supreme evil, and reifying freedom — defined as the absence of formal slavery — as the supreme good. The issue is complex, obviously, since for enslaved peoples slavery was indeed the absolute evil, and they valued political freedom as a supreme good. And there were many abolitionists who viewed chattel slavery within a broader spectrum of exploitation, including wage slavery, that needed to be abolished. And I know that scholars of the US have shown that conceptions of US citizenship, and freedom, are layered, complex, and contradictory. Still, as someone who has worked primarily on Latin America, I can’t help but compare that region’s deep tradition of social rights to the US’s antipathy to those rights, at least among a mobilized and consequential sector of the US public. Take, for instance, Rand Paul’s recent comment that to believe in the right to health care is to believe in the right to slavery. It seems fairly clear to me that the Right’s inability to escape the rhetoric of slavery, its insistence on framing all political debate within the absolutist antinomy of freedom and slavery, and to assail not even social rights but even the idea of public policy as a form of enslavement, has something to do with the history of slavery in America. The cult of white supremacy that grew out of that history evolved into today’s cult of individual supremacy. Paul’s statement would be totally incomprehensible to most people in Latin America, indeed the world, as silly as anything that came out of Alice’s mouth: “If I had a world of my own, everything would be nonsense. Nothing would be what it is because everything would be what it isn’t. And contrary-wise; what is it wouldn’t be, and what it wouldn’t be, it would. You see?” The problem is that the US has had a world of its own, so the idiocy of white supremacy, and its progeny, individual supremacy, is perpetuated. It took the US decades to recognize Haiti as an independent nation, a concrete example of an abstraction: its refusal to yet recognize the empire of necessity. That title is from an epigraph Melville uses in another short story, which he himself probably wrote (though he credited to an “unpublished” manuscript in his possession): “Seeking to conquer a larger liberty, man but extends the empire of necessity.” I read the phrase as Melville saying that the problem isn’t so much the paradox that our notions of freedom emerge from and depend on slavery. The problem is rather the denial of the paradox, the idea that we can escape it by skipping off into the West, or into the Pacific, or into a world of free trade. But not all societies in the Americas founded on slavery have spent their post-abolition history trying to deny necessity. Latin America’s strong social democratic tradition, which guarantees to its citizens the right to health care, education, and a decent, dignified life, admits that there are limits to individual freedom. These pledges have often fallen short in practice, but the region’s rhetorical commitment to social rights at least acknowledges the debt freedom owes necessity. Melville’s critique is part of a long tradition. Hegel said that it wasn’t “so much from slavery as through slavery that humanity was emancipated.” In the twentieth century, Arendt wrote that “man cannot be free if he does not know that he is subject to necessity, because his freedom is always won in his never wholly successful attempts to liberate himself from necessity.” What is great about the deception that the West Africans stage is that they take Hegel’s master-slave dyad and turn it into a trio — Amasa Delano is a witness, but he is too blind to understand what he is witnessing. That blindness is rooted, I think, in his abstracted ideal of freedom, an ideal that defines itself in negative terms, in opposition to another’s slavishness. I agree that there is something peculiar about the way the idea of freedom operates in the United States, and to a degree this is because some part of society still denies that we have to go through slavery to find freedom. But this is not the only, necessary consequence of the language we inherited. For many decades after the civil war, and even before, the language was used to criticize other forms of unfreedom. For instance, criticism of “wage-slavery” was a central part of many post-bellum labor movements, especially the Knights of Labor. So opposing freedom to slavery was also a way of developing a sometimes very powerful language of social criticism. Absolutely. There were many radical abolitionists who did see themselves fighting, to again cite David Brion Davis, a “righteous crusade” for the liberty of all, white and black, against all the “fatal flaws of the entire social system” that hindered the attainment of “human perfectibility.” Many advocated for women’s suffrage, free soil, the end of capital punishment, and temperance, and against “wage slavery.” The ways in which this universal radical vision was contained are complex, and took place on multiple levels. Defenders of slavery were quick to point out the broader potential threat that the fight against chattel bondage contained, that it put on the table what one British slavery called “the general question of abolition itself” — that to abolish slavery was just the first step in doing away with all forms of hierarchy. The Virginian ideologue, George Fitzhugh, for instance, charged that the “doctrine of human equality” espoused by the leader of the New York State Anti-Slavery Society, William Goodell, would destroy the Christian family. One must, said Fitzhugh, “revolt at the conclusions his abstract doctrines inevitably lead.” To a large degree the political success of abolition was based on deflecting this accusation, and on isolating chattel slavery as a singular evil, as, as Davis writes, the “very epitome of institutionalized violence and debasement of the human spirit.” And while the concept of “wage slavery” might have been pushing the critique toward the universal, there was another idea that drove it in the opposite direction: “white slavery” became popularized in the 1830s. But decades earlier, those invested in keeping the skin trade a going concern saw its potential as a wedge issue, stoking resentment against abolitionists who seemed to care more about Africans than their own. Despite this antebellum containment, the idea of freedom did, as you say, serve as a very powerful postbellum critique. As Eric Foner, Corey Robin, and others have written, “freedom” is the keyword of American politics. Control the concept, and you control the ideological ground of social struggle.We can and should highlight the Astroturf roots of Right, its funding by corporations and ideologues like the Koch brothers, but their vision of individual supremacy does have historical traction. The fact that the US is the only nation in the world where organized social power mobilizes around the concept of freedom (and against slavery) to demand more austerity, more punishing “reforms,” can only be explained by the specific, central form slavery took in creating the nation.

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Unions and Strikes Through the Camera LensHistorians/History Robin Lindley is a Seattle writer and attorney. He is a feature editor for the History News Network and his articles—often interviews with writers and academics -- have appeared in HNN, Crosscut.com, Writer’s Chronicle, Real Change and other periodicals. His coverage includes history, the arts, human rights, international affairs, medicine, and the media. Chicago police fire on striking steelworkers in the Memorial Day Massacre of 1937. Credit: NARA. "The viewfinder is a political instrument." --Alan Trachtenberg, Reading American Images The American labor movement and photojournalism in the U.S. evolved in tandem in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. As workers struggled for security through unions, Americans interpreted the labor movement through a burgeoning onslaught of photographs in the popular press. In her new book Eyes on Labor: News Photography and America’s Working Class (Oxford University Press) Dr. Carol Quirke, a cultural historian, traces how news photography brought workers into the nation's mainstream and how Americans responded to those images in the news of the day. She discusses a range of photographs from stereographs of the uprising of 1877 and tabloid photos of the 1919 strike wave to the more widespread photo-essays in Life magazine (“an all-seeing eye with a brain”) and the worker-friendly images presented in union papers. Dr. Quirke examines how unions, employers, and news publishers each represented workers in photographs and how readers saw the complex and contradictory portrait of labor as business interests used photographs to demonize labor and unions while sympathizers celebrated strides toward better working conditions and worker security. And she explores how changes in technology took photographs of the working class from a sort of novelty until the 1930s when faster film and lighter weight cameras combined with wire transmission led to more image saturated news. Eyes on Labor has been praised for its lively writing and extensive historical and photographic research. Author Ellen Boris commented: "In displaying the shifting construction of class identity and trade unionism in mass circulation magazines, Carol Quirke brilliantly shows the political significance of visual representation in the twentieth century; working-class use of photography for self-enhancement; and the shifting public profile of the labor movement during its turbulent and institutionalizing decades, the 1930s to the 1950s. This powerful and original work is cultural history at its most potent.” Dr. Quirke is an associate professor of American studies at SUNY Old Westbury. She has published essays and reviews in the American Quarterly, Reviews in American History, and New Labor Forum. She is a former community organizer who worked in Minneapolis and Boston on economic justice, immigrant rights, and public housing issues before receiving her PhD in U.S. history. Dr. Quirke spoke about Eyes on Labor by telephone from New York. What prompted your interest in photojournalism, the working class, and the labor movement? I went to graduate school after working as a community organizer for about a decade, the last four years to address racism in a public housing development. And I was raised in a working-class neighborhood in Chicago. I was very aware of the role that racial stereotyping and racial imagery played in the politics in the last quarter of the twentieth century, in part because I grew up in a neighborhood that was full of Reagan Republican, or rather George Wallace Democratic, voters in the late 1960s. It was on the South Side of Chicago in Dolton -- one town south of the east side of Chicago, which is where many of the steel mills were. I went to graduate school with an interest in exploring how working-class whites identified as white, but this project fell in my lap. I was looking at Life magazine and the question of the welfare queen. I wasn’t finding imagery that spoke to what I had wanted to analyze, but there was all this amazing imagery in Life about working-class people, and specifically the rise of the CIO [Congress of International Organizations] with the CIO sit-down strikes in 1937. I was very interested and did some work on that. Chapters led to further chapters. My family was involved in the Memorial Day massacre [at Republic Steel in Chicago in 1937]. It’s a story that I only learned about as an adult. My grandfather scabbed during that strike, and my great-uncle was one of the individuals shot by police. When I did my research in Life, there were so many pictures of the Memorial Day massacre, and so I explored that in a chapter. And when I was doing research in the La Follette [Senate investigation] files on the Memorial Day massacre at the National Archives, I found a pamphlet about the strike at Hershey. That took me to another strike and looking at this question from another viewpoint. The book grew that way -- organically. How did your project evolve from your original plan? As an American studies expert, you may be coming from a different angle than a historian. And you look at several themes: the evolution of photography, the growth of photojournalism, and the beginnings of the labor movement. I’ve always loved art. When I was a community organizer, I loved using community arts to build community. This project fit because it joins politics and the power of the visual. And you’re right: I’m looking at photographs in some ways that may make a historian uncomfortable. I’m reading them as an art historian might read them. But the book is also anchored historically, so I’m linking an analysis or reading of photographs from the turn of the century through about 1950, in the more typical work of a historian. For example, with the images at Hershey, I’m also looking at the strike there, the events there, the corporate and community archives, and oral histories of individuals who were engaged in the strike. When I looked at a union camera club, as with Local 65 (Wholesale and Warehouse Employees Union) in New York City, I was very lucky to have oral histories of some camera club members, access to newspapers where the photographs appeared, and the notes of the camera club meetings in the thirties and the forties. Methodologically, the book is mixed. There is traditional history reading images as an art historian might, and analyzing images ideologically, as other scholars have done such as Peter Bacon Hales who did great work on urban photography in Silver Cities, or Alan Trachtenberg in his Reading American Photographs. That meant looking at thousands of images and then choosing representative images to explore in greater depth. How do you see photographs as an evidentiary resource for historians? Photographs are an amazing, grossly underutilized resource. We know that some time in the nineteenth century there was a visual turn, and a lot of scholars have discussed that. Even your typical textbook today will have a lot more pictures than it might have had twenty years ago. We have a complicated relationship to the image because historians are using images more and they’re aware of their power, but I think they’re nervous about the image versus the word. The scholarship that has come out that is fascinated with the image can also be cynical about what the image communicates. Scholars know the images can be seen in different ways, but they often stop there instead of exploring the ways in which the image works. Historians are much more sophisticated now, but there was a sense earlier that photographs were an unmediated window onto the past. Of course, photographs, like words, have histories that shape how they look and the ways in which they speak. Is there anything about photo research you’d like to add for students or historians who are interested in that research? That’s an interesting question. In my book, I looked at the institutional matrix that was producing these images -- whether it was a union or a popular magazine like Life or newspapers. There are other ways to look at images as well. I hope in future work to pay more attention to the specific photographers and the ways they shaped the photograph’s meaning. There are so many visual resources out there, and my guess is we could dive into those more. I found that the New York Public Library has amazing collections that I never had a chance to look at. Did working-class photography in the U.S. grow out of the muckraking photography of Jacob Riis and Lewis Hine? I wonder if I’m even comfortable in saying that there’s a practice of working-class photography here. In Europe, there were camera clubs that were clearly connected to working-class experience and activism. At Local 65, a leftist union in New York City, the photographers were trained by other leftist photographers who were involved in the Photo League that was part of that international movement of photographers. But I concluded that there was less evidence of self-conscious working class photography in this country than in other countries. You have people like Lewis Hine at the beginning of the twentieth century arguing for using the camera for social uplift. But these practices were much less pervasive than we can imagine. There’s been a discussion of how the Kodak camera was used by middle-class women and others and how the democratization of the camera made the world more visual. I don’t think we have a history yet of how workers used the camera in the United States. How widespread was the work of photojournalists such as Riis and Hine? Were their photos of the poor and workers seen mainly in New York and in other urban areas? Riis’s work was very influential and it would have been known in reform circles. I did some primary research on Riis, and he lectured well into the twentieth century about his experiences, using lantern slides of New York City poverty and deteriorated housing, although he moved to a more saccharine, moralistic lecture form as he continued. Hine’s work was well understood in reformer circles. He became a corporate photographer in the twenties and sold his services to companies. So reformers and progressives knew of both photographers’work, but the mass audience for such work was more limited. We know that Hines’ work informs what [Roy] Stryker was doing with the Farm Security Administration, so there’s also some impulse into the New Deal. Your book chronicles some photography in the late nineteenth century, particularly the strikes such as the Railroad Strike in 1877 and the Homestead Strike in 1892. You tend to see photographs in the news when there’s conflict. The news runs on conflict, and if there’s violence, editors will put that on the front page. Certainly, it seems that associations such as the National Association of Manufacturers took advantage of that fact. The Chicago Tribune of the 1930s was seen as a right-wing paper and they described the victims of the Memorial Day massacre as Bolsheviks, Mexicans, foreigners and outsiders as a way to disparage working-class activism. What is your sense of the coverage of labor in the teens and twenties? I was focused on news photographs and not the coverage of labor, so I may give you an incomplete answer. Josh Brown’s work on the illustrated press, Beyond the Lines is beautiful and he takes up the question of the representation of worker activism in the nineteenth century. I was struck that, in the first two decades of the twentieth century, you don’t see photographs that often. When you talk about the history of photojournalism, people point to the halftone in the 1880s, but those images weren’t seen as photographs typically. For example, Jacob Riis’s photographs in their time weren’t seen as photographs in newspapers. Even in his book How the Other Half Lives there were only a dozen or so photographs. They were mostly line drawings [based on the photos]. That was the case through the end of the nineteenth century. Even though the halftone technology existed from the 1880s, there just weren’t that many photographic images. There were more as we moved into the twentieth century, and I saw a fair number of “documentary style” images of the difficulties of workers’ lives, but those tended to be in the middle-class opinion journals, perhaps McClure’s, Outlook Magazine, Collier’s and Scribner’s. But those magazines did not have a mass audience. What was important to the book’s argument was that those images existed, but they were seen by a lot fewer people than were the photographs of labor struggles in the 1930s, which were seen by a nationwide, mass audience. You note that, in the twenties and thirties, the mainstream press featured images mainly of white male, often contented, workers. You stress that women and nonwhite workers were usually not portrayed, or women were often sexualized if they were shown. Certainly, if you look at Life magazine, I was surprised to find it treating labor activism almost as if it was a fad -- in a joyful, celebratory way. That changed over time, but in Life there was an acceptance of labor as a partner in American prosperity. As you say, typically white male workers were portrayed. In Life magazine, the women were presented as “cute.” They engaged in activism, but their primary reason for being in the article was that they were delightful to look at and their activism was always fun and happy -- not really activism at all. And in Life, you virtually don’t see immigrant workers or African American workers. In the labor press, you see more images of African American workers and women workers. It’s a mixed bag. In Steel Labor, women came into the union in World War II, and the women were treated as “girls” as well. It’s clear that the union wasn’t that happy about female leadership or female unionists. The depiction of women made the union paper a lot livelier, but it had less to do with accepting women as unionists than using women’s image to vivify the paper. And Life would feature photographs of women such as the cute, perky garment workers. Life actually made a romance story about International Ladies Garment Workers Union members, and the use of the heterosexual romance was a common motif in Life magazine. They didn’t look at the woman as a worker, but as a romantic figure who went off to the ILGWU’s Unity Camp in the Catskills, and gee, didn’t she have a great time and wasn’t it romantic, just like in the movies. They also showed the Woolworth’s “girl” strikers in exactly the same way. They were “prinking,” which I think means they were making themselves up to look pretty. Steel Labor used stock images of their members and the group photographs of their rank and file weren’t interesting. You wouldn’t want to look at them. Their images of women were quite interesting so Steel Labor editors and photographers knew when an image had punch, but they didn’t bother to represent their male members in a lively fashion. Life publisher Henry Luce saw his magazine as a neutral “all-seeing eye,” but the portrayal of labor tells a different story. Eyes on Labor looks at Life, which was already being read by millions of Americans in its first week of publication. Luce is seen as a conservative and, no doubt, he became virulently anti-FDR, but he did believe in affluence for everyone and he wanted to sell his products in the same way, perhaps, that Henry Ford did. As a result, he assumed abundance as a positive good for workers. Luce and Life photographers visualized abundance as crucial for American workers. They helped bring workers into the nation’s mainstream. I think many readers will be surprised by the Hershey sit-down strike in April 1937. Hershey was seen as an idyllic town for workers, then there’s a strike, and it’s put down brutally by the company and by local citizens. Hershey was interesting. In terms of the number of workers, it didn’t seem like an important strike. The CIO won an election to represent Hershey workers, but then lost a sit-down strike -- which led to a company union and then the AFL coming in to represent workers. Because the CIO Hershey workers lost their strike it may be less interesting to historians. What intrigued me about the strike was that there was so much coverage of it. I argue that the Hershey corporation, from about 1900 when Milton Hershey first founded the company, developed an image of the corporation as beneficent. Hershey claimed the company didn’t advertise, but of course it had promotional materials such as point-of purchase ads, biographical portraits in mass-market magazines, postcards, and recipe books, all that sold the corporation. Singer Sewing Machine and a lot of other companies were also developing their brand at this time, and Hershey rode this same crest of brand development. Milton Hershey was a bright businessman, so he had continuous processing in his plant, vertical integration of production, including the control over a source of sugar production in a second Hershey, Cuba, just east of Havana, and modern office buildings along with his savvy marketing techniques.... But Milton Hershey also had “backward looking ideas” of cooperation, or paternalist control. He wanted an ideal community, a model workers’ town, but his workers had no say in that community whatsoever; they could not even vote. The limits on workers’ lives and the typical constraints that faced workers in the 1930s -- low wages and difficult working conditions -- led them to strike in April 1937. The company fought the strikers, and there was a brutal takedown of the union and the [strikers were] forced to run a gauntlet after they were forced out of the plant. Hershey fired many workers after the event. And ultimately, the CIO was vanquished. The story of the Hershey strike and the images of the violence appeared in Life magazine and in three hundred different stories across the United States. How did Life and other periodicals portray the strike? I paid the most attention to Life, although other stories appeared in Newsweek, Business Week, etc. You get the image of a beneficent corporation that did everything to make its workers’ lives cushy. The corporation [described] the factory as a country club for workers. Hershey did a wonderful job of making Hershey Park, an amusement park, an attraction for people all over the Mid-Atlantic region. And they made it seem as if workers had access to all these wonderful things, even though workers weren’t able to partake of them. Life portrayed Hershey as the beneficent capitalist who was a bystander to what transpired. Instead it was the “loyal workers” who stood by their boss and didn’t want to be unionized. “Loyal workers” was a phrase promoted by the National Association of Manufacturers in their publicity campaign to make unions look bad. In Life there was a two-page spread. On one page you see the beneficent corporation, and on the other page you see the violence that happened when labor unions came in. The violence happened because the corporation had stoked tensions in the community; unionists thought they brought in hired “goons.” But that’s not the way the story was presented. Life’s story presented the quest for unionization as bringing chaos and violence... What was the role of Hershey in bringing in strikebreakers and encouraging local citizens to attack strikers? The Hershey corporation perceived the town as a utopian experiment, and -- based on multiple oral histories I read -- even the workers largely believed in the idea of the town as an agrarian location where people lived harmoniously and felt good about Milton Hershey. Even after the strike, people did not seem angry at Milton Hershey himself, but it was clear that the town was riven by what happened. I found a couple clues about the role of the corporation in what happened. The corporation itself talked about “outsiders” coming in, and that was a typical way to make unions look bad, one that NAM promoted. It wasn’t the workers themselves who were causing problems, but usually some unnamed, foreign outsider. The National Association of Manufacturers published this story in Mill and Factory Magazine and the story was given to citizens in the town in pamphlet form. The company managers also went door-to-door and talked workers into signing up with the loyalists. They allowed [the loyalists] into the Hershey arena to galvanize the workers. They made local farmers mad at the workers by not buying milk the company had said they would. Also, I found that Milton Hershey gave a sizable donation to the local American Legion, which led the parade of loyal workers. He was not someone who liked to give money to something he didn’t control so it was quite unusual to give the donation to them. So there was a sense of a corporate hand in events. I didn’t see anything that linked Hershey to the propelling of the story into the national arena. The National Association of Manufacturers did this as part of its publicity campaign against labor. There’s a sense in your book that the strikers suffered savage beatings by people with clubs and axes. Do you know about casualties from the violence at Hershey? I don’t remember any axes. Inside the plant, a worker stuck an ice pick into the belly of an anti-unionist. Certainly the strikers were beaten badly. I don’t know that any were hospitalized. What hurt the workers more was the sense that the cooperative ideal was broken. And many workers -- over a hundred -- lost their jobs as a result of this strike, which would have been devastating during the Depression. What was the Memorial Day Strike in Chicago in 1937 and how did it happen? The strike took place as part of the union drive by the Steel Workers Organizing Committee, which began in 1936. Early in 1937, the steel workers signed an agreement with U.S. Steel, which was the biggest steel maker. But Tom Girdler, the president of Republic Steel and head of the American Iron and Steel Association and the “Little Steel” coalition of companies, did not side with the steel workers and said he would do whatever he could to not have a union work force. Steel workers struck against the Little Steel companies in 1937. Girdler didn’t think the strike would work and tricked workers into going out early to make the strike more disorganized. In Chicago, where tens of thousands of workers came out, the police were anti-union and the police did not want to allow a mass picket. The steel workers wanted a mass picket and they felt it was their right to have a mass picket. The strike began on a Wednesday and every day there was an attempt to establish a mass picket. On Memorial Day, a giant group of people came out for the day. It was like a picnic. People were on their dates and there were mothers and fathers and children listening to speeches. They wanted to stand in front of the gates of Republic Steel. When they marched across the field to do so, they met the police. That’s when the altercation took place. Ten strikers were killed and seven of them were shot in the back. The photographic evidence in conjunction with the stories rebutted the police story that the strikers were going to mob the plant and kill loyal workers. You describe in detail how the story of the massacre unfolded in Life magazine and in other news outlets, and then the investigation by U.S. Senator Robert La Follette’s committee. In the initial days after the event, the same photographs we recognize today as showing the brutality of the police were appearing in newspapers and Life magazine and in a Paramount newsreel, but the story line was instead that the strikers were marching on the plant with the intent of producing mass casualties. Of course, the opposite happened. Police injured about one hundred people and ten workers were killed. So there was campaign of local union activists in Chicago and pro-labor supporters including pro-union people who came out of World War I. One was Hebert Blankenhorn, an amazing publicist who understood the power of the press and felt that labor had to be ready for anti-union violence. The La Follette Committee was designed to publicize the violations of labor’s civil rights, particularly the rights to strike and to have mass demonstrations. Initially, it wasn’t reported that strikers had been running away and were shot in the back by police and the news angle seemed to be that the police were protecting property and those inside the plant. The stories were crazy. The police said that the workers were high, the workers were Mexicans, the workers had guns, the workers were Bolsheviks. The Chicago Tribune called strikers Bolsheviks. The national press didn’t use the term Bolshevism but the story line in Time, Newsweek and Life made the strikers responsible for what took place on the field. It took the legwork of La Follette and his investigative staff, to find the photographs and newsreels, but more importantly to find the witness testimony that clarified what was taking place in the imagery. When you look at the film footage, it’s very hard to follow what’s taking place. I was lucky to visit the National Archives and look at the newsreel footage of the massacre, frame by frame, on a film bed. It’s very hard to take apart what’s happening on that film. It has to be given meaning through testimony. It’s striking that there were also women and kids who were in the crowd. That fact didn’t come out right away did it? Certainly labor supporters remarked on the women in the field and the women in the pictures. That came up in the congressional investigation by the La Follette Committee and witnesses commented on what happened to women and children. I’m not sure how the press represented women and children in the first days, but La Follette took advantage of their perceived vulnerability in his hearings. What else did you find about the Chicago Memorial Day Strike of 1937? In some ways, my findings replicate what other historians have found. Jerold Auerbach did a lovely book on the La Follette Committee and its significance. Daniel Leab and Don Sofchalk did articles in the sixties and there’s a new book in the Memorial Day massacre by Michael Dennis. Typically the narrative is that this terrible event happened and there were pictures of this event and, because of the photographs, the police were brought to account. My work showed instead that, while very powerful, these photographs required someone to nail down the significance of the photographs and tell the story behind those photographs. It took local unionists who were agitating to bring the police to account for what happened. And it took reporting. Paul Anderson of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch did an amazing job, as did the La Follette Committee in building the testimony to elicit the stories of what took place in those photographs. People talk about the Paramount newsreel as being a compelling bit of imagery. When I first saw that newsreel, I had a hard time understanding what happened in it. I couldn’t see why it was so powerful. I did more research at the Sherman Grinberg Film Library. They had two versions of the film and the National Archive had yet another version of the film. They’re very different stories. There was a pro-union story, there was a neutral story, and then there was the first newsreel that was edited immediately after the events that was against the union and blamed the strikers for the killings. That story of these three films hadn’t been told and I wanted to look at the ways these photographs, which historians had taken at face value, had to be given life and they were given life by the testimony and the stories and the activism of a variety of historical actors -- some well known, others less familiar. In this period, were there photographic magazines that were sympathetic to labor -- a sort of The Nation with photographs? To my knowledge The Nation or The Progressive were text heavy. Probably the most sympathetic venue for labor would have been Ralph Ingersoll's PM, which was published in New York City from 1940 to about 1948. Ingersoll, along with Dwight MacDonald, had been a major critic of Henry Luce, and specifically Luce's labor coverage. Ingersoll believed in the camera’s potential, and his photo editors, one of whom was photographer Ralph Steiner, gave their photographers free reign to experiment. PM was the home of famous "tabloid" photographer Weegee. I've interviewed Arthur Leipzig who briefly photographed for them, and he recounts taking one or two of his more recognized photographs while working at PM, because of editors’ encouragement. The CP's Daily Worker is another interesting source for photographs. Unsurprisingly, given the CP’s commitment to class struggle, the paper had remarkably vital photos of labor conflict and strike coverage -- much of it woven into a counter-narrative of events. And the work of the Photo League is pretty well known at this point. Their publication, Photo Notes, had some images of labor, and they tried to work directly with unions -- though the League’s better known work was seen in exhibitions, for example in the in-depth documentaries they did of working-class New York City neighborhoods, such as the Harlem or Pitt Street Documents. What did you learn about photographic coverage of labor during World War II when the iconic Rosie the Riveter emerged, and then during the early years of the Cold War? Multiple changes in labor iconography arose with World War II, and then the Cold War. I found that moving towards World War II, publications like Life increasingly represented workers as part of the defense machine. Photographs started showing work -- up until that point, stories about labor unions rarely showed work itself. During the war years men and women workers were seen in close-up shots displaying workers’ deep engagement with their labor. And many photos showed workers streaming into worksites, underscoring labor’s participation in the war effort. Prior to this point, at least in Life, many images showed corporate titans alongside their plants, as if the factories ran without workers. Images in Life paralleled a larger productionist narrative seen in government agency war posters, corporate advertisements, and labor union newspapers. Life’s photo stories featured unions as partners in the nation’s defense, even as they became shrill about possible strikes. Philip Murray, the head of the United Steel Workers of American and the CIO, and Sidney Hillman of the Amalgamated were portrayed as statesmanlike leaders -- someone like John Lewis, on the other hand, was represented as a threat because he did not sign on to the CIO’s “no-strike pledge.” Rosie of course was a common way of depicting women -- in Life, and in labor papers. But papers like Steel Labor, of the Steel Workers Union, which had a sizeable female membership during World War II, feminized its workforce -- and didn’t quite recognize women as contributors to union life -- even as women’s image brightened a staid labor paper. Ironically, as we move to the Cold War, I found labor papers like Steel Labor being more willing to acknowledge the necessity of rank-and-file activism. The 1946 and 1949 steel strikes were crucial to cementing the power of the USWA, and the paper, which had largely shied away from representing activism now promoted it. Generally however, I found that imagery presented labor as joining the nation’s mainstream. Certainly this was a positive change from labor as the nation’s “other half,” as we saw in photos of workers in the first decades of the twentieth century. But many workers still lived on the edge of poverty -- their lives remained quite insecure. Neither mass-market publications like Life, nor the labor press typically represented labor’s want. It’s difficult to know how this visual absence hurt labor -- but I believe it made it harder for labor’s demands for higher wages to be understood -- the privation in their lives was hidden Can you talk about the resonance of your research now with the continuing efforts to weaken unions, the recognition of corporations as people under the Citizens United decision, and the emergence of Occupy movement? Generally, my sense is that the mainstream press, despite it’s early fascination with the sit-down technique, tended to promote the view that labor activism led to social chaos. Even when companies were paying for “goons” or their own security forces, which often provoked violence, and even when the unionists were the victims of violence, articles and captioned photos promoted the view that unions provoked the violence. My research showed how the National Association of Manufacturers, long a union foe, took advantage of news photography to disparage unions to a national reading and viewing public. Despite union successes -- with nearly a third of workers in unions in the postwar era, and their success in lifting workers out of poverty -- corporations succeeded in diminishing the public’s understanding of unions’ role in this success. However, like the current Occupy Wall Street protesters who seized on social media to reach out directly to other supporters -- unions, progressives, and some rank-and-file workers understood that news photographs touched Americans, and that they could use the camera to reach out in new ways to advance their message. Are you planning other projects on the history of photojournalism? I’m beginning a biography of Dorothea Lange that is under contract with Westview Press’s Lives of American Women series. I’ve also done some oral history interviews of former Photo League and PM photographer Arthur Leipzig, and am contemplating an essay on documenting work. He was a photojournalist who conceived of himself as a documentary photographer -- his roots are in the radical tradition of documentary. By the 1950s and 1960s much of his work was for corporate clients. His trajectory as a photojournalist allows for a nuanced exploration of some recent debates on the documentary. Finally I’ve done a fair amount of research on the memory of the Memorial Day Massacre that took place on Chicago’s South Side, where I was first raised. News images of the massacre appear in textbooks, documentaries, and popular histories, but in attaining iconicity, aspects of the event are often forgotten or radically re-interpreted. The community where the events took place largely neglects it -- I only learned about it as an adult, despite my family’s involvement in the events. And there is only one recent history of the massacre. I think the simultaneous salience and elusiveness of the massacre in cultural memory seems fertile for exploring violence, dissent, and class identity in mainstream mass culture, and in radical, and union cultures over the course of the twentieth century. Is there anything you’d like to add about your book and your research? In a recent blog for Oxford Press, I suggested that battles over labor’s status in U.S. society took place in corporate boardrooms, at factory gates, in D.C. congressional corridors, and also in the pages of an increasingly visual mass media. Photographs re-imagined workers as part of the mainstream, but constricted labor’s promise by making strikes seem disruptive, and promoting individual, private gains over collective solidarity. Today less than twelve percent of all American workers belong to unions. Organized labor pulled many out of poverty, allowing workers to conceive of themselves as middle-class. Labor’s dwindling power, including its precipitous decline since the 1980s, corresponds with growing economic inequality -- hence Occupy. Its message, and its image, will have consequences. comments powered by Disqus - History Says Bloomberg 2020 Would Be a Sure Loser - Then and now: How Trump impeachment hearing is different - Poland asks Netflix to make changes to documentary about Nazi death camp guard - What is a caliph? The Islamic State tries to boost its legitimacy by hijacking a historic institution - Russian Historian Professor, Found With Bag of Severed Arms, Admits He Killed Student - Black Perspectives Publishes Online Forum: "Researching, Teaching, and Embodying the Black Diaspora" - Distinguished professor, civil war historian James I. “Bud” Robertson Jr. passes away - Noel Ignatiev, scholar who called for abolishing whiteness, dies at 78 - Historians Elizabeth Catte, Rebecca Solnit, and Peniel Joseph Quoted in Washington Post Article, "The Democrats Are Moving Left. Will America Follow?" - When Southern Historians Made History Themselves

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How transformative has the computer age really been? On 20 July, Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull gave a speech to the Economic and Social Outlook Conference, in which his understanding of the history of technology provided the foundation for his vision for Australia: “We are living in a time where the pace and scale of change is utterly unprecedented throughout all of human history. Last week at the G20, I was proud to represent Australia as the largest economies of the world considered how to navigate the future under these conditions of rapid and, indeed, accelerating change … We must not forget how rapid this change has been … Most of these big internet companies – these giants which are dominating the global economic landscape and in so many ways are redefining the way we do business, the way we interact, the way we connect – would, if they were humans, still be at school, many of them, in fact, at primary school. This is very, very rapid change.” Turnbull’s conclusion restated the core message of his prime ministership: the imperative to innovate, adapt and seize the exciting opportunities afforded by a change “unprecedented in its pace and scale”. There is nothing unusual about the challenges of the present and the opportunities of the future being constructed on a perspective of the past. A view of history invariably frames analysis of contemporary problems and circumscribes “realistic” solutions. But is the view of the past told by Turnbull and the wealthy young men who head up the big internet companies (and, despite their celebration of change, they are almost entirely men) true? Although technological innovation has shaped cultures and civilisations throughout history, there is no question that the pace of technological innovation has been particularly marked during the past 500 years. Francis Bacon, the 17th-century philosopher and prophet of empirical science, recognised that three inventions – the nautical compass, printing and gunpowder – heralded a new age that enlarged humanity’s control over nature. From the late 18th century, science, technology and capitalism increasingly intertwined, most noticeably through the application of steam power during the aptly named industrial revolution. It is not a new idea that technological change subsequently proceeded at an ever-increasing pace. In 1910, American urban designer Daniel Burnham observed that the pace of development had “immensely accelerated”, and novelists and futurists began to imagine utopias and dystopias in which technology had progressed beyond the control of any person. However, a belief in ever-faster speed of change as the defining fact, on which policies for the future must be based, has only become taken for granted in recent decades – after the supposedly unprecedented technological innovation associated with the computer age. The prime example of this “law of accelerating returns” is the exponential growth in the amount of data able to be stored on a computer chip. Turnbull’s flagship policy, the National Innovation and Science Agenda, begins with a speedy chronicle of the computer: “The pace of change, supercharged by new and emerging technologies, has never been so great, nor so disruptive. It is being driven by rapid advances in computer processing power and data storage capacity, with an average smartphone more powerful than the combined computing power of NASA in 1969.” There is no dispute that the extraordinary development of computer capacity, as well as the internet and its associated platforms, have been responsible for enormous social and economic upheaval. But how does technological innovation’s impact on human life over the past 50 years compare with that of preceding periods? Were the technological changes since 1967 greater than those of the half-centuries after 1917 and 1867? Has the pace of change really “never been so great, nor so disruptive”? In the fourth volume of The Oxford History of Australia, Stuart Macintyre tells the story of Western Australian Labor Party activist Agnes Somerville, whose husband, William, played a prominent role in union, legal, university and activist circles in the early decades of the 20th century. Macintyre observes that although Agnes was “more gregarious” than her partner, her public activities were limited “by arduous domestic responsibilities: cooking for six on a wood stove, washing clothes with copper and mangle; [and] cleaning with bucket and scrubbing brush”. Her bible might have been George Bernard Shaw’s The Intelligent Woman’s Guide to Socialism and Capitalism, but intellectual empowerment could provide no freedom from the daily hard labour involved in running a home. The limitations faced by Somerville were shared by nearly all women other than a privileged elite with servants. Endless work defined women’s daily life. Between 1917 and 1967, home work was transformed by technological appliances that were built on the supply of electricity. After World War One, in the new middle-class suburbs expanding in the major cities (themselves facilitated by the electric tram), washing machines, fridges, vacuum cleaners and electric stoves slowly spread. In the 1950s, the new appliances proliferated in working-class neighbourhoods and country towns. The provision of electricity to all classes and most districts was mirrored by a host of other transformative technologies. Australian homes received an endless supply of clean water delivered direct to the kitchen and bathroom, not just in cities but also in country towns, as well as hot water and heating on demand. Their occupants started to eat packaged food, wear clothing made of easy-care fabrics, and access chemicals that reduced the long hours of labour involved in essential household chores. One seemingly banal technological innovation highlights the degree of change that occurred. In 1917, most Australian households had no way of keeping food chilled. Some rich people in the cities had an ice chest (stocked by regular deliveries by horse and cart), but the common cooling technology was a product known (despite uncertainty as to its origins) as the Coolgardie safe. This simple device comprised an upright frame with sides of hessian, which stood on four legs. On top was a flattish tin of water, positioned so that water slowly percolated down the walls to a drip tray on the floor. If a breeze was blowing, the damp hessian produced a cooling effect on the items stored inside. The safe was usually placed on the verandah or under a shade tree, as houses were often too hot for them to otherwise have any effect. In 1930, as many as three quarters of Australian homes had a Coolgardie safe, many of them homemade. Over the next 40 years, the refrigerator moved into nearly every home. Being able to keep food cold allowed a revolution in diet, shopping and labour. An almost equally momentous change in daily life was the demise of wood-burning iron stoves, and the sweat involved in keeping them working. These devices (themselves a significant technological innovation from the second half of the 19th century, before which most homes relied on an open fire) were the source of hot water, cooking and heat (whether welcome or not). Even the clothes iron relied on their power. Between 1917 and 1967, a way of life built round kerosene lamps, candles, washing tubs and wood was replaced by an electricity-driven existence not radically different from our own. The technology-driven transformation of home life was equally true of paid work. Stuart Macintyre reminds us that early in the 20th century “the great majority of Australians worked by hand … Whether it be lumping bags of wheat, cutting coal or timber, laying bricks or railway sleepers, a labouring job called for the expenditure of immense physical effort over a long working day.” Of the 3843 factories in Sydney in 1911, only around half used any form of power other than human muscle, and the total contribution of all power plants in Sydney factories was just 60,000 horsepower. Farm life was also famously hard yakka. Very few farmers had access to a steam traction engine. Many did not even have a horse. It was not until the 1950s that tractors became widespread on Australian farms. The application of labour-saving machinery even transformed the lives of children, who were also commonly required to work for hours before and after their sometimes long walk to school. What of people’s connectivity during this period? Surely in this regard, the 50 years from 1917 saw only minor changes compared with what would come with the microchip? While the car had been developed by 1917, it was still unavailable to ordinary people. By 1967 the large majority of Australian families had at least one vehicle. The transformative impact of this ever-available personalised transport is too obvious to recount here. The development of the plane, which transformed from a nascent technology unsuited for passenger transport into the jetliners used by millions of people every day, was nearly as significant. Then there was the ubiquitous spread of the phone. Although telephone exchanges had existed since the late 19th century, it was between 1917 and 1967 that the technology developed to the point that nearly every home across the country was connected. This transformed not just social life but work and business too. Nor should the power of cinema, radio and TV be forgotten. Cinemas, dominated by American productions, had a transformative social impact from the 1920s. In 1927 it was estimated that one in three Australians saw a movie a week. The influence of radio was even more dramatic. Information was channelled straight into lounge rooms for the first time in human history. By 1929, only six years after broadcasting started in this country, licensed listeners totalled 300,000. The glory days of radio were complemented from the late 1950s by the glory days of TV. These decades also saw the introduction of antibiotics and new vaccines, and advances in anaesthetics, all of which transformed medicine. Perhaps, though, no technological change between 1917 and 1967 was as transformative as the demise of the water carrier and the night cart. The task that has probably taken more time than any other since humans abandoned a hunter-gather lifestyle is the lugging of water. As Geoffrey Blainey observed in Black Kettle and Full Moon, it was a momentous moment when water that had been “bucketed from a hole in a creek, or delivered by horse and cart to the house at a high price” gave way “to the turning of a tap”. Along with the provision of running water came effective sewerage systems. Many people still retain some communal memory of the importance of sanitation. The night cart did not disappear from Australian cities until well into the years after World War Two, and outbreaks of typhoid hung around nearly as long. A big impetus to developing drains and sewers in the first decade of the 20th century was an extended outbreak of the bubonic plague across a number of states. Local authorities in Adelaide, Sydney and Melbourne (a city well known in the late 19th century as Marvellous Smellbourne) had connected most houses to waterborne sewerage before 1917. However, Hobart, Perth, Brisbane and other urban centres remained dependent on the water tank, outhouse and night cart for far longer. Even in remote areas seemingly less at risk because of pristine creeks and rivers, waterborne diseases continued to kill people until well into the 20th century. An elderly rural woman, recently interviewed for a social history project in southern Tasmania, said that the biggest change during her lifetime was the coming of the septic toilet. There is more evidence for her position than the rival narrative offered by celebrity pioneers of the IT industry. Access to clean water and decent sanitation undoubtedly transformed human existence more profoundly than Google and Facebook. I now work part time as a counsellor in a nursing home. A privilege of my job is the opportunity to hear the stories of elderly Tasmanians, many of them country people. Some of the people I work with grew up without a car, electricity, running water, indoor toilet or phone. Their childhood was spent in neighbourhoods defined by walking. They did hours of physical work each day and were pulled out of school for extended periods to help with essential jobs, such as picking fruit. We don’t use the term in Australia, but their families were peasants. They usually had ample food (often supplemented by hunting) but little cash. They built their own homes, made their own clothes, gathered their own fuel and stored their own home-produced food. The largely pre-industrial way of life only disappeared in Tasmania, and in many other country districts of Australia, during the 1950s. It is true that a large gap had by then opened between the city and country, but the way of life in inner-city working-class neighbourhoods of Sydney and Melbourne in the 1930s was just as technologically distant from the suburban norm that prevailed nearly everywhere by the late 1960s. Furthermore, country life was much more common than it is now. Although Australia has always had a highly urbanised population by international standards, most people did not live in capital cities in 1917. The transformative impact of the technology introduced between 1917 and 1967 on the lives of everyday Australians compared with the changes of the computer age can be judged by the old technologies’ continued indispensability. If made to choose, would you keep your fridge or your tablet; your car or your computer; electricity or wireless connection; hot water or fast broadband; washing machine or Twitter feed; vaccination or Snapchat? Personal experience supports the historical evidence that what was most transformative in how we have lived over the past century is not unprecedented connectivity. A similar argument can be made for the 50 years before 1917. In 1867, the theme of Australian life was the “tyranny of distance”. But the decades that followed saw the arrival of trains that slashed travel times from days to hours, cables laid across the desert and ocean that connected the continent to the world, steamships that dramatically cut international travel times, and an international postal service. By the late 19th century, there was not a major town in Australia without its own newspaper, and these publications were linked with the news-gathering services of the world. Events in America and Europe were known in Australia within minutes, thanks to the telegraph. The significance of the improved communications in the second half of the 19th century is now largely forgotten. But at the time, the language used to describe the links being forged was as idealistic as that employed by Mark Zuckerberg. When in May 1889 it became possible to go by rail from Adelaide to Brisbane, Sir Henry Parkes toasted the occasion: “In this great system of material arteries which we complete today we see the crimson fluid of kinship pulsing through all the iron veins.” A writer in the Review of Reviews on 20 July 1896, celebrating the impact of bicycles, sounded even more contemporary: Silently and steadily it is effecting in the social world a revolution … It over-runs frontiers, obliterates race antipathies, induces a spirit of camaraderie amongst foreigners, breaks down social barriers … Moreover it ministers to our wants as well as our pleasures … how completely the wheel has entered into the life of the typical Australian. And changes were not just in communications. The transformative impact of the new chemical industries that would lead to mineral dyes, artificial fertilisers, high explosives, artificial fibres and plastics deserves at least a passing mention. Nor were the changes in the century before the computer age slow to be introduced. Edison only switched on his electric bulb in 1879. The first aeroplane flew in 1903 and just 66 years later Neil Armstrong walked on the Moon. It was but six years between the discovery of nuclear fission and the explosion of the first atomic bomb. There can be no dispute that the past 150 years have been remarkable, but there is no evidence that the changes in technology in the past 50 years have been more rapid and transformative than those of the century that preceded it. Despite the wonders of modern IT, most of the technology that Australians interact with daily was around in a broadly similar form in 1967. The fact that so much technology has not changed is a point indirectly made by those who highlight the dangers of inertia for Planet Earth. The resilience of the internal combustion engine and personalised motor vehicles has proved remarkable; houses for ordinary people haven’t changed nearly as much as futurists from the 1960s imagined, and planes and trains are not radically different from their predecessors. In 1967, humans had already travelled to space and were nearly on the Moon. Our species already had the capacity, through the nuclear bomb, to destroy the planet. Artists, writers, filmmakers and politicians knew they had lived through a period of transformative technology, and many were ready to imagine the revolution to come. But not only did the vision of the world in 2001: A Space Odyssey not eventuate, there has been remarkably little change in how we simply get from home to work. Despite all that can be done on a personal device, the transformative power of technology has largely failed to live up to 1960s expectations. It is interesting that the degree of global political change – itself not uninfluenced by technological change – in the past 50 years was also dwarfed by the upheavals of the previous 50 years: world wars, the Great Depression, the rise of Marxism, fascism, the end of empires, the Cold War. It might be that the next 50 years provides belated evidence for the law of accelerating returns, but the past half-century does not. Whatever is to come, the historical thesis that the transformative power of computers and the internet is evidence of an unparalleled speed of change seems to be informed more by the proselytiser’s perspective of the present than their knowledge of the past. But does such historical misjudgement matter? Does a wrong story about the history of technology impact on the conclusions that are drawn about the present and the future? Broadly similar historical narratives have been told by the powerful beneficiaries of every disruptive technological change. One doesn’t need to question the sincerity of the storyteller or to point out that their histories invariably justify the necessity to put away the old and embrace the new. The common theme is the omnipotence and ultimate beneficence of the technological revolution underway. In the 19th century, there was an emphasis on the providential nature of progress. The hardship associated with liberal free enterprise was acknowledged, but people were told that a greater good was being served through their pain. Later in the same century, evolutionary principles were applied to the transformation of societies. This provided a “scientific” explanation of why the suffering of some people was necessary if societies were to evolve and flourish. Modern explanations of ever-faster technological change, including “Moore’s law” (which originally only related to the accelerating complexity evident in the evolution of semiconductor circuits but is now more broadly applied), still use principles derived from evolutionary biology. What every historical narrative had in common (including the famously critical one developed by Karl Marx) was a depiction of change as inevitable. It was probably no coincidence that just as the Western world moved on from an omnipotent God (or at least confined the concept of one to a narrow religious box), grand deterministic accounts of the past emerged in which forces were at work that overwhelmed human agency. By the 1990s, deterministic explanations of history had been discredited in large part by solid empirical research. The labour of historians revealed the past to be more random, inconsistent and unpredictable than ideologues on both the left and right had believed. Power, profit and self-interest shaped events, but the outcome of the clash of interests and ideas wasn’t as foreseeable as had been believed. History was not predetermined. It was people, not economic, political or technological laws, who made the past. The history currently being told by Malcolm Turnbull and Mark Zuckerberg is of concern not because their thesis is an innovative alternative to this tradition of determinist storytelling, but because it is the latest example of its resilience. Latent in the PM’s message to the nation to catch up with unprecedented technological change and the Facebook founder’s mission “to build a social layer for everything” (and a commercial dimension for every social layer) is belief in the inevitability of technological transformation – and the urgent necessity to adapt behaviour in line with this. People who challenge the paradigm are not facing “reality”. Far from facilitating discussion about the potentials and pitfalls of technology, and encouraging critical thinking about whose interest innovation serves, the new history shuts debate down. It removes possibilities for the future because it subordinates human agency to the “law” of ever-faster technological change. People who resist are just grumpy old folk being left behind by time itself. It is in Zuckerberg’s commercial interest for people to take it for granted that social media is immutable and providential (even if such religiously tinged language is now largely avoided). The more we believe that Facebook is indispensable to community engagement, the truer Zuckerberg’s aspirational observation that “it’s almost a disadvantage if you’re not on it now” becomes. The Polish intellectual Leszek Kołakowski has pointed out that debating change in history is almost tautological, “for history consists exclusively of periods of transition”. But the answer to whether we are in a period of accelerating change cannot be known. I am no futurist. It might be that technological innovation will fulfil frenzied expectations. However, if the past is a guide, it is also likely that technology will not live up to the hype. Facebook could go from two billion users to five billion, or become a plaything of the old – more widespread in nursing homes than in schools. The computer chip might continue to develop or soon reach its physical limits. Robots may take over millions of jobs or usher in categories of entirely new ones; international treaties could prohibit them from undertaking all but mundane tasks. The further refinement of internet platforms might help a more unified world embrace a shared democratic future, or a resurgence of nationalism and protectionism could see them become antiquated tools of authoritarian states. It is at least possible that the future of now-celebrated technology might look more like the once vaunted NBN (to which the national response could now be summarised as “Is this it?”) and less like the transformative wonder of the coming of electricity. The lesson of history is not that ever-faster technological change is inevitable. It is that the future cannot be predicted. All that we can be certain of is that society will continue to be created by the choices made by flesh-and-blood humans. To his credit, Zuckerberg once admitted that the real story of Facebook is “actually pretty boring, right? I mean, we just sat at our computers for six years and coded.” No doubt, the real story of Turnbull’s Innovation Agenda is just as mundane. A bunch of bureaucrats got to work writing the account of the past, present and future that their boss wanted them to, right? Kołakowski concluded his reflection on history by asking the question “Where are we transitioning to?” and pointed out the simple truth that “This we cannot know.” That said, it is both a comfort and a challenge to know that the future will not only be made by the rich men of Silicon Valley. Maintaining a historical perspective on technological innovation also reminds us that many of the biggest technological challenges have not changed in a hundred years. Nearly a billion people still defecate in the open, more than two billion don’t have access to improved sanitation, and about five million people a year die as a result. Fixing this outrage through cheap and accessible technologies will have a greater impact on the quality of human life than the innovations associated with the iPhone 8. It is only ignorance of history that makes it appear more transformative to give the poor a tablet than a toilet. Ever since technology began to transform human existence with unparalleled speed about 200 years ago, critics have warned that belief in the omnipotence of ever-faster technological change could cause people to lose control of their lives and the ability to think for themselves. American essayist and poet Ralph Waldo Emerson worried that “Things are in the saddle / And ride mankind.” TS Eliot asked, “Where is the wisdom we have lost in knowledge? / Where is the knowledge we have lost in information?” Since the industrial revolution began, it has been recognised that the dangers of technology are amplified because innovation is always intertwined with commercial, political and national interests (no matter how pure the motive of the inventor). Recent revelations about the degree to which internet platforms exploit personal information for profit and power should not be a surprise. Computers and their offspring are ultimately just the latest artefacts employed by human beings in the unfolding drama of life on earth. We should be suspicious of determinist stories that confine us to the audience while rich boys show their tricks. A just, sustainable and peaceful future relies on ordinary folk asserting their right to share the stage. James Boyce is a writer and historian. His books include Born Bad: Original Sin and the Making of the Western World, Losing Streak: How Tasmania Was Gamed by the Gambling Industry and Van Diemen's Land. On 20 July, Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull gave a speech to the Economic and Social Outlook Conference, in which his understanding of the history of technology provided the foundation for his vision for Australia: “We are living in a time where the pace and scale of change is utterly unprecedented throughout all of human history. Last week at the G20, I was proud to represent Australia as the largest economies of the world considered how to navigate the future under these conditions of rapid and, indeed, accelerating change … We must not forget how rapid this change has been … Most of these big internet companies – these giants which are dominating the global economic landscape and in so many ways are redefining the way we do business, the way we interact, the way we connect – would, if they were humans, still be at school, many of them, in fact, at primary school. This is very,...

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Now before I get into the post, I have to apologize. First, this is a long one, so if you want to jump to the recipe, you can do that. Secondly, I’ve had this post written and photographed and ready for me to click publish for over two years. TWO YEARS! I can’t give you a good reason for the delay beyond “resistance” as described by Stephen Pressfield. But I eventually pushed through and here I submit to you pylsur: The first thing you need to know about Iceland is the most obvious thing about it: Iceland is an island. A sparsely populated island at that! As of 2016, modern-day Iceland is populated by less than 333,000 people, most of that in Reykjavik. So what makes Iceland special? Turns out a lot! They have a rich history. First settled in AD 874 during the “Medieval Warm Period” by Norwegian Ingólfr Arnarson, Iceland always had a strong relationship with Norway the other Scandinavian countries. Farming was the way of life and governed the economy. They ate many grains such as barley, oats, and rye as a porridge, but also as grist for fermentation of beer. Icelanders also raised cows, poultry, pigs, horses, goats, and sheep for food. Being an island, many of these original stocks, or “Viking breeds” continued to be bred in virtual isolation and are still available today. Another significant food source naturally is fish from the waters surrounding Iceland. Over time, they developed several ways to preserve what they caught. Techniques like salting came to Iceland from Norway but were difficult to execute. The only source for salt came from boiling the water from the sea. However, there was very little fuel to available to boil and drive off the water since much of Iceland’s forests had been cleared to allow their herds to graze. Therefore, it was difficult to use salting as a preservation method. However, Icelanders are a clever bunch and found another way. Lactobacillus casei is the bacteria used in yogurt production and it produces lactic acid. As an alternative to salt, Icelanders used the fermented whey from cheese and yogurt making, allowing it to ferment and sour further to create a low ph environment to preserve meats and fish. It does change the taste though! My understanding is that it takes on the taste of a pungent cheese. With the fermented whey being ubiquitously available (lots of Skyr!), it is still done today to cure eggs or fish like herring or shark. Beyond salting and fermenting, medieval Icelanders could smoke or dry their meats, but like I mentioned before, fuel was often hard to come by. As an aside, during this Medieval age, people ate two meals a day: a lunch and dinner. When you think about it, this eating practice is pretty convenient and is actually coming back in vogue. It is contemporarily called “intermittent fasting” and it is particularly popular in Paleo and ultra low-carb circles for fat loss. Fat loss would certainly not have been the goal for Icelanders – it would have been practicality. In fact, I’ve been this way most days for the past 5 years and love how your mind is clear in the morning and how convenient it is. Tangent done – back to your regularly scheduled program! Medieval Icelanders ate out bowls with spoons and drank from horns (yes, horns, my Viking brothers and sisters!) and lidded tankards. I’d always wondered why steins and tankards had lids, but I finally found the answer: flies! Europe was plagued by swarms of flies. Nobody like bugs in their beer, so they added lids! It all makes sense to me now! Now you can impress your friends when you’re enjoying a tankard of mead in a leather mug at the local Renaissance fair or gulping down Hacker-Pschorr during Oktoberfest. Iceland’s cuisine in the Medieval age was very Nordic; however, when a wave of Christianity took over around AD 1000, eating horses was banned. During this time people lived in “longhouses,” which were constructed around a long open fire pit to keep the house warm. They boiled water by heating stones in the fire and dropping them into the water (maybe you’ve tried this technique while camping) and baked by putting dough in holes dig into the floor. Around 1400, there was a climate shift during a period called “The Little Ice Age.” This cooling forced people to build better houses to stay warm: specifically turf houses. These houses kept people warm with superior insulation provided by the earth and grass and were built with more useful kitchens because cooking generates heat. They were set-up to have open fires on a raised, instead of a sunken hearth. Hooks were hung over the fire to support cast iron cookware or suspended roasts. As fuel was especially short during this cold period, wood alternatives like dried dung or dried peat was burned for fuel instead. Turf houses had such an effective design that Icelanders used turf house building techniques all the way into the 20th century. The significant cooling of the climate made it impractical to grow grains in Iceland, which led to more trading with continental Europe in order to get food staples. Denmark held a trade monopoly starting in the 1600s which also influenced food to be more similar to the Danish style. Icelanders would trade wool and woolen product as well as stockfish for cereal grains, salted meats, and tobacco. Because of the monopoly, prices for grains were high and bread was rather extravagant. The most frequently eaten bread was a heavy, brown rye bread like German pumpernickel called rúgbrauð. Most meals had this bread with churned butter and dried fish. Icelanders also stretched what little grains the had with seaweed and lichens to make a porridge that would be eaten straight or mixed with skyr. As Continental culture infused Iceland more through trade, Icelanders traded two daily meals for three meals: a late breakfast around 10 a.m., a late lunch around 3 p.m. and a dinner at the end of the evening. In the 17th century, vegetable growing also spread from Danish settlers who grew cold tolerant root vegetables and cabbage. Modern-day Icelanders have just about any food available they could want. For the most part, they cook and eat the food all around them. Things like fish, sheep, horse, seabirds, ducks, geese, milk products, root vegetables, tomatoes, cucumbers, and many types of breads and pastries. “Iceland is green, Greenland is ice…” or so they said at Wilshire Park Elementary school when I was a kid. That was about the extent of it what I knew growing up. I eventually learned just a bit more as an adult. I have become fascinated with the natural hot springs that bubble up from the volcanic earth. One of my favorite things is to be in a hot bath outside in the cold with the steam rising up all around and surrounding me. I hope to visit Iceland someday and experience that at a place like Lake Myvatn. By the way, it’s a little-known fact that the word geyser is originally Icelandic. It comes from the word “Geysir,” the name of a certain hot spring in Iceland. It’s also related to the word geysa meaning “to gush.” In 2011, I too watched as Eyjafjallajökull erupted spectacularly and caused significant disruptions to air travel in Europe. But it turns out that for Iceland, it was a fairly minor eruption. I learned that Iceland is one of the most active volcanic areas in the world and has produced at least a third of the world’s lava output – pretty amazing! Volcanos aside, let’s get to something else hot – the food we’ll be cooking for Iceland. Ok, let’s get this straight, today we’re making hot dogs. Now when I say hot dogs, I mean the real thing from scratch, not boil up a pack of Ballpark franks. While they both “plump when you cook’em,” the similarity ends about there. From scratch pylsur are delicious tubes filled with meaty goodness that are sought out the world over. But I’m getting ahead of myself, let’s back up. Like most cuisine develops from its surroundings so did pylsa (singular form of pylsur). German traders and settlers brought sausages to nearby Iceland. Eventually, something resembling the frankfurter emerged being made up of a trinity of lamb, pork, and beef. The addition of the lamb adds complexity and interest without being overly “gamey.” Pylsur aren’t overly spiced – they let the meat take center stage and accompany it on a bun with raw and crispy fried onions called “Cronions.” We talk about the crispy fried onions here and walk you through making them yourself. From there, Icelanders top the whole thing with a remoulade (herbed mayo) and Pylsusinnep, a mild and delicious sweet brown mustard (we’ve got recipes for them too!). Topping it this way is ordering it “one with everything,” or as the Icelanders would say “eina með öllu.” (If you sound it out, you can hear the Germanic origins of the Icelandic language.) Where would you find these pylsur in Iceland? The most famous joint is called Bæjarins Beztu Pylsur, a tiny stand-alone shack with a single outdoor picnic table. While this little unassuming place is small, it makes up for it with its food and celebrity following. Former US President Bill Clinton is probably their most famous customer, but actors like Charlie Sheen, and James Hetfield from Metallica have all been seen there. You’ll find several recipes floating around the internet claiming to make pylsur. Those recipes won’t have you make the sausage yourself from scratch. They would have you buy a conventional hot dog and “dress it up” to be masqueraded like a pylsa. Would we do that to you? Nay, not Explorers Kitchen. We’ll make it from scratch and lead you through the process. We dedicate ourselves to the journey and we will take you with us. It won’t be as easy but you’ll enjoy the journey and love the destination. We don’t want to claim to be the most “authentic” because food morphs and evolves as it moves around the world – everything is a remix. You’ll enjoy the efforts you put into making these sausages. We scoured books and online in many languages in order to develop the a representation of pylsur to share that tries to get as close as you can get in your home kitchen. After days of exhausting searching and testing we didn’t find anything close enough and decided to blaze our own trail. I want to acknowledge Arousing Appetites for their recipe. They are the only website out there that attempted to make pylsur from scratch and I want to commend them for that. However, they did deviate from several steps that we find critical in the process: emulsifying, casing, and smoking. But that’s OK. I don’t want to take anything away from them. It takes a lot of time and effort to forge a path and create something new. They do that every day and their website is worth your time checking out. We have a lot in common and I respect their do-it-yourself work ethic. I also really like their photography and writing. Back to our recipe! We do acknowledge that not everyone has the equipment to grind meat at home. To that, we say, get a grinder! At Explorers Kitchen, we use the inexpensive Sunmile SM-G35 which can be had for less than $60 at the time of writing. At the time we bought it, we didn’t have a Kitchen Aid stand mixer or we would have probably opted for their meat grinder attachment for about $55. With space constraints, a small attachment would simply be easier to store. If you insist on not grinding fresh at home, that’s fine. You can buy pre-ground meats from your butcher shop and do the fine processing and emulsification in your food processor. If you don’t have a grinder, you’ll absolutely need a piston stuffer to get the meat into the casings. If making a sausage from scratch is just too much to bear, you can buy legitimate Icelandic pylsur from time to time on Nammi.is. It’s not currently available there, but it may be back soon. They carry SS brand the “gold standard” of pylsur in the Icelandic grocery store. And it is the sausage at SS that I used to develop our recipe for Explorers Kitchen. The SS website is surprisingly detailed and shares a much of the ingredients and ratios as well as a hint of the process. Because we could get that close to the source, we can be confident that we made version of the recipe that very closely resembles what is available in Iceland. As a side note, I did reach out to SS for recipe feedback and they chose not to reply to date. Start by deciding how much you want to make. I made about 6 lbs, which was enough to keep me eating sausage for a couple weeks. I would think that most people would want about 3 lbs at a time, but it’s up to you. The marginal time cost for 3 vs 6 lbs isn’t that much, so I just went with more. Base your meats on the lamb (which will be the most expensive) and go from there. Play around with the amount of lamb in the calculator below and decide how much you want to have. I have it set-up in grams because it is easier to be precise, but if you need lbs, just divide the numbers by 454. Alright? Let’s get started. Lamb is the star of the show in Iceland. It is mostly free range and is widely eaten there. Therefore, it starts as the basis of our recipe and everything else rotates around it. SS uses beef and pork in addition to the lamb. They say on their site that the pork helps to balance out the strong flavors of the lamb and the beef. For our recipe, we balanced the lamb with an equal proportion of pork and a little less beef to create a milder flavor. By weight, lamb and pork make up 25% of the sausage by weight and beef is 15%. We selected a lamb shoulder roast, pork shoulder, and beef chuck (also shoulder) as these cuts are economical, flavorful, and forgiving. If you decide to get pre-ground meat that’ll be fine and likely originate from some of the same cuts. The next ingredient is dried skim milk powder – 3.5% by weight. While it seems like an odd ingredient on the surface, it helps a lot in the emulsification step to bind the meats together. It does make them quite sticky and a little difficult to work with when stuffing if you aren’t using a piston-styled stuffer. More on that later. SS also uses potato flakes and so do we. I imagined that it was there as a filler, but it’s less than 3% of the mix by weight, so that’s probably not it. After making the recipe and observing as I was mixing each step, I have come to the conclusion that it probably helps with moisture retention. When you cook these sausages, they’re very moist and difficult to overcook, yet they don’t ooze juice and fat all over the place. I think the reason for that is that the potato flakes act as a “buffer” to hold onto and regulate that moisture. If you know the real science beyond my speculation, I’d love to hear it! Without guidance for spices, I took some liberties. Since pylsur are not heavily spiced sausages, I took a very restrained hand and selected only white pepper, garlic, onion, and smoked paprika powders. I imagined the flavor profile and equally proportioned each of those. With those ingredients aside, the rest are salt, Prague powder, and ice. The Prague powder #1, also known as Insta Cure #1 is a blend of 93.75% salt with 6.25% sodium nitrate. The function of this in the sausage is to cure the meat, provide its characteristic texture and color, and inhibit the growth of bacteria and fungus to prevent spoilage, especially botulism. This recipe contains less than ¼ of one percent of total weight as prague powder, so it’s not super strong, yet is enough to serve its purpose well. The ice is critical in the emulsification step to keep the temperature down and to infuse some moisture into the mix. Start by trimming your lamb roast and cutting it into 1-2 inch cubes. Trim off any silverskin. I also trimmed off the fat because that’s where the gamey flavor lives. Daisy was happy to eat my trimmings. She knows to stick close when I’m cutting meat in the kitchen. Weigh your trimmed lamb in grams and plug it into our handy calculator below. It’ll be the basis of the rest of your recipe. Repeat trimming and cutting with the other meats until you reach the prescribed weight from the calculator for each. Then lay them all out on a parchment lined sheet pan and freeze for about an hour. You’ll know it’s the right temp when ice is crystallizing and it’s getting “crunchy,” but isn’t a frozen brick yet. Now for grinding! Set a large bowl inside of a larger bowl with ice in it (would you call that a cold bain-marie? Reverse bain-marie?). Run your meats through the grinder with the plate that has the smallest openings into the nested bowl. Add your powdered milk, potato flakes, salt, Prague powder, and spices and mix it thoroughly with your hands until it looks fairly homogenous. Now we’re going to emulsify the thing. In case you didn’t know, emulsification is a technique for creating a mixture of two things that wouldn’t normally mix. In this case, it is the fat within the meat with water/ice and everything else. The milk powder helps to bind them together. In this case, we’ll be using the mechanics of a food processor to help aid in the process and cut the meats into tiny pieces. You’ll have a fully emulsified, smooth sausage that’ll have a consistent look throughout. Depending on the amount of sausage you choose to make, you’ll want to divide the amount in the food processor into smaller batches. The emulsification gets really really sticky and I stalled my food processor the first time I made it (I have the slightly older version of this Kitchenaid processor). I thought I burned the thing out! Thankfully, it looks like I didn’t and it seems to be working again. Because of that scare, I want to warn you to be careful. You probably don’t want to process more than 500-1000g at a time. Dividing it up into thirds is probably reasonable. Whatever size you decide to do, put half that proportion of crushed ice in there. So if you divide into thirds, put 1/6th of the ice in and process for 1-2 minutes until the ice melts and is incorporated. Add another 1/6th of ice and process for 4-6 minutes until completely smooth and emulsified. Check the temperature from time to time. According to Ryan, it’s critical that it stays below 40 F, which shouldn’t be too hard to do since you’re adding ice, but it’s worth watching. Remove that into a large bowl and repeat two more times with the rest of your sausage. Empty everything into the bowl and mix with your hands thoroughly until the batches are all mixed together. Press wax paper on top so there is no air contact. Cover with plastic wrap and refrigerate for 24 hours. This lets the meat cure and the flavors meld. Start soaking your casings overnight in the fridge. They’re packed dry in salt and are quite brittle. Soaking helps to rehydrate – you don’t want them to burst on you. We chose natural sheep casings for our pylsur. Having many many sheep, this was the traditional way they would have stuffed sausage in Iceland. Modern manufacturers use collagen casings because they’re more efficient in production – they’re longer and don’t require as many tie-offs. We went the traditional way because we love the snap you get from natural casings. Try to find your casings locally because, frankly, the prices aren’t very good online. I bought mine on Amazon, for about $16, but if you can find them locally, it should be more like $5. If you want the ease of collagen or get skeeved out by natural intestines, the 19mm size is about right. I know that it’s another piece of equipment, but if you’re serious sausage, a piston-style stuffer definitely the way to go. I have tried it both ways and the piston is much much easier. We’re about to start stuffing the casings, but I want to touch on an important point. Make sure your work area is thoroughly cleaned and then wet with water. Water is your friend in sausage stuffing because it lubricates the surfaces and helps prevent breakage of your casings. I like to take a sheet pan and wet it as a tray for my sausage as it comes out. I’ve seen others just use a wet countertop or sink (though I wonder about cleanliness with that one). Now if you’ve stuffed sausage before, you know that it works best if you have 3 hands. However, most people I know, only have two hands, so grab a friend if you can. If you’re using a piston stuffer, put your meat into the big chamber and drop the piston down. Crank to start filling your “exit” tube with sausage. Stop as soon as you see the meat starting to come out. Thread up your rehydrated and rinsed casings on-to the exit tube. Lamb is small and thin, so this can be tricky – be patient! If you don’t have a piston stuffer, you can use your grinder, it’s just trickier. Pull out the cutting blade and remove the plate. Replace the plate with the kidney-shaped blank plate (often plastic) and the stuffing tube. Start feeding your grinder/stuffer with meat until you can see it starting to exit the tube. Kill the power and thread up your casings. Regardless of which method you use, tie off the end of the casings and start extruding your sausage. This is where it is helpful to have two people. One can crank the piston (or feed the meat into the grinder/stuffer) and lightly hold the casings on the stuffing tube (to maintain adequate fill amount. The second person can “receive” the sausage and support it as it comes out. (Get your mind out of the gutter.) That second person can create a loose coil to keep it organized and ready to be twisted into links later. The way I learned to link my sausages was to pinch the sausage at the length you want and then twist. Then you repeat with the same length, twisting in the opposite direction. I find this can be a little tricky to remember which direction you twisted last. I figured that there must be a trick and it turns out there are two tricks! The first is: This works fairly well and you don’t have to remember which direction you twisted. But my favorite way is one I just learned from Scott Rea youtube. This technique looks really pretty and organized because you make groups of 3 links daisy-chained together, It looks really professional and reduces the length of sausage strands you have to juggle. I’ll be using this technique from now on! The video makes it very clear: From there, the hardest part is over. Next, you simply have to smoke and finish the sausage. While it is ideal to smoke your links hanging in a cabinet style smoker, you can improvise with a standard grill. I had my cabinet smoker put away for the year and didn’t want to haul it out, so I used a normal gas grill with an A-MAZE-N Pellet smoker. Either way, set up your heat to 170F and smoke until your sausage reaches 145F, about 60 minutes. You can cool them and save them for later or eat right away. Your pylsur are fully cooked at this point, but to continue modeling the way it is prepared in Iceland, we finished our pylsur by boiling like the way Bæjarins Beztu does. Bring a pot of water (or a mixture of water and beer) to a full boil. Drop the pylsur in and simmer until they’re plump and warm throughout, about 5 minutes. Another way to finish them would be to seal the sausages in a vacuum bag with some beer and sous vide it. You’ll want to salt the beer so that it doesn’t leach it from your sausages. Simply seal it up and sous vide at 145F for 45 min to 4 hours. (Serious Eats has a great guide for sous viding sausage.) If that all seems like too much work after everything you have put into this, the microwave is totally fine too. Regardless of your finishing method, serve the pylsa in a bun with raw and crispy fried onions, a remoulade, and Pylsusinnep. The crispy fried onions are called “Cronions” in Iceland, and I hear that they could give French’s a run for their money. I made ours totally gluten-free and fried them up in home-rendered tallow. You can find our recipe for homemade “Cronions” here. We will also have recipes for Icelandic remoulade and Pylsusinnep shortly. If you’ve got your pylsa sitting comfortably in a bun well dressed with onions and condiments, all that is left is to eat it – enjoy! Here is the recipe using the weights and proportions we used. Of course, you can use the calculator we give you above. Icelandic pylsur sausages taste fantastic |Amount Per Serving| |% Daily Value*| |Total Fat 17.5||26.9%| |Saturated Fat 8g||40%| |Trans Fat 0g| |Total Carbohydrate 10g||3.3%| |Dietary Fiber 1g||4%| |Vitamin A||Vitamin C| * Percent Daily Values are based on a 2,000 calorie diet. Your daily values may be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs. These sausages are fantastic. The blend of the meats makes them really mild and approachable. The texture is excellent – the snap of the natural casing and pleasing mouthfeel make these a winner. Topping them with the onions two ways as well as the remoulade and Pylsusinnep is definitely the way to go. I’m always battling with carbs, so I ate most of mine bunless on a platter with all the accouterments. The biggest learning came from when I was emulsifying the sausage before casing. This blend is seriously sticky and it was intense on my food processor making it stall. I because of that, I recommend blending in smaller batches – no more than ⅓ of the whole mixture if you make the size batch I did. Also, consider some gloves when handling the meat, because it will stick to you and you’ll find it under your fingernails for a few days. But don’t let that stuff stop you. I may have written a lot, but the whole process is fairly fast and produces a fantastic product you’ll love. Yes, Game of Thrones is coming to a close. For the penultimate episode, I wanted to do something over-the-top. At… https://youtu.be/7g905HZ79-E Today we're making Sweet Potato Pie! There are many recipes out there, but we like this one from Nicole… This is an accompanying recipe to go along with the pylsur post for Iceland. The main info is all located…

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A series of questions asked by the congregation in 2017/18, which are answered below. What is liturgy? Liturgy encompasses the structure of participatory worship. When liturgy is translated from the original Greek to English the direct translation is: "the work of the people." As this definition is very open, liturgy can have many shapes and forms. Any form which is agreed upon by the worshipping community and has at its core the worship and praise of God is a liturgy. How is God's grace connected to the liturgy? In worship, the Holy Spirit gathers people around the means of grace - the saving Word of God and the sacraments. From the table of communion where Jesus Christ comes with forgiveness, life, and salvation, God sends us out to share the good news and to care for those in need. The whole people of God are joined by the same gifts of grace, for the sake of the same mission of the gospel, into the life of the one triune God (the Bible clearly speaks of God the Son, God the Father, and God the Holy Spirit, but emphasizes that there is only ONE God . . i.e: 1 x 1 x 1 = 1). What are the four movements of a Lutheran worship service? The basic pattern for worship services at Hosanna include gathering, word, meal, and sending. At Hosanna we weekly celebrate Holy Communion, and when we have two services we alternate with a Service of Word liturgy, which removes the Holy Communion liturgy and replaces it with a special focus on prayer. this structure allows for freedom and flexibility in the ways worship may be shaped locally, while focusing on what the church holds in common. Do you know the purpose of the musical prelude before worship? This is a time of preparation for worship. Music is intended to help us enter into an attitude of prayer and praise. Why are there two times of announcements in our worship service? At the beginning of every worship service we have a time for worship-related announcements made by the pastors. This can include special features for the day, special notes for the service, or information that people might need before worship begins. Announcements at the end of the worship relate to the work of the congregation in the wider world. these announcements highlight different ministries related to the congregation and how people can participate in this important work. The announcements at the end of worship are made by volunteers, usually members, on behalf of the organization and ministries they participate in. Why do we often begin with Confession and Forgiveness or Remembrance of Baptism? We often begin our worship together using Confession and Forgiveness or a Remembrance of Baptism as a reminder of who we are. When we gather, we do so as the called people of God, we confess our sin and hear God's assurance of forgiveness. We give thanks for God's mercy in the gift of baptism. What are we celebrating on Confirmation Sunday? On Confirmation Sunday we celebrate the public declaration of the Christian faith by those who have completed their catechumenate. Catechumenate, or confirmation classes, are an intentional time of study, with a focus on reading the Bible, building community, and learning the fundamental teachings of the Lutheran church. What did Martin Luther say about worship? The greatest and principal purpose of every church service is to preach and teach God's Word. No more splendid work exists than receiving and hearing the Word of God. Joint prayer is also of great importance. Originally the worship of God was simple, just simply Adam in paradise praising God. According to Luther, ceremonies are themselves matters of indifference, for they neither add to nor take away from the Gospel anything at all; but they must never be regarded as necessary for salvation or made a matter of conscience. Music was also an important part of worship for Luther, particularly music sung by the whole congregation. What do we commemorate on All Saints' Sunday? All Saints' Sunday is commemorated on the first Sunday of November every year. It is the day when we commemorate those who have passed away in the last year, along with the Christians who have lived before us and testified to their Christian faith. On All Saints' Sunday Hosanna invites the families of those who have passed away over the past year to join us in worship and to hear their loved one's name read aloud in the prayers of intercession. We light candles in remembrance of the Light of the World who overcame death and the grave and remember that the light guides those who go before us in the faith. What is a litany? Where do we use a litany? A litany is a call and response by a leader and the congregation, either said or sung. Our Call to Worship is an example of an opening litany which helps focus the people on participating in worship and the scripture reading of the day. Litanies can be used in many parts of a worship service to involve and engage the congregation in the communal act of worship. Why do we sing an Opening Hymn? We sing in thanksgiving as we gather together as God's people. Singing at the time of gathering is an ancient practice: the early church sang from the psalms; in the Middle Ages the introit was common; in some cases, the Kyrie or Hymn of Praise can serve the role for communal singing at the beginning of a time of worship. Songs related to the theme of the day, the Holy Spirit, the season of the church year, thanksgiving for Confession and Forgiveness, or other songs which recognize that we gather as God's people are appropriate to sing at the opening of worship. Why is the last Sunday of the church year called "Christ the King" or "Reign of Christ" Sunday? Christ the King Sunday is a day on which the church focuses on Christ's inherent lordship over all believers and creation. it is a celebration of the hope that at the end of all things Jesus Christ will come again and reign over all. For "all in heaven and on earth have been given over to me," said Jesus (Matthew 28:18). Reign of Christ Sunday serves as the final day of the church year. This festival was introduces in many congregations along with the use of the Common Lectionary in 1925, and it seeks to respond to the growth of secular society by returning focus to God's eternal plan for the salvation of all. Why have the colors of the pastors' stoles and church paraments changed beginning the first Sunday in Advent? Each liturgical season, as well as major church festivals, have their own liturgical color which is worn by the presiding ministers and used in the paraments. The first Sunday of Advent marks the first Sunday of a new church year and the transition to the season of Advent. The liturgical church year is: Advent, Christmas, Epiphany, Lent, Easter, Pentecost, and the Season after Pentecost. The colors for the liturgical year are: - Blue for Advent - White for Christmas and Baptism of our lord Sunday - Green for the season of Epiphany - White for Transfiguration Sunday - Black for Ash Wednesday - Purple for Lent - No colors for Good Friday - White for Easter Sunday and the season of Easter - Red for Pentecost Sunday - Green for the Sundays after Pentecost - Red also for Confirmation and Reformation Sundays - White for Reign of Christ Sunday Why do we begin every service with the same Greeting? These words come from St. Paul's letter to the Corinthians (2 Corinthians 13:13) and are words of encouragement to greet one another in peace and love. These are words that mean to do what they say: in God's mercy, the words convey the very grace, love, and communion of which they speak. In this mutual greeting, the presider and the congregation are established and held in the triune life of God. This congregation is to be the communion of the Holy Spirit around the grace of Jesus Christ and the love of God, spoken and given in word and sacrament. Furthermore, the congregation, by its response, acknowledges and prays for the triune God to be with the one who is presiding for them. With this prayer, the presiding minister is acknowledged and welcomed again as one who presides here. It is as if the call of the pastor is renewed. With these words, the Gathering comes to clear expression and the service clearly begins. What is the purpose of the Kyrie and Hymn of Praise in worship/ The Kyrie is a plea and prayer for the gathered assembly and the world. Its cry is for mercy, peace, and salvation. The Canticles of Praise, Hymn of Praise, or "This is the feast" express the joyful and celebrative nature of the gathering of Christians on the day we celebrate the resurrection of Jesus Christ. How are we to understand the role and place of the Prayer of the Day? The prayer of the day is the summary of the entire gathering portion of our worship together. This prayer collects us together in prayer before God and turns us toward the scripture readings we are about to hear. The classic prayer of the day, in "collect form," follows a simple outline: first God is addressed, then a sentence proclaims and acknowledges with thanksgiving what God has done - especially in Christ, and it refers to the scriptures for the day, concluding in the name of the triune God or through Jesus Christ. These prayers come from a variety of sources but are all related to the scripture readings appointed for the day. Why do we only sing Christmas carols during the 12 days of Christmas? We don't only sing Christmas hymns during Christmas! These hymns can be sung as declarations of faith at any time of the year, though we usually only sing them at Christmas. We particularly refrain from singing Christmas carols during Advent because that is the season of preparation for the arrival of Jesus, and these hymns have a special focus on his birth, which we are waiting to celebrate. How do we decide what to read from scripture for each Sunday? Hosanna follows a lectionary, which is a set pattern for the reading of scripture through time. For many years Hosanna followed the Revised Common Lectionary, which had a reading from the Old Testament, a psalm, the New Testament, and a Gospel. This lectionary had a special focus on the centrality of the Gospel for God's people. In 2015, Hosanna transitioned to the Narrative Lectionary, which focuses on "preaching annually the biblical narrative in order to center the lives of believers in God's story." Each week the Narrative Lectionary has two assigned texts - a key preaching text and an accompanying text. The Narrative Lectionary begins each fall centered in the story of God with God's people, moves to the prophets for Advent, focuses on the story of Jesus' life, ministry, and death in Epiphany and Lent, and the resurrection at Easter. The early church is the focus for the time between Easter and Pentecost, and following Pentecost in the summer there are special in-depth studies on selected biblical books or topics. Why do we have children's time as a part of our worship? We have children's time in recognition of the continually growing and developing faith of our younger members. The special and gifted young members of our congregation are called to share in the good news and grace that come from the scripture, and the children's time allows the preacher to focus time and attention on the needs and faith questions that our children may have about the readings from scripture that they hear that day. Do you know why we sing the Gospel Acclamation before reading the Gospel? When we sing this before reading the Gospel, we are suggesting that we are happy to hear the Gospel. This acclamation is a high point of celebration in our congregation; it is the opportunity to welcome the reading of scripture, to rejoice for the great gift of God's word, and to gather around the reading. Do you know why we say: "glory to you, O Lord" and "Praise to you, O Christ" around reading the Gospel? This is praise of God for what we are about to hear, and thanksgiving for what Christ does for all of God's creation. Why do we stand during the reading of the Gospel? We stand as a sign of respect because the Gospel is the story of Jesus Christ, and the text itself stand for Jesus in our midst. Each week a sermon, homily, or reflection is preached in our congregation. What is the purpose of the sermon? The sermon brings God's word of law and gospel into our time and place to awaken and nourish faith. The preacher focuses on the interpretation of the text, or texts, that have been read in the service so that them may be interpreted and proclaimed in this place, on this day. the purpose of the sermon is in the power of the Spirit to speak of Jesus Christ so that we may again come to trust in God with our lives - come to faith - then turn in faith toward our neighbours with service, witness, and love. What is the HOT-D? HOT-D stands for Hymn of the Day and singing the HOT-D is a central way in which the whole congregation takes part in the action of proclaiming and responding to God's word read and preached. The HOT-D gathers up relationships between the reading of the day, themes of the church year, and may reinforce the message of preaching. What is the purpose of the creed within worship? The creeds, both the Apostle's Creed and the Nicene Creed, can be a way that the congregation responds to the preaching of the word of God. Proclaiming a creed is an expression of baptismal faith. The trinitarian character of these confessions corresponds to the trinitarian character of our worship together, and belong to the celebration when we gather for word and sacrament and are then sent into the world to line into our callings as followers of Jesus Christ. Prayers of Intercession. Why? For whom? Written by? If readings and preaching are meant to bring us again to trust in God, to bring us to faith, then one of the ways we are invited to exercise our faith is by praying for the needs of all the world. These prayers are specifically prepared by Hosanna's pastors for our congregation and are made to reflect the needs of our faith community, our local community, and the global community. The petitions are genuine beseeching requests meant to place our trust in God. It is during the prayers of intercession that we recognize all the names on the Hosanna prayer list, as well as those who have recently requested our prayer, and those we each bring to our prayers. We have also begun to pray for our members who are celebrating birthdays and anniversaries that God will be present with them that day and all year. Do you know why we share The Peace during worship? The peace enacts both a prayer and a proclamation. The peace functions as a seal on our prayers, while also as a proclamation of the presence and answering of our prayers by Christ. Because of the presence of Jesus Christ, we give each other what we are saying: Christ's own peace. The exchange of peace is a ministry, an announcement of the grace we make to each other, a summary of the gift given to us in the liturgy of the word. Having been gathered by the Spirit, we then turn to celebrate the Lord's Supper, his very presence in our midst. Let's talk about the value and theological significance of the offering. Following the sharing of the peace, at Hosanna we collect the offering, hear offering music, and sing an offering hymn. When the offering is collected it is done for the mission of the church, including those in need, and is typically completed before going to holy communion: if God so graciously feeds us, in word and sacrament, we in response should turn towards our neighbours. We have prayed for them, and now we will share something of what we have received from God with them. The offering music is another gift offered to God in thanksgiving for what God is giving us, in this case, the gifts and time of our musicians. We sing as we bring forward the offering, and the bread and the wine, to join us all in the same action of bringing forward our thanksgiving for what God gives so abundantly to us. Do you know what part of our worship together is called "setting the table?" The setting of the table happens when the bread and wine are brought to the altar as part of our community's weekly offering. The presentation of the bread and wine, and its addition to the altar in preparation for Holy Communion is one of the most remarkable symbols of Christianity: we have heard God's word and now we are prepared to gather together at God's table to be fed with the bread of life. Why do we say an offering prayer even though we are about to pray the Great Thanksgiving? This prayer is meant to articulate humility and gratitude, along with a Lutheran understanding of the doctrines of creation, redemption, and vocation in response to accepting the offering and in preparation for sharing it with others. What is the function of the Great Thanksgiving? The Great Thanksgiving is a dialogue, as the pastor and the congregation share together in giving thanks at the table. this dialogue is one of the most ancient and widespread texts in Christian use and always consists of three exchanges. It begins with an invitation to know again the presence of the risen Christ, in whom we have gathered, who we encountered in the word. Then the pastor invites the congregation to "lift up your hearts" to God, and the congregation gently corrects the pastor assuring them that the place where the risen Christ is present is where our hearts should live, because Christ is present here in our midst. Then everyone is invited to give thanks to God, which can imply God the Father or the Triune God, and we answer that it is right to do so. We have nothing but thanks to bring. Standing with Christ, enlivened by the Spirit poured out from his death and resurrection, we begin to do so. Why do we often say a preface to Holy Communion? The word preface is misleading because what is begun here is the thanksgiving at the table. The preface focuses on proclaiming the merciful and saving actions of God. Though there are different prefaces for different liturgical seasons, different feast days, and to mark special occasions, each preface begins with giving thanks to God through Jesus Christ, with a recounting of the reasons we give thanks and praise. Why do we often sing the Holy, Holy, Holy as part of our communion service? We sing as the whole congregation joining in the praise and thanksgiving that we give to God for the gift of Jesus Christ, and his death and resurrection, and his presence among us. This is a song of unity between pastor and congregation, where all join in thanksgiving. In this way, we recognize that the meal's preparation is truly a work of the whole gathered community. If the Preface to Holy Communion has already been prayed and proclaimed, recounting God's great deeds in Christ Jesus, why do we say a Eucharistic prayer? The Eucharistic prayer is a continuation of the thanksgiving at the table begun in the preface, which proclaims what God has done in creation and redemption, especially as this is summed up in Jesus and his words at the last supper. Each Eucharistic prayer begins with thanksgiving and proclamation and turns to petition and prayer - where the assembly prays for the presence and gift of the Spirit in our midst during the meal and in our lives. Both the preface and the Eucharistic prayer should follow the church's season, special festivals, and themes for the day and season. Why do we always pray the Lord's Prayer during worship? During worship we always say the Lord's Prayer because it is the words given to us, in God's great mercy through Jesus, to allow us to stand before God. The Lord's Prayer can function in many ways in the life of the Christian community but in worship with its petitions for the coming of God's reign, bread, forgiveness, and protection it is traditionally prayed to help the community and individuals place their hope and trust in God. Every time we celebrate Holy Communion the whole community stands from the Great Thanksgiving until the Lord's Prayer, why do we do this? The presiding minister and the assembly, who are in dialogue throughout the whole thanksgiving, share the same posture of standing because we are in this work together. The congregation participates by in responding words, in song, in heart-deep attention, and perhaps even in gestures. The standing posture is also the posture of the resurrection, for Christ has pulled us up together out of death. Do you know the meaning of the Lamb of God in the service? This song echoes in John 1:29, John's proclamation of Jesus as the Lamb of God, and Revelation 5:6, the Lamb of God beside the throne of God. The song is meant to address the risen Christ giving himself away at this table as the true Lamb; freely giving the gifts of freedom from sin and death through his actions. From where do we get the invitation to the table? The invitation to the Lord's table comes from biblical texts, this can be from Psalm 34:8, 1 Peter 2:3, or Luke 14:17. We also have day, or liturgical season, appropriate invitations that match the reading from scripture for that day. Why do we have communion assistants? Having lay communion ministers reinforces the sense that the assembly is communing together. Even when the assembly is small, having at least one assisting minister is helpful. "The body of Christ given for you." "The blood of Christ shed for you." These words are important and sacred and offered for each of us as we come to the Lord's table. Why are they so special? These words are offered to each person who is participating in Holy Communion as a reminder of the gift which we receive from Christ of his own body and blood when we come to the table. These statements can be responded to by saying "Amen" or "Thanks be to God" for the gift which we receive. It is important to note that for Lutherans we believe that the body and blood of Christ are "truly and substantially present in, with, and under the forms" of the consecrated bread and wine; this is not a magical transformation but one in which the ordinary forms of bread and wine become more when the Holy Spirit is invoked in the name of Jesus. The grace which is presented in the bread and wine is equally present in both elements, so only one is required (though both are traditionally accepted) when we come to the Lord's table. Why do we sing hymns during the distribution of Holy Communion? Singing during communion distribution is an opportunity for a congregational song that provide focus. Because this is a flexible time in the service and involves the congregation's movement, singing can enable a centering focus admidst the movement and variety of activity. Some may also use this time for personal prayer. Congregational singing surrounds those receiving communion or praying with the community's songs of faith. Singing focuses the congregation as it accompanies the actions of those walking, sitting, communing, and praying. What are the purposes of the Post-Communion Blessing and Post Communion Prayer? The purpose of the Post-Communion blessing is to remind the whole assemble of the gift which we receive at the Lord's table: namely, the grace and peace which comes only from Christ. The purpose of the Post-Communion prayer is to bring us before God, that the wonderful sacrament we have received will turn us towards a needy world with a desire to join God at work in service to others and creation. Why does the presiding minister often commune last? Who should offer the presider communion? In ancient times it was hospitable to eat or drink first, indicating to other guests that the food was good and not poisoned. Today it is considered more hospitable to eat or drink last, which is why the presider is the last to commune. It is possible for anyone in the assembly to commune the presider, as we all belong to the priesthood of all believers, though this is typically the role of the assisting minister because they serve as the representative of the whole congregation. Who does the sending? God is the one who sends people out of the assembly. This portion of worship is not called Going, which we would do, but Sending, which God does. God sends us from this place to live our vocation in the world. We simply respond with gratitude and acknowledgement that we are sent by God. What is the three-fold structure of the sending from worship? The presider pronounces the benediction, together the congregation sings a closing hymn, and the assisting minister announces the assembly's dismissal. All the voices of the assembly join together in the sending, and the sending is for the forming of the assembly's life in the world as our community of the body of Christ disperses. At the time of the sending, we are no longer the same individuals who crossed the threshold of the worship space, we are now a community that has encountered the living Christ in this place, and has been empowered for ministry through the sending. What is the place of applause in worship? There is no single answer to this question. There is, in fact, a range of responses including: clapping has no place in worship because it disrupts the worshipping experience, clapping in response to being moved is a good and right response, clapping for the gifts of others is a sign of support (especially for children and youth), worship is not a performance but acts offered to God in thanksgiving for what God has fist given us so clapping is not appropriate. At Hosanna there are members who believe each of these things, and perhaps others as well, but it is important to consider why you would or would not clap in worship. If you are unsure it is never wrong to clap because you are moved, but it is also appropriate to speak after worship with any musician to share your thanks and appreciation instead of clapping. Do you know what the means of grace are? Lutherans believe that the Word of God, who is Christ Jesus, is to be preached, read and sung by the whole assembly as essential to worship. the rites of baptism with water and attending the Lord's supper are mandated by the Word and therefore essential to the right worship of the Triune God. through liturgy and song, we are nourished by God for our mission in the world so that we can bring forth the good news about Jesus Christ to the world. Do you know why there are differences in the services held in different Lutheran Churches? "Freedom and flexibility is a Lutheran inheritance." While Lutherans may share a common unity of belief, there is considerable variety in music, instruments, ceremony and liturgical forms among different congregations. There is an increasing variety of musical offering, media, art, and liturgical form found throughout the Lutheran church. The multiple forms respond to the developing needs of the church in different times and places as it carries out its calling to join God at work in the world.

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Eleutherococcus senticosus (Eleuthero, Siberian Ginseng) is an adaptogenic, immunostimulant, and antioxidant herb whose effects are recognized in several European Pharmacopoeias. Eleuthero has been shown to have stimulating and tonic actions and beneficial adaptive effects on the stress response, mental and physical fatigue, and mental and physical performance. 3 Top benefits of Eleuthero - Adaptogenic: promotes adaptation to stress and fatigue - Ergogenic: enhances physical performance - Antioxidant: protects tissues and organs from oxidative damage Eleutherococcus senticosus (or Acanthopanax senticosus), also commonly referred to as Eleuthero, Siberian Ginseng or Russian Ginseng Root, is a herb that has been used in traditional folk medicine to manage stress, mental and physical fatigue, energy depletion, depression, anxiety, and insomnia (1). Eleuthero is regarded as an adaptogenic herb (2) — it increases non-specific resistance to different kinds of stressors, promotes well-being, and enhances physical endurance. It has stimulating and tonic effects, meaning that it can increase work capacity (stimulating effect) after a single dose and that its stimulating effects can be maintained for a sustained period of time after a period of continued intake (tonic effect). The efficacy of Eleuthero was extensively studied in the former USSR, where scientific research assessing its effects dated back to the 1950s. Eleutherococcus root extract was approved by the Soviet Union Pharmacological Committee for clinical use as a stimulant in the early 1960s and was recommended for use in the Soviet space program to improve adaptability to the harsh and stressful conditions of space (1). Soviet findings were later replicated by other researches and Eleuthero root extract has been adopted for medicinal use in several countries besides Russia. Eleutherococcus senticosus is included in the European Pharmacopoeia (3). Eleutherococcus senticosus contains several compounds that have shown pharmacological effects in medically and scientifically validated tests and assays. The main bioactive ingredients of Eleuthero are called eleutherosides and are found in highest concentrations in the root of the plant. Other bioactive compounds found in Eleuthero include phenylpropanoids, lignans, triterpenoid saponins, coumarins, flavones, vitamins, and provitamins (4–7). [Note: The vast majority of the early studies on Eleutherococcus senticosus were published in Russian with no available English translations. However, they have been summarized in several review articles or books published in English. Data on the results of older Russian studies mentioned in this article were obtained from those books and articles or from monographs published by governmental agencies.] Adaptogenic, anti-stress, and anti-fatigue effects Numerous human trials on the adaptogenic effects of Eleutherococcus senticosus have been conducted, many of which between the 1960s and 1980s in the Soviet Union. Many of these studies focused on determining whether Eleuthero could increase the resistance to several different types of physical and emotional stress, and consequently, reduce mental disturbances, such as anxiety, depression, excitability, or insomnia, and improve physical and mental performance in those contexts. However, it is important to note that many of those early studies were not conducted in accordance with the current standards of adequate scientific rigor; many lacked controls and statistical evaluation, for example. Nevertheless, given the large number of studies carried out between the 60s and the 80s, the large number of subjects included in those studies, and the contexts in which Eleuthero was recommended and used in the USSR, it seems that the evidence of adaptogenic effects was compelling. A review of 35 Soviet clinical studies with Eleuthero root extract carried out before 1985 and involving over 2100 healthy subjects indicated that Eleuthero is effective in improving physical and mental performance under stressful conditions (1, 8). Eleuthero root extract appears to exert adaptogenic and anti-stress effects by increasing the body’s defenses against stress factors and harmful compounds in a non-specific way, by stimulating the immune system, and by promoting a general enhancement of physical and mental performance (8). A large Russian study with 357 sailors receiving an Eleutherococcus senticosus extract demonstrated that Eleuthero had adaptogenic and other beneficial effects even after a single dose. In normal (non-stressful) conditions, it was shown that a single administration of Eleuthero improved mental performance in a correction test, increased the activity of the adrenal gland and sympathetic nervous system, improved metabolic processes, and enhanced redox processes. In stressful conditions, a single administration of Eleuthero promoted adaptation by decreasing the activity of the adrenal cortex and sympathetic nervous system, increasing the tonus of the parasympathetic nervous system, moderately increasing central nervous system excitation, and improving endurance to hypoxia (9). Eleuthero root extract was shown to improve the psychophysical and cognitive performances of 190 pilots, co-pilots and flight engineers in the Arctic (1, 10). Eleuthero administered to patients with neurosis was also shown to improve sleep, well-being, appetite, stamina, cognitive function, and mood (11). Although more recent randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled trials with Eleuthero are not abundant, there is evidence that supports those earlier findings. For example, it was shown that Eleuthero reduces the cardiovascular responses to stress of healthy individuals subjected to a stressful cognitive task (12). In a study with subjects with chronic, unexplained fatigue, Eleuthero root extract administered for 2 months (at a dose of 2000 mg/day standardized to provide 2.24 mg eleutherosides B and E) was effective in decreasing fatigue, but only in individuals with moderate fatigue and not in those with severe fatigue (13). Interestingly, Eleuthero root extract was shown to improve short-term memory in healthy humans, but it was also shown that the effect depended on the time of day and on the psychophysiological characteristics of the volunteers (1, 14). In another study, Eleuthero root administered to healthy humans was shown to improve aural memory and decrease reactive anxiety, but again, these effects were shown to dependent on the time of day and the individual circadian features of each subject. Statistically significant effects were observed in evenings for morning people and in mornings for evening people (1, 15). The anti-stress effects of Eleutherococcus senticosus have also been extensively studied and demonstrated in animal research, where Eleuthero has shown positive effects in protecting from the effects of both acute and chronic stress (16). Eleuthero-treated animals were shown to be less prone to stress responses in behavioral tests (16). Eleuthero administered daily to stressed rats normalized the stress-induced changes in the function and in the weights of the adrenal and thyroid glands (which are usually shrunken by stress) (1), and had protective effects against stress-induced gastric ulcer (17). Animals receiving Eleuthero also showed anti-fatigue effects, both physical and mental (18–21), and improved learning and memory abilities (22). Ergogenic effects, physical performance enhancement The effects of Eleutherococcus senticosus extracts on sports performance were also extensively studied in the Soviet Union. In experiments carried out in male and female Olympic athletes (including sprinters, 5 and 10 kilometer runners, marathon runners, high-jumpers, and decathlon competitors), it was shown that Eleuthero root extract improved endurance performance and shortened the recovery time (1, 23). In a review of the Soviet scientific literature (8), it was reported that Eleuthero increased the resistance of skiers to low levels of oxygen in the blood and improved their adaptation to exercise demands. In another review of Soviet studies (24), it was referred that Eleuthero improved the performance of runners participating in a 10-kilometer race. More recent studies on physical performance have also shown that Eleuthero may be able to improve endurance performance, cardiovascular function, and recovery in healthy athletes or recreationally trained individuals (25, 26). A randomized, active-controlled study on the effect of an Eleuthero extract on the physical performance of healthy volunteers showed that Eleuthero administration for 30 days improved measures of physical fitness — individuals reached a significantly higher oxygen consumption plateau during exercise, indicating an increased upper limit of physical stress (27). However, there have also been studies in which Eleuthero failed to produce beneficial effects on physical performance. For example, in a double-blind study involving nine endurance cyclists, daily administration of Eleuthero for seven days did not significantly alter perceived exertion, oxygen consumption or other physiological responses (28). Antioxidant and protective effects It has been suggested that the adaptogenic and protective effects of Eleutherococcus senticosus may be largely due to the many phenolic compounds with antioxidant action it contains (4). In line with this possibility, there have been many studies that highlighted that antioxidant effects of Eleuthero. Eleuthero supplementation administered to postmenopausal women for 6 months was shown to decrease the levels of markers of oxidative stress (29). Antioxidant effects have also been shown in animal studies. Eleuthero has been shown to be a strong antioxidant, able to reduce the nitric oxide (NO) and lipid peroxidation levels, to increase the activities of antioxidant enzymes such as catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase, and to increase the content of reduced glutathione (30–32). It was also shown to be an effective free radical scavenger (33, 34). Since oxidative stress is a major cause of tissue and organ dysfunction, it would be expected that the antioxidant effects of Eleuthero could contribute to the protection of tissues and organs. Accordingly, Eleuthero was shown to protect cardiac muscle cells against oxidative-stress injury by enhancing antioxidant defenses (31). Eleuthero also protected against kidney dysfunction (32), liver injury and dysfunction (34–37), and brain damage caused by cerebral ischemia (38). The neuroprotective effects of Eleuthero seem to be due not only to an antioxidant effect, but also to an inti-inflammatory activity, since Eleuthero was shown to inhibiting inflammation and microglial activation in brain ischaemia (38). Furthermore, Eleuthero also protected neurons against neuritic atrophy and cell death caused by neurotoxic agents (amyloid beta) (39). Extracts of Eleutherococcus senticosus (containing 2.1% eleutherosides B+E) significantly increased the resistance of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans to heat stress and oxidative stress, and favored the synthesis of proteins involved in stress resistance (such as the chaperone HSP-16) and longevity. Importantly, Eleuthero increased the mean lifespan of C. elegans between 10 and 20% and delayed the moment when the first individuals in a population died, indicating an anti-aging effect. A noteworthy finding was the fact that this effect depended on the dose, with higher doses causing less beneficial effect; at highest concentration tested, a lifespan shortening effect was actually observed, indicating that, at excessive doses, Eleuthero may lose its beneficial effects (40). Immunostimulation and immunomodulation Many human studies have demonstrated that Eleutherococcus root extract, given prophylactically, can stimulate and modulate the immune system, reduce the overall disease incidence, and increase resistance to infections and its complications (6, 8, 24, 41, 42). Eleuthero was shown to support cellular defense mechanisms, decrease DNA damage in lymphocytes, and promote immune cell activity (27, 29). Immunomodulatory effects were also demonstrated in experimental research: Eleuthero was shown to increase immune cell activity, to inhibit the replication of specific types of viruses (RNA viruses, such as influenza A virus), and to modulate the production of inflammatory mediators (43–46). The anti-stress effects of Eleuthero may be linked to the modulation of stress-induced corticosteroid signaling. It has been shown that Eleutherococcus senticosus extract contains compounds that may bind to steroid receptors, particularly glucocorticoid receptors, which are involved in the stress response (47). Eleuthero may thereby prevent the activation of glucocorticoid receptors by cortisol, which may underlie its anti-stress effects in humans. Accordingly, Eleuthero, through the action of eleutheroside E, was shown to reduce the stress-induced increase in corticosterone levels (the main glucocorticoid in rats) (43). Another possible mechanism of action is the modulation of the brain levels of biogenic amines. Eleuthero was shown to increase the concentration of noradrenaline and dopamine in the rat brain (16, 22). Administration for 2 weeks preferentially acted on the frontal cortex and anterior hypothalamus to enhance noradrenaline levels and its turnover, and the long-term administration stimulated dopamine and its turnover in the striatum and anterior hypothalamus (22). This indicated that Eleuthero regulates noradrenaline and dopamine levels in brain regions involved in the stress response. This is accordance with a study assessing neuronal activation in the rat brain in response to Eleuthero administration, which showed a neuroanatomical pattern of activation of areas that regulate stress response (48). Eleuthero was shown to increase serotonin synthesis and the expression of tryptophan hydroxylase (the rate-limiting enzyme in serotonin synthesis) in the dorsal raphe of rats, which may underlie its anti-fatigue effects (21). Furthermore, animal experiments have shown that administration of Eleuthero extracts can cause EEG alterations that indicate a stimulatory effect on the central nervous system (22). Dosage and duration of use There are several different preparations of Eleutherococcus senticosus extracts. Dosage depends on the type of extract. - Dosage of the 33% ethanolic root extract is 10 mL three times per day; - Dosage of the crude extract of the root is 2-3 g/day; - Dosage of extracts standardized to ~2% eleutheroside B and E is 300-400 mg/day. The daily dose can be taken in one to three doses. Any of these dosing regimens should not to be taken for more than 2 months without a break of two weeks before continuing (5, 6). Safety, interactions, and contraindications Eleutherococcus senticosus is generally well tolerated. In recent clinical studies, no side effects were reported (26, 29). Within the recommended doses, there should be no major adverse effects (1, 42). Eleutherococcus senticosus is not considered to be toxic or teratogenic (5). Given the chemical composition and pharmacological actions of Eleutherococcus senticosus and its compounds, it is possible that Eleuthero extracts may interact with drugs with anticoagulant, hypoglycaemic and/or hypo/hypertensive activity (6). Eleutherococcus senticosus may interact with the antibiotics monomycin and kanamycin, the radioprotector drug adeturone, and the cardiac drug digoxin. There is speculation that Eleuthero may interact with antipsychotic drugs, barbiturates, and sedatives. In theory, Eleuthero may lower blood glucose levels in persons with diabetes (49). The medicinal use of Eleutherococcus senticosus is recognized and approved by several governmental agencies and Eleuthero is included in the European Pharmacopoeia. Most research on the adaptogenic effects of Eleutherococcus senticosus was conducted between the 1960s and the 1980s in the USSR. Although there were some flaws in those studies, the vast amount of research and large number of subjects included in those studies, along with reported uses of Eleuthero in the USSR, indicate compelling evidence of adaptogenic, anti-fatigue, and physical and mental performance-enhancing effects. A few recent studies have confirmed those effects. Research indicates that Eleuthero increases the body’s stress defenses, immune defenses, anti-inflammatory defenses, and, most notably, antioxidant defenses. Eleuthero was shown to well tolerated and have protective effects in several organs and systems, thereby indicating a general beneficial effect. - European Medicines Agency, “Assessment report on Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. et Maxim.) Maxim., radix,” (available at www.ema.europa.eu/contact). - A. G. Panossian, Adaptogens: Tonic Herbs for Fatigue and Stress.Altern. Complement. Ther. 9, 327–331 (2003). - European Pharmacopoeia Commission, Council of Europe,European pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.) (Council of Europe, Strasbourg, 9th ed., 2016). - M. Davydov, A. D. Krikorian, Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. & Maxim.) Maxim. (Araliaceae) as an adaptogen: a closer look.J. Ethnopharmacol. 72, 345–93 (2000). - “Eleutherococcus senticosus Monograph” (2006), (available at http://www.altmedrev.com/archive/publications/11/2/151.pdf). - J. Barneset al.,Herbal Medicines (Pharmaceutical Press, 3rd ed., 2007; www.medicinescomplete.com). - L. Huanget al., Acanthopanax senticosus: review of botany, chemistry and pharmacology.Pharmazie.66, 83–97 (2011). - N. R. Farnsworth, A. D. Kinghorn, D. D. Soejarto, et al, inEconomic and Medicinal Plant Research, Vol. 1, H. Wagner, H. Hikino, N. Farnsworth, Eds. (Academic Press, Inc., Orlando, FL, 1985). - A. Panossian, G. Wikman, Evidence-based efficacy of adaptogens in fatigue, and molecular mechanisms related to their stress-protective activity.Curr. Clin. Pharmacol. 4, 198–219 (2009). - R. J. Collisson, Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus Maxim).Br. J. Phyther. 2, 61–71 (1991). - A. G. Panossian, Adaptogens in Mental and Behavioral Disorders.Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 36, 49–64 (2013). - F. Facchinetti, I. Neri, M. Tarabusi, Eleutherococcus senticosus reduces cardiovascular stress response in healthy subjects: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial.Stress Heal. 18, 11–17 (2002). - A. J. Hartzet al., Randomized controlled trial of Siberian ginseng for chronic fatigue.Psychol. Med. 34, 51–61 (2004). - E. B. Arushanian, O. A. Baĭda, S. S. Mastiagin, A. P. Popova, I. B. Shikina, [Effect of eleutherococcus on short-term memory and visual perception in healthy humans].Eksp. Klin. Farmakol. 66, 10–3. - E. B. Arushanian, O. A. Mastiagina, [Different effect of eleuterococcus on various psychophysiological parameters of healthy humans depending on their chronotype and the day time].Eksp. Klin. Farmakol. 72, 10–2. - H. Wagner, H. Nörr, H. Winterhoff, Plant adaptogens.Phytomedicine.1, 63–76 (1994). - T. Fujikawa, A. Yamaguchi, I. Morita, H. Takeda, S. Nishibe, Protective effects of Acanthopanax senticosus Harms from Hokkaido and its components on gastric ulcer in restrained cold water stressed rats.Biol. Pharm. Bull. 19, 1227–30 (1996). - S. Nishibe, H. Kinoshita, H. Takeda, G. Okano, Phenolic compounds from stem bark of Acanthopanax senticosus and their pharmacological effect in chronic swimming stressed rats.Chem. Pharm. Bull. (Tokyo). 38, 1763–5 (1990). - L.-Z. Huang, B.-K. Huang, Q. Ye, L.-P. Qin, Bioactivity-guided fractionation for anti-fatigue property of Acanthopanax senticosus.J. Ethnopharmacol. 133, 213–219 (2011). - L.-Z. Huanget al., Antifatigue activity of the liposoluble fraction from Acanthopanax senticosus.Phyther. Res. 25, 940–943 (2011). - Y.-T. Rhimet al., Effect of Acanthopanax senticosus on 5-hydroxytryptamine synthesis and tryptophan hydroxylase expression in the dorsal raphe of exercised rats.J. Ethnopharmacol. 114, 38–43 (2007). - T. Fujikawaet al., Effect ofAcanthopanax senticosus Harms on biogenic monoamine levels in the rat brain.Phyther. Res. 16, 474–478 (2002). - I. I. Brekhman,Eleutherococcus (Nauka Pub. House, Leningrad, 1968). - B. W. Halstead, L. L. Hood,Eleutherococcus senticosus, Siberian ginseng: an Introduction to the Concept of Adaptogenic Medicine. (Oriental Healing Arts Institute, Long Beach, CA, 1984). - K. Asanoet al., Effect of Eleutheroccocus senticosus Extract on Human Physical Working Capacity.Planta Med. 52, 175–177 (1986). - J. Kuoet al., The effect of eight weeks of supplementation with Eleutherococcus senticosus on endurance capacity and metabolism in human.Chin. J. Physiol. 53, 105–11 (2010). - S. Szołomicki, L. Samochowiec, J. Wójcicki, M. Droździk, The influence of active components of Eleutherococcus senticosus on cellular defence and physical fitness in man.Phyther. Res. 14, 30–35 (2000). - L. F. Eschbach, M. J. Webster, J. C. Boyd, P. D. McArthur, T. K. Evetovich, The effect of siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus) on substrate utilization and performance.Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 10, 444–51 (2000). - Y. J. Lee, H.-Y. Chung, H.-K. Kwak, S. Yoon, The effects of A. senticosus supplementation on serum lipid profiles, biomarkers of oxidative stress, and lymphocyte DNA damage in postmenopausal women.Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 375, 44–48 (2008). - K.-J. Kim, H.-D. Hong, O.-H. Lee, B.-Y. Lee, The effects of Acanthopanax senticosus on global hepatic gene expression in rats subjected to heat environmental stress.Toxicology.278, 217–223 (2010). - Q. Liang, X. Yu, S. Qu, H. Xu, D. Sui, Acanthopanax senticosides B ameliorates oxidative damage induced by hydrogen peroxide in cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes.Eur. J. Pharmacol. 627, 209–215 (2010). - T. Yokozawa, D. Y. Rhyu, C. P. Chen, Protective effects of Acanthopanax Radix extract against endotoxemia induced by lipopolysaccharide.Phyther. Res. 17, 353–357 (2003). - C.-Y. O. Chen, J. D. Ribaya-Mercado, D. L. McKay, E. Croom, J. B. Blumberg, Differential antioxidant and quinone reductase inducing activity of American, Asian, and Siberian ginseng☆.Food Chem. 119, 445–451 (2010). - S. Leeet al., Anti-oxidant activities of Acanthopanax senticosus stems and their lignan components.Arch. Pharm. Res. 27, 106–10 (2004). - A. Smalinskieneet al., Estimation of the Combined Effect of Eleutherococcus senticosus Extract and Cadmium on Liver Cells.Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1171, 314–320 (2009). - J. S. Choiet al., Glycoprotein isolated from Acanthopanax senticosus protects against hepatotoxicity induced by acute and chronic alcohol treatment.Biol. Pharm. Bull. 29, 306–14 (2006). - E.-J. Parket al., Water-Soluble Polysaccharide from Eleutherococcus senticosus Stems Attenuates Fulminant Hepatic Failure Induced by D-Galactosamine and Lipopolysaccharide in Mice.Pharmacol. Toxicol. 94, 298–304 (2004). - Y. Buet al., Siberian ginseng reduces infarct volume in transient focal cerebral ischaemia in Sprague-Dawley rats.Phyther. Res. 19, 167–169 (2005). - C. Tohdaet al., Inhibitory effects of Eleutherococcus senticosus extracts on amyloid beta(25-35)-induced neuritic atrophy and synaptic loss.J. Pharmacol. Sci. 107, 329–39 (2008). - F. A. C. Wiegantet al., Plant adaptogens increase lifespan and stress resistance in C. elegans.Biogerontology.10, 27–42 (2009). - B. Bohn, C. T. Nebe, C. Birr, Flow-cytometric studies with eleutherococcus senticosus extract as an immunomodulatory agent.Arzneimittelforschung. 37, 1193–6 (1987). - The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products, European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy,ESCOP Monographs Supplement 2009 (2nd ed., 2009). - Y. Kimura, M. Sumiyoshi, Effects of various Eleutherococcus senticosus cortex on swimming time, natural killer activity and corticosterone level in forced swimming stressed mice.J. Ethnopharmacol. 95, 447–453 (2004). - B. Glatthaar-Saalmüller, F. Sacher, A. Esperester, Antiviral activity of an extract derived from roots of Eleutherococcus senticosus.Antiviral Res. 50, 223–8 (2001). - G. Steinmann, A. Esperester, P. Joller, Immunopharmacological in vitro Effects of Eleutherococcus senticosus Extracts.Arzneimittelforschung.51, 76–83 (2011). - M. W. Schmolz, F. Sacher, B. Aicher, The synthesis of Rantes, G-CSF, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-12 and IL-13 in human whole-blood cultures is modulated by an extract from Eleutherococcus senticosus L. roots.Phytother. Res. 15, 268–70 (2001). - P. T. PEARCE, I. ZOIS, K. N. WYNNE, J. W. FUNDER, Panax ginseng and Eleuthrococcus senticosus extracts – in vitro studies on binding to steroid receptors.Endocrinol. Jpn. 29, 567–573 (1982). - H. SOYAet al., Extract from Acanthopanax senticosus Harms (Siberian Ginseng) Activates NTS and SON/PVN in the Rat Brain.Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 72, 2476–2480 (2008). - T. L. Bleakney, Deconstructing an Adaptogen.Holist. Nurs. Pract. 22, 220–224 (2008).

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Over the past couple of years, Nepal has established itself as a paradise for trekkers, attracting people from all over the globe to explore its wonderful terrain. This comes as no surprise considering that Nepal has numerous scenic hills and mountains, along with the magnificent Terai. True enough, the country offers some of the most spectacular trekking areas in the world. Unfortunately, Nepal’s growing popularity as a trekking destination has its own set of cons. Most noteworthy is the difficulty in keeping track of trekking operations, posing problems for local authorities who have to perform rescue operations in case of accidents or calamities. With the safety of trekkers in mind, the Nepali government came up with a brilliant solution: the Trekkers’ Information Management Systems or TIMS. The Trekkers’ Information Management Systems was first implemented on January 1, 2008. The maintenance and overseeing thereof is under the Trekking Agencies Association of Nepal (TAAN) and the Nepal Tourism Board (NTB). What is the Trekkers’ Information Management Systems? Simply speaking, the TIMS is a database maintained by the TAAN and the NTB. The said database contains information on individuals who want to go trekking in Nepal. The provision on TIMS is designed so as to provide a mechanism by which illegal trekking operations in Nepal can be controlled, especially with so many people from different parts of the globe flocking to Nepal for trekking. In addition to curbing illegal trekking operations, the TIMS is also designed so as to guarantee both the safety and security of trekkers in Nepal. By utilizing a Prompt Information Service, it becomes a lot easier to track not only trekking activities, but also the activities of individual trekkers. This comes particularly handy during rescue operations and in averting unfortunate eventualities which might come about as a result of natural disasters. Basically, the TIMS serves as a response to events in the past wherein rescuers find difficulty in carrying out operations considering the lack of centralized information as to the trekkers in each particular trekking site as well as to their itineraries. By maintaining such database, it has thus become more convenient for authorities to find missing trekkers, as well as to regulate trekking activities in the country. How does the Trekkers’ Information Management Systems work? Since the effectivity of the TIMS provision, trekking agencies have started collecting information pertaining to trekkers in Nepal. This information is then entered into a central database. Once the pertinent details have been entered into the TIMS database, a TIMS card is then issued to the trekkers after payment of the requisite fees. Having a TIMS card is a requirement before any individual can trek anywhere in Nepal. This requirement, however, is subject to certain exceptions. That said, having a TIMS card is not necessary in order to go trekking in Nepal in the following cases: - When the trekker is a member of an expedition and has a mountaineering permit duly issued by the Nepali government and the Nepal Mountaineering Association; - When the trekker is a visitor to the controlled areas and possesses a permit issued by the Department of Immigration; - When the trekker is a foreign guest or visitor invited by the government of Nepal; - When the trekker is an authority from any of the diplomatic missions in Nepal holds an official letter. It must be noted, however, that such authority is deemed to travel at their own risk; - When the trekker is a visitor on a mission specifically recommended by the relevant governmental department or agency; and - When the trekker is a foreign national holding a residential visa. Why is the Trekkers’ Information Management Systems necessary? The TIMS is necessary because it regulates the growing trekking industry in Nepal – a venture that is profitable but not without accompanying dangers. Having a centralized database containing information on trekkers and trekking routes are useful in maintaining the trekkers’ safety and security. By compiling information on each individual trekkers’ itinerary (e.g., trekking routes, handling agencies, stay duration), all concerned agencies will be better equipped to respond to the needs of trekkers. Information inputted into the database can be made accessible not only to government agencies, but also to tourism organizations, tour operators, and even diplomatic missions. Moreover, since the TIMS operates in such a way as to control unauthorized trekking operations, it guarantees better trekking services for trekkers. This is a definite advantage not only for the trekkers themselves, but also for trekking companies as well as government agencies. This helps in preventing mishaps and accidents in trekking areas, all the while guaranteeing the sustainability of the trekking industry in Nepal. What are the requirements for getting a TIMS card? As previously mentioned, the provision on the Trekkers’ Information Management Systems mandates that every trekker be issued first with a TIMS card before they can go trekking in Nepal. So what are the requirements before one could get a TIMS? They are as follows: - Passport (prepare a photocopy); and - Two passport-sized photos What information must be provided when getting a TIMS card? Aside from the requirements above, trekkers must also provide other pieces of information relevant to their trekking activities in Nepal. Make sure that you have the following information ready when you apply for a TIMS card: - Entry and exit dates for trekking. You may provide a rough estimate; - Entry and exit points for trekking; - Trekking route as well as itinerary; - Emergency contact information while in Nepal. If you have a tour agency, you may provide them as emergency contact; - Emergency contact information in your home country; and - Insurance policy number, including their contact information and a statement of your insurance policy coverage. Where to get a TIMS card? The process of getting a TIMS card varies between individual trekkers and those who are part of an organized group, for free individual trekkers, they can obtain a TIMS card in various locations. They are as follows: - Nepal Tourism Board offices located in Kathmandu and Pokhara; - TAAn Secretariat located in Maligaon; and - TAAN Secretariat in Pokhara. The NTB offices have the same office hours as other government agencies in Nepal. The TIMS counter office at Kathmandu is open seven days a week and remains open even on public holidays. TAAN Secretariats, meanwhile, are open from 10 AM to 5 PM. For organized trekkers, the trekking companies are the ones in charge of collecting the trekkers’ information and inputting the same into the TIMS database. After paying the requisite fee, they will also be providing the trekkers with the TIMS card. Trekking companies are typically open 12 hours a day everyday, although the actual operating hours may vary from one trekking agency to another. That said, trekkers who do not want to go through the hassle of applying for the TIMS card themselves may sign up for an organized trekking. This is an especially viable option for first-time trekkers who can greatly benefit from trekking with a group and a having a trekking agency take care of the necessary paperwork. What are the requisite fees that must be paid when getting a TIMS card? The requisite fees for obtaining a TIMS card also varies depending on the person applying for the said card. The fees that are required to be paid are as follows: - For group trekkers – NRs. 1,000 - For free individual trekkers – NRs. 2,000 Note that the aforementioned fees are paid per trekking route and per point of entry. For SAARC countries, different rates apply. The adjusted fees are as follows: - For group trekkers – NRs. 300 - For free individual trekkers – NRs. 600 Note that the aforementioned fees are paid per trekking route and per point of entry. Diplomats, meanwhile, are exempted from paying the aforementioned fees. A portion of the TIMS card fees collected is allocated to the maintenance of the TIMS database, as well as in funding of rescue and emergency services to trekkers. It must be noted that the TIMS card is non-transferable and non-endorsable. In addition, it is also valid for one entry and only in the prescribed trekking area. The validity of the TIMS card is also only for the duration indicated by the trekker during application. Obtaining a TIMS card may not be particularly bothersome for organized trekkers, but it is a bit of a hassle for free individual trekkers. Nevertheless, the fees are minimal and the application for a TIMS card is quite straightforward, so the cons certainly outweigh the pros. By being part of the TIMS database, a trekker is afforded with more assistance and security while trekking. In case of untoward incidents, TIMS-registered trekkers are easier to find and rescue. The provision for the Trekkers’ Information Management Systems is without a doubt a great move on the part of the government of Nepal. After all, not only does the TIMS database serve the interests of trekkers and trekking agencies, but it also helps the government in regulating trekking tourism within the country. Check Out Our Blog Best Hotels in Nepal As Nepal continues to rise in popularity as among the top hiking and trekking destinations in the world, more and more tourists are flocking to the country. This in-flux of tourists, especially during peak seasons, has also caused an increase in the number of accommodations being offered in the country. While Nepal is best known as a backpacker destination, this does not mean that tourists have no choice but to stay in small lodges. On the contrary, Nepal now offers a variety of accommodation options for various budgets, ranging from budget hotels to luxury ones. Hotels in Nepal can best be classified into three – budget hotels, mid-range hotels, and luxury hotel. These hotels are scattered all over the country, albeit luxury hotels tend to be located near bigger and more densely populated cities. Budget hotels can set you back by $10 to $25 a night. While you cannot expect much in terms of amenities, you can find fully-airconditioned, fully-furnished ones as long as you know where to look. Among the best budget hotels in Nepal are Shangri-La Boutique Hotel, Trekkers’ Home, Hotel Happy Home, Hotel Mums Home, and Aryatara Kathmandu Hotel. Mid-range hotels, on the other hand, can set you back by $35 to $80. Complimentary breakfast is typically the norm. Check out Oasis Kathmandu Hotel and Kantipur Temple House, for example. For those who want to make their Nepal trip as comfortable as possible, then luxury hotels are the best bet. Hotels like the Crowne Plaza Hotel Kathmandu-Soaltee and Dwarika’s Hotel certainly will not disappoint. A Complete Guide to Trekking and Hiking in Nepal Nepal has long established itself as a great trekking and hiking destination, so much so that no less than the Nepali government has decided to regulate trekking and hiking activities in the country. Although a lot of tourists flock to Nepal to try hiking, trekking, and mountaineering, a considerable number of first-time Nepal visitors still find trekking and hiking intimidating. While hiking and trekking are not exactly the easiest outdoor activities, this is not to say that they are not beginner-friendly. On the contrary, even beginners and individuals with no prior experience in hiking and trekking can embark on a hiking adventure in Nepal. The trick is to do a bit of research beforehand so you can prepare accordingly. When planning your first hiking or trekking trip to Nepal, the top two factors you have to consider are: (1) when you will go hiking or trekking and (2) whether you will hike or trek on your own or go with a guide. Hiking and trekking during Fall and Spring are the most ideal for beginners, especially since the weather is most agreeable, making the views more spectacular and the trails friendlier. If you are a more experienced hiker, however, you might want to go during off peak when trails are less crowded and price hikes not much of a problem. Deciding whether or not to get a hiking guide is also an important consideration, especially since they are of substantial help to beginners in terms of preparation and navigating through trails. Things to Do in Nepal Despite being a top hiking and trekking destination, Nepal is more than just snow capped peaks and wonderful hiking trails. While the numerous mountains and trails in Nepal are certainly attractive to expert mountaineers and hiking beginners, even those who are not big fans of the great outdoors will still find themselves quite preoccupied during their stay in the country. After all, Nepal has a very rich culture and heritage, as well as a unique location and topography that makes the country a great tourist destination overall. Those planning to visit Nepal has a wide range of activities to choose from. Nature lovers who might not be into hiking or trekking can still try out other outdoor activities such as booking an Everest Mountain Flight. For something a little more adventurous, paragliding in Pokhara and Bungee jumping are equally fun outdoor activities which will certainly give one an adrenaline rush. For those who want to learn more about the culture and heritage of Nepal, exploring the temples of Kathmandu is certainly a worthwhile activity. For animal lovers, meanwhile, visiting the Chitwan National Parkwould certainly prove to be a one-of-a-kind experience. For those who want a more chill Nepal experience, motorbiking across Nepal is a fun way of getting around and seeing the country or, if peace and quiet really is the goal – mountain yoga. Finally, for a more authentic Nepali experience, consider a homestay or a farmstay, and eating your fill of scrumptious Nepali cuisine which is as delicious as they are affordable. Where to Go in Nepal If you want to get the most out of your Nepal visit, then it is best to pick a city or town you want to explore, spend a couple of days there, and take the time to really explore local spots and have your fill of local cuisine. If you have yet to make up your mind as to where to go in Nepal, then you might want to start with the more popular destinations. Kathmandu, the capital, is a place you really should not miss, especially since it has a lot of temples and historical sites. It is also a great place to go shopping and go on a food trip. Other notable destinations in Nepal include Bhaktapur (formerly a Royal City) and Panauti (one of the oldest towns in Nepal). If you want to learn more about Buddhism, meanwhile, then you should go see Lumbini, the birthplace of Gautama Buddha. For those who want to appreciate Nepali architecture, Patan is certainly the city to see. For the outdoorsy type, visit Nagarkot for its wondrous views of the Himalayas or Pokhara to see lush green forests and breathtaking underground caves, as well as waterfalls. Finally, try not to miss the Sagarmatha National Park which houses no less than Mount Everest. A Guide to Mountains in Nepal Each mountain caters to a different type of hiker or trekker and demands different levels of expertise. Regardless of whether you want to actually hike or just to see the mountains in all their majesty, it is worth paying the highest mountains in Nepal a visit. The mountain which everyone wants to see when they visit Nepal is, quite obviously, Mount Everest. At an elevation of 8.848 meters, it is the highest mountain in the world and only a few have succeeded in reaching its summit. Next on the list are Kanchenjunga (third highest mountain in the world), Lhotse (fourth highest mountain in the world), Mount Makalu (fifth highest mountain and among the most difficult to climb in the world), Mount Cho Oyu (sixth highest mountain in the world and considered as the most climbable in Nepal) and Dhaulagiri I (the seventh highest mountain in the world). On top of these six notable mountains, there are still a numerous others which are equally majestic and breathtaking. Wildlife Photography in Nepal: A Guide That said, Nepal is a great spot for wildlife photographers. Nepal’s numerous well-preserved national parks allow wildlife to thrive and afford wildlife photographers a great chance to get a closer look, as well as take snaps of, different species of animals. Some of the most interesting and well-preserved safaris in Nepal are as follows: the Chitwan National Park where one can spot elephants, rhinos, and crocodiles; the Bardia National Park where one can get a more rugged safari experience and have a chance at spotting the elusive Royal Bengal tigers; as well as the KoshiTappu Wildlife Reserve which houses over 400 bird species. The KoshiTappu Wildlife Reserve is an especially great place for photographers who really want to take their time in photographing the birds since the reserve offers various types of accommodations within the grounds. There really are no hard and fast rules in doing wildlife photography in Nepal, but being respectful of the animals, knowing your equipment, and investing a trail camera would be a great start. And for those who are apprehensive about venturing into wildlife photography, it pays to bear in mind that sometimes the best approach is to just take as many pictures as possible. 10 Travel Tips Before You Travel in a Campervan Aside from saving on transportation and accommodation expenses, another definite plus when it comes to travelling in a campervan is comfort. After all, you will no longer need to bring around heavy luggage. You can also stock your campervan with food and furniture which you want to enjoy even while travelling. Of course, travelling in a campervan can be quite daunting for beginners, which is why it is incredibly necessary to find some information first before jumping right into the decision of getting a campervan. For example, it is necessary to know what kind of campervan to spend on, as well as to determine all upfront expenses. Things that are important include if the van has a portable toilet and a RV tankless water heater with hot running water. After getting a campervan, you also have to furnish it accordingly, making sure that you have the right gear and equipment, and enough supplies for your travels. After that, you also have to find good camping spots, plan your trips accordingly, plan your daily drive, and ensure that you always have means of communication with you at all times. Finally, and most importantly, it is necessary to be as flexible as possible. After all, travelling in a campervan is not without its inconveniences. Allowing yourself some room for drawbacks or detours can help ensure that you still enjoy your trip. A Guide on Kayaking in Nepal Those who want to go kayaking in Nepal should visit the country during autumn, or from October to December. This is just after the monsoon season and the weather is more agreeable. For kayaking beginners, November is the ideal month to visit since most rivers and rapids are already quite manageable. For experienced kayakers who want to bring their own kayak gear when they go kayaking in Nepal, renting a vehicle would be the most convenient option albeit an expensive one. Other viable options would be either taking a taxi or taking a bus but bear in mind that drive hours tend to be very long so taking a bus would be the most cost-efficient mode of transportation. For first-timers to the Nepal kayaking scene, it is highly advisable to enlist the services of local kayaking operations and kayaking clinics. This way, you can get the necessary guidance when it comes to kayaking. Likewise, such services can provide you not only with training but with whatever else is necessary for kayaking in the country.

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The brain is a machine: a device that processes information. That’s according to the last 100 years of neuroscience. And yet, somehow, it also has a subjective experience of at least some of that information. Whether we’re talking about the thoughts and memories swirling around on the inside, or awareness of the stuff entering through the senses, somehow the brain experiences its own data. It has consciousness. How can that be? That question has been called the ‘hard problem’ of consciousness, where ‘hard’ is a euphemism for ‘impossible’. For decades, it was a disreputable topic among scientists: if you can’t study it or understand it or engineer it, then it isn’t science. On that view, neuroscientists should stick to the mechanics of how information is processed in the brain, not the spooky feeling that comes along with the information. And yet, one can’t deny that the phenomenon exists. What exactly is this consciousness stuff? Here’s a more pointed way to pose the question: can we build it? Artificial intelligence is growing more intelligent every year, but we’ve never given our machines consciousness. People once thought that if you made a computer complicated enough it would just sort of ‘wake up’ on its own. But that hasn’t panned out (so far as anyone knows). Apparently, the vital spark has to be deliberately designed into the machine. And so the race is on to figure out what exactly consciousness is and how to build it. I’ve made my own entry into that race, a framework for understanding consciousness called the Attention Schema theory. The theory suggests that consciousness is no bizarre byproduct – it’s a tool for regulating information in the brain. And it’s not as mysterious as most people think. As ambitious as it sounds, I believe we’re close to understanding consciousness well enough to build it. In this article I’ll conduct a thought experiment. Let’s see if we can construct an artificial brain, piece by hypothetical piece, and make it conscious. The task could be slow and each step might seem incremental, but with a systematic approach we could find a path that engineers can follow. Imagine a robot equipped with camera eyes. Let’s pick something mundane for it to look at – a tennis ball. If we can build a brain to be conscious of a tennis ball – just that – then we’ll have made the essential leap. What information should be in our build-a-brain to start with? Clearly, information about the ball. Light enters the eye and is translated into signals. The brain processes those signals and builds up a description of the ball. Of course, I don’t mean literally a picture of a ball in the head. I mean the brain constructs information such as colour, shape, size and location. It constructs something like a dossier, a dataset that’s constantly revised as new signals come in. This is sometimes called an internal model. In the real brain, an internal model is always inaccurate – it’s schematic – and that inaccuracy is important. It would be a waste of energy and computing resources for the brain to construct a detailed, scientifically accurate description of the ball. So it cuts corners. Colour is a good example of that. In reality, millions of wavelengths of light mix together in different combinations and reflect from different parts of the ball. The eyes and the brain, however, simplify that complexity into the property of colour. Colour is a construct of the brain. It’s a caricature, a proxy for reality, and it’s good enough for basic survival. Is the robot conscious of the ball in the same sense as you? Would it claim to have an inner feeling? But the brain does more than construct a simplified model. It constructs vast numbers of models, and those models compete with each other for resources. The scene might be cluttered with tennis racquets, a few people, the trees in the distance – too many things for the brain to process in depth all at the same time. It needs to prioritise. That focussing is called attention. I confess that I don’t like the word attention. It has too many colloquial connotations. What neuroscientists mean by attention is something specific, something mechanistic. A particular internal model in the brain wins the competition of the moment, suppresses its rivals, and dominates the brain’s outputs. All of this gives a picture of how a normal brain processes the image of a tennis ball. And so far there’s no mystery. With a computer and a camera we could, in principle, build all of this into our robot. We could give our robot an internal model of a ball and an attentional focus on the ball. But is the robot conscious of the ball in the same subjective sense that you might be? Would it claim to have an inner feeling? Some scholars of consciousness would say yes. Visual awareness arises from visual processing. I would say no. We’ve taken a first step, but we have more work to do. Let’s ask the robot. As long as we’re doing a build-a-brain thought experiment, we might as well build in a linguistic processor. It takes in questions, accesses the information available in the robot’s internal models, and on that basis answers the questions. We ask: ‘What’s there?’ It says: ‘A ball.’ We ask: ‘What are the properties of the ball?’ It says: ‘It’s green, it’s round, it’s at that location.’ It can answer that because the robot contains that information. Now we ask: ‘Are you aware of the ball?’ It says: ‘Cannot compute.’ Why? Because the machine accesses the internal model that we’ve given it so far and finds no relevant information. Plenty of information about the ball. No information about what awareness is. And no information about itself. After all, we asked it: ‘Are you aware of the ball?’ It doesn’t even have information on what this ‘you’ is, so of course it can’t answer the question. It’s like asking your digital camera: ‘Are you aware of the picture?’ It doesn’t compute in that domain. But we can fix that. Let’s add another component, a second internal model. What we need now is a model of the self. A self-model, like any other internal model, is information put together in the brain. The information might include the physical shape and structure of the body, information about personhood, autobiographical memories. And one particularly important part of the human self-model is called the body schema. The body schema is the brain’s internal model of the physical self: how it moves, what belongs to it, what doesn’t, and so on. This is a complex and delicate piece of equipment, and it can be damaged. The British neurologist Oliver Sacks tells the story of a man who wakes up in the hospital after a stroke to find that somebody has played a horrible joke. For some reason there’s a rubbery, cadaverous leg in bed with him. Disgusted, he grabs the leg and throws it out of bed. Unfortunately, it is attached to him and so he goes with it. Evidently, in Sack’s story, a part of the man’s internal model of his self has become corrupted in such a way that he can no longer process the fact that his leg belongs to him. But there are many ways in which brain damage can disrupt one or another aspect of the self-model. It’s frighteningly easy to throw a spanner in the works. We say to the machine: ‘Tell us about yourself’ Now that our build-a-brain has a self-model as well as a model of the ball, let’s ask it more questions. We say: ‘Tell us about yourself.’ It replies: ‘I’m a person. I’m standing at this location, I’m this tall, I’m this wide, I grew up in Buffalo, I’m a nice guy,’ or whatever information is available in its internal self-model. Now we ask: ‘What’s the relationship between you and the ball?’ Uh oh. The machine accesses its two internal models and finds no answer. Plenty of information about the self. Plenty of separate information about the ball. No information about the relationship between the two or even what the question means. We ask: ‘Are you aware of the ball?’ It says: ‘Cannot compute.’ We’ve hit another wall. Equipped only with those two internal models, the robot fails the Turing test again: the machine cannot pass for human. Why have internal models at all? The real use of a brain is to have some control over yourself and the world around you. But you can’t control anything if you don’t have a good, updated dossier on it, knowing what it is, what it’s doing, and what it might do next. Internal models keep track of things that are useful to monitor. So far we’ve given our robot a model of the ball and a model of itself. But we’ve neglected the third obvious component of the scene: the complex relationship between the self and the ball. The robot is focusing its attention on the ball. That’s a resource that needs to be controlled intelligently. Clearly it’s an important part of the ongoing reality that the robot’s brain needs to monitor. Let’s add a model of that relationship and see what it gives us. Alas, we can no longer dip into standard neuroscience. Whereas we have decades of research on internal models of concrete things such as tennis balls, there’s virtually nothing on internal models of attention. It hadn’t occurred to scientists that such a thing might exist. Still, there’s no particular mystery about what it might look like. To build it into our robot, we once again need to decide what information should be present. Presumably, like the internal model of the ball, it would describe general, abstracted properties of attention, not microscopic physical details. For example, it might describe attention as a mental possession of something, or as something that empowers you to react. It might describe it as something located inside you. All of these are general properties of attention. But this internal model probably wouldn’t contain details about such things as neurons, or synapses, or electrochemical signals – the physical nuts and bolts. The brain doesn’t need to know about that stuff, any more than it needs a theoretical grasp of quantum electrodynamics in order to call a red ball red. To the visual system, colour is just a thing on the surface of an object. And so, according to the information in this internal model, attention is a thing without any physical mechanism. With our latest model, we’ve given the machine an incomplete, slightly inaccurate picture of its own process of attention – its relationship to that ball. When we ask: ‘What’s the relationship between you and the ball?’ the machine accesses its internal models and reports the available information. It says: ‘I have mental possession of the ball.’ That sounds promising. We ask: ‘Tell us more about this mental possession. What’s the physical mechanism?’ And then something strange happens. The models don’t contain detailed specifications of how attention is implemented. Why would they? So the build-a-brain can answer only based on its own incomplete knowledge. When asked, naive people don’t say that colour is an interaction between millions of light wavelengths and their eyes: they say it is a property of an object. After all, that’s how their brain represents colour. Similarly, the build-a-brain will describe its model’s own abstractions as if they somehow floated free of any specific implementation, because that’s (at best) how they will be represented within its self-model. It says: ‘There is no physical mechanism. It just is. It is non-physical and it’s located inside me. Just as my arms and legs are physical parts of me, there’s also a non-physical part of me. It mentally possesses things and allows me to act with respect to those things. It’s my consciousness.’ We built the robot, so we know why it says that. It says that because it’s a machine accessing internal models, and whatever information is contained in those models it reports to be true. And it’s reporting a physically incoherent property, a non-physical consciousness, because its internal models are blurry, incomplete descriptions of physical reality. now we have something that begins to sound spooky. We have a machine that insists it’s no mere machine We know that, but it doesn’t. It possesses no information about how it was built. Its internal models don’t contain the information: ‘By the way, we’re a computing device that accesses internal models, and our models are incomplete and inaccurate.’ It’s not even in a position to report that it has internal models, or that it’s processing information at all. Just to make sure, we ask it: ‘Are you positive you’re not just a computing machine with internal models, and that’s why you claim to have awareness?’ The machine, accessing its internal models, says: ‘No, I’m a person with a subjective awareness of the ball. My awareness is real and has nothing to do with computation or information.’ The theory explains why the robot refuses to believe the theory. And now we have something that begins to sound spooky. We have a machine that insists it’s no mere machine. It operates by processing information while insisting that it doesn’t. It says it has consciousness and describes it in the same ways that we humans do. And it arrives at that conclusion by introspection – by a layer of cognitive machinery that accesses internal models. The machine is captive to its internal models, so it can’t arrive at any other conclusions. Admittedly, a tennis ball is a bit limited. Yet the same logic could apply to anything. Awareness of a sound, a recalled memory, self-awareness – the build-a-brain experiment shows how a brain could insist: ‘I am aware of X.’ And this is the central question of consciousness. Consciousness research has been stuck because it assumes the existence of magic. Nobody uses that word because we all know there’s not supposed to be such a thing. Yet scholars of consciousness – I would say most scientific scholars of consciousness – ask the question: ‘How does the brain generate that seemingly impossible essence, an internal experience?’ By asking the question, scholars set up an even bigger mystery. How does that subtle essence emerging from the brain turn around and exert physical forces, directing this pathway and that synapse, enabling me to type about it, or scholars to argue about it? There is a kind of magical incoherence about the approach. But we don’t need magic to explain the phenomenon. Brains insist they have consciousness. That insistence is the result of introspection: of cognitive machinery accessing deeper internal information. And an internal model of attention, like the one we added to our build-a-brain, would contain exactly, but exactly, that information. A popular trend in some circles is to dismiss consciousness as an illusion. It doesn’t exist and therefore can’t possibly serve any purpose. When people first encounter the Attention Schema theory, they sometimes put it in that iconoclastic category. That is a mistake. In this theory, consciousness is far from useless. It’s a crucial part of the machine. Suppose you have a city map. It’s definitely useful. Without it, you might never reach your goal. Is the map a perfect rendering of the city? No. There is no such thing as a two-dimensional, black-and-white city filled with perfectly straight paths and neat angles. But the city itself is real, the map is real, the information in it is mostly valid if simplified, and so the map is unquestionably of practical use. Knowing all this, you probably won’t suffer an existential crisis over the reality of the city or dismiss the contents or the existence of the map as an illusion. The truth is much simpler: your model of the city is helpful but not perfectly accurate. Gone are the days of waiting for computers to get so complicated that they spontaneously become conscious There is a real thing that we call attention – a wildly complex, beautifully adapted method of focusing the brain’s resources on a limited set of signals. Attention is important. Without it, we would be paralysed by the glut of information pouring into us. But there’s no point having it if you can’t control it. A basic principle of control theory is this: to control something, the system needs an internal model of it. To monitor and control its own attention, the brain builds an attention schema. This is like a map of attention. It contains simplified, slightly distorted information about what attention is and what it is doing at any particular moment. Without an attention schema, the brain could no longer claim it has consciousness. It would have no information about what consciousness is, and wouldn’t know how to answer questions about it. It would lack information about how the self relates to anything in the world. What is the relationship between me and the ball? Cannot compute. More crippling than that, it would lose control over its own focus. Like trying to navigate a city without a map, it would be left to navigate the complexities of attention without a model of attention. And even beyond that, lacking a construct of consciousness, the brain would be unable to attribute the same property to other people. It would lose all understanding that other people are conscious beings that make conscious decisions. Consciousness matters. Unlike many modern attempts to explain it away, the Attention Schema theory does exactly the opposite of trivialising or dismissing. It gives it a place of importance. As long as scholars think of consciousness as a magic essence floating inside the brain, it won’t be very interesting to engineers. But if it’s a crucial set of information, a kind of map that allows the brain to function correctly, then engineers may want to know about it. And that brings us back to artificial intelligence. Gone are the days of waiting for computers to get so complicated that they spontaneously become conscious. And gone are the days of dismissing consciousness as an airy-fairy essence that would bring no obvious practical benefit to a computer anyway. Suddenly it becomes an incredibly useful tool for the machine. Building a functioning attention schema is within the range of current technology. It would require a group effort but it is possible. We could build an artificial brain that knows what consciousness is, believes that it has it, attributes it to others, and can engage in complex social interaction with people. This has never been done because nobody knew what path to follow. Now maybe we have a glimpse of the way forward.

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Europe has been influenced by both intra- and intercontinental migrations. Since the Iberian peninsula was a refuge during the Last Glacial Maximum, demographic factors associated with contraction, isolation, subsequent expansion and gene flow episodes have contributed complexity to its population history. In this work, we analysed 26 Y-chromosome biallelic markers in 568 chromosomes from 11 different Iberian population groups and compared them to published data on the Basques and Catalans to gain insight into the paternal gene pool of these populations and find out to what extent major demographic processes account for their genetic structure. Our results reveal a reduced, although geographically correlated, Y-chromosomal interpopulation variance (1.2%), which points to a limited heterogeneity in the region. Coincidentally, spatial analysis of genetic distances points to a focal distribution of Y-chromosome haplogroups in this area. These results indicate that neither old or recent Levantine expansions nor North African contacts have influenced the current Iberian Y-chromosome diversity so that geographical patterns can be identified. The genealogical resolution recently achieved for mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and Y-chromosome binary markers has facilitated world-wide1, 2, 3 and regional4, 5, 6 studies of human history and dispersals from matrilineal and patrilineal perspectives. According to archaeological data, most variation studies support the theory that the genetic landscape of Europe has been shaped by two main influences from the Levant:7 one occurring during the Upper Palaeolithic period, when anatomically modern humans entered the continent around 40 000 years ago; the second occurring more recently, around 10 000 years ago, with the spread of early farmers from the Near East during the Neolithic period. In addition, the Mesolithic expansion from isolated population nuclei,8 that followed the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), may also have affected the European genetic background.6, 9, 10 Despite the debate about the extent to which these demographic processes have affected the present European genetic pool,4 both old and more recent processes must have influenced the current gene pool to generate the geographical frequency gradients that have been observed all over Europe.4, 7, 10 The Iberian peninsula, at the Southwestern part of Europe (Figure 1a), is considered to be the region with less Neolithic impact, based on archaeological and genetic evidence. Their Palaeolithic component, with the Basques being the most outstanding representative, have been pointed out by classical markers,7, 11 mtDNA studies12, 13, 14, 15 and Y-chromosome variation.10, 16, 17, 18 Furthermore, Alonso and Armour19 found that the Basques diverged from other Europeans by retaining less diversity and having a greater proportion of ancestral (Palaeolithic) autosomal alleles. However, the presence in high frequency of a number of rare haplotypes, both in mtDNA12, 14 and Y-chromosome18 analysis, suggests that the action of genetic drift may have accentuated their distinctiveness. Owing to their characteristic genetic variation, the Basques have often received considerable attention in genetic studies of Western Europe, in detriment of the genetic characterization of the rest of Iberian populations. Outside a European context, some studies have investigated the degree of African gene flow in Iberian populations.20, 21, 22, 23 Although classical markers have failed to detect this influence,11 roughly 10% of Iberian mtDNA and Y-chromosome haplotypes have been found to be of African origin.13, 15, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 Moreover, unlike the rest of Europe, the presence of markers with probable North African origin, the mtDNA U613, 30 and the Y-chromosome E3b,26 points to a specific Northwest African influence in Iberia.4, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 If Iberian populations have been affected by the same demographic processes that have clinally shaped the genetic variation landscape deduced from continent-wide studies, Y-chromosome diversity analysis, with well-known phylogeographical patterns, could be able to detect the existence of marker gradients even in such a regional scale. With this in mind, we conducted a comprehensive high-resolution survey of Y-chromosome diversity in the largest and most diverse Iberian sample studied to date. This has allowed us to determine the genetic structure and affinities between Iberian populations, to examine if nonrandom patterns of variation exist and to interpret these findings in the light of the demographic processes that have taken place in Europe. Materials and methods DNA isolated from blood samples from 568 unrelated Iberian males were analysed. Appropriate informed consent and information as to birthplace of paternal grandfather were obtained from all participants. Individuals analysed included: 109 from Northern Portugal, 19 from Galicia, 60 from Leon, 70 from Cantabria, 21 from Castile, 31 from Valencia and 258 from Andalusia. These were further subdivided into the following: 155 from Seville, 22 from Huelva, 28 from Cadiz, 27 from Cordoba and 26 from Malaga. In addition, Northern Iberian samples from the Basque Country (45 from Underhill et al31) and Catalonia (16 from Bosch et al26) were incorporated, raising the sample size to 629 chromosomes. The approximate geographic locations of the samples are represented in Figure 1a. We used a total of 26 markers of the nonrecombining portion of the Y-chromosome validated in European populations in previous studies.10, 18, 31 Markers typed include YAP (an Alu insertion), the 12f2 deletion and 24 base substitutions: M2, 92R7, SRY10831.1, SRY10831.2, SRY2627, Tat, P2, M9, M13, M26, M34, M52, M67, M70, M78, M81, M89, M123, M153, M170, M172, M173, M178 and M201. All markers were typed as described in Flores et al32 except M178, which was sequenced in both strands (BigDye Terminator Kit v.3) using an ABI PRISM 310 Genetic Analyzer (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA). We typed nine phylogenetically basal markers in all individuals (SRY10831.1, YAP, M89, P2, M9, M201, M170, 12f2 and 92R7). The rest of markers were typed following the hierarchy of the phylogeny. Haplogroups (Hg's) were identified by lineage (Figure 2) following standardized nomenclature guidelines.33 Software and statistical analysis ARLEQUIN 200034 was used to test the variability among populations based on Hg frequencies applying a hierarchical analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA). Spatial analysis of molecular variance (SAMOVA)35 was used to obtain the groups of studied populations that maximize the proportion of variance. PHYLIP package was used to calculate Reynolds FST genetic distance.36 ARLEQUIN 2000 was also used to obtain the heterogeneity estimates by population (H) and to assess the Mantel tests of the correlation between geographical and Reynolds FST genetic distances (1000 permutation steps). Geographic distances were calculated as great circle distances (km) from the geographical coordinates at Great Circle Distance Web site (http://www.argray.org/dist/index). Spatial autocorrelation analyses were performed by means of the Autocorrelation Index for DNA Analysis, AIDA.37 Autocorrelation coefficients (II) were calculated at varying distance classes (four to 10), but always keeping the same number of pairwise comparisons in each class. Statistical significance of II values was assessed from 10 000 permutations. It is known that plots of II vs geographical distance classes yield correlograms with varying shapes under different evolutionary scenarios.37 Geographical patterns of genetic diversity were also examined using the principal component analysis, as performed by SPSS v.9 (SPSS, Inc.). This software was also used to perform linear regressions. We combined the allelic states at each of the 26 biallelic markers typed and constructed 27 stable compound Hg's with a shared common ancestry (Figure 2). Of these Hg's, 23 were found in 629 individuals from 13 locations in the Iberian peninsula (Table 1, Figure 1b–g). Four Hg's – A3b2, A*(xA3b2), H and N3* – were not detected in the entire sample set. Nearly all individuals (99.4%) belonged to groups E (10.8%) and F (88.6%). The latter included R, the most frequent group of the area (61.4%). Hg R1*, which is known to be the most common in Western Europe,10, 18 belongs to this group and defined more than 50% of Iberian Y chromosomes, being the most frequent Hg in all populations (range 31–63.1%). Several other Hg's exhibited relatively high frequencies (>10%), but only in some populations: E3b2, E3b3a, I*(xI1b2), I1b2, J2*(xJ2f), K2, R1b3d and R1b3f. Heterogeneity estimates by population (Table 1) are similar, with values ranging from 0.585±0.076 obtained for the Basque region to 0.889±0.047 obtained for Malaga, with no differences (P=0.159, Mann–Whitney U-test) between northern (Galicia, Northern Portugal, Leon, Cantabria, Catalonia and Basque Country) and southern (Seville, Huelva, Cadiz, Cordoba and Malaga) regions. Overall, some geographical clustering of Hg frequencies was notable. According to previous data, R chromosomes tended to be more frequent in the Cantabrian fringe (Figure 1g).10, 18, 38 In contrast to Hurles et al,39 Hg R1b3f was frequently detected and with a widespread distribution (Figure 1g). On the other hand, I chromosomes reached their highest frequencies in Andalusia and Eastern Iberia (Figure 1d), although Hg I1b2 reached a frequency in Castile comparable to that reported for Sardinia, which is the highest in Europe.10, 28, 40 Since STR information for the Catalonian sample is available26 and DYS388⩾15 repeat alleles can be used as a proxy for J background,41 we estimated 6.2% of J chromosomes in this sample. Taking this value, or the 4.2% previously reported for an independent sample,10 as an approximate frequency of these Hg's in Catalonia, J chromosomes show a trend of decreasing frequencies in Mediterranean coastal populations, from 17.9 to 11% in Andalusia, 9.7% in Valencia, to the lowest frequency in Catalonia (Figure 1e), although with nonsignificant differences between the two extremes (P=0.193, Fisher's exact test). With regard to Hg's E3b1 and E3b2, they were widespread in Iberia (Figure 1c), reaching similar frequencies (P=0.170, Fisher's exact test) in both the Andalusian and Cantabrian fringes, but having a minimal frequency (2.2%) in the Basques. Consistent with the previous findings of Brion et al,42 the overall value of the variance obtained between the 13 Iberian populations was low: 1.2%, P<0.010. SAMOVA analysis was undertaken assuming two and three groups. In the first case, Basque Country was separated from the rest of Iberians yielding 1.6% of intergroup variance, although this value was not significant (P>0.05). In the second case, Basque Country, Catalonia and the rest of Iberians formed the three groups, which resulted in a statistically significant maximum variance (2.5%, P<0.05). However, Mantel test revealed that there is a correlation between geographical and Y-chromosome-based genetic distances (r=0.36, P<0.001), as in the rest of Europe.18 The autocorrelation index (II) was also used for evaluating patterns of geographical variation. Although plot raggedness incremented with the number of classes, all correlograms obtained from the Iberian Y-chromosome data were very similar, showing significant positive values at short distances and significant negative at long distances. One of these correlograms is represented in Figure 3a, showing significant positive values at 0–246 km distances, decreasing to significantly negative values at 909 km. To explore if this pattern could be explained by the distribution of a certain frequent Hg, we reran AIDA again, removing from the data one frequent Hg at a time (ie with >10% in at least one population), but all the patterns obtained were similar (not shown). We next examined the plot of geographical vs genetic distances (Figure 3b) and, although a relatively high regression coefficient was obtained (0.36, P<0.001, Mantel test), we noted that the greater distances (falling above the upper limit of 95% CI of the distribution) were due to just five populations: the Basque Country, Catalonia, Malaga, Galicia and Castile. Thus, it seemed that a minority of genetic distances (33%) were responsible for most of the correlation. After removing these outstanding values from the distribution, the regression coefficient turned nonsignificant (0.20, P=0.153, Mantel test). To explore the influence of these five populations in the autocorrelation analysis, we repeated AIDA, but this time excluding one of them at a time. The results without Galicia or Castile did not change. When Catalonia or Malaga were removed, the larger distance class turned nonsignificant. However, when the Basque Country was omitted from the analysis, all autocorrelation values were nonsignificant (not shown). Although the outlier behaviour of these populations could be attributed to their small sample sizes, given that 100% of statistically significant FST genetic distances involved them, that previously analysed population groups added considerable heterogeneity to the region38 and that our knowledge of Iberian Y-chromosome pool is still limited, these results point to some degree of heterogeneity in Iberia. A more thorough sampling in these areas, especially in Basque Country where some heterogeneity among districts have been detected,43 could shed some light to this differentiation pattern. Recent findings in Italy and Greece44 support that Y-chromosome heterogeneity in such local regions are organized on focal rather than clinal distributions as deduced from studies on larger spatial scales. The Y-chromosome variation landscape in Iberia was also evaluated using principal component analysis, which included samples with highly resolved Y-chromosome data from Europe (78 Sardinians45 and 26 Normans, unpublished), Near East (30 Turks, 139 Iraqis, 31 Lebanese and 20 Syrians from Al-Zahery et al,46 and unpublished data from 146 Jordanians (V Cabrera and N Karadsheh, personal communication)), and Northwest Africa (29 Arabs and 46 Berbers from Morocco, 24 Saharans and 36 Mauritanians, unpublished). The first two components of the analysis accounted for 83.9% of genetic variance, and produced three well-separated clusters of populations, evidencing the sharp differences between the Y-chromosome pool of Western Europe, Near East and Northwest Africa (Figure 4). The main determinant Hg's of the clustering are Hg R1*(xR1a), which plays an important role in both components, Hg's J*(xJ2) and J2, and E3*(xE3a). Hg R1*(xR1a) reach high frequencies in Iberia and west European populations,10 whereas J*(xJ2)/J2 and E3*(xE3a) have a low incidence and, in turn, are related to populations from the Near East and Northwest Africa, respectively. Hg G, which together with groups J and E are related to the genetic influence from Near East during the Neolithic,10, 47 does not play an important role in the clustering of these populations. Archaeological,48, 49 mtDNA12 and Y-chromosome data18 corroborate the view that Neolithic contributions are expected to diminish towards Western Europe. Although little is known about the Neolithic impact in Mesolithic populations from Iberia, Basques are generally considered to have received a very limited input of Near Eastern genes.7, 49 In fact, their uniqueness has been revealed by mtDNA12, 13, 14 and nuclear loci,7, 11 confirming their isolation and susceptibility to genetic drift. However, in a recent Y-chromosome study, Basques were not differentiated from neighbouring populations.26 Furthermore, Rosser et al18 found that within Western Europe, only a minor barrier separated the Basques from their neighbours. Consistent with these results, our findings indicate that Iberian populations, Basques included, have a reduced genetic structure. This means that the linguistic differences of this area arose after a common Y-chromosome pattern was established, or that there has been sufficient male gene flow to eliminate past differences. In particular, the results from Hurles et al39 suggested recent male gene flow between Basques and surrounding populations. Our results revealed that these recent events have not totally erased the ancient structure established by past population movements, indicating that a large fraction of the Iberian male heritage was already present in Europe during the Palaeolithic. Bolstering this hypothesis, Western Europe accounts for the highest frequencies of R1*(xR1a) lineage, and the tightly linked 49a,f ht XV and Hg1 haplotypes, with an estimated age traced back to Palaeolithic times.10, 50 Moreover, Wilson et al51 calculated that the coalescent times for Hg 1 in the British Isles and the Atlantic zone of the continent were ≈7 000 ybp. These findings are supported by the frequency and diversity patterns found for the phylogenetically precedent Y-lineage P(xR1).50 Salas et al52 interpreted the mtDNA diversity of the population of Galicia as one of the Western edges of the Neolithic expansion. In part, the Y-chromosome data support this view, since Galicia lies at extreme edge of the cluster of Europeans, showing some relatedness to Basques, as evidenced by the second component (Figure 4). On the other hand, Galicia, as well as other populations from northern Iberia (Cantabria, N. Portugal) and south of Andalusia (Malaga), are the Iberian populations closest to the Northwest African cluster (Figure 4). Northwest African influences in the south of Iberia are reconciled with the slow reconquest of the Iberian peninsula from the North by the Christians, which lasted seven centuries and ended in Granada in 1492.53 In fact, Bosch et al26 dated the specific Northwest African male influence to Iberia as ≈700 ybp, which they linked to the historical Islamic occupation. Favouring this, Lucotte et al27 detected that the characteristic Berber Y-chromosome haplotype p49a,f htV showed a gradient of decreasing frequencies with latitude in Iberia. As the Moslem influence in the Cantabrian fringe was barely appreciable, how can the Northwest African influence in northern parts of Iberia be explained? Other studies with the Y-chromosome,38, 42 and also with other genetic markers, have detected this Northwest African influence in northern Iberia. For instance, Basque and Berber Algerians share some infrequent HLA haplotypes,20 and Basques, but also Cantabrians and French from the Pyrenees, share African-specific GM immunoglobulin haplotypes.54 Moreover, haplotypes belonging to the Northwest African U6 mtDNA cluster have been found in Galicia and Northern Portugal, but are rare or absent in Southern areas.15, 25, 29 Some authors consider that, at least in part, this Northwest African influence was a consequence of prehistoric links between Iberians and North Africans.55, 56 As such, the coincident dispersion of Northwest African Y-chromosomes in Northern and Southern parts of Iberia is a matter that needs further consideration. In conclusion, the detailed Y-chromosome binary Hg analysis has offered valuable insights into the population structure of the Iberian peninsula. The most important of these being the close affinities between the populations, the correlation between genetic and geographic distances and the apparent patchy distribution of Y-chromosome diversity. Despite the complex history of subsequent demographic events that have affected the Iberian peninsula, our findings support the idea of a high degree of underlying non-Neolithic ancestry being retained in Iberian populations. Ingman M, Kaessmann H, Pääbo S, Gyllensten U : Mitochondrial genome variation and the origin of modern humans. Nature 2000; 408: 708–713. Maca-Meyer N, González AM, Larruga JM, Flores C, Cabrera VM : Major genomic mitochondrial lineages delineate early human expansions. BMC Genet 2001; 2: 13. Underhill PA, Passarino G, Lin AA et al: The phylogeography of Y chromosome binary haplotypes and the origins of modern human populations. Ann Hum Genet 2001; 65: 43–62. 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Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1974. Esteban E, Dugoujon JM, Guitard E et al: Genetic diversity in northern Spain (Basque Country and Cantabria): GM and KM variation related to demographic histories. Eur J Hum Genet 1998; 6: 315–324. Arnaiz-Villena A, Martinez-Laso J, Alonso-Garcia J : Iberia: population genetics, anthropology, and linguistics. Hum Biol 1999; 71: 725–743. Maca-Meyer N, González AM, Pestano J, Flores C, Larruga JM, Cabrera VM : Mitochondrial DNA transit between West Asia and North Africa inferred from U6 phylogeography. BMC Genet 2003; 4: 15. We thank A Oterino, G Calderón and A Romany for providing us with blood samples. We also acknowledge the help and support of VM Cabrera in carrying out this project and thank three anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions. This research was supported by a DGES Spanish Grant PB 96-1034. PAU was supported by NIH Grant GM28428. About this article Cite this article Flores, C., Maca-Meyer, N., González, A. et al. Reduced genetic structure of the Iberian peninsula revealed by Y-chromosome analysis: implications for population demography. Eur J Hum Genet 12, 855–863 (2004) doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201225 - population structure - Iberian peninsula Genetic structure in the paternal lineages of South East Spain revealed by the analysis of 17 Y-STRs Scientific Reports (2019) Patterns of genetic differentiation and the footprints of historical migrations in the Iberian Peninsula Nature Communications (2019) Annals of Human Biology (2018) Whole Y-chromosome sequences reveal an extremely recent origin of the most common North African paternal lineage E-M183 (M81) Scientific Reports (2017) Genetic differentiation between upland and lowland populations shapes the Y-chromosomal landscape of West Asia Human Genetics (2017)

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In recent years, high-power micro-satellites below ~100 kg have been under focus and their usability has been proved. A large number of micro-satellites are developed in accordance with the standards of CubeSat which is defined as the satellite with the weight of 1.33 kg or less per 1 U (10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm). CubeSats have extended their mission capabilities and often their mission is comparable to the mission of bigger satellites. For example, Planet Labs Inc. (USA) launched over twenty 3 U satellites named Dove offering the service of providing Earth images to their customers, their mission focusing on Earth observation . NASA has developed 6 U CubeSat: Mars Cube One as mars probe and their CubeSats aim to advance the mission level beyond the earth’s orbit . Due to the development of high functional micro-satellites, high-power micro-satellites whose benchmark is 100 W, 3 U, have been demanded. Miltech Co. (USA) has developed High-Power CubeSat Concept for 3 U satellite . Tether Inc. (USA) proposed Power Cube which can carry out electric propulsion for 80 W, 3 U satellite . For the thermal design of micro-satellite, especially for CubeSat, there are specific challenges which are not considered for a large-scale satellite due to its physical limitations. Generally, passive control is applied as thermal control for the micro-satellites of small-power consumption, because the priority of thermal design is lower than other subsystems such as propulsion subsystem etc. However, their passive thermal control methods are not suitable for high-power micro-satellites. Under such a background, our final goal is to build a functional and high-power thermal control system for a 100 W, 3 U micro-satellite. The main feature of this proposed system is no power supply, a simple configuration and an active control to realize variable control. In this paper, a 3 U satellite was proposed as a testbed of 100 W thermal control system with a heat storage panel (HSP), a micro loop heat pipe (m-LHP) and a flexible re-deployable radiator (FRDR). To build this system, a demonstration satellite which can absorb the solar heat of 100 W was designed and the experiment of three phase changes of water was proposed as the payload using an electric power generation of 100 W. Moreover, the feasibility of the missions was verified by thermal mathematical model and the thermal test model was built for the space environment testing. 2. Proposal of Micro-Satellite with Functional Thermal Control System Table 1 and Figure 1 show the specification and the schematic view of the proposed micro-satellite. The size of the micro-satellite corresponds to 3 U standard and the weight is 3.9 kg. The spin axis of the satellite is fixed in the direction of the sun with a spin stabilization method. From Figure 1, it can be seen that there are four panels faced to the sun; three of them are used for absorption of solar Table 1. Specification of the proposed micro-satellite (3 U, 100 W). Figure 1. Schematic view of the proposed micro-satellite. heat and one of them is used for solar cell power generation. The solar cells are equipped on the side of satellite and on the top panel. The satellite body consists of two modules; the payload corresponds to 1 U size for the phase change experiment (the sun side) and the bus part corresponds to 2 U size for the battery, communication equipment et al. (the opposite side to the sun). The payload is exposed to a dynamic temperature fluctuation by solar heat of 100 W class for the water phase change experiment. On the other hand, the temperature of the bus part is minimized to keep the performance of the satellite. Therefore, in the bus part, the active thermal control with the functional thermal system is demanded. Figure 2 shows a cross section view of the mission part to explain the mechanism of phase change experiment. During the sunlight, the mission part is heated by absorption of solar heat with the thermal absorption or radiation paddle. The surface for heat absorption is the graphite sheet (surface: KGS, Kaneka Co. and substrate: CFRP, Nippon Graphite Fiber Co., Ltd.) which has the advantages not only of thermal conductivity (950 W/(mK) at 100˚C) but also of specific flexibility. Thus, this graphite sheet works as heat transport path without preventing the paddle from expansion and storage. The heat from the sun on the paddle is transported to the aluminum container in the center of the mission part via the graphite sheet. During the eclipse, the mission part is cooled only by thermal radiation to deep space from graphite sheet. For an efficient thermal radiation and absorption, the surface of the graphite sheet is coated to optimize the optical properties of the surface: the solar absorptance α and the emittance ε. Thus the payload can maximize the temperature fluctuation (0˚C - 100˚C) in Earth orbit to achieve the water phase change. Figure 2. Mechanism of water phase change experiment. 2.1. HSP: Heat Storage Panel HSP is the heat storage material which consists of a pitch type CFRP (Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer) and PCM (Phase-Change Material) . The aim of HSP is smoothing of temperature from the devices by increasing the apparent heat capacity using the latent heat of PCM. PCM storage the heat at the temperature rising, on the other hand, PCM release the heat at the temperature decreasing by using the latent heat due to the phase change. PCM has a disadvantage of low thermal conductivity. Thus, high thermal conductivity as well as strength is demanded for the component enclosing PCM. Previous researches of HSP with PCM for satellite are reported and aluminum alloy are used for their components for PCM . In this research, the pitch type CFRP is used for the component enclosing PCM. The pitch type CFRP has an advantage of high thermal conductivity of 347 W/(mK) in the direction of a fiber axis. Therefore, HSP can be applied not only for the heat storage panel, but also for the heat sink or structure material. Their multi-functions of HSP are superiority to micro-satellite under severe restriction on size and mass. 2.2. m-LHP: Micro Loop Heat Pipe The m-LHP is a heat transport device which is activated by using capillary force . The LHP consists of an evaporator with porous wick, a compensation chamber (CC), a vapor line, a condenser, and a liquid line. The CC has a function as a reservoir of liquid. A LHP is a two-phase heat transfer device that utilizes the evaporation and condensation of a working fluid to transfer heat, and the capillary forces developed in fine porous wicks to circulate the fluid. The effective thermal conductivity of LHP can be relatively high due to latent heat transport. Furthermore, the LHP has been expected as a next-generation heat transport device, because the LHP can drive without power supply and have high flexibility of design. The LHPs have been mounted in large scale satellites like ETS-VIII, etc. . However, there has never been reported for LHP to apply for micro-satellite. In our group, the m-LHP has been developed especially for mobile devices . The characteristics of proposed m-LHP are the evaporator size of 20 × 20 × t 3 mm as a flat type structure and a one-way transport length of 200 mm with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) as the wick. In addition to the advantage of size of m-LHP for small satellite, the proposed m-LHP can drive under microgravity. Because the m-LHP integrates the evaporator and the CC as a combined unit, the working fluid can be supplied through the wick constantly. Thus the m-LHP is suitable for micro-satellite. 2.3. FRDR: Flexible Re-Deployable Radiator As the increasing of power consumption from the inside of satellite, the deployable radiator has been used to improve the radiation ability. The operating principle is that the flexible re-deployable radiator can change its deployment angle and the radiation area depending on temperature by shape memory alloy (SMA) . The features of the radiator are as follows: 1) the radiation area can be expanded more than the surface area even after the launch and orbit insertion; and 2) Graphite Sheet (GS) which has high thermal conductivity, lightweight, and flexibility is used for the integrated parts between the main body and the deployable part. Thus, the radiation area also becomes a path for heat transfer. 3. Design and Verification 3.1. Design of Micro-Satellite The biggest challenge for the micro-satellite is to keep the temperature of the bus part around room temperature, though the payload is facing a dynamic temperature fluctuation. The thermal control system for this micro-satellite involves two main concepts: 1) At the payload, the thermal environment is adapted for the water phase change experiment by controlling the surface property of the high thermal conductivity material; and 2) At the bus part, the temperature fluctuation is minimized by the active use of the functional thermal devices without power supply such as heater etc. Figure 3 shows the configuration of the proposed micro-satellite based on the above design concept. The payload is mounted on the side facing the sun and the camera for water phase change experiment is mounted on the most side of the sun. The battery is equipped in the center of the satellite because it is a heavy component and it has a narrow allowable temperature range. The communication instruments which have a large amount of exhaust heat are equipped on the side of the radiator (the non-illuminated side). Figure 3. Configuration of the proposed micro-satellite with the functional thermal control system. The design details of each functional device are shown below. The battery which has the narrowest allowable temperature range is controlled with the heat storage panel (HSP) as shown in Figure 4. The HSP can buffer the dynamic temperature fluctuation by increasing the apparent heat capacity. The design of the HSP is based on the HSP of Hodoyoshi 4 . The HSP consists of side panels (7 mm thick) and PCM (11 mm thick). In this study, the configuration of HSP and the material of PCM were modified due to the difference in the application temperature range and the mounted area. Hexadecane (C16H34) was selected as the PCM because the phase change point (melting point 18˚C) is almost the same as the middle point of the allowable temperature range for the application object. The size of HSP is 96 mm × 85 mm based on 3 U standard. From the analysis of the satellite thermal mathematical model (below for the details), the temperature fluctuation to control with the HSP becomes 20˚C. Therefore, the required amount of heat storage is calculated as 970 J from heat capacity of battery 48.5 J/ K. In this satellite, two HSPs are applied with heat storage 572 J per HSP. The camera, whose temperature becomes high during the sunlight, is controlled with the m-LHP as shown in Figure 5. In the sunlight, the camera module is influenced by the thermal input of its own heat generation of 4.0 W and of the thermal radiation of 4.5 W. This condition is supposed to be applied under the worst-case assumption that the temperature of camera module is 20˚C and the temperature of phase change chamber is 150˚C. Thus, the maximum heat transport quantity of the m-LHP becomes 10 W which includes the margins of 20% to the against maximum thermal input 8.5 W. Meanwhile, during the eclipse, the minimum start-up heat load corresponds to the own heat generation 4.0 W from the camera module. In this research, acetone is selected as the working fluid for the m-LHP because of a relatively low boiling point matching with the working temperature 55˚C and the allowable temperature of the camera module 70˚C. Figure 4. Heat storage panel with CFRP. Figure 5. Micro loop heat pipe for the cooling of the camera module. Figure 6(a) shows a flexible re-deployable radiator to waste the heat from the m-LHP and from the communication instruments. The target performance is determined so that the size of storage is under 95 mm × 110 mm, and the maximum radiation amount is 11.8 W at the temperature of fin of 55˚C. The fin consists of graphite sheet (size 300 mm × 75 mm, thickness 40 μm × 10 layers, Kaneka Co.). The surface of the flexible re-deployable radiator is silver deposition Teflon (125 μm thick) which has the solar absorptance α = 0.22 and the total hemispherical emittance ε = 0.77. Figure 6(b) shows the results of the actuator operation experiment with the flexible re-deployable radiator under atmospheric environment. The radiator was placed in a thermostatic oven and the ambient temperature of the radiator was kept in the equilibrium state for each angle. The deployment angles of the radiator were observed through the view port of the thermostatic oven. For the deployment test, the flexible re-deployable radiator was heated from −40˚C to +40˚C for every 10˚C. Furthermore, for the storage test, the flexible re-deployable radiator was cooled from +40˚C to −40˚C for every 10˚C. The deployment angle for each step was measured at steady state. From the operation results shown in Figure 6(b), the radiator could develop the fin in the vicinity of 10˚C and store the fin in the vicinity of −10˚C almost as predicted by the design. The difference between heating and cooling in Figure 6(b) was caused by hysteresis due to the characteristic of SMA . 3.2. The Feasibility Verification by Thermal Mathematical Model For the feasibility verification of the mission in the proposed micro-satellite, the temperature change in orbit was predicted by thermal mathematical model. Thermal Desktop known as the thermal fluid analysis tool was used for the thermal mathematical model of the satellite . In this research, the objective is to design the thermal control system which can control the thermal input up to 100 W class. Thus, the amount of thermal absorption at the paddles was Figure 6. Actuator operation experiment with a flexible re-deployable radiator under atmospheric environment. (a) The operating status of the actuator; (b) The temperature dependence of deployment angle. evaluated whether the thermal absorption or radiation is enough for the thermal input of 100 W class or not. The amount of heat from the surface of paddles to the inside of satellite is derived by where Qabs, Esun, α, θi, σ, ε, Tspace, Tsurf are the amount of thermal absorption, the sunlight intensity 1358 W/m2, the solar absorptance, the incident angle of solar light, the Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.67 × 10-8 W/(m2∙K4), the total hemispherical emittance, the temperature of deep space and the surface temperature, respectively . The amount of heat is represented by the balance of solar input and thermal radiation on the paddles. At first, the incident angle of solar light and the surface temperature of paddles in orbit were calculated by Thermal Desktop. The calculation results by Thermal Desktop are substituted in Equation (1) to derive the amount of thermal absorption from the sun. Figure 7 shows the analysis results of temperature change for the mounted devices. The simulation Figure 7. Analysis results of temperature change for the mounted devices. result for the phase change of water becomes the temperature change from −10˚C to 100˚C and reveals the possibility of the phase change test. The temperature of bus equipment is also within the allowable temperature range (0˚C - 40˚C). In conclusion, these results prove the feasibility of the proposed mission with a functional thermal control system. 4.1. Thermal Test Model and Thermal Vacuum Test Condition The experimental evaluation of the proposed micro-satellite with functional thermal control system was conducted in the space environment. Figure 8 shows a thermal test model (TTM) which simulates the thermal properties of the satellite by using a mockup model. Especially the mission part and the functional thermal control devices in TTM have the same specifications as the flight model (FM). Meanwhile the bus part consists of substitutes except the body structure and the camera module. The weight of TTM is about 2.7 kg and the estimated weight of FM becomes 2.9 kg which satisfies the upper limit of 3U standard ~3.9 kg. Figure 9 shows the experimental setup for the space environment testing by using a space chamber. The wall temperature of the space chamber is kept from −170˚C to −190˚C by liquid nitrogen and the pressure of the space chamber is 10−5 Pa or lower. TTM is placed with the bottom up in the space chamber as shown in Figure 8(b) and TTM is fixed with polyester cable to minimize the heat leak due to conduction. A heater was used to provide the thermal input from the sun. The temperature of each part is measured by T type thermocouples. At the beginning of the space environment testing, each element of the thermal devices and each equipment of the payload were tested and moreover the operation test with the satellite as an integrated system was conducted. 4.2. Experimental Results of Space Environment Testing Figure 10 shows the comparison between the analysis and the experiment for Figure 8. Images of thermal test model and set up of TTM in space chamber. (a) TTM model; (b) TTM in space chamber. Figure 9. Experimental setup for the space environment testing. Figure 10. Temperature history of water in the space environment testing. the temperature history of water. From the experimental result, periodic temperature fluctuations occurred from −9˚C to 37˚C and accordingly only the solid-liquid phase change occurred without the gas-liquid phase change. The causes of this problem were considered as follows: 1) the increasing of thermal radiation from the paddle surfaces, and 2) the small conductance between the graphite sheet and the water chamber. The problem 1) was ascribed to the properties of the surface paint or the gap between the substrate and graphite sheet. The problem 2) was ascribed to the poor contact to water chamber or the deflection of the hinge part. Finally, it was found that the thermal radiation of TTM was 1.7 times as large as the estimation and the thermal conductance between the water chamber and GS was about one fifth of designed value by the thermal analysis. Considering above things, it is required that the values of thermal conductance at the thermal analysis is applied by feedback values from the experiment to improve a good agreement between analysis and experiment. 4.3. Experimental Results of Functional Thermal Control System Figure 11 shows the operation test result of HSP which indicates the performance as predicted by the design. The degradation of HSP or the leakage of PCM by iteration was not observed. Furthermore, the thermal storage performance was considered. The estimated amount of heat storage was 552 J which corresponds to 97% of the theoretical value . Figure 12 shows the performance test result of the m-LHP. In the vacuum test, the m-LHP drove at the heat load of 5 W, although the m-LHP drove at the heat load of 2 W in the atmosphere. The effect of gravity which depends on the installation location of TTM caused the difference of the heat load for working. In the vacuum test, the evaporator was set up at the bottom of the CC as a bottom heat mode, and the difference in height between the evaporator and CC was Figure 11. Operation test result of heat storage panel in the vacuum test. Figure 12. Operation test result of micro loop heat pipe in the vacuum test. about 10 cm. Therefore, the high heat flux was needed at starting point because the vapor has to push back the liquid phase in the vapor line to CC against gravity. The heat load was changed from 2 W to 5 W. The results showed the operating temperature of 76˚C at the heat load of 3 W and the maximum heat load of 5 W. Figure 13 shows the operation performance of the flexible re-deployable radiator in the space environment testing. After two periods which became a metastable state, the flexible re-deployable radiator could work as the same temperature change in each cycle. 4.4. Experimental Results of Water Phase Change The water phase change experiment was conducted with the heat load as the reproduction experiment. The water was heated from the solid phase applied with the heat load of 180 W until the water became the gas phase. After the view port of experimental chamber reached to 130˚C, the heat load was decreased to 20 W. The water phase change was filmed with a high-definition camera. Figure 14(a) Figure 13. Temperature history of flexible re-deployable radiator in the space environment testing. (a) (b) (c) (d) Figure 14. Results of water phase change experiment with a high-definition camera. (a) Before solidification; (b) After solidification; (c) Gas-liquid phase change; (d) Camera angle through the view port. and Figure 14(b) show the picture of the solid-liquid solidification and Figure 14(d) shows a camera angle. The entire observation area became white by freezing at the phase change process of solidification. The detail of solidification was as follows; first, the circumference of the thermal conductivity material started to freeze at 0˚C or below, secondly, the rapidly phase change occurred around the first freezing area during the temperature increasing after supercooling, and finally, the vicinity of view port was frozen. Figure 14(c) shows the picture of the gas-liquid phase change. The boiling was observed during the gas-liquid phase change above 100˚C, although the temperature was not constant. The behavior of boiling became most active around 110˚C. A functional and high-performance thermal control system with no power supply for a high-power micro-satellite: 100 W, 3 U has been proposed. To design this system, a demonstration satellite which can absorb the solar heat of 100 W was proposed and the experiment of three phase changes of water was conducted as the testbed of 100 W thermal control system. The basic design of the micro-satellite was divided into the payload design and the bus part design. The feasibility of the mission was proved by thermal mathematical model as follows: 1) the solar input to paddles could reach 180 W and the paddles can absorb the thermal energy up to 97 W; 2) the phase change of water led to a temperature change from −10˚C to 100˚C and reveals the possibility of the phase change test; and 3) the temperature of bus equipment was also within the allowable temperature range (0˚C - 40˚C). Furthermore, the thermal test model was built and the test results confirmed the operation of the functional thermal control system with HSP, m-LHP and FRDR in the space environment testing, although the temperature fluctuation at the payload was not enough to satisfy the requirement. In order to develop the functional thermal control systems applied for high-power micro/nano-satellites, the future works are expected as follows: 1) a reduction of thermal resistance between the graphite sheet and water chamber, 2) a suppression of thermal radiation on the paddle, and 3) the optimization of FRDR and m-LHP toward the satellite. Esun = Sunlight intensity T = Temperature Q = Amount of heat α = Solar absorptance ε = Emittance θi = Incident angle of solar light σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant abs = Absorption space = Space environment surf = Surface CFRP = Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer FM = Flight Model FRDR = Flexible Re-Deployable Radiator GS = Graphite Sheet HSP = Heat Storage Panel LHP = Loop Heat Pipe PCM = Phase Change Material SMA = Shape Memory Alloy TTM = Thermal Test Mode

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CC-MAIN-2019-47

https://m.scirp.org/papers/83520

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Submitted by Dr. Kechia Seabrooks Rowles*(1) (1)Athletic Coordinator for Rockdale County Public Schools in Conyers, Ga. Dr. Kechia Seabrooks Rowles United States Sports Academy 85 Fox Glove Drive Covington, GA 30016 The purpose of this study was to analyze and compare various factors that contribute to the attitudes and perceptions held by public high school student- athletes towards academic achievement. During the 2014-2015 academic year, 323 student-athletes completed a 110 question survey packet that included, the Non Cognitive Questionnaire (NCQ), the Athletic Identity Measure Scale (AIMS), the Student Athletic Motivation Survey and Questionnaire (SAMSAQ), the Student-Athlete Role Conflict Scale and the Sport Commitment Model (SCM), providing information about different aspects of the academic achievement and athletic participation relationship, including level of educational aspirations and academic self-concept, the internal struggle between the student and athlete identity complexes, and motivational drives of student-athletes. Student Participation was strictly voluntary and contingent upon the willingness of coaches and parental consent. Student-athletes generally viewed themselves as student-athletes and believed it is worth the effort to achieve athletic success but not at the expense of their academic performance. Analysis showed that gender may play a statistically significant role in student-athletes’ perception of academic performance and athletic participation while grade level, age and race were less meaningful. The researcher hopes these findings may encourage further research, and potentially aid parents, coaches, counselors and teachers in assisting student athletes with maintaining a balance between academics and athletics. Keywords:perceptions, disparities, academic achievement, athletic performance, student athletes, public school system Athletic participation is a vital component of the educational experience. With more than 7.7 million high school students competing in various athletic activities, interscholastic athletics involve both the competitions that occur on the field of play and in the classroom as well (National Federation of State High School Association, 2013). Interscholastic athletics are inherently educational and support the academic mission of schools. Interscholastic athletics are often referred to as extracurricular activities, which are not a part of the regular school curriculum, but provide students an opportunity for scholastic and athletic involvement in school. Interscholastic athletics are an extension of the classroom that provide teaching and learning experiences for all students involved and are linked to the objectives of the overall educational program (Massachusetts Interscholastic Athletic Association, 2009). Students must garner a greater understanding of how their athletic participation correlates with their academic performance. Proponents of the Athletics as Educational (Thomas, 1986) doctrine argued that athletic participation was just as important to student development as the classroom experience and that athletic involvement supported student’s academic objectives and therefore, should not be treated as extracurricular but educational. Although, athletics were never intended to be educational some educational benefits have resulted from athletic participation. According to the National Federation of State High School Association (NFHS) athletic participation is a part of the overall high school experience and extracurricular activities support the academic missions of schools, are inherently educational and foster success later in life. Athletic participation is a right that students earn by succeeding academically. Student-athletes should be expected to successfully balance both requirements by excelling in their academic study areas and their competitive sports. Lower SAT scores and class ranks of athletes may be a result of lesser degrees of academic preparedness and not due to sports participation as previously believed (Robst and Keil, 2000). Initial levels of academic preparedness and ability to meet eligibility requirements can either benefit or limit student-athletes as they continue their athletic participation through secondary schooling to the collegiate ranks. Bukowski (2001) reported that all state athletic associations recommended some, although limited, form of academic eligibility requirements for student participation in interscholastic sports. He found that the No Pass, No Play requirements ranged from course enrollment minimums to grade point average minimums. State associations do not enforce uniform guidelines for implementing eligibility policies therefore local school jurisdictions develop and impose eligibility requirement minimums. The inconsistency in policies creates a larger dilemma for students who aren’t required to meet the same academic rigor as others. This practice can lead to students’ development of poor study habits, decreases in educational values, and aspirations and low standardized testing scores. Overall student-athletes are generally not prepared academically or socially for the demands of their athletic participation. The NCAA addressed the inadequacies of student-athletes reporting to college academically unprepared and took steps to ensure that student-athletes desiring to participate in collegiate athletics meet minimum academic requirements. During the spring of 2013, the NCAA tagged the phrase “2.3 or Take a Knee” (NCAA, n.d.) which informed prospective student-athletes of the changes in initial eligibility requirements. Simon and Van Rheenen (2000) believed that the rationale for the eligibility standards of minimum SAT/ACT scores and high school grade point averages were that they were reliable predictors of academic success. Varying levels of motivation, goal orientation, level of competition, background demographics including gender, race and socioeconomic status (SES), contribute to differences in the impact of student-athletes athletic participation on their academic success (Simons, Van Rheen, & Covington, 1999, Duda & Nicholls, 1992). In addition, influential relationships between individuals in student-athletes’ lives, including coaches, parents, teammates and adult mentors impact the student-athletes’ level of academic motivation and the magnitude of emphasis the student-athletes places on the importance of success in their academic endeavors (Bell, 2009). School counselors and other student support services have a responsibility to student-athletes as well, to ensure they are successfully able to balance their academic and athletic obligations (Goldberg & Chandler, 1995; Chartrand & Lent, 1987). The gratification athletes received for their athletic participation makes it easier for many student-athletes to prioritize athletics above academics (Simons & Van Rheenen, 2000). Students’ primary motivation is his or her identity and the quality of a school depends on how students fit in a school’s social setting (Akerlof & Kranton, 2002). Students must determine whether their ideal identity characteristics reflect those most popular within their social context (i.e. jocks or nerds). A stronger athletic identity could be result of student-athletes view that jocks are less engaged academically compared to non-athletes, therefore hindering both their confidence and performance in the academic setting. Simons and Van Rheenen (2000) determined that role strain is due to competing and energy demands of the athletic and academic roles and that student-athletes’ failure to develop a strong academic identity is due to a lack of commitment to academics resulting in them being nothing more than marginal students. Measures of creating and implementing academic support programs to assist student-athletes with setting academic goals that will prepare them for and enhance their quality of life after athletics are beneficial, but fall short in answering the question of “Why do student-athletes excel in the sports domain and not in the academic domain?” While academic support programs focus on closing the academic gaps of the student-athletes via mandatory study hall and stringent academic monitoring, they fail to address underlying factors such as gender, race, socioeconomic status, home environment, family support systems, level of participation, variations in personalities, motivation and athletic identity salience all which may contribute to the student-athletes’ inability to perform in the classroom. Other social context factors that impact academic achievement include the importance of sports in a school culture (Crosnoe 2001) and the coach’s attitude about school and education (Ryan and Segas, 2006). Coaches, teachers and parents play a critical role in fostering the student-athletes’ attitude and acceptance of the importance of meeting their educational goals. Parental involvement has been shown to significantly influence student academic achievement. Students whose parents are actively involved in their schooling by helping them with homework, attending extracurricular event, and monitoring students’ progress perform better academically, have stronger locus of control, and greater mastery orientation (Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Darling, 1992; Trusty & Lampe, 1997; Gonzalez, Holbein, & Quilter, 2002). The sample consisted of 323 athletes (227 males; 96 females) from 7 different sport teams. The distribution of the subjects according to grade levels were: 9th grade (n=97), 10th grade (n=125) and 11th grade (n=101). Subject distribution by ages were: 13 (n=4), 14 (n=66), 15 (n=122), 16 (n=100), 17 (n=28) and 18 (n=1). The distribution of subjects according to ethnic identities were: Black (n=225), White (n=45), Asian American (n=6), Hispanic (n=28), American Indian (n=2) and Other (n=7). Subject distribution by sport was: Football (n=106), Softball (n=33), Boys Basketball (n=36), Girls Basketball (n=32), Boys Soccer (n=52), Girls Soccer (n=31) and Baseball (n=33). The data was obtained during the 2014-15 academic school year. After getting all necessary permission, the coaches were informed about the purpose of the study. After distributing and collecting parental consent forms, those students who returned forms completed the survey packet before the start of their competitive season. Non-Cognitive Questionnaire: The NCQ is a 23-item questionnaire designed to assess experiential and contextual intelligences, it consists of open and closed questions along with 18 items rated with a Likert-scale of 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree). Test- retest reliability estimates on NCQ scores for various samples range from .74 to .94, with a median of .85. Inter-rater reliability on scores from the three open-ended NCQ items ranged from .73 to 1.00 (Sedlacek and Adams-Gaston, 1992). Athletic Identity Measure Scale: The AIMS is a seven-item instrument that uses a seven-point Likert-type scale with possible responses ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) to measure athletic identity salience (AIMS; Brewer & Cornelius, 2001). The AIMS test-retest reliability (r=.89) and internal consistency (Cronbach’s alphas = .81 to .93) had been obtained (Brewer, Van Raalte, & Linder, 1993). Student Athletic Motivation Survey and Questionnaire: The SAMSAQ measures athletes’ level of agreement with each statement measured on a six-point Likert scale, ranging from very strongly agree (6) to very strongly disagree (1). The SAMSAQ contains three subscales measuring athletic, academic and career athletic motivation with well-established psychometric properties measured by Cronbach’s alpha= .86, .79, .84, respectively (Gaston-Gayles, 2005). Student-Athlete Role Conflict Scale: The Interference subscale of the SARCS consists of 12 specific instances and assesses the degree to which student-athletes perceive that the demands of being an athlete and the demands of being a student interfere with each other. Role Separation subscale of the SARCS assesses the extent to which the participants perceive being an athlete and a student as separate and distinct role identities. Participants used a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not really true of me) to 7 (really true of me) to indicate the degree to which each statement is true of them (Settles, Sellers & Damas, 2002). Alpha values for the Role Interference and Role Separation Scales of the Student Athlete Role Conflict Scale are 0.84 and 0.72 respectively. Sport Commitment Model: The SCM is a 28-item survey that measures sport commitment based on five factors which include: the level of enjoyment, involvement alternatives, personal investment, social constraints and involvement opportunities. Participants indicated the level of truth that each statement applies to them by using a 5-point Likert scale with answers ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. Scalan, Carpenter, Schmidt, Simons and Keeler (1993) study demonstrated acceptable reliability in the final phase of the Sport Commitment Model with Cronbach’s alpha measures ranging from .66 to .77. The SPSS 20 was used to analyze the data, providing primary descriptive statistical analysis. Means and standard deviations values were tabulated by gender, grade level, age and ethnic identity. Two tailed independent t-test and One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were used analysis differences between the samples’ perceptions of academic self-concept, motivational drive, athletic identity salience, role conflict and level of sport commitment as determined by survey responses from the NCQ, AIMS, SAMSAQ, SARCS and SCM. The alpha level for statistical significance was set at p< .05. Descriptive statistics for the NCQ Subscales are presented in Table 1.The mean response for Academic Self Concept was 1.90 or agree. The mean response for Academic Negative Influence was 3.75 or close to 4 (agree). The mean response for School Climate was 2.13 or agree. The unequal variance t-tests was significant for Academic Negative Influence, t (227.12) = -3.80, p < .01. The females average response was significantly higher (M = 3.95, SD = .58) than the males (M = 3.67, SD = 72). Females indicated a stronger disagree with the academic negative influence than the males. The results of these tests indicate there are no significant differences among the grade levels, age or ethnic identity in the students’ agreement with the statements regarding the three NCQ subscales. Descriptive Statistics for NCQ Subscales |Academic Negative Influence||3.75||.69||.59| Note: NCQ based on 5-point Likert Scale where 1=SA, 2=A, 3=N, 4=D, and 5=SD Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics for the SAMSAQ subscales. The unequal variance t-tests was significant for Academic Expectations, t (212.28) = 3.40, p =.001. The males average response was significantly higher (M = 2.59, SD = 1.36) than the females (M = 2.09, SD = 1.13). Males indicated their disagreement with the academic expectations items was not as strong as the females’ disagreement. The equal variance t-tests was significant for athletic involvement, t (318) = 1.99, p =.047. The males average response was significantly higher (M = 3.29, SD = 1.18) than the females (M = 3.00, SD = 1.17). Males indicated their disagreement with the athletic involvement items was not as strong as the females’ disagreement. The equal variance t-tests was significant for athletic confidence, t (320) = 5.43, p <.001. The males average response was significantly higher (M = 4.73, SD = 1.29) than the females (M = 3.87, SD = 1.34). Males indicated their agreement with the athletic confidence items was stronger than the females’ agreement. The equal variance t-tests was significant for academic interest, t (320) = 3.63, p < .001. The males average response was significantly higher (M = 4.61, SD = 1.27) than the females (M = 4.05, SD = 1.32). Males indicated their agreement with the academic interest items was stronger than the females’ agreement. The equal variance t-tests was significant for athletic motivation, t (321) = 3.56, p < .001. The males average response was significantly higher (M = 3.29, SD = 1.18) than the females (M = 3.00, SD = 1.17). Males indicated their disagreement with the athletic motivation items was not as strong as the females’ disagreement. Descriptive Statistics for SAMSAQ Subscale Note: SAMSAQ based on 6-point Likert scale where 1=VSD, 2=SD, 3=D, 4=A, 5=SA, and 6=VSA There was a significant difference on the Transferable Skills scale, F (2, 317) = 3.32, p = .038. Grade 10 (M = 5.40, SD = .67) had stronger agreement with the SAMSAQ items than grades 9 (M = 5.14, SD = .91) and 11 (M = 5.17, SD = .89). The results of these tests indicate there are no significant differences among the ages or ethnic identity in the students’ agreement with the statements regarding any of the SAMSAQ scales. AIMS subscale descriptive statistics are presented in Table 3. The equal variance t-tests was significant for the AIMS, t (320) = 3.58, p <.001. The males average response was significantly higher (M = 5.66, SD = .97) than the females (M = 5.22, SD = 1.10). Males indicated their agreement with the AIMS items was stronger than the females’ agreement. The results of this test indicates there are no significant differences among the grade level, age, or ethnic identity in the students’ agreement with the statements regarding AIMS scale. Descriptive Statistics for AIMS Subscale Note: AIMS based on 7-point Likert Scale where 1=SD, 2=SWD, 3=D, 4=N, 5=A, 6=SWA, and 7=SA Descriptive statistics for the SARCS subscales are presented in Table 4. The results were not significant for Academic Conflict, t (317) = 1.60, p = .111. As the mean was 3.37, both males and females indicated the items were somewhat not true for me. The results were also not significant for Role Separation (319) = -1.22, p = 224. As the mean was 5.50, both males and females indicated the items were somewhat true for me. The equal variance t-tests was significant for Negative Athletic Effect, t (317) = 4.81, p <.001. The males average response was significantly higher (M = 3.29, SD = 1.35) than the females (M = 2.51, SD = 1.26). Males indicated the negative athletic effect items were not as untrue for them as the females indicated. The results of these tests indicate there are no significant differences among the grade level, age or ethnic identity in the students’ agreement with the statements regarding the three SARC subscales. Descriptive Statistics for SARC Subscales |Role Conflict||SARC Subscale| |Negative Athletic Effect||3.06||1.37||.75| Note: SARC based on 7-point Likert Scale where 1=NRTM, 2=NTM, 3=SWNTM, 4=N, 5=SWTM, 6=TM and 7=RTM Table 5 presents the descriptive statistics for the SCM subscales. The results were not significant for Sport Commitment, t (321) = 1.46, p = .145. As the mean was 1.77, both males and females agreed with the statements regarding sport commitment. The unequal variance t-tests was significant for Sport Enjoyment, t (245.0) = 2.07, p =.040. The males average response was significantly higher (M = 1.78, SD = 1.38) than the females (M = 1.49, SD = 1.10). Males indicated their agreement with the sport enjoyment items was stronger than the females’ agreement. The equal variance t-tests was significant for Sports Social Constraints, t (321) = -2.46, p =.014. The females average response was significantly higher (M = 4.00, SD = 1.13) than the males (M = 3.65, SD = 1.19). Females indicated their disagreement with the sport social constraints items stronger than the males’ disagreement. Descriptive Statistics for SCM Subscales |Sport Social Constraints||3.76||1.18||.83| Note: SCM based on 5-point Likert Scale where 1=SA, 2=A, 3=N, 4=D and 5=SD. The results indicated there are no significant differences among the grade levels in the students’ agreement with the statements regarding any of the SCM scales. There was a significant difference among the ages on the Sport Investment scale, (6, 314) = 2.18, p = .045. The 17 year-olds (M = 2.36, SD = 1.49), 16 year-olds (M = 1.87, SD = 1.23), 15 year-olds (M = 2.20, SD = 1.29), 14 year-olds (M = 1.88, SD = .93) indicated they agreed with the SCM items. The 13 year-olds (M = 1.25, SD = .32) and 18 year-old (M = 1) indicated the strongly agreed with the SCM items. There was a significant difference among the ethnic identities on the Sport Social Constraints, F (6, 314) = 2.44, p = .026. The Black (M = 2.00, SD = 1.22), Hispanic (M = 2.56, SD = 1.34) and Other (M = 2.33, SD = 1.55) indicated they agreed with the SCM items. The White (M = 1.82, SD = 1.18, Asian American (M = 1.67, SD = .64,) indicated the strongly agreed with the SCM items. A cause-effect relationship between athletic participation and academic achievement has yet to be determined; however, several studies have found a positive correlation between the two variables. Research has proven that athletic participation is not only beneficial in increasing students’ academic success and performance, but it also benefits other areas of the athletes’ personal, social and career development. Student athletes’ academic obligations cannot become secondary to their athletic participation. If athletic participation is the primary goal, a shift in focus is required by student athletes to sacrifice time, utilize resources, and devote a conscious effort to meet and maintain expected academic outcomes and become a student scholar. In addition, perceptions of athletic ability can impact emphasis placed on academics as some student-athletes may be encouraged to emphasis athletic prowess in lieu of educational achievement. APPLICATIONS IN SPORT While there is evidence that student-athletes feel they can be both students and athletes at the same time, it is also evident that there is a degree of uncertainty in student- athlete’s ability to excel academically. Though student-athletes possess the confidence to excel academically, emphasis placed on athletics over academics from their social support systems greatly impact student-athlete efforts in both domains. Parents, coaches, counselors and teachers must encourage and support student athletes with maintaining a balance between academics and athletics. The author would like to acknowledge Dr. C. Michael Harmon and Dr. Ethel Kloos for providing statistical analysis. In addition, the author wishes to thank the many coaches and athletes who participated in the study. 1. Akerlof, G. A., & Kranton, R. E. (2002). Identity and schooling: Some lessons for the economics of education. Journal of economic literature, 40(4), 1167-1201. 2. Bell, L. (Eds). (2009). Examining Academic Role-Set Influence on Student-Athlete Experience [Special Issue]. Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics, 19-41. 3. Brewer, B. W., Van Raalte, J. L., & Linder, D. E. (1993). Athletic identity: Hercules’ muscles or Achilles heel? International journal of sport psychology, 42(2), 237-254. 4. Brewer, B. W., & Cornelius, A. E. (2001). Norms and factorial invariance of the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale. Academic Athletic Journal, 15(2), 103-113. 5. Bukowski, B. (2001). A Comparison of Academic Athletic Eligibility in Interscholastic Sports in American High Schools. The Sport Journal, 4(2). Retrieved from http://www.thesportjournal.org/article/comparison-academic-athletic-eligibility-interscholastic-sports-american-high-schools. 6. Chartrand, J., & Lent, R. (1987). Sports Counseling: Enhancing the Development of the Student-Athlete. Journal of Counseling and Development, 66(4), 164-167. 7. Crosnoe, R. (2001). Academic orientation and parent involvement in education during high school. Sociology of Education, 74 (July), 210-230. 8. Duda, J., & Nicholls, J. (1992). Dimensions of achievement motivation in schoolwork and sport. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(3), 290-299. 9. Gaston-Gayles, J. L. (2005). The factor structure and reliability of the student athletes’ motivation toward sports and academics questionnaire (SAMSAQ). Journal of College Student Development, 46(3), 317-327. 10. A., & Chandler, T. (1995). Sports Counseling: Enhancing the Development of the High School Student-Athlete. Journal of Counseling and Development, 74 (1), 39-44. 11. Gonzalez, A., Holbien, M. F., & Quilter, S. (2002). High school students’ goal orientations and their relationship to perceived parenting styles. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27, 450-470. 12. Massachusetts Interscholastic Athletic Association. (2009). Why Education-Based Athletics. Retrieved from http://www.miaa.net/gen/miaa_generated_bin/documents/basic_module/whyeducationalathletics.pdf 13. National Collegiate Athletic Association. (n.d.) 2.3 or Take A Knee. Retrieved from http://blog.ncaa.org/GetTheGrades/ 14. National Federation of State High School Association. (2013). 2012-2013 High School Athletics Participation Survey. Indianapolis, IN: National Federation of State High School Association. 15. Robst, J., & Keil, J. (2000). The relationship between athletic participation and academic performance: evidence from NCAA Division III. Applied Economics, 32(5), 547- 558. 16. Ryan, T. D., and Sagas, M. (2006). Interrole conflict and turnover intent in the high school Teacher/Coach. International Journal of Sport Management, 7(4), 425-444. 17. Scanlan, T. K., Carpenter, P. J., Schmidt, G. W., Simons, J. P., & Keeler, B. (1993). An Introduction to the Sport Commitment Model. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 15(1), 1-15. 18. Sedlacek, W. E., & Adams‐Gaston, J. A. V. A. U. N. E. (1992). Predicting the Academic Success of Student‐Athletes Using SAT and Noncognitive Variables. Journal of Counseling & Development, 70(6), 724-727. 19. Settles, I. H., Sellers, R. M., & Damas, A. (2002). One role or two? The function of psychological separation in role conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(3), 574-582. 20. Simons, H., Van Rheenen, D., & Covington, M. (1999). Academic Motivation and the Student Athlete. Journal of College Student Development, 40(2), 151-162. 21. Simons, H., & Van Rheenen, D. (2000). Noncognitive Predictors of Student Athletes’ Academic Performance. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 30(2), 167-81. 22. Steinberg, L., Lamborn, S., Dornbusch, S., & Darling, N. (1992). Impact of Parenting practices on adolescent achievement: Authoritative parenting, school involvement, encouragement to succeed. Child Development, 63, 1266-1281. 23. Thomas, J. (1986). High School Athletics. History Justifies Extracurricular Status. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 57(2), 61-68. Educational Psychology, 92, 556-567.

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CC-MAIN-2019-47

https://thesportjournal.org/article/an-investigation-into-factors-that-contribute-to-the-perception-of-disparities-between-academic-achievement-and-athletic-participation-in-high-school-student-athletes/

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According to the President of the American Public Health Association “For the vast majority of people in our society, the life circumstances leading to poor health are not adopted as a matter of personal choice, but are thrust upon people by the social and economic circumstances into which they are born.”(1) The Surgeon General of the United States disagrees, “About 87 percent of lung cancer deaths are caused by smoking [and] smoking remains the leading cause of preventable death and disease in our nation.”(2) The American Cancer Society concurs, “Cigarettes kill more Americans than alcohol, car accidents, suicide, AIDS, homicide, and illegal drugs combined.”(3) Even the World Health Organization states that, “Tobacco is the single largest preventable cause of cancer in the world today.”(4) Public officials warn that smoking can lower life expectancy by up to 15 years and claim that nearly half a million Americans lose their lives every year because of smoking-related illnesses.(5) The claim that smoking is the primary cause of preventable death and disease is one of the greatest scams in modern history. There is no question that smoking is linked with death and debilitating disease. However, because two events are linked does not mean that one causes the other. Injured workers are more likely to work in unsafe workplaces. That does not mean that injured workers cause unsafe work. The fact that smokers are generally more susceptible to lung disease does that mean that smoking, on its own, is the cause. However, that is what we are told. When a miner who smokes gets lung cancer, his disease is always blamed on his smoking and never on his job. If a child who lives near a toxic waste dump gets lung cancer and her parents smoke, her cancer will be attributed to secondhand smoke. For the most part,Only when someone has never smoked, and has never lived or worked with smokers, will that person’s lung cancer be attributed to anything but smoking. While there can be no question that smoking damages health, campaigns against smoking are misdirected. They target smokers instead of demanding that industries eliminate toxic emissions that damage our health at work and in society. Smokers and non-smokers belong to different classes In general, smokers and non-smokers belong to different social classes. Factory workers are more likely to smoke, and smoke heavily, than managers and professionals. “Smoking is highest among those individuals who are exposed to possible deleterious occupational factors. For instance, 71 percent of construction painters are current smokers while only 27 percent of teachers have that habit. In fact, when occupations are arranged by prevalence of smoking, 29 out of 40 occupations in which smoking is most prevalent are also those with high exposure to dusts and fumes, while in only 4 of the 40 occupations with the lowest prevalence of smoking are workers exposed to such hazards. There is a strong tendency for a higher proportion of individuals who do dirty work to smoke, compared to individuals who do clean work. Thus, in a statistical sense, the category smoker may be primarily an index for worker exposed to occupational hazards.”(12) We know that health improves as people move up the social ladder. People higher up the social ladder also tend to smoke less and have an easier time quitting than those lower down. When social class and occupation are held constant, the difference in cancer rates between smokers and non-smokers largely disappears.(13,14) People who smoke less suffer less disease because they are generally higher up on the social scale, while those who smoke more tend to be lower down. Smokers who manage to quit have lower disease rates than those who keep smoking. They also tend to have occupational profiles similar to those who never smoked. In effect, those who don’t smoke, smoke less, or successfully quit smoking have lower rates of “smoking-related diseases” because they belong to a higher social class that suffers less disease to begin with. This does not mean that smoking is harmless; it means that the damage caused by smoking cannot be separated from the damage caused by class oppression. People lower down the social ladder are exposed to more industrial pollution on the job, and they also live closer to hazardous waste dumps, polluting power plants, and industrial parks.(15) The increase in respiratory diseases among children whose parents smoke is as much related to their family’s class position as it is to their smoking. Children of smoking parents are more likely to live in industrial areas with more pollution and their parents are more likely to bring home toxic dust on their clothing, hair and skin. These families also tend to suffer more stress. The same is true for non-smoking spouses of smokers.(16) For all these reasons, the labels of ‘smoker’ and ‘smoker’s family’ are interchangeable with the label of ‘most exposed to stress and pollution.’ Infants of mothers who smoke are often shorter and smaller than infants of mothers who don’t smoke. Since people tend to be shorter as one moves down the social scale, and since shorter people have shorter children, smoking mothers may have smaller infants because they live in more deprived conditions characterized by poor nutrition, less prenatal care, more health problems and more stress, as well as more smoking. When smoking is designated as the sole or primary cause of low-weight babies, systemic causes go unaddressed. Rising industrial pollution The dramatic rise in lung cancer after World War II is commonly attributed to more people smoking. However, as Barry Commoner notes in The Closing Circle, “most pollution problems made their first appearance, or became very much worse, in the years following World War II.”(17) The end of the war saw the development of the atomic bomb, nuclear power, the arms race and an explosion in the production and widespread use of toxic chemicals. As more women entered the workforce after the war, their rates of lung cancer rose. They also began to smoke more. Working women are more likely to encounter industrial pollution, and they are also torn between work and family responsibilities. Many women smoke to manage stress, and stress reduces the body’s ability to fight disease. A 1975 study found that lung cancer rates for Blacks rose dramatically after they migrated from the rural southern states to the urban northern states.(18) Racist hiring practices cause Black workers to be exposed to more industrial dust and toxic chemicals on the job. Also because of racism, Black Americans are 80 percent more likely to live in highly polluted areas.(19) This may explain why, on average, Black Americans smoke fewer cigarettes than white Americans do, yet suffer much higher rates of lung cancer.(20) Among teenagers, working longer hours is linked to more smoking. One study found that adolescents aged 13 to 16 years who worked between 11 and 20 hours per week were more than three times more likely to smoke compared to non-working teens. Teens working more than 21 hours per week smoked the most.(21) Blaming smoking for lung disease enables employers to deny compensation to smokers. In one example, a disabled miner with “a long period of exposure to underground mining” who was also “a very light smoker” was denied compensation on the basis that his lung disease was caused by his smoking and not by his work.(22) Blaming the victim is more cost-effective than removing dust and fumes from the mines. Since the 1964 Surgeon General’s report on Smoking and Health, the U.S. government has blamed smoking for every possible disease. According to the ACS, “Smoking is also a major cause of heart disease, bronchitis, emphysema, and stroke, and… is associated with increased risk of miscarriage, early delivery (prematurity), stillbirth, infant death, and is a cause of low birth weight in infants. Furthermore, the smoke from cigarettes has a harmful health effect on those around the smoke…Each year, a staggering 440,000 people die in the US from tobacco use. Nearly 1 of every 5 deaths is related to smoking…Because cigarette smoking and tobacco use is an acquired behavior, one that the individual chooses to do, smoking is the most preventable cause of premature death in our society.”(23) This being the official government position, there is little incentive or funding to investigate the relationship between social class, environmental pollution, and disease. Research shows that air pollution is the primary cause of lung cancer. Lung cancer rates are higher in cities than in the countryside, and higher in larger cities than in smaller ones. The risk of getting lung cancer increases for people who migrate from areas with lower cancer rates to areas with higher cancer rates.(24) Despite these facts, the National Cancer Institute, claims that environmental pollution accounts for only 7 percent of all cancers, while diet and smoking account for most of the rest – 65 percent.(25) The American Cancer Society actively discounts people’s fears about pollution. According to the ACS web site, the 40 percent of the population who believe that “living in a polluted city is a greater risk for lung cancer than smoking a pack of cigarettes a day” are mistaken because “Being a smoker, or even being frequently exposed to secondhand smoke is more dangerous than the level of air pollution encountered in US cities.”(26) The ACS dismisses the overwhelming evidence connecting air pollution with a variety of diseases, (27,29,29) on the basis that “Most people tend to overestimate the risk caused by factors imposed on them by others, and to underestimate the seriousness of risks caused by their own behavior.”(30) Consequently, the ACS devotes less than 0.1 percent of its budget to environmental and occupational causes of cancer. The same governments that condemn smoking also subsidize farmers to grow tobacco and profit from the sale of cigarettes. On each pack of cigarettes, governments receive 15 times more profit than tobacco companies receive. Between 1999 and 2001, U.S. federal, state and local governments collected more than $29 billion annually in tobacco revenue — more than $630 for every American adult smoker each year. The three levels of government pocket more tobacco revenue per minute ($55,872) than the average working family brings home in a year.(6) Instead of spending their tobacco revenues on smoking-prevention programs, states are using the money to balance their budgets. In 2006, the combined amount that all states allocated for smoking prevention was just $551 million. Compare this with the more than $21 billion obtained that year from the 1998 tobacco settlement and state tobacco taxes. In contrast, the tobacco industry spends more than $15 billion a year to market tobacco products – nearly 28 times the amount that states spend on smoking prevention.(7) In 1997, executives from tobacco giants British American Tobacco, Imperial, Philip Morris, Rothman’s and RJ Reynolds made a secret pact to “strenuously resist with all means at their disposal …claims … that one cigarette is healthier or less harmful than another.”(8) They had little to fear from governments that are heavily invested in tobacco sales. In 2005, Justice Department officials ordered lawyers prosecuting the tobacco industry to “throw the case down the toilet” and reduce their claim from $130 billion to $10 billion. This money was being claimed to fund stop-smoking programs.(9) No matter how loudly they shout about the dangers of smoking, governments are addicted to tobacco revenue. They need people to keep smoking because states have borrowed from future tobacco revenues to meet growing budget deficits.(10,11) Catch 22 – the smoke-filled workplace* Smoke-filled workplaces are a hazard to workers’ health, just as coal dust is a hazard to coal miners. Many people who work in restaurants, smoking lounges, bars, cocktail lounges, and casinos are exposed to continual and high levels of toxic cigarette smoke produced by the patrons of these establishments, most of whom are also working-class. How can we eliminate such hazards without turning one set of workers against another? The tobacco industry vigorously opposes smoke-free environments because they undermine the social acceptability of smoking and reduce cigarette consumption. In 1994 the US tobacco industry mobilized opposition to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration’s (OSHA) proposal to create smoke-free workplaces. Tobacco giants claim that smoke-free environments would reduce revenues and cause job-loss in the hospitality and gambling industries. Effective solutions to social problems cannot be achieved in a social system that upholds the ‘right’ to make a profit. The tobacco industry supports improved ventilation as the solution to second-hand smoke in the workplace. To that end, it has partnered with the American Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers. The tobacco industry also supports the hospitality and gambling industries to oppose smoke-free ventilation standards that would cut into profits and make building owners and operators responsible for the health of occupants. Blocked by industry interests and compromised governments, health advocates believe that their only option is to ban smoking. Unfortunately, this position pits the needs of smokers against the needs of non-smokers. In fact, both groups would benefit by demanding that human health come first, regardless of the cost to business. Because this cannot happen under capitalism, we have only two options, fight for a different society or blame the (smoking) worker. Blaming the victim Unwilling to challenge capitalism, the anti-smoking movement is dominated by blame-the-victim moralism – the conviction that smoking is the result of self-indulgent, irresponsible, even sinful choices. As a result, smokers are denied compensation, banned from public places, lectured, socially shunned, forced to pay “sin” taxes, suffer job discrimination, and even denied medical care on the basis that they ‘chose’ to harm themselves. For over 12 years, the sole lung cancer surgeon in a small Ontario mining town has refused to operate on smokers. According to Dr. Alberto de la Rocha, “The only way to contain [lung cancer] is by making people responsible for their actions.”(31) What is the responsibility of the mining corporations? Forty-nine mines have operated in the area since 1909. Minerals extracted include: gold, silver, nickel, copper, cadmium, indium, talc, zinc, sulphur, stone, selenium, serpentine, silica, and the platinum group. Non-metal mining consists of granite, marble, hematite, and magnetite. About 90 exploration companies operate in the city including multinationals such as Texas Gulf, Sulfur, Falconbridge, and Placer Dome. Mining destroys worker’s lungs and mining processes contaminate the environment. Blaming smokers lets the mine-owners off the hook. The workers’ drug It is not hard to explain why those who are most oppressed, most exploited, and work in the dirtiest jobs smoke the most and have the greatest difficulty quitting. Feeling powerless is depressing, and smoking is known to combat depression.(32,33, 34) Adolescents labeled with ‘Attention Deficit Disorder’ are twice as likely to smoke and have a harder time quitting than adolescents not so labeled. Researchers investigating this phenomenon found that nicotine worked as well as the drug Ritalin to calm symptoms of ‘ADD.'(35) Smoking is the drug of choice for the working class. Smoking calms the feelings of powerlessness generated by the unsolvable conflict between what one wants and needs and what life under capitalism delivers. It should not surprise us that miners are some of the heaviest smokers. No one wants to spend their days working underground in dark, dirty, dangerous, noisy, fume-filled conditions. Smoking soothes the pain of alienation, which Engels so vividly describes, “Where voluntary, productive activity is the highest enjoyment known to humanity, so is compulsory toil the most cruel degrading punishment. Nothing is more terrible than being constrained to do some one thing every day from morning until night against one’s will. And the more a man the worker feels himself to be, the most hateful must his work be to him, because he feels the constraint, the aimlessness of it for himself. Why does he work? For love of work? From a natural impulse? Not at all! He works for money, for a thing that has nothing whatsoever to do with the work itself; and he works so long, moreover, and in such unbroken monotony, that this alone must make his work a torture in the first weeks if he has the least human feeling left.”(36) The conflict between human need and corporate greed drives the smoking habit and lung-destroying air pollution. Until we can eliminate capitalism and the many miseries it creates, workers will be blamed and pitted against each other, keeping us all divided and sick. - Miller, C..A. (1976). Societal change and public health: A rediscovery. American Journal of Public Health, 66. pp. 54-60. - Centers for Disease Control. (2000). Press release: New Surgeon General’s Report provides strategies for halving U.S. smoking rates by year 2010. - American Cancer Society. Cigarette Smoking and Cancer. Accessed December 8, 2003. - World Health Organization. Cancer prevention. accessed January 11, 2004 http://www.who.int/cancer/prevention/en - CBC. (2002). Smokers cost U.S. $158 billion a year in health costs, job losses. April 11. - R.J. Reynolds. Tobacco Taxes & Payments. Accessed August 25, 2002. - Katz, J.M. (2005). Study says states don’t use tobacco money for prevention. Associated Press, November 30. http://www.tobaccofreekids.org/reports/settlements/ - CBC. (2000). CBC finds ‘smoking gun’ in tobacco wars. Fri Jul 7. - Lichtblau, E. (2005). Lawyers fought U.S. move to curb tobacco penalty. New York Times, June 16. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/10/opinion/10fri1.html - Pérez-Pera, R. (2002). Officials weigh tobacco funds as a fiscal fix. New York Times. November 21. http://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/21/nyregion/21FISC.html - Fuerbringer, J. (2002). Tobacco money could harm credit rating of some states. New York Times, November 29. http://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/29/business/29RATE.html - Statement Professor T.D. Sterling, Simon Fraser University, March 16, 1982. - Sterling, T.D. & Weinkham, J.J. (1976). Smoking characteristics by type of employment. Journal of Occupational Medicine. Vol 18, No. 11, November. pp.743-754. - Sterling, T.D. (1977). New evidence concerning smoking and health. Medical Journal of Australia. Vol. 2. pp.538-542. - Associated Press. (2005). Study: More African-Americans live with pollution. Sci-Tech Today, December 14. - Sterling, T.D., Glicksman, A., Perry, H., Sterling, D.A., Rosenbaum, W.L. & Weinkam, J.J. (1996). An alternative explanation for the apparent elevated relative mortality and morbidity risks associated with exposure to environmental tobacco smoke. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, Volume 49, Issue 7, July, pp. 803-808. - Commoner, B. (1971). The closing circle: Nature, man & technology. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p.125. - Mancuso, T.F. & Sterling, T.D. (1975). Lung cancer among black and white migrants in the U.S: Etiological considerations. Journal of the National Medical Association. March. Vol.67, No. 2. pp.106-111. - Associated Press. (2005). Study: More African-Americans live with pollution. Sci-Tech Today, December 14. - Sterling, T.D. & Weinkham, J.J. (1978). Smoking patterns by occupation, industry, sex and race. Archives of Environmental Health. November/December, pp. 313-317. - Young working teens at higher risk for cigarette use. At work, publication of the Institute for Work and Health, Issue 24, October 2001. p5. ISSN #1261-5148 - Sterling, T.D. (1978). Does smoking kill workers or working kill smokers? The mutual relationship between smoking, occupation, and respiratory disease. International Journal of Health Services, Vol. 8, No. 3, Farmingdale, N.Y.: Baywood Publishing Company. p.438-9. - American Cancer Society. Cigarette Smoking and Cancer. Accessed December 8, 2003 - Sterling, T.D. & Pollack, S.V. (1972). The incidence of lung cancer in the U.S. since 1955 in relation to the etiology of disease. American Journal of Public Health, February. pp.152-158. - Epstein, S. (1998). The politics of cancer revisited. Freemont Center, NY: East Ridge Press, p.373. - Gansler, T. Air pollution or smoking: Which is greater risk? American Cancer Society. Accessed December 8, 2003 - Sterling, T.D., Pollack, S.V. & Phar, J.J. (1967). Urban hospital morbidity and air pollution. Archives of Environmental Health. Vol 15. September. pp. 362-374. - American Heart Association. (2003). Air pollution, even at “safe” levels, is bad for the heart. November 11. - Yelaja, P. (2002). Dirty air can cause lung cancer, study says: Urban pollution comparable to second-hand smoke. The Star, March 6. - Gansler, T. Air pollution or smoking: Which is greater risk? American Cancer Society. Accessed December 8, 2003 - Mackey, B. (2003). Taking a stand in Timmins: Quit smoking or forgo surgery. Canadian Medical Association Journal, June 10, 168 (12). p.1582. - Thank you to Alan Maki for drawing my attention to this important issue. See also, Mandel, L.L & Glantz, S.A. (2004). Hedging their bets: tobacco and gambling industries work against smoke-free policies. British Medical Journal. - Glassman A.H. et al. (2001). Smoking cessation and the course of major depression: A followup study. Lancet, Jun 16, Vol. 357. pp.1929-32. - Niaura R. and Abrams D.B. (2001). Stopping smoking: A hazard for people with a history of major depression? Lancet, Jun 16, Vol. 357. pp.1900-1 - The Medical Post. (2001). Antidepressants: Smokers? brain changes studied. November 13, p62. - Friedman, R. (2003) SFN: Nicotine as good as Ritalin on core measure of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. PSL Group, November 13. - Engels, F. (1844) The condition of the working-class in England: From personal observation and authentic sources. Progress Publishers, p. 140.

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1. Concept of illness, behaviour and disability regarding health as well as social care service users? 2. Care needs of individuals with specific needs? 3. List of approaches and interventions that are to be taken to meet the specific needs of the individuals? 4. Different concepts of challenging behaviour? This particular study describes about the health and disability of human being. It focuses to know about past perception of disability and also can know about how changes have been made over the attitude of the people towards the disabled persons. This study also summarises the intervention strategy that should be implemented for helping the disabled persons. The impacts of social policy, legislation, society on the intervention strategy are also described in this particular study. Health can be defined as someone’s condition of being well. This defines a disease free condition of someone’s body. It not only defines condition of a human being, it also defines condition of goods. Health defines mental as well as physical condition someone. Primary disability can be resulted due to the direct effect of fatal alcohol exposure. Cognitive disability is the most common primary disability that is related to thinking and learning. Primary can be measured by general intelligence, capability of reading, writing, doing math (Foote, 2015). Secondary disability can be defined as the disability that is not occurred from birth. It can be occurred from primary disability. Secondary disability can be prevented with the help of appropriate intervention. I agree with the secondary definition of disability because it can be prevented with the help of appropriate prevention intervention of health and social care services (Incorvaia and Ridolo, 2015). The theory of illness and behaviour defines the health related behaviour of a disease free person who wants to maintain his good health. This behaviour helps to reduce the chances of diseases and also reduces the effect of recurring diseases. Secondary prevention of disease has close relation to prevent diseases that a person has (Jonas and Koning, 2015). Medical model of disability defines that a person’s inability to join society is the result of their impairment and not because of the feature of the society that is possible to change. In this model the policy maker and managers compensates the impaired person for not having normal body (Kasper, Booth and Peris, 2014). Social model of disability defines the disabled person’s feelings of not getting the enough information about why they are excluded from the mainstream society. The experience that they have is they are excluded from the mainstream society is just because of their impairment and not for the society’s features. I agree to the medical model of disability because in this there is a positive effect on the disabled person’s mind that they are only excluded from the society because of their impairment and not because the society (Miller and Ghadiali, 2015). Some prevention measures should be developed to prevent disability- Primary Prevention: Some actions should be initiated to remove the causes that can create health problem. Secondary Prevention: Some actions should be initiated to detect the health related problem as early as possible to facilitate cure or preventing the disease from spreading. It also prevents the long term effect of the diseases. Tertiary prevention: Some actions should be developed to reduce the effect of diseases that are already established. Health defines the condition of being well. Disability defines a person’s inability to join society because of their impairment. Various model and theory have been developed to protect the disabled person (Orel and Fruhauf, 2015). In Greece the sick persons were assumed to be inferior. In early Christian doctrine it was introduced that disease is neither dishonour nor a punishment but it is a means of grace. In 16th century Christians indicated that disabled persons are possessed by evil. They were discriminated from normal people. In this way the disabled persons were supposed to be mental by other people. During 19th century disabled person were rejected completely by some cultures. They were oppressed by society. Sometimes they were treated as economic liability of the society and were unwillingly kept alive by their family (Staples, 2015). The handicapped people were assumed to the alleviator of evil spirit, and the society took necessary steps not to hurt them. The children born with anomaly were supposed to be protected by supernatural power. There were many superstitions and fear in the society due to that the disabled persons were isolated, discriminated, ignored by the society. They used to get less attention, less education, less care, less nourishment. Over the time the society of UK have understood and studied why the people with disabilities are isolated and marginalized. They also tried to remove the negative attitude towards the disabled people. As the attitudes towards the disabled persons were complex so they have implemented programme that is wide ranging. After 16th century they began to tie a close relationship with the disabled persons. Various disabilities Awareness training program has been developed UK. They also assessed the impact of these training programs. Over the time various non discriminatory media culture was initiated to protect the disabled persons from injustice. After 19th century they have implemented various human rights that were related to equality, dignity, social justice (van Houtum et al., 2014). Act of equality: The disabled people should be protected by equal right act. It would help to reduce discrimination. Special privileges: The disabled people should be given special privileges in all places. It would help the disabled people to get priority over things. Equal right in education: The disabled people should get equal right in education sector. Equal right in education develops them in all the area. Equal right in workplace: The disabled people should be treated equal in workplace, so that get motivated in doing work More Acts: There should be more and more act that would be helpful in protecting the disabled people. (Vincent and Woodhead, 2015). Initiatives are taken by social and health care services to take care of good health for disabled persons. Government is always trying to make improvement in the policy. The social policy, culture, and society also have impact on the specific needs available for disabled people. If the disabled persons are excluded from the society it will increase depression of that persons that will badly affect the health condition of them. Cultural factors include discriminating the races. The discrimination between castes, colour affects the disabled persons. Disabled persons often are neglected by the some social and health care providers. Discrimination leads to isolation of disabled persons (Staples, 2015). Attitudes to disabled persons can be improved by educating the people of the society so that they can understand the actual problem of the disabled persons. Training to the disabled persons would help them to increase the dignity. Various superstitions that exist in the society are against the disabled persons should be removed. Services towards the disabled persons can be improved by the following ways- Health care act: Various health care acts should be developed to protect the disabled persons from injustice. Care trust: Care should be taken to improve the health condition of disabled persons. Children trust: The act should be developed to provide education to the disabled child and youth (Vincent and Woodhead, 2015). Specific needs- The specific needs can be defined as some specific and unique requirements for mentally and physically disabled persons in education, hospital and society. Maslow need hierarchy- The Great psychologist Abraham Maslow invented the human needs theory known as Maslow need hierarchy theory. In this theory he divides the different needs of a human being. This Hierarchy is described as below- Psychological needs: It is defined as the basic physical needs of human being except that the body of a human being cannot function properly. Safety needs: After the physical needs has been satisfied the people needs safety in terms of money, home, job. Loving and belongings: After safety needs have been satisfied a human being needs love and affection of his friends, family members. Esteemed needs: In this kind of need the human being need to be respected in the society and his workplace. People in this needs want to be recognized. Actualisation: In this needs people want to get everything possible for him. It is about realisation of full potential (Ľubomír Šooš and Malcolm Jones, 2015). Difference and similarity between special need and specific need- Special needs can be defined by the requirement made by the individual with physically and mentally disability. Specific need: It can be defined as a unique and specific cure for the people with peculiar characteristics (diseases). Baby P’s Specific need- Hospitals who have care for baby peter have implemented various programs that would be helpful to safeguard the issues related to the body of child. The care quality commission should ensure that standard has been set to successfully care the babies who need specific care (Chang et al., 2015). Local authority: The local authority needs to assess the special needs of disabled people. They should try to reduce discriminations against the disabled persons. Assessment of special needs: After assessing the special needs the authority should check whether they have the resources to meet the special needs of the disabled persons. Role of government: The government should need to implement more and more acts to protect the disabled persons from any discrimination. 1. : The disabled persons should be educated in order to develop them. Education is one of the best ways to reduce any discrimination against disabled person (Foote, 2015). Statutory system- EHCP is a plan that is defined in term of Education, and health care plan. This plan is concerned with special education program, health and care for the disabled people. Not for profit organization: These organizations operate their business a non profit basis. They provide education, medical care, and social care for the disabled persons. Self help: This is a group of disabled people who share common desire to overcome from their disability. There are various organizations that support for this self help group. Formal care: Formal care can be provided to disabled persons by trained staff and nurse. Various health and social care provider also help in formal care. It may constitute personal care at home. Informal care: Informal care of disabled person can be carried out by the family members, friends, and relative other than any official support (Incorvaia and Ridolo, 2015). This situation describes the health and social care services of East London, where people with discrimination get lesser attention in the society. Over the time the people in East London have understood the reason of why the disabled people are discriminated. They have involved some professional who are described below- General practitioner: They are the first people with whom people of UK can contact. It is right of every person to be registered with them. Primary care trust: It is the responsibility of primary care trust to provide health care to disabled persons (Jonas and Koning, 2015). NSH centre: There are 66 NSH centres that provide tips on the health problems over the phone. Because of low social economic status the East London cannot implement some social and health care policy to protect the disabled persons (Orel and Fruhauf, 2015). Advocacy of the individual: These interventions are specified for the older people. It includes methods as well as approaches to change the practices and policies, behaviours as well as attitudes that are to be considered as obstacles to both discrimination and development against the disabled. It is the right of older people. It involves the working with those person those need support as well as encouragement to apply their rights. Its aims are to increase the older persons control over goods as well services. Physical interventions: It includes exercise and therapies for joint movement and it helps them to restore lost functions and to maintain physical status so that they will be able to come back to their normal life. It is only be used by those persons who have learning disabilities. They used this intervention as it helps them to learn to behave in non-challenging ways. Its goal is to help cares achieve safe as well as effective control of the challenging behaviours. Psychological interventions: It focuses on prevention of some of the problems in a person such as depression as well as anxiety. It helps to raise the morale and also helps to build a positive attitude towards the normal life. This intervention is for those people who are experiencing psychosis. It has many different applications as well mostly targets the mental disorder persons. It treats with psychoactive medication. It focuses on the person’s social environment and in interaction with their psychological functioning (Smith, 2015). The strategies of interventions are important for the people like HL, because HL had learning disabilities. It helps to improve the current condition of an individual. Physical interventions are important to restore the physical strength. It helps to maintain the physical strength of an individual so that they can come back to their normal life. It involves some sort of physical contact and forces to guide or prevent movement. It should be considered in an emergency situation where there is risk of health. Before any decision is to be taken for physical interventions, rapid assessment of risk is to be carried out. This risk assessment includes judgement that if the patient has an acute illness or not, because according to that care will be taken. Psychological intervention is important as it helps to build a positive attitude towards their normal life. It also helps to treat suicidal tendency, anxiety, depression etc. (Moyer, 2013). These interventions have no adverse side effect on the people. It has positive outcomes on the quality of life of the people, functioning of life, lessened the healthcare as well as medication needs. The limitation of this intervention is to it is hard to find therapists in some areas those are skilled in the particular therapy. The amount of effort and motivation required for the patients to make use of psychological treatments sometimes are unsuitable for the individuals. The emerging developments include both medical as well as technological advances, changes in policies and legislations from international view point. The potential impact of emerging developments includes the following: Technological advancement: The technology is advanced, the devices that support the body parts of the patients. If the patients have problem in their legs or due to leg weakness, the doctors are advices to use walkers that requires moderate strength in the hand as well as leg. It will be useful at the time the balance is moderate impaired. Motorized scooter is used to walk long distances. It is powered by rechargeable batteries that are a technological advancement used by the patients those are able to sit upright for a long period of time. Cognitive assistance: The computer as well as electrical devices is used to prevent the brain injury. Medication dispenses: The person those are facing disabilities such as problem in cooking, dressing etc. The equipment of kitchen is available in large, pillowed grasps to help people those have weakness or arthritis in their hands. Medication dispenses with alarms are used to help people remember to take their medicine in time. Right to autonomy, health and independent living: It needs to be guaranteed that older individualsare not forced to do anything against their desire like to go to any home care. In the home the older people do not get the care as their family members do not afford to cover expenses of their residential, thatexposes to risk such as abuse that limited the right of autonomy(Loppie and Wein, 2015). Policies and service dilemmas: It is a large share of economy by improving the health of the people and reducing the disabilities. Across the economy, it promotes services and also improves the quality of life. It also promotes some services to them (Rubitel and Reiss, 2011). Challenging behaviour means any verbal as well as non-verbal behaviour by an individual and at that time it is difficult to perform task or pose a safety risk. The challenging behaviours of the individual are self-harming, uncooperative and shows anger on others. The different concepts of the challenging behaviour are the following (Lever, 2014). Pre scientific theory: It includes ideas about the soul as the driving force in the people, about the influence of the behaviour of the person. The pre scientific approaches are massage, meditation, remedies based on herbals. This theory is applied to the challenging behaviour as possession by spirits or about the behaviour being an inevitable part of the learning disability of the person (Gravestock and Bouras, 2015). Scientific theory: Scientific theory is basically used for psychiatric disorder such as mood disorder. This theory includes statements that have observational consequences. It gives a clear distinction between the facts that cause mental disorder. This theory based on the scientific principles and which research has severe as well as endure the problems of health relating to mental disorder. Social construction: It is the theory of information about the sociology that examines the development of jointly constructed understandings of the world. It assumes that significance as well as understanding is developed not separately within the individual, but in coordination with other human beings (Burtoni, 2015). The impact of challenging behaviour on the health care organizations is that they make some differences to the lives of the patients through information about the challenges and running. The workshops are run to reduce those challenges. The vision of the company for the learning disabilities is to display the challenges to have the same life opportunities as everyone else. Some of the organizations provide opportunities for the carers to connect with other people in a similar situation. The health of the cost is exceeded and it continues to rise. The population ageing as well as the development of new treatments are increased. The participants in the system of health care do not agree on the meaning of costs (Krishnamoorthy and Anderson, 2015). Training should be given to every care-taker regarding the challenges that the patients face. The programs of training are small due to the increasing cost of proceedings as well as large verdicts. The training is critical as well as investment. The training should consist of all the managers as well as supervisors as well as employees. It should be one time event, but all the employees should have to give training. At the time the economy goes down, the training of the employees is going fast as it is not viewed as investment. It is an expense that should be likely of tough times. The good qualified employees are to be hired in the organization to face the challenges of the behaviour. The hiring of right person should result in lowering the turnover of the employee as can create a stronger bottom line. In the health care industry, the hiring of employees is fast that can give a direct affect on the patients. The process of recruitment as well as retention is considered to be at the top of the priority level. The policies and procedures, legislations, code of practices set the responsibility of employer to regulate the social care workers. The code of practices is the key step to introduce the regulation system for social care in the four countries of UK. The people those are working as social care providers should understand their roles and responsibilities towards the patients. The required training is to be given to the care takers to handle vulnerable groups of people. The care givers ensure that their behaviour would not harm the patient’s emotions in any case. They should also ensure that each patient should be treated respectfully as well as individually ( Skills of communication: The people those are facing learning disabilities as well as any mental problems face difficulties in communicating with others. They face problem to express their needs as well as feelings to others. Therefore, they have to teach new methods to communicate. The study gives details about the relationship between the condition of disabilities and other factors. It contrasts two approaches to analyze the disability and suggest some of the need for care of the old people. It analyzes the effectiveness of strategies regarding interventions of an individual, strategies of interventions are important for the people like HL, because HL had learning disabilities. It helps to improve the current condition of an individual. The challenging behaviours of the individual are self-harming, uncooperative and shows anger on other persons. The people those are suffering from challenging behaviour are isolated from others and they face some difficulties to interact with others. Some policies and procedures set the responsibility of employer to regulate the social care workers. The people those are working as social care providers should understand their roles and responsibilities towards patients Chang, H., Hsu, L., Hsieh, S., Chu, T. and Yu, W. (2015). Development of a Needs Scale for Nurses Receiving In-Service Palliative Care Education. Cancer Nursing, p.1. Crastnopol, M. (n.d.). Micro-trauma. Foote, W. (2015). Social Work Field Educators' Views on Student Specific Learning Needs. Social Work Education, 34(3), pp.286-300. Incorvaia, C. and Ridolo, E. (2015). In the strategies to prevent asthma exacerbations, allergic asthma needs specific treatment. Curr Med Res Opin, 31(4), pp.821-823. Jonas, E. and Koning, D. (2015). Genomic selection needs to be carefully assessed to meet specific requirements in livestock breeding programs. Front. Genet., 6. Kasper, J., Booth, R. and Peris, J. (2014). Serotonin-2C receptor agonists decrease potassium-stimulated GABA release in the nucleus accumbens. Synapse, 69(2), pp.78-85. Liu, J. (2015). Study on the Auditing Theory of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics, Revised Edition. Hoboken: Wiley. Ľubomír Šooš, I. and Malcolm Jones, B. (2015). Reforming Slovak Tertiary Education to Meet the Real Needs of Enterprises. American Journal of Educational Research, 3(3), pp.348-355. Miller, L. and Ghadiali, N. (2015). Gender-specific Mental Health Care Needs of Women Veterans Treated for Psychiatric Disorders in a Veterans Administration Women’s Health Clinic. Medical Care, 53, pp.S93-S96. Orel, N. and Fruhauf, C. (2015). The lives of LGBT older adults. Washington, D.C: American Psychological Association. Staples, S. (2015). Examining the linguistic needs of internationally educated nurses: A corpus-based study of lexico-grammatical features in nurse–patient interactions. English for Specific Purposes, 37, pp.122-136. van Houtum, L., Rijken, M., Heijmans, M. and Groenewegen, P. (2014). Patient-Perceived Self-Management Tasks and Support Needs of People with Chronic Illness: Generic or Disease Specific?. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 49(2), pp.221-229. Vincent, E. and Woodhead, F. (2015). Specific Needs of Patients Attending Pulmonary Rehabilitation with an Interstitial Lung Disease Associated with Rheumatological Disease. Respiration At MyAssignmenthelp.com, we are committed to deliver quality assignment assistance in the fastest way possible. To make our service delivery fast, we have hired subject matter experts to work on different subject specific assignments. We have hired experts who owe in-depth knowledge in their respective subjects. 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The term petroleum originally meant “rock oil”. The definition of petroleum in geology is broader: It is defined as a naturally occurring and usually complex mixture of dominantly hydrocarbon substances – liquid, gas, or solid [Dott/Reynolds, 10]. The common definition used for petroleum is narrower: it is synonymous with crude oil and is defined as follows: Crude Oil/Petroleum is a naturally occurring complex mixture of liquid hydrocarbons with trace quantities of oxygen-, sulfur- or nitrogen-containing compounds and of metallic constituents (for example, nickel, vanadium). Some of these hydrocarbons may be very low-boiling, such as methane, in which case the compounds may in part be dissolved in the crude oil and may in part occur as associated gas [Dott/Reynolds, 10]. The term bitumen is commonly only used for the semi-solid and solid hydrocarbons, but has also been used interchangeably with petroleum in its liquid and solid form in the “geological” definition above [Dott/Reynolds, 10]. What creates petroleum and the recognition of its properties has been a recurring theme of speculation and experiments since its discovery. The high migration ability of gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons has been a difficulty in this regard. But also the solid forms show migration (albeit to a lesser extent) [Schmidt/Romey, 18]. Therefore, where the petroleum is found today is not necessarily where it formed. In this regard it is often spoken of as source rock, as well as primary and secondary migration [Dott/Reynolds, 69]. Below, the main theories on the cause and origin of oil are presented, and the resulting controversy that ensued. Emergence from coal A fairly early idea was that oil is produced from coal by distillation. Coal would be the “source rock”. Although coal seams often lie above oil layers [Corliss 1989, 171 f], in many places (e.g., in Pennsylvania) oil, but no coal, is available, and a migration path is considered elusive at best. Moreover, it was shown that coal-oils differ chemically from petroleum/crude oil. Nevertheless, this approach has never been discarded completely and still has supporters [Dott/Reynolds, 48]. Thus, for example, a correlation between coal and petroleum deposits with higher wax content was found [ibid, 54]. Also, technically the process of converting coal into artificial petroleum using coal liquefaction has been implemented in many varieties (hydrogenation, extraction, synthesis) on an industrial scale [Schmidt/Romey, 127-148]. Development from land plants In this theory, although the same hypothetical source material is recognized as with the coal approach, different chemical processes are now directly producing petroleum from the source material instead of coal. The appearance of the hydrocarbon methane in marshes, ponds, and bogs is interpreted as supporting evidence for this idea. It is contradicted, however, by the fact that in many regions there is no relation between carbon-bearing and petroleum-bearing strata. Moreover, petroleum in coral limestone cannot be of terrestrial plant origin [Dott/Reynolds, 52]. A modification of this theory sees terrestrial plant material (maybe already as humus [ibid, 53]) carried by rivers into the sea, where it is sedimented together with marine remains and changed into petroleum [ibid, 52]. Development from marine plants Algae (plant-like through photosynthesis, but not in the true sense plants) are considered as the most likely source of oil from a marine origin. After dying, they would go down to the seabed and could create petroleum while decaying under pressure. Even seaweed from salt marshes has been considered as a source of petroleum [Dott/Reynolds, 56-57]. Fossilized tracks (attributed to seaweed) often occurring in Paleozoic rocks in association with petroleum-producing strata have made sure that the algae theory has enjoyed great popularity in the 20th century [ibid 57]. Meanwhile, these fossil traces are assigned mostly to marine worms [wiki/Chondrites (genus)]. Development from marine animals Macroscopic animals (mussels, fish, etc.) as well as microorganisms were also early on considered as a potential source of petroleum because many oil-bearing strata were found including marine fossils. Exactly these fossils are considered as the source of the oil. But this implies that the oil does not migrate and that it remains in the source rock [Dott/Reynolds, 60]. In contrast to this, a distillation theory is proposed, in which the oil is distilled from the source rocks (e.g., black shale with fossil remains) and then migrates to other reservoir rocks [ibid, 57]. A big boost for the thesis was the Engler-Höfer theory. Engler showed through experiments that petroleum can be extracted from the remains of marine animals, which is chemically not very different from naturally found petroleum [ibid, 63]. Formation from organic remains (plants and marine animals) A modification of the Engler-Höfer theory eventually allowed the two camps of a vegetable and animal origin to come together. The observation that petroleum limestone has a higher sulfate and nitrogen content (suspected animal origin) than, for example, petroleum derived from black shale (widely assumed plant origin) led to the adoption of a dual (animal and vegetable) formation theory [Dott/Reynolds, 65-66]. Also crucial was the discovery that petroleum is in the same way optically active (polarization) as it is known from animal (with cholesterol) and plant material (phytosterols) [ibid, 67]. The idea of a biogenic origin of petroleum is therefore now being used extensively by the geologists. A certain disagreement exists on the question of whether any oil is already formed in the source rock and then migrates into a reservoir or whether an “intermediate” product (called kerogen) is produced in the source rock and then migrates into a reservoir, where during diagenesis (hardening) of the reservoir rock it is transformed into the final product [ibid, 69]. Chemical formation in the Earth’s interior Less well known in public is the fact that there are also theories of petroleum origin which claim an abiogenic basis. According to these theories, simple hydrocarbons rise from the inner earth along columns and (tectonic) fractures, combine in the crust and upper mantle by means of catalytic processes into complex hydrocarbons, and fill underground reservoirs or flow out of the earth through volcanoes. The required carbon is used directly, i.e., not first consumed by organisms, and released again after their decay. The required carbon is found, according to this theory, in base igneous and metamorphic rocks. The processes involved have been the object of much speculation and chemical experiments in the late 19th century. Many, even very well-known, chemists (including, e.g., Dimitri Mendelejef) dealt with the topic. As a consequence different variants for the abiogenic production of hydrocarbons were created in fast succession [Dott/Reynolds, 27-31]. In the beginning of the 20th Century, one of the most active proponents of an abiogenic formation of petroleum was the Canadian Eugene Coste [Coste]. He gave examples of carbon and hydrocarbons in old plutonic rocks (e.g., granite) as well as in current volcanoes. He pointed out similarities between phenomena and materials in oil/gas deposits and volcanic eruptions. The similarity of symptoms in the field of oil/gas reserves is based, according to today’s views, on the confusion of true magmatic-volcanic activity with simple mud and gas expulsion. In addition, petroleum is ‘cold’ when it is taken out of the earth [ibid, 20]. Coste also attempted to demonstrate the inadequacy of biogenic theories [Dott/Reynolds, 20]. This argument he shares with virtually all representatives of the abiogenic mindset: deposits of petroleum in igneous basement rocks predate the onset of life forms that would have produced it according to the biogenic theory [ibid, 22]. Contrary to this it is asserted that only small amounts of petroleum were found in these rock formations; the rest can be found in sedimentary rock [ibid, 42]. For the small amount of petroleum in basement rocks, there are now new theories on the movement of fluids within the earth and on the permeability of crystalline rocks which would also allow for a migration to such material [Glasby, 92]. After the Second World War, the idea of an abiogenic origin of petroleum received a new boost in the USSR. At the beginning of the cold war, they started a search for alternatives, since access to the largest known oil deposit was then cut off. The theory is based on the production of hydrocarbons from carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, free hydrogen, and water in the context of Fischer-Tropsch reactions (synthetic production of hydrocarbons) in the mantle. These materials rise vertically up along folds and crevices in the crust. This allows them to take on small metallic traces, which are reflected at times in petroleum. About the pro-biogenic argument of the optical activity of natural petroleum, the representatives of the Russian theory point out that optically active materials can be synthesized from non-optically active matrices at relatively low temperatures (around 130 °C) [Glasby, 87]. In addition to this, the optical activity decreases with the depth of the oil layer [Corliss 1989, 170]. On the other hand, the opponents of abiogenic approach noted that the upper mantle is much to oxidizing for methane to be the dominant form of carbon down below, as required by the theory [Glasby, 88]. In the biogenic approach, the metallic trace amounts are attributed to organisms that decompose to kerogen (e.g., containing nickel and vanadium porphyrins) [Ibid, 94]. The problem with this approach is that only iron and magnesium porphyrins have been detected in biological material so far [Corliss 1989, 168]. According to the abiogenic-volcanic theory, the largest oil reserves would have to be found on the most active sites of plate tectonics if the idea with the rise of the hydrocarbons from the inner earth holds any merit. But that is not the case [Glasby, 92]. As an argument for the abiogenic theory, it is contemplated that many oil fields have been developed in the Caspian basin based on these ideas. This again is contradicted by others: often, the oil would not, as claimed, be recovered from the basement rock itself, but instead from nearby sediment [ibid, 93]. The Russian-Ukrainian theory, as it is called today, was first published extensively in Russian and has only been observed with greater delay in the West. Most notably the work of JF Kenney must be emphasized, who made this theory known [Kenney]. A similar version on the origin of abiogenic petroleum was presented at the end of the 20th century by Thomas Gold. There is no surprise that he was exposed to plagiarism accusations from Russia [Glasby, 86]. Gold explains the few biological traces in petroleum with a biosphere of thermophilic and hyperthermophilic microbes in the upper layers of the Earth’s crust that are exposed to the rising flow of hydrocarbons. These microbes are, for example, also known from the environment of deep-sea volcanoes. Gold also provides a living area up to a depth of 10 km. Problematic for Gold’s theory is that, for example, methane can only be converted to higher hydrocarbons when a pressure of more than 30 kbar exists, which roughly corresponds to a depth of 100 km. In such depths, however, Gold’s microbes are not viable [Glasby 90]. Cosmic source of hydrocarbons In the outer planets and moons of the solar system, carbon, hydrogen, and both simple and complex hydrocarbons have been detected. The same applies also for meteorites and comets, where now is even talk of ‘organic matter’. CO, CO2, CH4, C2H2, C2H6, etc. [Llorca, 9] were found. Particular attention must be paid to Saturn’s moon Titan, whose surface is supposed to be deeply covered with hydrocarbons [Cardona, 55]. To assume that these substances were present in the base material from which the solar system and therefore the Earth was formed is not very far-fetched [Dott/Reynolds, 34]. Of such opinion was, e.g., the astronomer Fred Hoyle, who believed that large amounts of hydrocarbons had accumulated deep within the earth, and so far only a small fraction of them has found its way into the region near the surface [ibid, 35]. The theory of cosmic origin of hydrocarbons provides the basic material for the above-mentioned abiogenic theories. Usually only as a footnote, a variant of the theory of cosmic origin of hydrocarbons is mentioned, namely the idea that meteorites have supplied the hydrocarbons to Earth. This niche existence is justified, because the amount appropriated to meteors would never be sufficient to explain the already discovered and exploited oil reserves on Earth. But over this argument other theories are disregarded that permit feeding of much bigger quantities of hydrocarbons to Earth. Immanuel Velikovsky has to be named here in the first place. In Worlds in Collision, he had streams of naphtha (= petroleum) falling to Earth from the heavens during a close encounter with the planet Venus [Velikovsky 1950, 53-58]. Dwardu Cardona, however, attributes the naphtha streams instead to Saturn eruptions [Cardona, 62-65]. Investigations of interplanetary dust entering Earth’s atmosphere show that the dust is penetrating it slowly and without melting [Llorca, 7]. Extraterrestrial hydrocarbons could therefore enter Earth’s atmosphere potentially unscathed. This approach can explain subsurface petroleum reserves but has problems with petroleum in igneous basement rocks and metamorphic rocks. Biogenic and abiogenic origin of petroleum That some scientists being confronted with all these pro and contra arguments have chosen a dual position on the question of a biological or non-biological origin of petroleum is not surprising. Varying parts of petroleum are respectively seen as biogenic or abiogenic. A recent biological origin of at least petroleum-like material can be observed in the Gulf of California [FAZ], where an extremely tight time frame of 5,000 years for its origin is indicated. However, the hydrocarbons that occur in young sediments are not really petroleum, just only approximately comparable [Dott/Reynolds, 73]. While the 13C/12C ratio speaks for biological components, the aromatic constituents commonly contained in petroleum either point to another source of the hydrocarbons or another process step, which has not yet occurred in the Gulf of California. It turns out that the components of older oil compare rather nicely to a mix of ancient hydrocarbons to which some biomass was added than the conditions one would expect from a purely biological origin [ibid, 33]. The argument is based on the dominance of an odd number of carbon atoms in biological hydrocarbon molecules. This dominance disappears at lower layers containing petroleum [Corliss 1989, 169-170]. But even these analysis results are now called into question [Glasby, 91]. The already mentioned Thomas Gold was initially a follower of the duplex theory but later moved to the theory of microorganisms [Cardona, 60]. He became essentially an abiogenic theorist. Many of the different approaches to the origin of petroleum make a provincialistic impression in the way that they are starting from a suitable statement for a special oil deposit and are later extended to all other deposits [Dott/Reynolds, 68-69]. The debate about whether petroleum is of biogenic or abiogenic origin is continuing to run hot [e.g. Bardi/Pfeiffer]. The geologist Jonathan Clarke has prepared the following list of observations in internet-forum discussions, which should be explained in his opinion by the representatives of the abiogenic theory. The list is presented with its incorrect numbering scheme [Bardi/Pfeiffer]. 1) The almost universal association of petroleum with sedimentary rocks. 2) The close link between petroleum reservoirs and source rocks as shown by biomarkers (the source rocks contain the same organic markers as the petroleum, essentially chemically fingerprinting the two). 3) The consistent variation of biomarkers in petroleum in accordance with the history of life on earth (biomarkers indicative of land plants are found only in Devonian and younger rocks, that formed by marine plankton only in Neoproterozoic and younger rocks, the oldest oils containing only biomarkers of bacteria). 3) [!] The close link between the biomarkers in source rock and depositional environment (source rocks containing biomarkers of land plants are found only in terrestrial and shallow marine sediments, those indicating marine conditions only in marine sediments, those from hypersaline lakes containing only bacterial biomarkers). 4) Progressive destruction of oil when heated to over 100 degrees (precluding formation and/or migration at high temperatures as implied by the abiogenic postulate). 5) The generation of petroleum from kerogen on heating in the laboratory (complete with biomarkers), as suggested by the biogenic theory. 6) The strong enrichment in 12C of petroleum indicative of biological fractionation (no inorganic process can cause anything like the fractionation of light carbon that is seen in petroleum). 7) The location of petroleum reservoirs down the hydraulic gradient from the source rocks in many cases (those which are not are in areas where there is clear evidence of post migration tectonism). 8) The almost complete absence of significant petroleum occurrences in igneous and metamorphic rocks. The evidence usually cited in favor of abiogenic petroleum can all be better explained by the biogenic hypothesis, e.g.: 9) Rare traces of cooked pyrobitumens in igneous rocks (better explained by reaction with organic rich country rocks, with which the pyrobitumens can usually be tied). 10) Rare traces of cooked pyrobitumens in metamorphic rocks (better explained by metamorphism of residual hydrocarbons in the protolith). 11) The very rare occurrence of small hydrocarbon accumulations in igneous or metamorphic rocks (in every case these are adjacent to organic rich sedimentary rocks to which the hydrocarbons can betied via biomarkers). 12) The presence of undoubted mantle derived gases (such as He and some CO2) in some natural gas (there is no reason why gas accumulations must be all from one source; given that some petroleum fields are of mixed provenance, it is inevitable that some mantle gas contamination of biogenic hydrocarbons will occur under some circumstances). 13) The presence of traces of hydrocarbons in deep wells in crystalline rock (these can be formed by a range of processes, including metamorphic synthesis by the Fischer-Tropsch reaction, or from residual organic matter as in 10). 14) Traces of hydrocarbon gases in magma volatiles (in most cases magmas ascend through sedimentary succession, any organic matter present will be thermally cracked and some will be incorporated into the volatile phase; some Fischer-Tropsch synthesis can also occur). 15) Traces of hydrocarbon gases at mid ocean ridges (such traces are not surprising given that the upper mantle has been contaminated with biogenic organic matter through several billion years of subduction, the answer to 14 may be applicable also). 16) Traces of hydrocarbons in hydrothermal fluids; these are also all compositionally consistent with derivation from either country rocks or Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. Given this list, the following question comes to mind: Why is the Middle East so rich in oil and gas resources, an area which is affected by a wide variety of geological conditions? What is the geological similarity [Corliss 1989, 176]? The vertical distribution of hydrocarbons is interesting because according to Kudryavtsev’s rule, usually where petroleum is found at all, it is also found in all the layers below it, albeit in widely varying concentrations. At a depth of more than 5,000 meters petroleum is however rarely encountered anymore [ibid, 177]. The controversy over the question of whether petroleum originates from biologically or abiogenetically created hydrocarbons has unfortunately also a political dimension. If the petroleum is actually filling in from the upper mantle layers of Earth, one has to assume a nearly limitless quantity of petroleum compared to today’s calculations. “Peak Oil”, i.e., the point of maximum oil production, would be far, far away. This, however, may be undesirable for environmental reasons. This discussion therefore draws comparable lines to the current climate debate, which has left the status of a purely scientific discourse a long time ago. The role of dolomite in connection with petroleum is of great importance. An estimated 80% of the rocks with petroleum reservoirs in North America and the Middle and Far East are affected by dolomitization [Braitwhaite, 1]. The storage capacity of the dolomite is usually attributed to its higher porosity, as the process of dolomitization of the limestone is supposed to reduce the volume by 12%. According to recent conflicting considerations, dolomite inherits the porosity of the original limestone but is better protected against a subsequent compression [Braitwhaite, 141]. That would imply an early diagenetic dolomitization. These considerations, however, all disregard the still existing “dolomite problem“, as well as the general (hydro-)carbon quantity problem. Where did the necessary quantities of carbon and hydrogen for the production of petroleum come from? A possible source is diatomic carbon molecules found in comets [Wiki/Diatomic carbon]. Particularly noteworthy is the observation that in the layers which are regarded as the source of petroleum often animal fossils are found, especially marine fossils. They are seen mainly as the source for the petroleum [Dott/Reynolds, 60]. But is this really the case? If this were so, then why have the discovered fossils not turned into oil, while others seem to have been? Why are these fossils in such a good condition that you can still see the “meat”? Why have in other layers, such as the ‘Old Red Sandstone’ of Scotland, marine animals died in huge numbers under catastrophic conditions and not turned into oil? Could it not be the case that these animals have died directly from the petroleum-sand mixture (or only sand), in which they are found [Cardona, 57-58]? In this version of the theory, the petroleum is to a large extent of an extraterrestrial nature. In recent years through continued development enormous reserves of petroleum have opened up. It is important to look at these new reserves for a critical consideration. This is about petroleum which is bound in shale. Oil shale is usually defined as an organic material inheriting fine-grained sedimentary rock that contains significant amounts of oil and combustible gas that can be released by destructive distillation. The largest known deposit of this type is the Green River Formation (Fig. 1) in the western U.S. It consists of three basins. The sediments filled into the basins contain oil shale of conservatively estimated 213 billion tons [Dyni, 1]. The deposits range in various grades up to at least a depth of 1,000 m [Dyni, 30]. The oil shales of the formation are known to be impervious [Tisot/Son, 425], which is why the extraction of the oil is so difficult. A late migration of oil into the shale is therefore excluded. To get to the oil or natural gas, the method of hydrofracking usually used. With the aid of chemicals, water and sand under pressure, the impenetrability of the shale is reduced; it is not a very environmentally friendly mining technique. Even usage of atom bombs to break up the rock has been thought of [Tisot/Son, 425]. Fortunately, this approach was not pursued. Newer fracking technologies replace water and chemicals by liquid propane.Another fascinating development is known for more than twenty years [USGS], but comes just now into focus: Methane Hydrate. Gas hydrate is a crystalline solid consisting of gas molecules, usually methane, each surrounded by a cage of mater molecules. It looks much like water ice. The water does not bind the methane chemically. The methane is released from the lattice when warmed or depressurized. Methane Hydrate is stable in ocean floor sediments at more than 300 meters depth as well as in arctic regions [FoxNews]. Conservatively estimated, the amount of carbon bound in gas hydrates is twice that of carbon in known normal fossil fuel reservoirs. Bardi, Ugo / Pfeiffer, Dale Allen (2006): No Free Lunch, Part 3 of 3: Proof; http://www.fromthewilderness.com/free/ww3/012805_no_free_pt3.shtml Braithwhaite, Colin J.R. u.a. (2004): The Geometry and Petrogenesis of Dolomite Hydrocarbon Reservoirs; London Cardona, Dwardu (2009): Primordial Star; Victoria BC Corliss, William R. (1989): Anomalies in Geology: Physical, Chemical, Biological. A Catalog of Geological Anomalies; Glen Arm Coste, Eugene (1903): Volcanic Origin of Natural Gas and Petroleum; Journal of the Canadian Mining Institute; Vol. 6, 8-123 Dott, Robert H. / Reynolds, Merril J. (1969): Sourcebook for Petroleum Geology; Tulsa Dyni, John R. (2005): Geology and Resources of Some World Oil-Shale Deposits; http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2005/5294/pdf/sir5294_508.pdf FAZ (1989): Bildung von Erdöl in weniger als 5000 Jahren; quoted in Zeitensprünge 1 (5) 7 FoxNews (2012): Alaska ice tested as possible new energy source; http://www.foxnews.com/science/2012/11/11/alaska-ice-tested-as-possible-new-energy-source/ Glasby, Geoffry P. (2006): Abiogenic Origin of Hydrocarbons: An Historical Overview; Resource Geology, Vol. 56, No. 1, 85-98 Kenney, J. F. (2006): Gas Resources Corporation; http://www.gasresources.net/ Llorca, Jordi (2005): Organic matter in comets and cometary dust; International Microbiology 8 (1) 5-12 Schmidt, Karl-Heinz / Romey, Ingo (1981): Kohle – Erdöl – Erdgas. Chemie und Technik; Würzburg Tisot, Peter R. / Sohns, Harold W. (1970): Structural Response of Rich Green River Oil Shales to Heat and Stress and Its Relationship to induced Permeability; Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data Vol. 15 (3) 425-434 USGS (1992): Gas (Methane) Hydrates — A New Frontier; http://marine.usgs.gov/fact-sheets/gas-hydrates/title.html Velikovsky, Immanuel (1950): Worlds in Collision, Cutchogue Wikipedia (2012a): Chondrites (genus); http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chondrites_%28genus%29 – (2012b): Diatomic Carbon; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatomic_carbonPrint This Page

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The total number of deaths in the first five months of 1945 was almost half the total deaths in the 12-year history of the camp. The death rate in the other Nazi concentration camps also rose dramatically in the last months of the war, as the typhus epidemic spread throughout Germany. American POWs in German camps were saved from the epidemic by booster shots of typhus vaccine sent to them from America by the International Red Cross. The Germans were conducting experiments at the Buchenwald camp in an effort to develop a vaccine for typhus, but had not been successful. After the war, the doctors who had attempted to develop a typhus vaccine at Buchenwald were put on trial as war criminals at Nuremberg in the Doctor's Trial conducted by Americans. Gun did not explain how these 300 prisoners died on the night of the liberation of the camp, but he did write that the prisoners had weapons and that the International Committee of Dachau had made sure that the prisoners who had cooperated with the German guards were not allowed to escape. Others may have died from eating too much of the canned food and chocolate given to them by the Americans, and undoubtedly there were deaths among the 900 prisoners sick with typhus in the infirmary. "Come on. Get up," the sergeant shouted [in the next cell]. The man was lying in his blood on the floor, a massive figure with a heavy head and bedraggled beard ... "Why don't you kill me?" he whispered. "Why don't you kill me? I can't stand it any more." The same phrases dribbled out of his lips over and over again. "He's been saying that all morning, the dirty bastard," the sergeant said. Due to the number of sub-camps over a large area that comprised the Dachau concentration camp complex, many Allied units have been officially recognized by the United States Army Center of Military History and the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum as liberating units of Dachau, including: the 4th Infantry Division, 36th Infantry Division, 42nd Infantry Division, 45th Infantry Division, 63rd Infantry Division, 99th Infantry Division, 103rd Infantry Division, 10th Armored Division, 12th Armored Division, 14th Armored Division, 20th Armored Division, and the 101st Airborne Division. The Soviets found 7,600 inmates in Auschwitz. Some 60,000 prisoners were discovered at Bergen-Belsen by the British 11th Armoured Division; 13,000 corpses lay unburied, and another 10,000 people died from typhus or malnutrition over the following weeks. The BBC's war correspondent, Richard Dimbleby, described the scenes that greeted him and the British Army at Belsen, in a report so graphic the BBC declined to broadcast it for four days, and did so, on 19 April, only after Dimbleby had threatened to resign. The Zionists at Bergen-Belsen, who wanted to go to Palestine, were housed at the Germany Army Training Center to wait for permission from the British who were in control of Palestine at that time. The DP camp at the Army Base was the largest one in Europe. It remained open until 1950, after the last Jews had emigrated to Palestine or some other country. The camp was not really inefficient before you [British and American forces] crossed the Rhine. There was running water, regular meals of a kind -- I had to accept what food I was given for the camp and distribute it the best way I could. But then they suddenly began to send me trainloads of new prisoners from all over Germany. It was impossible to cope with them. I appealed for more staff, more food. I was told that this was impossible. I had to carry on with what I had. The first such extermination camps were introduced during Operation Reinhardt, which targeted the elimination of the Jewish people within the General Government of Occupied Poland and Ukraine. After the first killing center open at Chelmno, the use of these extermination tactics spread quickly. At the height of deportations, the Birkenau killing center murdered 6,000 Jews a day. His grip on German society tightened and those who publicly objected to Nazi policies were often sentenced to hard labour in the rapidly expanding concentration camp system. Jews were subjected to further laws restricting their rights, but rising anti-Semitism in Europe wasn’t limited to Germany. In the UK, Oswald Mosley’s British Union of Fascists gained support from sections of the public and press, even filling the Royal Albert Hall in April. As U.S. Army troops neared the Dachau sub-camp at Landsberg on 27 April 1945, the SS officer in charge ordered that 4,000 prisoners be murdered. Windows and doors of their huts were nailed shut. The buildings were then doused with gasoline and set afire. Prisoners who were naked or nearly so were burned to death, while some managed to crawl out of the buildings before dying. Earlier that day, as Wehrmacht troops withdrew from Landsberg am Lech, towns people hung white sheets from their windows. Infuriated SS troops dragged German civilians from their homes and hanged them from trees. September 26, 1942 - SS begins cashing in possessions and valuables of Jews from Auschwitz and Majdanek. German banknotes are sent to the Reichs Bank. Foreign currency, gold, jewels and other valuables are sent to SS Headquarters of the Economic Administration. Watches, clocks and pens are distributed to troops at the front. Clothing is distributed to German families. By February 1943, over 800 boxcars of confiscated goods will have left Auschwitz. Though at the time of liberation the death rate had peaked at 200 per day, after the liberation by U.S. forces the rate eventually fell to between 50 and 80 deaths per day. In addition to the direct abuse of the SS and the harsh conditions, people died from typhus epidemics and starvation. The number of inmates had peaked in 1944 with transports from evacuated camps in the east (such as Auschwitz), and the resulting overcrowding led to an increase in the death rate. From the evidence it became clear how this was done. After a sleepless night – for sleep in the huts was impossible – the men were driven to a hut where the dead were collected. They were instructed by what the witness called the “language of blows, which was universal.” Their duty was to take strips of blankets, tie them to a corpse, and, four men to a corpse, drag it across the main road of the camp along dusty paths to the burial pit. In the midst of this work, which lasted three days without sleep, food, or water till the British arrived, one Hungarian guard at the exit from the hut containing the bodies began shooting all prisoners if they did not come out dragging a body at the double. During the last three days the Hungarian guards were almost continuously shooting at prisoners, sometimes single shots, sometimes fusillades. The novel was adapted as the 1993 movie Schindler's List by Steven Spielberg. After acquiring the rights in 1983, Spielberg felt he was not ready emotionally or professionally to tackle the project, and he offered the rights to several other directors. After he read a script for the project prepared by Steven Zaillian for Martin Scorsese, he decided to trade him Cape Fear for the opportunity to do the Schindler biography. In the film, the character of Itzhak Stern (played by Ben Kingsley) is a composite of Stern, Bankier, and Pemper. Liam Neeson was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Schindler in the film, which won seven Oscars, including Best Picture. The government defined a Jewish person as someone with three or four Jewish grandparents, not someone who had religious convictions. This meant that people who had never practiced, or hadn’t practiced Judaism in many years, or even converted to Christianity were subjected to persecution. Although anti-semitism was pervasive in 1930s Germany, these restrictions frequently extended to any person the Nazis considered to be “non-Aryan”. A true modern classic. The fact that it's the true story of Oskar Schindler within the true story of the holocaust is just an amazing bonus. All of the these (WWII) stories are difficult to get through but this story manages to show the little miracles, sprinkled all throughout, giving it dimension as well as proving that the truth that as the darkness grows darker, how also the light intensifies. The best as well as the worst of human character and condition is on display. This is one of the best stories of all time, showcasing the heights and depths of the human heart. Beautiful tribute to Oskar Schindler as his family. The never-ending rumors surrounding these early concentration camps instilled a nagging sense of fear among all Germans that helped to extinguish all potential opposition and criticism of Hitler's regime. However, the greatest challenge to Hitler would not come from his political opponents but from within his own ranks. By early 1934, a storm trooper rebellion was brewing that threatened to ruin everything he had worked so hard to achieve. Life within Nazi concentration camps was horrible. Prisoners were forced to do hard physical labor and given little food. Prisoners slept three or more to a crowded wooden bunk; bedding was unheard of. Torture within the concentration camps was common and deaths were frequent. At a number of concentration camps, Nazi doctors conducted medical experiments on prisoners against their will. Even before the Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933, they had made no secret of their anti-Semitism. As early as 1919 Adolf Hitler had written, “Rational anti-Semitism, however, must lead to systematic legal opposition.…Its final objective must unswervingly be the removal of the Jews altogether.” In Mein Kampf (“My Struggle”; 1925–27), Hitler further developed the idea of the Jews as an evil race struggling for world domination. Nazi anti-Semitism was rooted in religious anti-Semitism and enhanced by political anti-Semitism. To this the Nazis added a further dimension: racial anti-Semitism. Nazi racial ideology characterized the Jews as Untermenschen (German: “subhumans”). The Nazis portrayed the Jews as a race and not as a religious group. Religious anti-Semitism could be resolved by conversion, political anti-Semitism by expulsion. Ultimately, the logic of Nazi racial anti-Semitism led to annihilation. The British and American governments were reluctant to publicize the intelligence they had received. A BBC Hungarian Service memo, written by Carlile Macartney, a BBC broadcaster and senior Foreign Office adviser on Hungary, stated in 1942: "We shouldn't mention the Jews at all." The British government's view was that the Hungarian people's antisemitism would make them distrust the Allies if Allied broadcasts focused on the Jews. The US government similarly feared turning the war into one about the Jews; antisemitism and isolationism were common in the US before its entry into the war. Although governments and the German public appear to have understood what was happening, it seems the Jews themselves did not. According to Saul Friedländer, "[t]estimonies left by Jews from all over occupied Europe indicate that, in contradistinction to vast segments of surrounding society, the victims did not understand what was ultimately in store for them." In Western Europe, he writes, Jewish communities seem to have failed to piece the information together, while in Eastern Europe, they could not accept that the stories they heard from elsewhere would end up applying to them too. In the final months of the war, SS guards moved camp inmates by train or on forced marches, often called “death marches,” in an attempt to prevent the Allied liberation of large numbers of prisoners. As Allied forces moved across Europe in a series of offensives against Germany, they began to encounter and liberate concentration camp prisoners, as well as prisoners en route by forced march from one camp to another. The marches continued until May 7, 1945, the day the German armed forces surrendered unconditionally to the Allies. On November 9-10, 1938, the attacks on the Jews became violent. Hershel Grynszpan, a 17-year-old Jewish boy distraught at the deportation of his family, shot Ernst vom Rath, the third secretary in the German Embassy in Paris, who died on November 9. Nazi hooligans used this assassination as the pretext for instigating a night of destruction that is now known as Kristallnacht (the night of broken glass). They looted and destroyed Jewish homes and businesses and burned synagogues. Many Jews were beaten and killed; 30,000 Jews were arrested and sent to concentration camps. One of the most horrific terms in history was used by Nazi Germany to designate human beings whose lives were unimportant, or those who should be killed outright: Lebensunwertes Leben, or "life unworthy of life". The phrase was applied to the mentally impaired and later to the "racially inferior," or "sexually deviant," as well as to "enemies of the state" both internal and external. From very early in the war, part of Nazi policy was to murder civilians en masse, especially targeting Jews. Later in the war, this policy grew into Hitler's "final solution", the complete extermination of the Jews. It began with Einsatzgruppen death squads in the East, which killed some 1,000,000 people in numerous massacres, and continued in concentration camps where prisoners were actively denied proper food and health care. It culminated in the construction of extermination camps -- government facilities whose entire purpose was the systematic murder and disposal of massive numbers of people. In 1945, as advancing Allied troops began discovering these camps, they found the results of these policies: hundreds of thousands of starving and sick prisoners locked in with thousands of dead bodies. They encountered evidence of gas chambers and high-volume crematoriums, as well as thousands of mass graves, documentation of awful medical experimentation, and much more. The Nazis killed more than 10 million people in this manner, including 6 million Jews. (This entry is Part 18 of a weekly 20-part retrospective of World War II) In 1942, fifteen Nazi leaders met at a conference in Wannsee, Germany to discuss the “Jewish Question”. Their job was to decide the most efficient way to exterminate the Jews. They decided that Jews would be sent to extermination camps where they would be sent to showers. But instead of water coming out of the faucet, they faced their death when poisonous Zyklon-B gas leaked through the showerheads to suffocate them. This decision at the conference is called the “Final Solution.” The anti-Hitler movement inside Germany, which included German communists and Jehovah's Witnesses, was the largest indigenous resistance movement of any country during the whole war. Only in Germany was an attempt made to assassinate their leader. Around 800,000 were sent to prison at one time or another for active resistance to the regime. While the western allies did all in their power to help other resistance movements, ie in France and the Netherlands, they did nothing to help or encourage the movement in Germany which in all probability could have ended the war sooner. But the Allies were intent on unconditional surrender and refused to make any deals at all with Germans. Accordingly the Allies viewed all Germans as bad, not only Nazis. "For the survivor who chooses to testify, it is clear: his duty is to bear witness for the dead and the living. He has no right to deprive future generations of a past that belongs to our collective memory. To forget would be not only dangerous but offensive; to forget the dead would be akin to killing them a second time. The witness has forced himself to testify. For the youth of today, for the children who will be born tomorrow. He does not want his past to become their future." Elie Wiesel, Night, Preface to the New Translation (New York: Hill and Wang, c2006), page xv. On April 29, the day after the German guards completed their gruesome task of 10 days of burying the 10,000 decomposed bodies with their bare hands, they were taken to the prison in the city of Celle, which is 16 kilometers northwest of the camp. Also on that day, April 29, 1945, American soldiers entered the Dachau concentration camp and discovered bodies of prisoners who had died of typhus. The next day, 97 medical students arrived in Bergen-Belsen to help with the sick prisoners, and on May 4th, more British medical units arrived. On that same day, May 4, 1945, part of the German Army surrendered to the British in the area near the camp. German-occupied Denmark rescued most of its own Jews by spiriting them to Sweden by sea in October 1943. This was possible partly because the German presence in Denmark was relatively small. Moreover, while anti-Semitism in the general population of many other countries led to collaboration with the Germans, Jews were an integrated part of Danish culture. Under these unique circumstances, Danish humanitarianism flourished. The OP, also known as USAOpoly, has previously created games based on Avengers: Infinity War and the Harry Potter franchise. Die Hard has spawned four sequels, the latest being 2013’s A Good Day to Die Hard. Willis will likely return as McClane for a sixth installment that will alternate between the present day and his rookie years in the NYPD. That film has no release date set. In October 1944, after the SS transferred the Emalia Jews to Plaszow, Schindler sought and obtained authorization to relocate his plant to Brünnlitz (Brnenec) in Moravia, and reopen it exclusively as an armaments factory. One of his assistants drew several versions of a list of up to 1,200 Jewish prisoners needed to work in the new factory. These lists came to be known collectively as “Schindler's List.” Schindler met the specifications required by the SS to classify Brünnlitz as a subcamp of Gross-Rosen concentration camp and thereby facilitated the survival of around 800 Jewish men whom the SS deported from Plaszow via Gross-Rosen to Brünnlitz and between 300 and 400 Jewish women from Plaszow via Auschwitz. Pogroms occurred in several countries occupied by, or supportive of, Germany, attacks that were both encouraged by the Germans and carried out without their involvement. Thousands of Jews were killed in January and June 1941 in the Bucharest pogrom and Iaşi pogrom in Romania, a German ally. According to a 2004 report written by Tuvia Friling and others, up to 14,850 Jews died during the Iaşi pogrom. The Romanian military killed up to 25,000 Jews in Odessa, then under Romanian control, between 18 October 1941 and March 1942, assisted by gendarmes and the police. Mihai Antonescu, Romania's deputy prime minister, is reported as saying it was "the most favorable moment in our history" to solve the "Jewish problem". In July 1941 he said it was time for "total ethnic purification, for a revision of national life, and for purging our race of all those elements which are foreign to its soul, which have grown like mistletoes and darken our future". "... Here over an acre of ground lay dead and dying people. You could not see which was which... The living lay with their heads against the corpses and around them moved the awful, ghostly procession of emaciated, aimless people, with nothing to do and with no hope of life, unable to move out of your way, unable to look at the terrible sights around them ... Babies had been born here, tiny wizened things that could not live ... A mother, driven mad, screamed at a British sentry to give her milk for her child, and thrust the tiny mite into his arms, then ran off, crying terribly. He opened the bundle and found the baby had been dead for days. A hedonist and gambler by nature, Schindler soon adopted a profligate lifestyle, carousing into the small hours of the night, hobnobbing with high ranking SS-officers, and philandering with beautiful Polish women. Schindler seemed to be no different from other Germans who had come to Poland as part of the occupation administration and their associates. The only thing that set him apart from other war-profiteers, was his humane treatment of his workers, especially the Jews. A further regulation stated that a prisoner would be shot or hanged for refusing to obey any order from an SS man. Those who were gunned-down had their deaths listed as "shot while attempting to escape." The only notification the victim's family ever got was an urn filled with ashes delivered to their front door. The ashes were usually not even from the dead man himself, but had been scooped up from whatever was lying around in the crematorium room. Between the two barracks in the photo above can be seen three flags including a British flag. There were several captured British SOE men at Dachau when it was liberated. On the right is Barrack 27, where Belgian political prisoners were housed in Room 4. Catholic priests also lived in Barrack 27, but they had already been released a few days before the Americans arrived. Among the priests who survived Dachau was Father Marcel Pasiecznik, who was arrested in 1944 as a member of the underground Polish Army which fought as partisans. According to testimony given at the Nuremberg IMT, approximately 150 Dachau inmates were forced to participate in medical experiments conducted by Dr. Sigmund Rascher for the German Air Force, and about half of them died as a result. The subjects for these experiments were allegedly German "professional criminals" and Soviet POWs who were Communist Commissars, sentenced to be executed on the orders of Adolf Hitler. One Jew, who had been condemned to death for breaking the law against race mixing, was used in these experiments. In the view of Christian Gerlach, Hitler announced his decision to annihilate the Jews on or around 12 December 1941, probably on 12 December during a speech to the Gauleiters, part of the Nazi Party leadership. This was one day after the German declaration of war against the United States, which followed the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour on 7 December and the United States declaration of war on Japan on 8 December. According to Deborah Dwork and Robert Jan van Pelt, Hitler had trusted American Jews, whom he assumed were all-powerful, to keep their government out of the war in the interests of German Jews. When America declared war, the Jews were blamed. Joseph Goebbels, the Reich Minister of Propaganda, noted of Hitler's speech: "He warned the Jews that if they were to cause another world war, it would lead to their destruction. ... Now the world war has come. The destruction of the Jews must be its necessary consequence."[o] Another American at Dachau on the day the camp was liberated was Keith Fiscus, who was a Captain in American intelligence, operating behind enemy lines. According to a news article by Mike Pound, published in the Joplin Globe on April 29, 2009, Ficus was captured on April 29, 1944 in Austria and held at Dachau for 9 months after first being interrogated by the Gestapo. Initially lacking sufficient manpower, the British allowed the Hungarians to remain in charge and only commandant Kramer was arrested. Subsequently, SS and Hungarian guards shot and killed some of the starving prisoners who were trying to get their hands on food supplies from the store houses. The British started to provide emergency medical care, clothing and food. Immediately following the liberation, revenge killings took place in the satellite camp the SS had created in the area of the army barracks that later became Hohne-Camp. Around 15,000 prisoners from Mittelbau-Dora had been relocated there in early April. These prisoners were in much better physical condition than most of the others. Some of these men turned on those who had been their overseers at Mittelbau. About 170 of these "Kapos" were killed on April 15, 1945.:62 On April 20, four German fighter planes attacked the camp, damaging the water supply and killing three British medical orderlies.:261

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The Burmese python is a huge snake that’s normally native to Asia. But, they’ve started to colonize certain areas in Florida. But how did they get there, and how come they’re thriving there, even though they’re thousands of miles away from their natural ecological range? Scientists and hunters want to cull their population. They’re a major threat to the natural ecosystem of the Everglades, and are putting endangered species at risk. So far, they have had some success, but exact population figures remain unknown. It’s unclear how much work remains to be done. - 1 Burmese Python in Florida Facts - 2 Invasive Species in the Florida Everglades - 3 Why Are Burmese Pythons a Problem to Florida? - 4 How Can the Burmese Python Be Controlled? - 5 Burmese Python FAQs Burmese Python in Florida Facts The Burmese python is a very long, heavy constrictor snake. Their scientific name is Python bivittatus, ‘bivittatus’ coming from the Latin for ‘two stripes.’ Rather than being striped snakes, they have dark brown blotches all along their back. These are bordered by black scales, and are on a lighter brown or tan background. The ‘two stripes’ refers to the two stripes on their head, rather than their back. In their native land, they’re an endangered species. But here in the U.S., they’re a favorite pet. Unfortunately, many snake owners who bought them during their initial popularity realized that they couldn’t take care of one—they grow to longer than 10 feet on average, and can weigh hundreds of pounds. This led to people releasing them to the wild, where they began a breeding population in the Florida Everglades. Let’s start by looking at how Burmese pythons managed to get all the way from southeast Asia, over to Florida, and how they managed to form a breeding population so far away from home. Where Did the Burmese Python Originally Come From? The Burmese python comes from Myanmar. It is sandwiched between Thailand to the south and east, China to the north and east, and Bangladesh/India to the west. It’s a beautiful part of the world, with mountains to the north, the Bay of Bengal to the south, and rainforest and jungle in between. They can be found in ecologically similar regions all across southeast Asia, too (e.g., China, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand and so on). This is the Burmese python’s natural habitat. They’re semi-aquatic, and need a permanent source of nearby water. Because of the diversity of their geographical range, you can find them in marshes and swamps, hills, woodland, and jungles too. This ability to colonize a variety of habitats, plus their need for water, are what is driving their success here as an invasive species in the U.S. Are Burmese Pythons Legal in Florida? Burmese pythons are legal in Florida, so long as you have the correct license for your pet. Recent additions to the state law of Florida have tightened regulations on animals like the Burmese python. In June 2010, Bill CS/SB 318 passed which amended Chapter 379 of the Florida Statutes. Under the amended section 379.372, many additions were made to the list of animals that can’t be possessed, imported, sold, bartered, traded or bred in Florida without a license from the FWC (Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission). Under the amended section 379.4015, a minimum fine of $100 applies for keeping one without the correct permit. The animal would also be confiscated. The only exception to these rules is when animals are kept for research, which does require a permit, but the permit is free. Invasive Species in the Florida Everglades Florida’s Everglades are a unique ecosystem. But they’re under threat. Not only are people gradually encroaching upon their habitat, but there are many new species that people have introduced there, which don’t belong. These animals are both killing native species, and outcompeting native predators, so that our native wildlife is dying out. An invasive species is one that isn’t native to an environment, but is introduced to it, and which thrives there. There are many examples from across the world. There are many dangers that come with introducing a new species to an area: - They can predate on a certain kind of plant or animal too much, leading it to extinction - They can outcompete with the native plants or animals - They can be a danger to people, e.g., by causing road traffic accidents, attacking hikers, etc. - They can damage the economy, by eating a particular crop (especially insects.) - They can damage the environment in a variety of ways Burmese pythons are classed as an invasive species in Florida, because they wouldn’t normally be there. But they’re not the only invasive species making a name for themselves. How Did Burmese Pythons Get to the Everglades? There are two main theories as to how the initial population started. Towards the end of the twentieth century, sightings of Burmese pythons began—from the late 1980s onwards. This was just as Burmese pythons started taking off as a popular pet, and like all pets, sometimes some are abandoned. All it takes is some nearby pet owners to release their pets, and all of a sudden, you have a small population on your hands. Now, this wouldn’t have been enough to start the population trends we see today. When there are less than a dozen or so animals of a particular species in the wild, they can’t find each other easily, and therefore can’t mate and carry on the population easily either. But that all changed in 1992 when Hurricane Andrew hit Florida. Hurricane Andrew caused mass destruction—it was the worst hurricane ever to hit Florida, until Hurricane Irma came along 25 years later. It generated a total of $27.3 billion in damage. What seems to have happened is that Hurricane Andrew damaged local breeding facilities, which let more than a hundred Burmese pythons free, all at once. Since then, their population has only grown. Because their native habitat is quite similar to the Everglades, they’ve been able to continue breeding ever since. Hunters and scientists have tried their best to limit how many there are in the wild. However, their methods so far have only had a limited impact. Their population is bigger than ever, ironically at a time when their numbers in southeast Asia are decreasing. How Many Burmese Pythons Are in Florida? It’s not clear how many Burmese pythons there are in the Everglades. They’re difficult to spot in the undergrowth or hiding in trees, and the Everglades is a big place. As such, all we can do is guess as to how many there are. The U.S. Geological Survey currently believe there to be tens of thousands of Burmese pythons in the Everglades. This number is based on studies in select areas, as well as population trends. The problem seems to be getting worse, too. In 2018, scientists figured out a way to track down groups of males and females called aggregations. This is where a group of male snakes is all competing for the attention of a nearby female. Scientists captured and released a snake they nicknamed Argo, having fitted him with a tracking chip. They tracked him for a few days before finding him with a 100lb female that was just about to lay her clutch. Releasing him again, three days later, they found him with a 115lb female and seven other males. What does any of that matter? It shows that the population is only going to grow from this point on unless we do something to stop them. Why Are Burmese Pythons a Problem to Florida? Burmese pythons aren’t a ‘problem’ in themselves. They’re just an animal doing what it does best, which is hunting, eating, mating and just plain surviving. But invasive species, no matter what they are, are a problem. Flora and fauna interact in ways that we don’t fully understand. But what we do understand is that by altering one part of an ecosystem, the rest changes too—and is, perhaps, even destroyed. This is inconceivable to anybody who lives near a national park, or similar protected habitat. Because once it’s gone, it’s gone. Burmese pythons have so far begun to populate the Florida Everglades, which are quite similar to their native habitat. They’re thriving, and their population is increasing rapidly. At the same time, the Everglades themselves are disappearing. Only 25% of the original Florida Everglades still survives. Politicians have taken steps to protect it, by creating the Everglades National Park. It’s threatened by many issues, including water drainage, nitrates, and mercury entering the ecosystem, urban encroachment, and now invasive species. How Does the Burmese Python Affect the Ecosystem? According to a report in the Independent newspaper, Burmese pythons have been responsible for rendering many local species practically extinct. Scientists think that 90 percent or more of the fauna that used to inhabit the Everglades are now gone. That means that there are 90% fewer individual animals living there today than there were since the turn of the century. They’ve also affected certain animals more so than others. Foxes and rabbits have already disappeared. Raccoons populations are down 99.3%, and opossum populations are down by 98.9%. White-tailed deer have also practically disappeared, with populations 94.1% lower than they were. If the idea of these animals being wiped out doesn’t bother you, the National Academy of Sciences state that they’re affecting unique species too. In a paper published in 2012, they described how the increase in the number of Burmese pythons was threatening alligators and Florida panthers with extinction too. That’s because once all the prey is gone, it’s not just gone for pythons—it’s gone for the native animals too. Burmese pythons are also threatening the following endangered/threatened species: - Piping plovers - Everglades snail kites - Wood storks - Red-cockaded woodpeckers Burmese pythons feed on 39 endangered species and 41 other rare species. If we don’t act soon, then all of these animals could disappear. In fact, since the population of most of these groups has already been reduced so much, it’s unclear whether there’s much we can do to help them survive. 1) Burmese Pythons Are an Apex Predator Burmese pythons are very large snakes. They can reach upwards of 23 feet, and weigh 200lbs. For reference, that’s as big as a telephone pole. We’re talking about a big predator. This means that they’re bigger than anything else you can find in the Everglades, including alligators. Besides that, they’re also good hunters. Their natural camouflage prevents prey from being able to spot them. It also stops any predators from being able to find them, including us in our effort to control their population. They can eat almost anything. In 2018, Orland Weekly reported that a Burmese python was found in the process of regurgitating a deer. This in itself isn’t unusual. Deer are the precise kind of prey that a large python can eat, and most snakes regurgitate food they’re trying to eat if a predator comes along to attack them. But what was special about this Burmese python was that it was trying to eat a snake that was bigger than itself. After they caught the snake, they weighed it—it was 31.5lbs, which isn’t that heavy for a long Burmese python. The deer it was eating (still a fawn) was a hefty 35lbs. That would have been meal enough to last it for weeks. The point of all this is to say that Burmese pythons can eat almost anything, but there isn’t an animal that can consistently threaten them. Even a crocodile isn’t odds-on to beat a Burmese python in a fight. Because they’re unchallenged, they can keep breeding, and their population keeps growing unchecked. 2) They’re Very Quick Breeders Burmese pythons are prolific breeders. They can lay 30 or more eggs at a time, and unlike most snakes, protect their eggs from potential threats. This means that they can breed, lay eggs, and have them hatch efficiently and effectively. They can breed every year, between March and April. You can do the math—it hardly takes any time at all for their population to explode. Not only that, but they start reproducing when they’re very young compared to other animals. They begin breeding from the age of three years old. You can have multiple generations of these snakes within just five years. The problem is that the upper limit to their population is dictated by how much prey they can find. This is the upper limit of any animal population. This means that the population will keep growing and growing, putting more and more pressure on the populations of prey animals, until the prey animals are all gone. It’s a recipe for disaster. 3) They’re Natural Survivors So, they have great camouflage. If they can avoid encounters with hunters, a Burmese python in the Everglades can live for fifteen years or more. That’s quite a long lifespan for a snake in the wild as it is. But considering they don’t have any real threats in the Everglades, they can live even longer. Why is that important? If they can mate every year, or every other year, then a female can have many clutches throughout her life. It’s unclear whether Burmese pythons mate every year in the wild, or take years off, but a female could have several clutches throughout her life. Considering that an average clutch is over 30 eggs, you can see how quickly the population could explode. Just picture if a person you knew could have thirty children every other year—the earth would quickly run out of room! 4) They’ve Interbred to Adapt Scientists working with the USGS and Everglades National Park have been studying the population there for some time. In 2018, they published something they’d been researching for a while—a study on their DNA, to see how they may have adapted to their new environment, and how they might be different to Burmese pythons back home. What they found, shocked them. They discovered that many of the Burmese pythons they analyzed had interbred with Indian rock pythons. Of the 400 or so snakes they examined, 13 of them had traces of Indian rock python mitochondrial DNA, which is passed down the mother’s direct ancestral line. They theorized that this hadn’t happened since they’d been living in the Everglades, but had happened at some point in the past when the direct ancestors of these snakes had been in captivity. Why does that matter? Well, the scientists think that their interbreeding might have made them more adaptable. When two species interbreed, each has a unique set of traits, that make it suitable for living in a particular environment. The offspring of these snakes will inherit the positive traits that help them adapt to their new habitat, while those that can’t adapt will die off. Essentially, it’s natural selection at work. Unfortunately, this means that interbreeding might have made the Burmese python even better suited to the Everglades. How Can the Burmese Python Be Controlled? It’s clear that something has to be done about the Burmese python as an invasive species. If we continue to allow them to roam free, the population will keep getting bigger, threatening more and more local species with extinction. So, what can we do to stop them? 1) Rangers Hunting and Killing Them It’s the classic argument in favor of hunting. Regular, controlled hunts help keep animal populations in check. While it’s debatable whether this is necessary for some animals like deer, it’s necessary to hunt Burmese pythons and try and prevent their population from growing any more. And that’s exactly what hunters are doing. According to the National Post, a total of 1,825 Burmese pythons were found and killed between 2000 and 2011. Their news story was related to the biggest ever Burmese python found in Florida, which was 17 feet and 7 inches long. As if that wasn’t testament enough to the success of the invasive species, the snake was a female—and she was pregnant with 87 eggs. Local authorities have encouraged the hunting and killing of Burmese pythons through bounties. Hunters are paid a flat rate of $8.10 an hour, but they also get a bounty based on the size of the snake they capture. Hunters get $50 for a four-foot snake, plus $25 for each additional foot. So, a ten-foot Burmese python could earn a hunter $200. On top of that, hunters also get $150 for a python that was nesting. 25 full-time hunters are working for local authorities, plus it’s legal for any private individual to join in. If you’re a snake owner or breeder reading this, that might be a little upsetting. But be that as it may, the population in the Everglades has to be controlled, and hunting is a direct method to do just that. Unfortunately, it’s not enough—if it were, then there wouldn’t be any pythons left there, because people have been hunting them for decades now. 2) Radiotelemetry Hunting Remember what we said above about the snake they fitted with a chip, so they could follow it around and find more snakes? That’s radiotelemetry. Researchers at the University of Florida are working with the USGS, as well as the National Park Service and many other bodies, to control the population of Burmese pythons. They’ve been experimenting with radiotelemetry with great success, as we saw above. Radiotelemetry helps them track down snakes in small groups. This is of great help to hunters, who can bag five snakes for the price of one. Aside from that, though, the researchers are also using it to learn more about the habitat they prefer, what they eat, and how they’re putting local species at risk. Their approach, quite rightly, is that the more we know about these snakes, the better chance we have of controlling them. The only downside is that it’s quite a costly way to try and control the population. There’s the cost of the tracker itself. There’s also the fact that you have to repeatedly catch and release the snake, which takes man-hours. If this program could be expanded, it would be highly effective, but costs stand in the way. 3) Regulatory Measures State legislators have tried to get a handle on the Burmese python problem by passing rules and regulations which should prevent their spread. First, the Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission created a regulation that requires anybody who owns a boa or python longer than 2 inches to have a permit. Owners also have to have their pets tagged so that they can be identified. The aim is to stop people from buying these snakes when they aren’t ready for them—requiring them to put thought into their purchase, since they would need a license. The tags should also make people think twice about releasing their pets to the wild. Besides that, federal laws have actually made it illegal to import Burmese pythons. They were added to the Lacey Act, which prohibits trade in certain flora and fauna. As a side note, this is actually helpful for the Burmese python—in their natural southeast Asian habitat, their numbers are decreasing. Aside from this, it’s difficult to think of anything else that the government could do. Ultimately, it’s up to snake owners and potential snake owners to be personally responsible for their actions. A law prohibiting the release of these snakes to the wild, for example, would be ineffective. Who could patrol the Everglades, stopping people in the act of releasing their pets, and arresting them? Unfortunately, it’s logistically impossible. 4) Chemical Control Chemical control is where we use certain chemicals that are harmful to some wildlife, but not to others, to control them. We use chemicals to protect crops from insects that would eat them if they could. However, chemical control may also be a method of controlling the Burmese python. Scientists have reviewed the efficacy of acetaminophen in controlling the Burmese python population. Believe it or not, but acetaminophen is actually listed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency as a toxicant that kills brown tree snakes. By lacing dead prey with acetaminophen, the snakes are tricked into eating it, and quickly die. Laboratory trials suggest that Burmese pythons are susceptible too! However, there’s a good reason why using chemical control might not be the best idea. First, it takes quite a lot of acetaminophen to kill a large python. If a non-target species were to eat the prey first—like an alligator—they might ‘take the bullet’ instead. Scientists also have to make sure that endangered native snakes like the Indigo snake don’t eat the prey, for the same reason. So, while you could no doubt get a few Burmese pythons with this method, you’d be harming native wildlife too. Considering that’s what we’re trying to prevent, this idea doesn’t work in practice. As of yet, there’s no alternative proposal on the table for using chemical controls. 5) Biological Pest Control Pest control refers to methods of killing an invasive or unwelcome species. It’s possible to use chemicals for pest control, of course, but this has all sorts of unintentional effects on the environment. In a protected area like the Everglades, this isn’t an option. However, biological pest control is where we use a predator, parasite, fungus or virus to kill off an unwelcome species. The most famous example is from recent history, when in 1995, scientists reintroduced wolves to Yellowstone National Park. They did so to manage the rising elk population, and they were exceptionally successful. Today, the population of wolves is thriving in a previously natural habitat, and the elk are under control. Scientists examining the problem have reviewed biological control as a potential method of getting rid of Burmese pythons. Perhaps the best idea is to use a virus that specifically affects Burmese pythons, but not native wildlife. Unfortunately, no such control method yet exists. There also aren’t any predators that would fit into the natural ecosystem which could prey on Burmese pythons. Burmese Python FAQs There are a few solutions that are most people’s first reactions to the Burmese python invasive species problem. Unfortunately, there are good reasons why they aren’t workable options. Why can’t we ship them back to Asia? So, Burmese pythons are critically endangered in some parts of their natural habitat. This led to local authorities preventing their capture and export. Because their numbers are decreasing, surely it would make sense to ship them back to Asia? We could organize a huge hunt, capturing hundreds or even thousands of them, and sending them back where they came from? Unfortunately, it just wouldn’t work. Even though they’ve only been here for thirty years or so, Everglades Burmese pythons are different to the original Burmese pythons back home. They have immunities to all of the bacteria and viruses that you would find in the Everglades, but not those from southeast Asia. This means that if you reintroduced these pythons to southeast Asia, they would die off quite quickly because they aren’t immune to the bacteria and viruses they’d find there. And at the same time, the Everglades pythons would introduce all sorts of new viruses to their Asian cousins who aren’t immune. You would be killing both populations. So, no, you can’t just ship them back. Could we capture them all and keep them as pets? This isn’t the worst idea. You’re legally free to hunt Burmese pythons in the Everglades. If you do, and you decide to keep it, that’s not against the law so long as you have a license. You would be reducing the numbers in the wild, and if it’s something you’re concerned about, it’s also more humane than hunting and killing them. Unfortunately, it’s not the perfect solution either. Wild-caught snakes don’t adjust well to living in captivity. They’re typically more aggressive, less likely to feed on what you offer them, and more likely to die young from a variety of factors. So it wouldn’t be a pleasant experience. Besides that, it’s also not fast-acting enough. There are tens of thousands loose in the wild, so unless we could physically catch every single one, the population will bounce back. And because there are so many of them, the market would be saturated. There aren’t enough people out there that want to own a Burmese python to house them all. Capturing them isn’t a bad idea, it’s just not effective enough. Could we capture them and eat them? Snake meat is edible. It’s a delicacy in China. Besides that, snakeskin is a valuable commodity. That’s part of the reason why they’re critically endangered in some parts of their range. If you were to go out and catch a Burmese python in the Everglades, you could, essentially, do what you want with it. You could eat it if you like. But it seems like this idea isn’t appealing to enough people to get them out hunting them. Regarding making money from them, you already make money from catching and killing them. Some hunters are paid both an hourly wage and a bounty for every snake they catch. They then hand the snake into the local authorities. It would hypothetically be possible to sell the snakeskin rather than hand it in as a bounty, but you wouldn’t earn more than you would from the bounty. You would also have to find somebody to sell it to, which might be difficult. So again, while these things might offer small incentives, they aren’t enough to push the population down significantly. That is the story of it all. While scientists are making strides toward understanding how the population is doing so well, we’re still some distance from an effective, long-term solution. If we don’t hurry up, the Everglades as we know them might disappear forever.

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This article throws light upon the six main types of need-based projects. The types are: 1. Balancing Projects 2. Modernisation Project 3. Replacement Project 4. Expansion Project 5. Diversification Project 6. Rehabilitation/Reconstruction Project. Type # 1. Balancing Projects: There are situations when the production process in a plant passes through different stages and/or through different machineries. The maximum production at a particular stage (or by a particular machine) is the ultimate optimum production of the plant as a whole. This particular stage may be called the ‘Key Factor’ with respect to the volume of production. It may also be noted that installation of additional capacity and/or additional machineries at that particular stage—within the entire chain of production process—would increase the plant’s total volume of production. In reality, the capacities of the different stages in the production centres are not harmonised and lesser production of some components at some stage is limiting the volume production of ultimate finished product. Under this situation, when the organisation likes to optimise its business by increasing the volume of production of the said finished products, the organisation needs to increase the production capacity of the particular stage/machineries which was the ‘key factor’ for the limitation of the production volume. A project is drawn for the installation of additional capacity in the key factor area. Such a project for augmenting/strengthening the capacity of a particular area or areas within the chain of entire production plant—so that the production capacity of all the production centres within the plant is harmonised—is called “Balancing Project”. These projects are undertaken to remove the underutilization of capacity of certain production centres as the volume of ‘input’ to such centre is not to the level of its capacity. Accordingly, the project, as such, optimises the production, reducing inefficiency in the production plant and thus increases the profitability. An extension of the Balancing Project is ‘Integration’ of the production; such integration can be ‘backward’ as well as ‘forward’ as illustrated hereinafter. Balancing Project with Backward Integration: An organisation procures materials and components to be consumed in the process of manufacturing a finished product. The organisation finds that: i. The supply of some components is irregular in nature and not to the level (volume- wise) of its plant’s capacity. At the same time, it is uneconomic to increase the volume of procurement from different sources. This situation is hampering the regular manufacture of the ultimate finished product in its plant and/or ii. The long lead time for supply of certain costly basic components requires some components in the store at a very high inventory level. Which means large inventory carrying cost, and/or iii. The supplier of such components commands undue large profit and thus erodes the profitability of the organisation itself. Under this situation, the organisation looks for installation of capacity in its own plant for the production of such components primarily for its own captive consumption and, thus, brings in a harmony of the plant capacity utilisation. No doubt this increases the efficiency in production and profitability of the organisation. A project for installation of capacity to manufacture components etc., as mentioned above, for its own captive consumption is called Balancing Project with Backward Integration. The project shows the necessary investments for the installation of the capacity within its chain of production process, to produce such components, including the required machineries, space cost etc. as against the monetary benefits derived from manufacturing the components in its own plant instead of procurements from external suppliers. A project of this category is in the process of implementation by a company which is importing “Seamless Tubes”, also called “Green Pipes”. These pipes are passed through special processing in the company’s plant. The finished products, after the processing, are sold by the company as “casing pipes”, achieving a sales turnover of Rs. 90 crores in 1995. The import of seamless tubes needing longer lead time and, with the weakening of rupee against hard currency was becoming costlier. Considering the high inventory cost and gradual increase in the material cost, the company finalised a balancing project with backward integration for installation of in-house pipe manufacturing. The company also was manufacturing these pipes in its own plant but with a low volume and the company’s ‘processing plant’ had a larger capacity and, hence, such imports were necessary. Balancing project with forward integration: There may be a situation where a company would like to install additional capacity for further processing of its currently produced finished products. The new capacity to install should be in balance with the volume of the finished products as output of the present plant. In such case, the company with the aim of further value additions and growth (in sales turnover) as well as in profitability is to prepare a balancing project with forward integration. Of course, the project can be implemented with a thorough market research, satisfying the possibility of selling the proposed ultimate product. A company producing acrylic fibre started facing problems with Government of India’s liberalisation of imports—bringing in more and more of acrylic fibres with lesser import duty. The profitability of the company was further pressurised as the international price of the Acrylic Nitrite, the required raw material for the production of acrylic fibre, had gone up from $ 700 to $ 1,500 per tonne. In order to fight the situation the company identified a project to produce “yarn” from its current finished product of acrylic fibre and, further, process the yarn in production of blankets. The report on market study-revealed that, by further processing of the acrylic fibre from the present plant, the company will have no problem in selling the volume of ‘yarn’ produced as such, part of which also will be consumed by the company in manufacture of blankets. The company made a balancing project with forward integration. The project analysis showed the financial viability of investing for such additional production facility. In spite of the fact that the installation of the production facilities for ‘yarn’ and ‘blanket’ are new projects, we still call it balancing, because the projected new facilities are to balance with the volume of the output from the existing plant The projects described above are often called ‘Integration Projects’ instead of Balancing Projects. Type # 2. Modernisation Project: We find a situation when an organisation is carrying out its activities with its plant setup long back. As a result, while the company was running efficiently and profitably in the past, it started facing problems in its plant leading to erosion of its profitability. This is mainly because: i. The old age of the plant causing very high maintenance cost and increasing breakdown; ii. The modernisation elsewhere in the plants for the same industry (and obsolescence of its own plant) is creating difficulties in competition. This scenario was faced by the steel manufacturing industry in USA when steel industry was referred to as “sunset industry”. In recent years, new, cost effective steel manufacturing units in the United States have again become globally competitive. This situation was apprehended years back by Tata Iron and Steel Company in India (TISCO) and the company undertook a massive modernisation project divided into 4 phases. Phases I, II and III have already been completed and the company undertook the Phase IV modernisation programme in 1996 which should double the capacity of hot rolled coils and triple the output of bars and rods, thus raising the overall capacity of the plant to 3.2 million tonnes of saleable steel per annum. No doubt, with the lowest ore costs and own captive mines, together with the modernisation, the company’s output should be extremely competitive. The modernisation projects are aimed at the improvement of the plants and process (by new machineries, new techniques and process) and are not meant for changes in the line of activities / products. The National Textile Corporation (NTC) has been suffering losses due to various reasons including obsolescence of machineries. The government has approved, in July 1996, a modernisation project of Rs. 2,006 crores to modernise 79 mills and restructuring of 36 unviable units. Type # 3. Replacement Project: An organisation carrying out its manufacturing activities in its plant may face some problems with some machinery installed in the plant. The situation arises due to ageing, wear and tear leading to break-down, and lower output. Mounting up of such problems even lead to a situation where the maintenance costs become too high and uneconomic and, at the same time, a reduction in the volume of output. In such a situation, the organisation must consider replacing the particular machine/machines causing such problem. By ‘replacement’ in such a situation we mean that the assets currently in use is replaced by a new one with almost the same capacity (as the old one being replaced) and does not include new machine with much larger capacity as, otherwise, it would be a type of ‘expansion project’ and not a ‘replacement project’. The management implements the replacement project, as such, with the expectation to reduce the cost of maintenance of the old machine, get rid of the hindrances to smooth flow of production and, thus, maintain the scheduled delivery to customers. This type of project is generally cost based and does not have enough scope to estimate additional revenues from the projected investment. The appraisal of the project is made with the expected benefits from such investment mainly in the area of saving the maintenance cost and achieving the sales target by timely deliveries. The managerial decision to go ahead with the project will depend upon: i. The cost of replacement; comparative costs when there are options to select a new machine; ii. The availability of resources for the new machines; iii. The magnitude of the saving of maintenance costs and the losses on account of breakdowns; iv. The possibility of achieving the sales target; v. Additional incidental facilities by replacement and vi. The scrap value of the old machine which is being replaced. Type # 4. Expansion Project: An organisation carrying out certain volume of activities may like to increase its volume of activities with the same products or services and grow. When such an organisation intends to install extra capacities by adding, inter alia, new set of machineries etc. for larger volumes, the project for such investments is called Expansion Project. The expansion project is undertaken primarily for the growth of the organisation with confidence that the organisation is likely to maintain its market share in the estimated increase in the market size, or, that the organisation is driving for an increase in the market share. The expansion plan, as such, can be achieved by one or more of the following steps: i. By establishing additional capacity in its plant and thus increase its volume of output; ii. By acquisition of another organisation relating to the same industry and iii. By modernisation of its plant, which may also include installation of capacity within the plant to boost the volume of production. Examples of such expansion: (a) A leading industry for batteries with Rs. 360 crore turnovers is in the process of its expansion projects: (i) For batteries in the two-wheeler segment with an expansion project of Rs. 35 crore to raise the capacity from 8, 00,000 batteries a year to 20, 00,000 at the end of 1996; and (ii) In the automotive segment, with a project cost of Rs. 65 crore to expand the capacity from 2.2 million to 3.8 million in 1997-98 and then to 5 million by 1998- 99. (b) A leading company in Tea with sales turnover of Rs. 519 crore is in the process of investment for its expansion projects by: (i) Acquiring two plantation estates in Assam and one in Dooars; and (ii) Acquiring a group of 20 estates in Sri Lanka in partnership with a Sri Lankan organisation. (c) A large paper and boards manufacturing company, with a sales turnover of Rs. 156 crore in 1995-96 has embarked upon a major Expansion/Modernisation Project to double its production capacity from 60,000 tonnes per annum to 1,20,000 tonnes per annum. The project is bifurcated into two parts—one relating to direct paper manufacturing activity and the other relating to generation and distribution of steam and power (with up to Rs. 40 crore for investment) which will modernise the plant. Sometime such modernisation may include a change in the input and process as well. This may be seen from the following illustrations: The company presently running ”tapioca” based plant with capacity of 50,000 tonnes p.a. to manufacture Starch Powder, Liquid Glucose, Dextrose etc. embarked in 1995 upon an expansion-cum-modernisation project with the programme. (i) To increase the total-capacity from existing 50,000 T.P.A. to 1,00,000 T.P.A.; (ii) Modernise the plant with the latest technology using Maize in addition to Tapioca. This involved modification of the existing plant to use maize as an alternative input, setting an additional capacity of 150 MT per day with a project cost of Rs. 50 crore in addition to the technical know-how cost. Considering the overall analysis of the project and the profitability against such investment, the company duly launched on the project. Type # 5. Diversification Project: The project initiated by an organisation with the idea of carrying out new activity, a new business dealing with new products/services in addition to its existing activities, is known as Diversification Project. It must be ensured that the new products/services are fully marketable by the organisation. Such diversification project can be illustrated by the following illustration: A large company in the business of fertilizers and chemicals with a sales turnover of Rs. 850 crores in 1994-95 made plans to diversify into core sector projects of power and steel. The new activity planned, as such, is so diversified from the company’s existing product that the company had to obtain its shareholder’s approval to change the ‘object clause’ of its Memorandum of Association, to enable it to carry on the business in the planned area of diversification and, subsequently, also had the approval from the relevant statutory authorities. The diversification project was with an estimated project cost of Rs. 7,700 crore with the projected production of 2.2. million tonnes of steel plant and a 1,000 MW Power Plant. The feasibility study contained in the relevant project report helped the management to decide in favour of such large investment. It may be noted that the diversification project is almost a ‘new project’ of the organisation except that, in case of a diversification project, the organisation derives some cost benefit from the already existing infrastructure of the organisation dealing with certain current products. We repeat here that there may be overlapping of the projected activities, so that one project may be complex in nature to include activities belonging to different types of projects narrated earlier. Again, an illustration of a project undertaken by a company in Alkali and chemical industry revealed such complex activities as the project included: i. Modernisation of existing mercury cell plant of 200 T.P.D. to membrane cell plant; ii. Installation of two D.G. Sets of 18 MW each; iii. Balancing of Membrane Cell Plant capacity from 60 T.P.D. to 100 T.P.D. Type # 6. Rehabilitation/Reconstruction Project: There may be a situation when a large organisation has for some years incurred loss and the accumulated loss have exceeded the company’s Shareholders’ Fund, which leads to a negative Net Tangible Asset (NTA). The company, in such case, is declared sick. Detailed scrutiny of the company’s operation may show that the company has well-equipped plant, a good product and there is also a good market for such a product but the company is suffering losses due to continuous increased borrowings leading to abnormally high finance cost. In such cases, the company also faces acute cash crunch. Under this situation, the company may find a project by completely changing the existing financial structure. The company or the project owner draws a project—Rehabilitation-cum-Reconstruction project—which is discussed with the Board of Industrial and Financial Reconstruction (BIFR). When the BIFR agrees with the feasibility of such project it requests the financial institution the Industrial Reconstruction Bank of India (IRBI), now named as Industrial Investment Bank of India (IIBI) to provide the necessary fund for the financial restructure. Normally, there are ‘special concessions’, whereby liability for interest are reduced, penal charges are waived, old liability to Financial Institutions, are to a certain extent converted to the company’s equity, thereby further reducing the interest burden. Such restructuring is agreed upon when the BIFR and also the IRBI agree about the possibilities of the company turning the corner by implementing the project. In such case, along with infusion of fund by IRBI, they also insist on the project owner to bring in further amount of fund as interest-free loan or equity. We would like to go through an illustration the company had a paid up share capital of Rs. 50 crore, an accumulated loss of Rs. 125 crores and sales turnover for the year Rs. 190 crore. Due to large interest cost (of Rs. 18 crore) and insufficient liquidity (lack of working capital), the company was not in a position to increase the volume of activity and, thereby, service its debts of Rs. 200 crore. Considering the situation, the BIFR suggested for Rehabilitation Project. The BIFR discussed along with related financial institutions the details of the project and the possible revival of the company. The highlights of the project included: 1i. Waiver of the compound interest and liquidated damages on unpaid interest payable to the concerned Financial Institution (FI) amounting to Rs. 20 crore; ii. Simple interest due/accrued shall be funded by the FI and 50% thereof remaining outstanding at the point of launching the rehabilitation shall be converted to ‘term loan’ carrying interest and the balance shall become zero interest liability; iii. The dues payable to the FI/Banks shall be amortised over a period of six years from the cut-off date; iv. The relevant state government is to provide deferment of Trade Tax collected for 5 years from the cut-off date on interest free basis, each year’s trade tax is to be repaid after 5 years; v. The promoters are required to bring in Rs. 14.5 crore as their contribution and the said amount is to be converted into equity capital at par (i.e. Rs. 10 to be paid into the company for share with face value of Rs. 10); vi. The company is to optimise its production by adding balancing equipment and an additional expenditure of Rs. 9.5 crore on this account will also be arranged by the promoters. We would like to note the following points with regard to the rehabilitation/reconstruction Project: (a) It is not necessary that the project should deal only with the financial restructuring as noted in every point of the case study. It can also be with a technological restructuring. (b) The BIFR/IRBI, before agreeing to such project, would like to scrutinize the promoter’s or the management’s background and capabilities (financial, managerial and technical) and then handover the project to the promoter of the project or to the management. (c) Normally the approval of such project is followed by infusion of representatives from the concerned FIs and Banks in the company’s management to ensure that the business is carried out in accordance with the terms of such rehabilitation. (d) The National Textile Corporation (NTC) has been suffering losses due to various reasons—obsolete machineries, excess manpower, high cost of raw materials, acute shortage of working capital etc. The government has approved a project of Rs. 2,006 crore for modernisation of 79 mills and rehabilitation/restructuring of 36 unviable mills into 18 viable unit. Eight out of its nine subsidiaries have been referred to BIFR which has declared them as sick industrial companies. The restructuring project will be implemented on approval of the scheme by BIFR. Project is a non-routine one-off undertaking for future activities with specified performance goal. It has a owner who implements the project to satisfy the need or to avail the opportunities. Project has a start and ends with the completion of the project.

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When all the stars were ready to be placed in the sky, First Woman said: I will write the laws that are to govern mankind for all time. These laws cannot be written on the water as that is always changing its form, nor can they be written in the sand as the wind would soon erase them, but if they are written in the stars they can be read and remembered forever. Navajo creation story quoted in ‘Fire in the Mind: Science, Faith and the Search for Order’ (1995) by George Johnson Some years ago, I visited a gallery that specialised in Inuit art, and the owner shared with me a small but powerful memory. She had a close relationship with many of her artists, one of whom had shown up for a visit late on a winter’s night. Like many of us, the first thing he did was call home on his cellphone, to let his wife know he had arrived safely. Unlike most of us, especially on a frigid winter’s night, he did so out in the yard. He needed to see the sky so he could tell his wife what the stars looked like from Richmond in Virginia, while she scanned the sky at her end, in far Hudson Bay. In that way, he connected with her, both of them finding one another in the world through that useful intelligence of distant stars. For most of human history, the artist’s behaviour would have seemed ordinary, even essential. It was unthinkable to ignore the stars. They were critical signposts, as prominent and useful as local hills, paths or wells. The gathering-up of stars into constellations imbued with mythological meaning allowed people to remember the sky; knowledge that might save their lives one night and guide them home. Lore of the sky bound communities together. On otherwise trackless seas and deserts, the familiar stars would also serve as a valued friend. That friendship is now broken. Most of us don’t orient to our loved ones using the lights in the sky, nor do we spend our nights pondering what in the 1920s the poet Robinson Jeffers called that ‘useless intelligence of far stars’. Discoveries in astronomy and physics of the past century expanded the known universe by orders of magnitude in size and age, and turned cosmology into a true observational science. Those breakthroughs urged upon us an extraordinary stretch of the imagination, even as related technological advances detached nearly everyone from that larger world by making the stars safe to ignore. Today, we are more disconnected from the stars than ever before. Even utilitarian attachments have fallen away, as the markers that form our sense of place in the wider world have shifted from the distant to the local. Navigators once used the stars as reference marks; the GPS units in modern cellphones refer instead to a constellation of artificial satellites in orbit around the Earth, synchronised to atomic clocks in ground-based laboratories. (There has been one intriguing reversal of the trend: anxiety about the wartime vulnerability of the GPS system recently prompted the US Naval Academy to reinstate the teaching of celestial navigation. This particular unease is an apt metaphor for our general anxiety about losing our way when the lights go out, about where we stand in general relation to the world.) We have lost a part of our selves in the process. Knowing where you are in the world is fundamental to knowing who you are. The development of our sense of spatial relationships – the ongoing discovery of where I am – is deeply entwined with memory formation. Neuroscience studies reveal that this is because forming the knowledge of place, and building that sense of our relation to other parts of the world, requires the brain to combine several different sense modalities. Hence information must be stored and then retrieved from memory, sifted and examined, and the brain’s theory of where we are in the world constructed. Combine this with the fact that it is through memory that the I endures, that memories are most effectively formed when there is some emotional charge attached, and we can see why our sense of place can be so entangled with our sense of who we are, why to be at no place is akin to being no one. In addition to the resurgent interest in navigating with the stars, many scientists, engineers and visionaries are now engaged in imagining ways that we might navigate to the stars, not only as a question of technological hurdles to be overcome, but also as a point of aspiration to keep humans aimed toward the unknown. I am drawn to Interstellar Migration and the Human Experience (1985), an edited anthology about our species’ possible out-migration toward the stars. It is a curious mix of articles, careful scholarship leavened with wild ideas. The contributors argue that, rather than a wholesale assault on the outer solar system or a colossal Apollo-style long-jump to Alpha Centauri, a more likely model for some future wave of human expansion is a long, anarchic diffusion. Over generations, the human home would expand to include the outer moons of the Solar System, the minor planets, the cometary debris of the Kuiper Belt, and then the distant Oort Cloud, whose outermost objects are likely to wander between star systems. The book’s vision of the future makes our move to the stars look a lot like the Polynesian Diaspora, which also took many generations and involved hopping from one solitary foothold to the next across miles of empty ocean. The Polynesian Triangle stretches from Hawaii in the north, to Rapa Nui (Easter Island) in the southeast, and Aotearoa (New Zealand) in the southwest. This region of the Pacific is comparable in area to the entire Eurasian landmass. When Europeans ‘discovered’ these islands, they found most of them already inhabited. The Polynesians all had similar languages and customs and, in spite of the great distances between the islands, they maintained contact with one another. At Raiatea (near Tahiti) in 1769, the English explorer Captain James Cook took onboard a Polynesian navigator named Tupaia who drew a map for him showing islands within roughly 1,000-mile radius of Tahiti. Cook wondered: how did Tupaia know this? How could he keep that map in his head? The navigators of Polynesia (who in traditional societies were men) found the ocean and sky an open book, full of information. Traditionally trained navigators had a memory map containing hundreds of stars. As long as the navigator could get a clear shot of an open patch where the stars shone through, even if much of the sky was covered in clouds, he could orient himself and maintain a heading at night. Navigational lore in the Pacific Islands was passed down through the generations partly through storytelling. The human mind is structured around stories. Connecting things to stories, poems, songs, music and visual art makes this knowledge more real to us, charged with emotive power, which aids in the forming of memories. It helps us come to know things, and to know their place, by knowing ourselves more deeply as well. Storytelling helps us to find our place in the world. An anthropologist would rightly point out that there is no clear, bright line distinguishing a testable theory of the world from a story. They are not the same thing, but neither are they completely different. They are alike in that theories and stories are both ways of organising knowledge and making sense of things. In the case of Polynesian voyaging, the experimental knowledge that was partly encoded in stories allowed navigators to find their way across hundreds of miles of open ocean. This knowledge was replicated over many generations, tested every time a crew set out into the open Pacific, and verified every time a boat made landfall. We don’t want those newfound playgrounds for the imagination to be empty. We want to find ourselves again among the stars By the time of Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei, when 17th-century European astronomers finally began to shake off the lingering dreams of Aristotelian cosmology, the Polynesians had been abroad for more than two millennia. The mental maps of the Pacific Islanders were organised not around Aristotle’s crystalline spheres of quintessence, but around poems, songs, and tales of the skittish parrotfish. The Polynesians were crossing thousands of miles of open Pacific Ocean while the Greeks were still hugging the shores of the much smaller Mediterranean, composing epic poems to celebrate their own intrepidity. In the Western tradition, the overthrow of the Aristotelian worldview by Copernicus and his followers involved more than moving the Earth from the centre: it eventually required the abandonment of the central organising principle of Aristotle’s cosmology, the potency of place. Aristotle believed it was self-evident that there was a centre, a special place, and that everything in the world sought to find its proper location in relation to that centre. In contrast, modern cosmologists often invoke what has come to be called the Copernican Principle: we are at no special place in the Universe. Rather, we are wanderers among the stars, through a space with no centre. To a modern cosmologist, then, there is no special place. Yet Aristotle was onto an important psychological truth: our sense of place is indeed potent. The vast deep that the astronomers have uncovered all around us – and yet so far have found to be empty of conversation – that ringing silence is the source of our fascination with science fiction based on other worlds and stories of aliens. We don’t want those newfound playgrounds for the imagination to be empty. We want to find ourselves again among the stars. We want those stellar nurseries to be full of squalling civilisations. We want them to be other places, other centres of meaning, not just beautiful imagery. We want the cosmos to be story-full, so we can imagine coming to know it. While Polynesian navigators were internalising stories to help them find their way at sea, over many centuries Western astronomers gradually came to realise that at each step in passing from the direct visual experience of a star or planet to an isolated entry in a logbook, there are possibilities for error, misinterpretation, personal bias and confusion. Hence, as Western astronomy became more complex – as it evolved into a science in the modern sense – its practitioners worked hard to reduce the human role to more machine-like actions. They emphasised repetitive, routinised steps. In order to minimise bias, the human beings involved in the daily work of the 19th-century’s great European observatories were told no more than they needed to know to carry out their simple tasks. This made the observatories more like a factory than the romantic vision we have of a devoted individual, driven by love of the stars, carrying out a solitary vigil on a mountain top. At Greenwich Observatory in the mid-19th century, for example, the routine jobs were carried out by dozens of boys in their late teens or early 20s, each specialised to make a simple observation and to call them out, to mark the time, or to reduce data. It is no wonder they were called drudges. They did the menial work while the foreman of the shop floor scanned the skies, not directly, but as part of a super-organism, gazing out at the stellar vault with the mind’s eye of the Astronomer Royal. The collective activity buzzed around him at night while he studied the motions of the stars and planets, all that effort bent toward generating the tables of ephemerides needed by mariners for celestial navigation. That was crucial intelligence for the world’s first global empire, with its fleets of merchants and dreadnaught battleships, all marking reference to the far stars. Those pinpoints of light remained unmoving through the years, forming a fixed frame of reference for finding oneself in the world, the same sky text that the Polynesians had used when sailing the open Pacific, and that the Inuit artist used to phone home. Nearly all the routine human operations of the astronomical past are now carried out by electronic or mechanical analogs. The alienation of the drudges and human computers is complete. They’ve been replaced by servomechanisms, avalanche photodiodes, and computers; the results of querying the heavens are digitised and shared through cloud applications. The artificial senses used by astronomers and physicists have revealed that the world around us is stranger than any earlier generation had ever imagined. Yet this way of putting it runs the risk of reducing those revelations to collections of data. Technology is simply a tool that can open a new window. What we see while peering through the window, how we absorb it into our internal sense of things, how it shifts our sense of our place in the world, that fuller act of seeing with new eyes requires a lively imagination. As a physics undergraduate, I once attended a seminar by a graduate student who was reporting his observations of one of the first stellar black hole candidates, an X-ray source known as Hercules X-1 (the first X-ray source discovered in 1971 in the constellation Hercules). His few minutes of X-ray data were collected by a detector he built for himself and installed atop a suborbital rocket. He then launched the rocket from a former oil platform off the coast of Kenya. Other than that romantic locale, what I remember most about the talk was a question from the audience: ‘If I went out tonight and looked up, where would I find Hercules X-1?’ Unlike those who can take a walk in the woods to be close to the things they love, the astronomer can only go hug a telescope The student was flummoxed. He didn’t know. His life those past months had been consumed by getting his detector to work, arranging for delivery of the payload to Kenya and then shipped to the San Marco platform near Malindi, getting it properly installed aboard the rocket, the tension of the launch itself, and then those few minutes of sheer terror, waiting to find out if he had the data he needed for his PhD thesis. If he failed, he would have to start all over again. In all those months, he had not looked up to the stars, to see with his own human eyes the region of the sky where he would point his X-ray eyes. Just for curiosity sake. As I proceeded further in my studies, I came to understand how this could happen. In my efforts to study the stars as an undergraduate, I found I had no time to ponder them. I eventually turned aside from the narrow path one followed to become a professional astronomer, and instead became a mathematical physicist, seduced by a different siren song, following another narrow path. But I never lost my original love of the stars, and still enjoy teaching about them. Part of the alienation of the astronomer from the objects of study is due to the remarkable technology that allows remote, automated observation. This technology stands between them and the stars as surely as a window separates us from nature while opening it to view. Unlike those who can take a walk in the woods to be close to the things they love, the astronomer can only go hug a telescope. The beauty of far Antares, the red star at the heart of Scorpius, provokes a love forever unrequited. This kind of alienation, formed by peering through newly opened windows at things forever out of reach, is particularly acute for the working astronomer, but it affects all of us who attempt to navigate the virtual world that our interactive screens have brought into view. It is not just the stars that we have learned to ignore. How many of us remember phone numbers anymore, or email and street addresses? Our memory is becoming ever more externalised, stored on the cloud somewhere – we don’t know where – nor do we care so long as we can access it when we need it. While the information seems mentally nearby, just a few keystrokes will call it up, the stored memory might physically reside on a server 1,000 miles away. We are ever more augmented humans beings, ever more virtualised, enjoying what the philosophers Andy Clark and David Chalmers call the ‘extended mind’. How is the extending mind changing us, our sense of our selves, and our sense of our place in the world? How does it affect our sense of being at home in the world, our general level of unease, that we don’t know where these memories are stored, how many physical copies there are, and how safe they might be against erasure? And if those essential parts of our lives are treated so blithely (those wedding photos, those names and addresses of friends and loved ones, those journal and diary entries), if those can be remembered ‘out there’, are we at risk of gradually assuming that our personal story can also be virtualised and become part of our extended selves, detached from any particular place, not carried around in our heads? If to be at no place means you are somehow no one, doesn’t this progressive externalising of our memories increase the risk of our story fading into nowhere? In 1959, the Italian physicist Giuseppe Cocconi and his American colleague Philip Morrison published one of the first articles to examine the question of how humans might listen for interstellar signals, thereby launching what has come to be called the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI). Morrison later wrote about the commonality between our urge to explore other planets, the search for conversation among the stars, and the role of storytelling among hunter-gatherers of Africa’s Kalahari, a people who spent their lives in a region of space no larger than Los Angeles County. While they wander, they constantly discuss where they are, so as ‘not to fade off into the nothing or the nowhere’. He argued that ‘this is the essential feature of human exploration, its root cause deep in our minds and in our cultures’. In his book The Dream of Spaceflight (2000), the space evangelist Wyn Wachhorst claimed that we explore the periphery so that we can complete the centre. We range widely so that we can come home changed, more fully realised, knowing better who we really are. We are like wolves restlessly prowling the limits of our territory, orienting ourselves, discovering our story by finding our place in the world, and a place for those we love. I like this metaphor of exploring the periphery and the related need for completion, because it emphasises why we all need stories, even in this techno-civilisation we are creating. We need stories to undo the post-Copernican flattening of things, the externalising of self, so we can live more like the Kalahari hunter-gatherers who notice when something has changed in their world, rather than living like those harried professionals who walk, oblivious, past astonishing wonders, caught up in the everyday sameness of the synthetic world. This marking out of place in order to bring it within our realm of storytelling is the impulse behind the recent – possibly temporary – naming of mountains and frozen plains on Pluto, names such as Cthulhu and Balrog. Pluto, ancient god of the underworld, now has dimples and warts on his face named after more recent mythical creatures of the deeps, born of the 20th-century imaginations of H P Lovecraft and J R R Tolkien. The image analysts for the New Horizons spacecraft had grown tired of speaking to one another of ‘that dark patch on the left side of the computer screen’, so they did the same thing our ancestors did when they named the stars and gathered them into constellations. These 21st-century explorers connected features to stories to make them easier to remember, to organise, to fire the imagination, and to guide understanding. To help extend our sense of place, our sense of home, even on the outskirts of the solar system. If humans do someday migrate outward toward the stars, our narrative space will move like an expanding wave before us, a vanguard of the imagination. Our need for stories that help us find our way is too important to be left behind. As a small child growing up on a farm, I wandered the place with my brother, two intrepid explorers of far pastures and deep woods. I wanted to know every tree, to look every cow in the eye and come to know its thoughts. I wanted to turn over every rock in the brook and find the lurking crayfish, knowing that every single moment of time was charged with a magic that is now largely gone from my experience of the world – an electric arc of being that I now glimpse only occasionally when I glance up at the night sky and my mind is at rest. I understand what Morrison meant when he wrote about the need for our stories ‘not to fade off into the nothing or the nowhere’. For me, it connects to a desire to rekindle my earliest sense of wonder, my sense of place and who I am, my sense of being at home in this world and at one with the stars.

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Introduction to Lenses and Geometrical Optics The term lens is the common name given to a component of glass or transparent plastic material, usually circular in diameter, which has two primary surfaces that are ground and polished in a specific manner designed to produce either a convergence or divergence of light passing through the material. The optical microscope forms an image of a specimen placed on the stage by passing light from the illuminator through a series of glass lenses and focusing this light either into the eyepieces, on the film plane in a traditional camera system, or onto the surface of a digital image sensor. The action of a simple lens, similar to many of those used in the microscope, is governed by the principles of refraction and reflection and can be understood with the aid of a few simple rules about the geometry involved in tracing light rays through the lens. The basic concepts explored in this discussion, which are derived from the science of Geometrical Optics, will lead to an understanding of the magnification process, the properties of real and virtual images, and lens aberrations or defects. In order to understand the optical system of a simple microscope (locations of the lens elements in a common laboratory microscope are presented in Figure 1), the basic properties of a simple thin lens having two light-refracting surfaces and a central optical axis must first be described. Each lens has two principal planes and two focal planes that are defined by the geometry of the lens and the relationship between the lens and the focused image. Light rays passing through the lens will intersect and are physically united at the focal plane (see Figure 2), while extensions of the rays entering the lens will intersect at the principal plane with extensions of the rays emerging from the lens. The focal length of a lens is defined as the distance between the principal plane and the focal plane, and every lens has a set of these planes on each side (front and rear). Traces of light rays passing through a simple bi-convex thin glass lens are presented in Figure 2, along with the other important geometric parameters necessary in forming a focused image by the rays. The focal points of the lens are denoted by the variable F, and there are two separate focal points, one in front of the lens (on the left-hand side of Figure 2) and one behind the lens (on the right). The principal planes of the lens (P and P' in Figure 2) are denoted by dashed lines, and the distance between each principal plane and its respective focal point represents the focal length (f). Because the bi-convex lens illustrated in Figure 2 is symmetrical, the principal planes are located equal distances from the lens surfaces, and the front and rear focal lengths are also equal. The object (or specimen) being imaged by the lens is positioned in the object plane, located on the left-hand side of the lens by convention, and is represented by a red arrow that travels upward from the centerline or optical axis, which passes through the center of the lens, perpendicular to the principal planes. Ray traces through the lens (yellow arrows) emanate from the object and proceed from left to right through the lens to form a magnified real image (inverted red arrow) in the image plane on the right-hand side of the lens. The distance between the front principal plane of the lens and the specimen is known as the object distance, and is represented by the variable a in Figure 2. In a similar manner, the distance from the rear principal plane to the image (the variable b in Figure 2) is termed the image distance. These parameters are the fundamental elements defining the geometrical optics of a simple lens and can be used to calculate important properties of the lens, including focal length and magnification factor. Lenses can be either positive or negative depending upon whether they cause light rays passing through to converge into a single focal point, or diverge outward from the optical axis and into space. Positive lenses (illustrated in Figures 2 and 3) converge incident light rays that are parallel to the optical axis and focus them at the focal plane to form a real image. As shown in Figure 3, positive lenses have one or two convex surfaces and are thicker in the center than at the edges. A common characteristic of positive lenses is that they magnify objects when they are placed between the object and the human eye. In contrast, negative lenses diverge parallel incident light rays and form a virtual image by extending traces of the light rays passing through the lens to a focal point behind the lens. Negative lenses have at least one concave surface and are thinner in the center than at the edges (see Figure 3). When a negative lens is placed between an object and the eye, it does not form a real image, but reduces (or demagnifies) the apparent size of the object by forming a virtual image. The distinction between a real and a virtual image is an important concept when imaging specimens through a lens or mirror system, regardless of whether the system consists of a single or multiple components. In general, images are defined by the regions where light rays (and their extensions) become convergent as the result of refraction by a lens or reflection by a mirror. In cases where the light rays intersect at a focal point, the image is real and can be viewed on a screen, recorded on film, or projected onto the surface of a sensor such as a CCD or CMOS placed in the image plane. When the light rays diverge, but project imaginary extensions that converge to a focal point, the image is virtual and cannot be viewed on a screen or recorded on film. In order to be visualized, a real image must be formed on the retina of the eye. When viewing specimens through the eyepieces of a microscope, a real image is formed on the retina, but it is actually perceived by the observer to exist as a virtual image located approximately 10 inches (25 centimeters) in front of the eye. The primary lens geometries for the positive lens elements illustrated in Figure 3 are bi-convex (Figure 3(a)) and plano-convex (Figure 3(b); having one planar or flat surface). In addition, the convex-meniscus (Figure 3(c)) lens has both convex and concave surfaces with similar curvatures, but is thicker in the center than at the edges. Bi-convex lenses are the simplest magnifying lenses, and have a focal point and magnification factor that is dependent upon the curvature angle of the surfaces. Higher angles of curvature lead to shorter focal lengths due to the fact that light waves are refracted at a greater angle with respect to the optical axis of the lens. The symmetric nature of bi-convex lenses minimizes spherical aberration in applications where the image and object are located symmetrically. When a bi-convex optical system is fully symmetric (in effect, a 1:1 magnification), spherical aberration is at a minimum value and coma and distortion are equally minimized or cancelled. Generally, bi-convex lenses perform with minimum aberrations at magnification factors between 0.2x and 5x. Convex lenses are primarily employed for focusing applications and for image magnification. Typical plano-convex lenses (Figure 3(b)) have one positive convex face and a flat (plano) face on the opposite side of the lens. These lens elements focus parallel light rays into a focal point that is positive and forms a real image that can be projected or manipulated by spatial filters. The asymmetry of plano-convex lenses minimizes spherical aberration in applications where the object and image lie at unequal distances from the lens. The optimum case for reduction of aberration occurs when the object is placed at infinity (in effect, parallel light rays enter the lens) and the image is the final focused point. However, the plano-convex lens will produce minimum aberration at conjugate ratios up to approximately 5:1. When the curved surface of a plano-convex lens is oriented toward the object, the sharpest possible focus is achieved. Plano-convex lenses are useful for collimating diverging beams and to apply focus to a more complex optical system. The positive meniscus lens (Figure 3(c)) has an asymmetric structure with one face shaped as a convex radius, while the opposite face is slightly concave. Meniscus lenses are often employed in conjunction with another lens to produce an optical system having either a longer or shorter focal length than the original lens. As an example, a positive meniscus lens can be positioned after a plano-convex lens to shorten the focal length without decreasing optical system performance. Positive meniscus lenses have a greater curvature radius on the concave side of the lens than on the convex side, enabling formation of a real image. Negative lens elements are the bi-concave (Figure 3(d)), plano-concave (Figure 3(e); with a single planar surface), and concave-meniscus (Figure 3(f)), which also has concave and convex surfaces, but with the center of the lens being thinner than the edges. For both positive and negative meniscus lenses, the distances between the surfaces and their focal planes are unequal, but their focal lengths are equal. The line connecting the centers of the lens curved surfaces in Figure 3 is known as the optical axis of the lens. Simple lenses having a symmetrical shape (bi-convex or bi-concave) have principal planes, denoted by dotted lines in Figure 3, that are equally spaced with respect to each other and the lens surfaces. Curvature radii of the two convex surfaces for a bi-convex lens are indicated by black arrows in Figure 3(a). The lack of symmetry in other lenses, such as the meniscus lenses and the plano negative and positive lenses, causes the locations of the principal planes to vary according to lens geometry. Plano-convex and plano-concave lenses have one principal plane that intersects the optical axis, at the edge of the curved surface, and the other plane buried inside the glass. The principal planes for meniscus lenses lie outside the lens surfaces. Bi-concave lenses (Figure 3(d)) are primarily utilized for diverging light beams and image size reduction, as well as increasing optical system focal lengths and collimating converging light beams. Often termed the double-concave lens, this optical element refracts parallel input rays so that they diverge away from the optical axis on the output side of the lens, forming a negative focal point in front of the lens. Although the output light rays do not actually unite to form a focal point, they do appear to be diverging from a virtual image located on the object side of the lens. Bi-concave lenses can be coupled to other lenses to reduce optical system focal lengths. The plano-concave lens illustrated in Figure 3(e) is a divergent element that has a negative focal point and produces a virtual image. When a collimated light beam is incident on the curved surface of a plano-concave lens element, the exit side will form a divergent beam. This beam will appear to emerge from a smaller virtual point source than if the planar lens surface had faced the collimated light beam. Plano-concave lenses, which feature minimal spherical aberration when the concave surface is facing the longest conjugate distance, are employed to expand light beams or to increase focal lengths in existing optical systems. Also referred to as a convexo-concave lens, the negative (divergent) meniscus lens can be designed to reduce or eliminate additional spherical aberration or coma in optical systems to which the lens is coupled. Meniscus lenses (both positive and negative) are often employed to shorten the focal length of a doublet (two lens elements cemented together) or a plano-convex lens operating at an infinite conjugate ratio (illuminated by parallel light rays). The desired focal length of the final system determines the particular dimensions and character of the meniscus lens that should be added. Plano-convex/meniscus lens combinations display up to four times greater resolution than a plano-convex lens working alone. A lens operates by refracting the incoming light wavefronts at points where they enter and exit the lens surfaces. The angle of refraction, and therefore the focal length, will be dependent upon the geometry of the lens surface as well as the material used to construct the lens. Materials with a high index of refraction will have a shorter focal length than those with lower refractive indices. For example, lenses made of synthetic polymers, such as Lucite (refractive index of 1.47), have a lower refractive index than glass (1.51) leading to a slightly longer focal length. Fortunately, the refractive indices of Lucite and glass are so close together that Lucite can be used in place of glass in many lens applications, including the popular Film-in-a-box cameras that are currently enjoying widespread consumer use. A lens made of pure diamond (refractive index of 2.42) would have a focal length significantly less than either glass or Lucite, although the high cost of pure diamond would be prohibitive for lens construction. As mentioned above, all lenses have two principal planes that are associated with the front and rear surfaces of the lens. In microscopes, lenses are often cemented together to form larger groups (thick lenses) that have quite unusual locations for the principal planes with respect to the lens surfaces. However, regardless of the number of lens elements or the complexity of the lens system, the location of the principal planes in thick lenses can be determined by tracing light rays through accurate drawings of the lenses. Modern lens designers and optical engineers use sophisticated computer programs to model, design, and trace light rays through individual lenses and multi-element lens systems. These software programs are used to design cameras, telescopes, microscopes, and other optical devices that rely on glass (or plastic) lenses to form images. There are three general rules that apply to tracing light rays through a simple lens (see Figure 2), which make the task relatively simple. First, a light ray is drawn through the center of the lens from a point on the object to a corresponding point on the image (the tip of the arrows in Figure 2). This ray is not deviated by the lens. Second, a light ray emanating from the uppermost point of the object is sketched parallel to the optical axis and, after being refracted by the lens, will intersect and pass through the rear focal point. In fact, all light rays that are traveling parallel to the optical axis will pass through the rear focal point after being refracted by the lens. Third, a ray from the object passing through the front focal point will be refracted by the lens in a direction that is parallel to the optical axis and coincides with an identical point on the image. The intersection of any two of the rays just described, which are often called characteristic rays, will define the image plane of the lens. Extending the concept of individual ray traces to a light beam is necessary to describe optical events occurring in the microscope. When a parallel beam of light passes through a simple lens, the rays are refracted and concentrated into a focused spot of light at the focal point (point F in figure 2) of the lens. Alternatively, when light from a point source located at the focal point of a lens enters the lens, it emerges as a paraxial, parallel beam of light. Light from the microscope illumination source can be considered as a train of light waves that are vibrating in phase with each other. The wavefront associated with this wave train lies in a plane that is perpendicular to the direction of propagation (usually parallel to the optical axis of the microscope), and is converted to a spherical wave when passed through a simple bi-convex lens. The radius of the spherical wave is centered at the focal point of the lens, and the light waves all arrive in phase and undergo constructive (additive) interference with each other at the focal point. As is the case for a point source of light, a spherical wavefront emanating from the focal point of a simple lens is converted into a plane wavefront by refraction that occurs when passing through the lens. A plane wavefront traveling through space is often not perpendicular to the optical axis of a lens, but rather arrives at some angle of incidence that is tilted from the axis. The center of the spherical wave that results from passage of the off-axis plane wave through the lens is located at some point away from the optical axis of the lens. For all practical purposes, a plane wave can be considered to be a spherical wave of infinite radius, which can be focused by a lens into another spherical wave having a much smaller radius that is equal to the focal length of the lens. Thus, it can be concluded that a simple bi-convex lens operates by converting one spherical wave into another spherical wave, often with a different radius (or focal point). In addition, the center of curvature of the second spherical wave lies in the focal plane of the lens. If a point source of light emitting a spherical wave does not lie in the focal plane of the lens (in effect, the light wave is oblique to the optical axis), the lens can then be described as being composed of two separate lenses, as illustrated in Figure 4 for a red monochromatic (single color) point source. Each lens has a different focal length (f(a) for the lens nearest the point source in Figure 4 and f(b) for the second lens), and the spherical wave that emerges from the second lens (lens (b)) is centered at a focal point that is also removed from optical axis of the lens system. As a result, the spherical wave centered at point S(1) in Figure 4 is converted by the first lens into a plane wave that is tilted with respect to the lens axis by the same angle as the point source. The second lens converts the plane wave emerging from the first lens into another spherical wave having a curvature radius centered at point S(2), which is also tilted at the same angle as the point source. In short, the simple lens (which is the sum of two hypothetical component lenses as described in Figure 4) focuses point source S(1) onto point S(2) and vice versa. In optical terms, points S(1) and S(2) are known as conjugate points, and are of fundamental importance to understanding events occurring in the microscope optical train. To extend the idea of conjugate points a bit further, if point S(1) is considered to belong to a set of points lying in a plane that is perpendicular to the optical axis of the lens, then the lens would focus each point onto a similar conjugate point in a plane containing the point set S(2). Therefore, by reciprocity, the lens would also focus every point in plane S(2) onto the corresponding point in set S(1) from the original plane. These closely related focal planes are referred to as conjugate planes, and are in simultaneous focus. In general, a microscope has two sets of conjugate planes: one set containing apertures that control the amount of light passing through the optical system, and another set that forms the image. Because a propagating light wave can be discussed in terms of a wave train, a bundle of rays can be represented by ray traces that are oriented normal to wavefronts. Taking this fact into consideration, the twin lens system discussed in Figure 4 can be reduced to a schematic drawing of ray traces, such as that presented in Figure 2, in order to apply the rules of geometrical construction to determine the size and location of images formed by a lens. As discussed above, two representative light rays, one paraxial (parallel) to the optical axis, and one passing through the center of the lens are all that is necessary to determine these parameters. The distances a and b in Figure 2 (f(a) and f(b) in Figure 4) and the rear focal length (f) of the lens are related to each other by the simple equation at applies to all thin lenses: From this equation, it is evident that if the rear focal length and the distance between the lens and the object are known, then the distance between the lens and the focal plane can be calculated. Furthermore, the height of the image produced by the lens divided by the height of the object determines the lateral magnification (M) of the lens: Of course, the equations just described are based on the assumption that the lens system is surrounded by air on both sides, but this is often not the case in optical microscopy when using oil, water, or glycerin immersion objectives. However, a majority of the common microscope low to medium power objectives do not use an imaging medium other than air. Among the conclusions that can be derived from the simple lens mathematics just discussed are that the magnification (or reduction in size) of an image is equal to the focal length of the lens system, divided by the distance between the object plane and the focal plane on the front side (object side) of the lens. In addition, the magnification (or reduction) of the image is equal to the distance between the image plane and the focal plane on the right side of the lens, divided by the focal length of the lens. These equations are often utilized for the calculation of magnification or reduction in image size by a lens system having a fixed focal length. They are also useful for determining the distance of the image from the principal plane on the right (image space) side of the lens when the specimen is placed at a fixed distance in the object space. Another factor that is important in microscopy is the longitudinal or axial magnification, which is defined as the ratio of the distance between two image points along the axis of the lens to their corresponding conjugate points in the specimen. In general, the magnitude of longitudinal magnification is determined by the square of the lateral magnification for small distances within the image plane. Single lenses capable of forming images (like the bi-convex lens) are useful in tools designed for simple magnification applications, such as magnifying glasses, eyeglasses, single-lens cameras, loupes, viewfinders, and contact lenses. The simplest doublets (two-lens systems) are known as achromatics and consist of two lens elements cemented together in order to correct for on-axis spherical and chromatic aberrations. Achromatic doublets usually consist of a bi-convex lens coupled to a positive or negative meniscus lens or to a plano-convex lens. Triplet achromats (containing three lens elements) are utilized as high-power magnifiers and relay lenses. More highly corrected for aberration than doublets, triplet lens combinations are usually optimized through computer design techniques to virtually eliminate distortion. More complex devices often employ a combination of many lens components to enhance the magnification and take advantage of other optical properties of the image. These include microscopes, telescopes, periscopes, cameras, and binoculars, which are are among the many devices using compound optical systems. In addition to the common geometries described above, lenses are also produced in a wide variety of other shapes and dimensions (see Figure 5). Spherical ball lenses exhibit equal properties from all incident angles, and have a focal length that depends only on the diameter and the refractive index. By manipulating these two variables, a wide spectrum of focal lengths can be achieved with ball lenses, but their primary application is to improve signal coupling between fibers, emitters, and detectors utilized in the telecommunications industry. Half-ball lenses, which are hemispherically shaped, are useful in fiber communication optics, endoscopy, microscopy, and laser measurement systems. Drum lenses are produced from ball lenses by axial grinding techniques that eliminate a significant portion of the lens radius. These modified lenses are much easier to mount and align in optical systems than their ball lens counterparts. Cylinder lenses, which are produced in a wide variety of shapes and dimensions, consist of a portion of a cylinder flattened on one surface to focus light in a single plane. Because these lenses are capable of magnification in a single direction, they can be utilized to stretch images. In addition, cylinder lenses can transform a point light source into a line image, making them useful as laser line generators or to focus light into a slit. Other lens shapes include cone, rod, and aspheric optical elements. Cone lenses are employed for 360-degree illumination and image processing applications. With an optical performance similar to cylinder lenses, rod lenses will focus collimated light passing through the diameter into a line. Aspherical lenses, which can be produced in a large variety of numerical apertures, eliminate spherical aberrations and improve focusing and collimating accuracy. These lenses are often utilized in high efficiency illumination systems as condenser elements. Optical components that form images in the microscope optical train are the illuminator (condenser) lens, the focusing lenses (objective), and the eyepiece lens. Although not generally described as imaging components, the imaging properties of these individual lens elements and groups are of fundamental importance in determining the final quality of the images produced by the microscope. Mortimer Abramowitz - Olympus America, Inc., Two Corporate Center Drive., Melville, New York, 11747. Kenneth R. Spring - Scientific Consultant, Lusby, Maryland, 20657. Michael W. Davidson - National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, 1800 East Paul Dirac Dr., The Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, 32310. Questions or comments? Send us an email. © 1998-2019 by Michael W. Davidson and The Florida State University. All Rights Reserved. No images, graphics, scripts, or applets may be reproduced or used in any manner without permission from the copyright holders. Use of this website means you agree to all of the Legal Terms and Conditions set forth by the owners. This website is maintained by our

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This actually means a large joint effect owing to both schools and home background…little that is unique to schools or homes. Subsequent research has demonstrated that smaller class sizes in the early grades have particular benefit for disadvantaged children. Although some policymakers have drawn exaggerated conclusions from this research, claiming that smaller class sizes are always beneficial, few dispute that smaller class sizes benefit disadvantaged students in the early grades. For a summary of the debate, see Mishel and Rothstein NAEP collected background information on whether the household received a newspaper. Today, as newspaper circulation has fallen while newspaper reading on-line has increased, newspapers in homes is probably no longer as valid a measure of family literacy. Not shown in Table 3 is that black family poverty experienced by NAEP test takers continued to decline from to , but then rose rapidly after The phrase was coined by William Julius Wilson, in his book by that name. Charlotte-Mecklenberg is a county-wide school district that includes both suburban areas and the city of Charlotte. The share of college graduates working at jobs that do not require a college degree was increasing before the recession, and has accelerated since. For to year-olds, the share increased from 30 percent to 34 percent to 39 percent from to to For to year-olds the increase was from 24 percent to 26 percent to 30 percent Mishel et al. Unpaid internships for college students have increased Perlin , Evidence regarding college graduates having to accept poorly paid internships is anecdotal but sufficiently commonplace to be persuasive. A plausible explanation for the growth of unpaid or poorly paid student internships is that internship experience has become a helpful qualification for college graduates hoping to find their first jobs following graduation, a condition related to increased competition for a limited number of job opportunities. Otherwise equivalent job applicants with white-sounding names get called for interviews more frequently than otherwise equivalent applicants with black-sounding names Bertrand and Mullainathan White job applicants with criminal records get called for interviews more frequently than otherwise equivalent black applicants without criminal records Pager For an illustration of how impractical it would be to integrate schools in the Detroit metropolitan area with its current segregated residential patterns, see Rothstein and Santow b. The report also compares the benefits of integration with those of increased compensatory education funding for disadvantaged students in schools with less integration, and finds the former to be a more powerful intervention. Alexander, Michelle. New York: New Press. Alonso, Juan Diego, and Richard Rothstein. Economic Policy Institute Briefing Paper Austin, Algernon. The Unfinished March: An Overview. Economic Policy Institute Report. Berends, Mark, and Roberto V. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Bryk, Anthony S. Organizing Schools for Improvement: Lessons from Chicago. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Household Data. Table A Last modified date June 07, Campbell, Jay R. NCES Department of Education. Casey The Annie E. Casey Foundation. Chay, Kenneth Y. Duncan Arne. Ferguson, Ronald F. The Civil Rights Project. Gates, Bill. Grant, Gerald. Grissmer, David, Sophie M. Aiyer, William M. Murrah, Kevin J. Grimm, and Joel S. Grissmer, David, and Elizabeth Eiseman. Grissmer, David W. Student Achievement and the Changing American Family. Santa Monica, Calif. Guryan, Jonathan. Johnson, Rucker C. King, Martin Luther, Jr. Ladd, Helen F. Magnuson, Katherine, Dan T. Rosenbaum, and Jane Waldfogel. Magnuson, Katherine, and Jane Waldfogel, eds. - World War II German Police Units. - Achievement gains by blacks as measured by the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP); - Buildings, Culture and Environment: Informing Local and Global Practices! - Limber. Essays! - Goldfranks Toxicologic Emergencies; - AFT President: Betsy DeVos and Donald Trump Are Dismantling Public Education? - What Is Curriculum Theory?. Massey, Douglas S. American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, Mass. Mishel, Lawrence. Economic Policy Institute Issue Brief The State of Working America. An Economic Policy Institute book. Ithaca, N. Mishel, Lawrence, and Richard Rothstein, eds. The Class Size Debate. Washington, D. Mosteller, Frederick, and Daniel P. Moynihan, eds. New York: Random House. Digest of Education Statistics Nixon, Richard M. The American Presidency Project. Orfield, Gary. Public School Desegregation in the United States, Pager, Devah. Perlin, Ross. Brooklyn, N. Rampall, Catherine. Jobs That Newly Require B. Reardon, Sean F. Duncan and Richard J. Murnane, eds. New York, N. Rothstein, Richard. Grading Education: Getting Accountability Right. Rothstein, Richard, and Mark Santow. Economic Policy Institute Working Paper. Schwartz, Heather. Century Foundation. Sharkey, Patrick. Chicago, Ill. Sherman, Arloc. Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Census Bureau a. Census Bureau b. Data obtained from website August 16, Vigdor, Jacob L. Wallace, George C. Weiner, David A. Lutz, and Jens Ludwig. Wething, Hilary. Estimates of parent-child ratios from U. Economic Policy Institute. Windham, Ben. Wyatt, Edward. Appendix Table 1. Appendix Table 2a. Appendix Table 2b. Districts ranked by size of difference, district African American average vs. Appendix Table 3. Segregation and poverty in elementary school of typical black student, , for cities participating in NAEP District Assessment, See more work by Richard Rothstein. Download PDF Press release. Table 1. Share on Facebook Tweet this chart. Comprehensive and ground-breaking,What Is Curriculum Theory? Language: English Copyright: The authors of this book join a growing number of voices calling for teachers in diverse, inclusive schools to move In this innovative book, four prominent philosophers of education introduce readers to the central debates about the role of gender What is the relationship of gender to the micropolitics of school reform? The timely research question is explored in this Please note that the Lexile measures for a small population of books have been recently updated. Enhancements were made to more precisely measure materials read in K-2 classrooms. Although the vast majority of books that have Lexile measures did not change, a small subset of books required updated Lexile measures. Many products and services offer Lexile measures for their books and reading materials. We are working with the hundreds of companies that partner with us to transition them to the more precise Lexile measures. The American people have a right to buy and own guns, but I also have a right to be able to go to school and not worry about dying. My right to live outweighs any gun rights. How many more people have to die before something is done? Every day that we sit around and do nothing about the shootings and guns, we are killing more innocent people. The U. We have to make our voices heard and strive for change. Is a gun worth more than my life? The media in general provides a liberal stance on the gun debate. Weapons come in many different forms, and a common misconception in our country is that we would be safer without guns. Even though improvements to gun policy could prove to be beneficial, they will never end the violence that has come to play a part in our education system. However, we do need to do something to help the mentally ill instead of arbitrarily restricting already existing gun regulations. Nikolas Cruz had a well-known history of firearm obsession. Cruz was even evaluated by behavioral health experts, yet he was not hospitalized or detained. We could have helped him before this tragedy unfolded in front of our eyes. After listening to a story on NPR, I encountered a fact by a neuroscientist about brain development for the average year-old. The prefrontal cortex of teenagers is not yet fully developed. This is the part of the brain that helps you to control impulses and make smart decisions in times of stress. If 18 is the legal age to buy a gun, then I see a huge problem with this. I believe we should adjust the legal age requirement for someone to own a gun. Practically, there is not a solution. Based on inevitable mathematical probability, someone somewhere with gun access will carry out a school shooting. Theoretically, the only surefire way to prevent a school shooting is to prevent guns from getting into civilian hands whether illegal or legal firearms. What needs to happen instead is education. We need to educate the public about guns in order to prevent firearm ignorance. We should have mandatory gun safety classes in school and teach young people what a firearm is, the tools and parts of the gun and what purposes they serve. Even with one gun in public circulation, there will be a potential but very slim chance of a shooting. School shootings give responsible gun owners and guns a bad name. Gun restrictions will not get rid of school shootings, even if every single student in school had the discipline of a soldier and proper training. The problems our society is experiencing right now have more to do with how we treat each other than gun control. We judge people based on their looks, especially if they look sketchy or just different. We see someone who is quiet or a kid who is always getting into trouble, and we judge them without know what they have been through. Society makes fun of those type of people. As teenagers, we constantly pick on someone until they are down on the ground. You see all of these shows about criminals, and some of them are about murders, and it intrigues us. The real problem is us. The right to bear arms is a fundamental freedom enjoyed in the United States. Without laws, we are faced with the problem of unashamed maniacs and domestic terrorists. The simplest solution to this complex issue seems to be tighter restrictions and more cohesive background and mental state checks. Or at least make it harder to. The same lawmakers are aware of the hundreds and thousands of dollars they receive from the NRA National Rifle Association. Some may wonder how such people came into power. I have grown up in a house full of firearms and hunting bows. I have had my hunting license since I was in fifth grade. However, many people my age struggle with mental health. Some take it to extreme levels, like taking guns from their home to school and shooting innocent people. As a country, we also need to make it harder to buy firearms. Only certain guns should allowed to be sold to the average joe. Not only should we add more regulations, but we should add a tax when buying a firearm, like we do for cigarettes and alcohol — items that may bring harm to ourselves or others. There are several measures that could have been taken to prevent the Parkland, Florida school shooting, like taking threats, including social media posts, more seriously. Guns themselves are not evil and do not murder individuals. They are safe in the possession of a majority of Americans and will never be used to kill children. With that said, a revisit to gun laws is reasonable, including extensive background checks and mental evaluations for those looking to purchase any firearm. Realistically, there will not be an end to school shootings any time soon. Therefore, public schools needs to heighten security now in order to protect those inside. In some cases, hospitals and banks have security systems that will lock doors; this isolates the shooter and would prevent their travel throughout the premise. Some individuals favor solutions that place armed guards in a defense perimeter around schools. Others want to arm teachers. The truth about the Parkland shooting is that it opened eyes and it opened doors. The debate has shifted from petty Twitter fights to actual debates on gun control policy. A wave of voices has emerged and teens are demanding reform. Efforts to normalize gun violence by those in power and the news media have been shaken by our awareness that this violent American plague is anything but normal. School shootings cannot be blamed on problems of the big city. Parkland is no bigger than my hometown in the Midwest. I think the country is finally starting to notice that it can happen to any of our schools. Most teenagers today remember the heartbreak after Sandy Hook but have become increasingly desensitized to such events as they occur more frequently. The individuals who commit such heinous acts are given the power — easy access to weapons — to instill fear into school-aged children. They are dubbed as people who are mentally-ill instead of as terrorists. While they are successful in breaking the spirit of many, they will never take away my voice. My tears are quickly replaced with anger. But nobody can take away my voice. I will never stop speaking out against the deep injustice of school shootings and a system which has failed its citizens too many times. Public Schools in the Crosshairs: Far-Right Propaganda and the Common Core State Standards In the aftermath of the most recent school shooting in Parkland, Florida, adults tell us not to live in fear and to go on with our daily lives. Yet, over the last two decades since the mass shooting at Columbine High School, nothing has been done to prevent more school shootings. In fact, access to assault-style weapons has only gotten easier. This unfettered access to weapons has caused us to lose future Olympians, mathematicians, teachers, writers, doctors, astronauts and all those individuals who would one day make up our communities. Our generation will not forget that our elected leaders have let us down over and over again. It should be harder to get guns or certain attachments. They should be required to take a class to make sure they know how to handle guns. People just need to grow up and deal with the fact that some folks may not be stable or knowledgeable enough to own a gun. The world is safer that way. Plan B would involve improving security at schools and passing stricter gun laws. We can start by preventing anyone under the age of 25 from owning a gun. At 25, people are coming out of their adolescence phase and becoming responsible adults. Under Plan B, we get our government to step up and find a way to take of the issue. I was 12 years old at the time of the Sandy Hook shooting. Hopelessly idealistic and a little naive, I believed that the government, who had to be equally sickened and shocked as I was at the massacre of elementary school children, would immediately scramble to prevent such tragedies from reoccurring. But nothing changed. And then, another school shooting happened. Then another. And here we are now, a nation reeling from the deaths of 17 more students and teachers in Florida, wondering what went wrong again. Our inaction as a nation is — and was — inexcusable. When the National Rifle Association has donated millions to our representatives, it is no wonder that the many attempts to pass gun safety legislation have been repeatedly blocked. We have allowed greed to overpower our humanity; we cannot have the people who represent us value profit over lives. When politics have become increasingly polarized, it is no wonder that we have not had effective dialogue regarding gun control. Progress cannot be made without communication and compromise; effective gun control and the Second Amendment truly can coexist. I believe that the best solution to this problem is to increase the level of background checks regarding gun sales and make it harder for those suffering from certain mental illnesses to acquire guns. If a person is viewed as a danger to society, then they should not be allowed to own a gun under any circumstances. I also believe that those with violent criminal history should face much higher restrictions when owning and purchasing guns. However, I do not in any way support creating more total gun-free zones. The idea of total gun-free zones sounds like a good solution, but how likely is it for a potential shooter to follow a sign warning of a total gun-free zone? Schools should have at least one police officer. They should be able to do whatever they want about not letting in armed visitors, but they should definitely have some protection within the school to stop a potential shooter. I hope and pray that tragedies like this will cease to occur and the lives of American children will be protected. I also believe this recent shooting will lead to changes in gun laws. After the Florida school shooting my friends and I were having a conversation at our lunch table. We were saying how if four shooters came in at that moment, blocking all exits, what would we do. We should be more concerned with a pop quiz in history than a mass murderer popping through the doors. An AR can fire dozens of rounds a minute. A legally converted AR can fire a minute. In , about four out of every 10 Americans said they owned a gun or live in a home with guns. Now am I saying we should ban all firearms? No, not at all. In most cases, semi-automatic weapons that mimic those used by our military on the battlefield. Why would you ever use such a gun for hunting? Parkland is different. My generation has grown up living through nonstop violence, and now many of us are of voting age. We will organize school walkouts and speak to our administration. We will work with school boards and lobby local leaders. We will challenge the National Rifle Association and our elected officials. And in November, we will vote. As it is now, we are vulnerable and defenseless. We can only run and hide. I am demanding that we take action on this issue as a nation. I like that we have a right to bear arms. However, I do care about preventing the wrong people, including those with certain mental health issues, getting ahold of guns. Authorities should look for specific signs. I believe that every school should be well secured with metal detectors no matter how much they cost. If you go to school in a nice suburban area, there will probably not be any metal detectors in sight. But just about every year, there is a school shooting in a town unknown to most Americans. The people who carry out mass shootings are predominantly white and live not far from the schools. It looks like metal detectors need to be everywhere now, not just in the hood. As a high school student myself in the modern world, it is quite honestly absurd that the issue of massacring children is even something that needs to be argued. I find it terrifying that Nikolas Cruz was able to pass a background check to obtain his guns. Being suspended from his high school for violent behavior should have been enough of a red flag. Guns are designed to kill. Whether they are used to kill animals or people, they are weapons of death. I believe that the solution is stricter background checks and outlawing bump stocks and military grade weapons. No one needs an AR rifle to hunt, nor do they need bump stocks. Students are required to spend roughly 5, hours every year in school. We demand to feel safe. Our culture is aware of the danger of guns, but the news and entertainment media have helped to rob the public of their true dangers. By educating people more about guns, we are more likely to become aware of their power. The problem with school shootings is that with time they do pass and over time the media moves on to a new topic. Instead of hoping and praying for change, we need to take responsibility and advocate for the changes we want to see in our country. We have drills at school for natural disasters such as fires or tornadoes or earthquakes. School shootings are not a problem in the African American community. There has rarely been an incident where a black child has shot up a school. When a black person commits a crime, the media digs for dirt on them. But when a white person does it, the media makes excuses for them. We were all alert as we frantically walked outside not knowing what to expect. Sirens blared around as we continued to hear the fire alarm ringing inside. There was a faulty smoke alarm. We were safe, but it had been bad timing. The following Monday, three minutes before dismissal, the fire alarm went off again. I remember my blood turning cold as students protested my teacher, telling her that they would not leave. Eventually, we were told that we must go outside and obeyed. Later, another one of my friends told me how she teared up. The chatter around me was fearful and angry. Luckily, yet another smoke detector had malfunctioned, and we were safely released from school afterwards. Were we next? I think schools districts should have mandatory security equipment in all schools to keep students and staff safe. There should also be more high-tech security for social media monitoring. Staff should be highly trained for events in order to protect students and themselves. The federal government should take responsibility and fund what is needed to keep schools safe. I think if everyone came together and took a stand, we could solve the problem, and schools could become places of learning once again. I remember the first time I saw one of my classmates with a handgun. I was walking home from my middle school in seventh grade. He was sitting in the woods, showing it off to his friends. We live in an affluent county in Pennsylvania. I know few, if any, of these young men who have ever gone hunting. There is another young man at my high school that sends dozens of his peers videos of him unloading and reloading guns at least twice a week. He is brooding, about twice my size and his excuse is that he wants to join the army. Get us stronger security systems. Get us more school counselors who can help those students who never really fit, who get made fun of by other kids, who eat alone at lunch and whose families struggle. There is so much we can do. As a high school student who witnessed a shooting just off campus , I strongly believe that legislative action must be taken. For instance, Connecticut passed legislation that banned assault weapons, outlawed magazines exceeding 10 rounds and began requiring background checks for all gun sales. Since then, gun-related deaths have dropped from in to in For too long we have stood by and watched teachers and students get slaughtered by guns — guns that are legal for merely recreational purposes. Our voices will no longer be drowned out by older, polarized generations. We need action. Gun control works. For many teens, witnessing the mobilization of student activists against gun violence in the wake of the Parkland shooting has been inspiring, but others remain skeptical. Malala was a girl fighting for her education; the Taliban shot her in the forehead. Although our cultures are different, one thing connects America and Afghanistan: We both have kids who are frightened to go to school. And yet, the U. We are supposed to have our crap together. Instead, we are struggling to keep our children safe from assault riffles in their schools. Can schools help Americans do a better job separating fact from fake news? And government officials are too stubborn to realize that they often see eye to eye on several matters of gun control. The adults of this country no longer have the luxury to disagree. They must come together to save the lives of our children. Like a gunshot, panic broke out. Someone screamed. I looked around wildly for the teacher, waiting for her to start issuing orders to turn down the blinds and hide under the desks. But she was opening the door and herding people into the corridors. Two things deeply disturbed me about the incident. Two, that it had provoked such mass hysteria. Being in close quarters with a guardian of the Second Amendment, my father, pro-gun rhetoric and its recycled arguments no longer held any persuasion for me. Congress and the President need to understand that their inaction is trading away the lives of the future. But this time is different because we, the students, are the future and the future will not stand for it. We need to make sure that people who are known to be violent or mentally unstable are given the help they need and not easy access to assault weapons. Programs that create smaller communities within schools would allow students with mental health issues to be identified and helped. Finally, students must be part of the conversation. Our lives are worth more than guns. A student, Nikolas Cruz, became a school shooter. Much of the discussion that followed has centered on the need for gun control. Few have even acknowledged the life of the shooter. Cruz was a troubled student. Everyone wants to blame him, and yes, I do believe that he should be punished for his actions. But the root causes of such actions should be examined, too. Why primarily argue about guns? Argue the fact that bullying is alive in all our hallways. Argue the fact that depression can rise like a fire with no help in sight. We should teach students and faculty about gun safety, which includes how to shoot a gun, maintain a gun and how to disarm a gun at the bare minimum. Teachers and other faculty members should also have some sort of weapon available in the classroom. Whether or not it is a gun should be a decision left to the teacher to decide, but a weapon should be mandatory. I also believe in mental health checks before purchasing a weapon at a gun show or store. In fact, I would propose mandatory mental health screens for everyone, both young and old. This way the government could keep a mental health database and consult it when necessary. The Parkland shooting news alert popped up on my phone like many before it. But this one caught my eye…high school…shooter…fatalities. In shock, I blurted out the headline to a bus full of rowdy high schoolers headed to a soccer game. The response was heartbreaking. A couple of heads popped up from the lure of their phones but quickly looked back down. Only one person asked for details. We Americans have become desensitized to mass shootings. As a year old born and raised in America, I have lived through too many national tragedies, more than enough for a lifetime. Mass shootings are now so frequent that many hardly bat an eyelash. Our pain has been desensitized. This is a problem. This is the problem. This is our problem. The recent Florida shooting has made me aware of how much I had been living in fear without even realizing it. The types of weapons used in mass shootings are insanely powerful and, if not stopped, have the capability to kill hundreds of people in minutes. As students, we are the ones who are affected by this, yet it seems like no one will take our voices seriously. One suggestion has been to put our teachers in the role of first responder, concealing metal and lead somewhere between their barely functioning technologies and dull dry erase markers. Instead, I wish they would arm our teachers with the tools they need to provide us with knowledge. If teachers wanted to be police officers, then it seems to me that they would have taken that oath. Free Thought Lives This country, in all of its greatness, and it is already great, needs to get tougher on gun laws. Why do civilians need to own a weapon that the military uses during war to create mass casualties? How can I be sure that it will not be me getting caught in the thought of a was. How can I be sure that it will not be my family pleading on their worn battle knees, bleeding and crying out for answers, because their child no longer is but was. Do not act like prevention was a joke. A rehearsal that people knew would not work. A rehearsal that did not work for them. Tough school? War, illiteracy and hope in Afghanistan If you have a platform to speak and people to listen, use it. Speak up about gun violence and start making a change. If you see a sign, how could you ignore it? Do not leave an abandoned mission to collect dust. Why not try to help? We cannot read minds, but we can read posts. Just so in case there is a school shooting, I can go out the window and easily run to my car, fill it up with as many people as possible and get away. The other day at school I was sitting in the cafeteria and some kid dropped his binder and it made a big sound throughout the cafeteria, it sounded somewhat like a gunshot, and immediately I started crying. When I moved to Mexico my sophomore year, I went to Acapulco for a week to visit some distant family. My family came back a week later to a cross sitting on our front door. Our neighbors told us that someone had been shot and killed next to our home. I found out that a boy my age had gotten into an argument and shot someone with a gun that he had gained easy access to. What really rattled me was later that night, when we got home, and saw all the children playing outside like nothing had happened. I have lived in both the United States and Mexico. Methods for taking down an active shooter need to be explored. Schools should create a team of non-lethal weapon carriers. There are many who protest the idea of faculty and staff in schools carrying weapons, but what if these weapons could bring down a shooter without ever posing a threat or causing a fatality? Pellet and bean bag guns have been developed for crowd control. It is not a stretch to ask and receive training to operate a non-lethal weapon. After these problems are addressed and changes are made, maybe then we could come together and heal some of the wounds that this country has endured over the last few years. The students also need to take some of the blame. The teens that create these massacres have to have a reason for doing all this. Maybe if one kid had said hello to him that day, he might not feel the need to go over the edge. But maybe, just maybe, some of the teens that were killed, maybe they would still be alive if someone noticed the weird kid, who sits alone at lunch. We need to have some restrictions and make it a little harder to get guns. One of the first restrictions we need is definitely a mental health screening. With a more comprehensive system for reporting mental health issues and conducting background checks, we can avoid putting guns in the hands of people who pose threats to themselves or others. Another thing that we need to have, and this goes for inside as well as outside of schools, is an armed guard. I personally think we should hire unemployed veterans. We should make the job of protecting our schools available to these men and women. Stronger implementation of background checks when trying to purchase a gun is essential. Active-shooter drills should take place in every school. Threats to schools need to be taken more seriously by school administrators. I hear about too many threats being easily dismissed. Students should have weekly locker checks and doors around the building should be locked at all times. Many say that the immediate solution is gun control. However, in the face of slow legislative change and deepening cultural trends, what we need is a social shift. By fostering acceptance and fighting intolerance in school, we can take action instantaneously, focusing on the problem rather than political parties, and positively influencing social culture as a whole. Teachers are our role models. All it takes is one conversation and one teacher to set off the spark. A teacher could walk into their class tomorrow and start a discussion about a difficult, divisive issue that students face and adults shy away from. This is how to save the future today. I think there are a lot of hints posted on social media about future events that the individual is planning. I also believe that parents could help keep their kids safe by monitoring their social media accounts for hints of dangerous or unhealthy behavior. However, students are afraid to go to school personnel if they suspect such a thing. I think this mindset also needs to change. Students need to talk with guidance counselors more often. Besides putting more restrictions on guns, we could end or lower school shootings by having more psychologists in schools. These mental health experts could randomly rotate and observe students in their natural settings, like classrooms, lunches and gyms. They could spot students who may be prone to self-harm. It could possibly help save people from not only ending their lives but ending the lives of others. Aeon for Friends Plus, having more mental health professionals in schools could raise awareness for the amazing science and role of psychology. Lastly, this could put an end to bullying because the psychologists could pinpoint the bullies, and help the school find out why they are acting out. I go to school every day, and knowing anybody could walk in and do the same thing all over, is not right. Given the prevalence of mass shootings, a higher level of security is needed at each and every school. Each and every part of the school should be monitored, and everyone who comes in should be checked from top to bottom. No child who attends school in order to learn should be hurt. Plus, not allowing easy access to guns would make it harder for the people who want to commit these shootings to get ahold of these weapons. While there is the argument that if they want to kill or harm people, they will find a way no matter what, something I agree with myself, at least we can reduce the chances of this happening. The issue is a person who never should have been allowed to purchase a gun was able to use that gun against innocent people. People who were just going to school. School, a place every child in America is required by law to attend. School, a place where people are free to expand their knowledge and embrace creativity. School, the place where I am writing this from and talking about gun control. How was this man able to buy this gun in the first place? What is the government doing to protect these children?

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Ontario Provincial Police The Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) is the provincial police service for the province of Ontario, Canada. In the late 1940s, policing functions were reorganized in Ontario, with the OPP given responsibility for all law enforcement in the province outside areas covered by municipal police forces, together with overall authority for law enforcement on the King's Highways, enforcement of the provincial liquor laws, aiding the local police and maintaining a criminal investigation branch. |Ontario Provincial Police| Police provinciale de l'Ontario Heraldic badge of the OPP Shoulder flash of the OPP |Motto||Safe Communities, A Secure Ontario| |Formed||13 October 1909| |Volunteers||853 auxiliary constables| |Annual budget||$1,161,047,996 (2015–16) Actual| |Operations jurisdiction||Ontario, Canada| |Governing body||Ministry of the Solicitor General| |Headquarters||777 Memorial Ave.| Orillia, Ontario, Canada |Elected officer responsible| The OPP is responsible for providing policing services over one million square kilometres (390,000 sq mi) of land and 174,000 km2 (67,200 sq mi) of water to a population of 2.3 million people (3.6 million in the summer months). As of 2010, it has over 6,200 uniformed, 850 auxiliary, and 2,700 civilian personnel. The vehicle fleet consists of 2,290 vehicles, 114 marine vessels, 286 snow and all-terrain vehicles, two helicopters, and two fixed-wing aircraft. Rank structure within the OPP is paramilitary or quasi-military in nature, with several "non-commissioned" ranks leading to the "officer" ranks. - 1 Overview - 2 History - 3 Organization and operations - 4 Auxiliary program - 5 Fleet - 6 Weapons - 7 Popular culture - 8 Controversy - 9 See also - 10 References - 11 Further reading - 12 External links The OPP is the largest deployed police force in Ontario and the second-largest in Canada. It is responsible for providing policing services throughout the province in areas lacking local police forces. It also provides specialized support to smaller municipal police forces, investigates province-wide and cross-jurisdictional crimes, patrols provincial highways, and is responsible for law enforcement on many of the province's waterways. The OPP also works with other provincial agencies, including the Ministry of Transportation and Ministry of Natural Resources, to enforce highway safety and conservation regulations, respectively. Finally, OPP officers provide security at the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in Toronto. At the First Parliament of Upper Canada in Niagara-on-the-Lake on September 17, 1792, a provision was made for the formation of a "police system". Initially, policing jurisdictions were limited to districts, townships, and parishes. In 1845, a mounted police force was created in order to keep the peace in areas surrounding the construction of public works. It became the Ontario Mounted Police Force after Canadian Confederation. In 1877, the Constables Act extended jurisdiction and gave designated police members authorization to act throughout the province. The first salaried provincial constable appointed to act as detective for the government of Ontario was John Wilson Murray, hired on a temporary appointment in 1875 and made permanent upon passage of the 1877 act. Murray was joined by two additional detectives in 1897, marking the beginnings of the Criminal Investigation Branch. However, for the most part, policing outside of Ontario's cities was non-existent. With the discovery of silver in Cobalt and gold in Timmins, lawlessness was increasingly becoming a problem in northern Ontario. Police constables were gradually introduced in various areas, until an Order in Council decreed the establishment of a permanent organization of salaried constables designated as the Ontario Provincial Police Force on October 13, 1909. It consisted of 45 men under the direction of Superintendent Joseph E. Rogers. The starting salary for constables was $400 per annum, increased to $900 in 1912. There were many detachments simultaneously founded including Bala, Muskoka, Niagara Falls, and others. In the 1920s, restructuring was undertaken with the passing of the Provincial Police Force Act, 1921. The title of the commanding officer was changed to "commissioner" and given responsibility for enforcing the provisions of the Ontario Temperance Act and other liquor regulations. Major-General Harry Macintyre Cawthra-Elliot was appointed as the first commissioner. The OPP's first death in the line of duty occurred in 1923, when escaped convict Leo Rogers shot and killed Sergeant John Urquhart near North Bay. Rogers, who was later killed in a shootout with OPP officers, had already mortally wounded North Bay City constable, Fred Lefebvre. The first OPP motorcycle patrol was introduced in 1928, phased out in 1942, and then reintroduced in 1949. The first marked OPP patrol car was introduced in 1941. During World War II, the Veterans Guard was formed. This was a body of volunteers (primarily World War I veterans) whose duty was to protect vulnerable hydroelectric plants and the Welland Ship Canal under the supervision of regular police members. In the late 1940s, policing functions were reorganized in Ontario, with the OPP given responsibility for all law enforcement in the province outside areas covered by municipal police forces, together with overall authority for law enforcement on the King's Highways, enforcement of the provincial liquor laws, aiding the local police, and maintaining a criminal investigation branch. Women joined the uniformed ranks in 1974. In 1994, as part of a tripartite agreement between the government of Canada, the Province of Ontario, and the Nishnawbe Aski Nation, the OPP began the process of relinquishing a majority of northern policing duties to the newly created Nishnawbe-Aski Police Service (NAPS). The transition was complete on April 1, 1999, when the OPP's Northwest Patrol was transferred to NAPS. The OPP still administers first nations policing for Big Trout Lake, Weagamow, Muskrat Dam, and Pikangikum. Organization and operationsEdit The Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) provide policing services to areas of Ontario not policed by a regional or municipal police service. Municipalities can also be policed by the OPP under contract, with 323 as of 2019. Some detachments also host satellite detachments that provide policing to a local area, covering more than one million square kilometers, approximately 128,000 kilometers of provincial highway, and a population of over 13 million people. The OPP General Headquarters is currently located at 777 Memorial Avenue in Orillia at the Lincoln M. Alexander Building. The relocation of general headquarters to Orillia was part of a government move to decentralize ministries and operations to other parts of Ontario. Previously, from 1973 to 1995, the headquarters were located in Toronto at 90 Harbour Street, the site of the former Workmen's Compensation Board building. Previously, the OPP was divided into seventeen different regions. In 1995, OPP operations were amalgamated into six regions, with five providing general policing services, and one providing traffic policing services in the Greater Toronto Area following recommendations by the Ipperwash Inquiry. OPP police stations are known as "detachments". |1||Central||Orillia||General policing||Bracebridge, Caledon, City of Kawartha Lakes, Collingwood, Dufferin County, Haliburton Highlands, Huntsville, Huronia West, Northumberland County, Northumberland County (Campbellford), Northumberland County (Brighton), Nottawasaga, Orillia, Orillia (Barrie), Peterborough County, Southern Georgian Bay, Southern Georgian Bay (Midland)| |2||Northwest||Thunder Bay||General policing||Dryden, Dryden (Ignace), Greenstone, Kenora, Kenora (Sioux Narrows), Marathon, Marathon (Manitouwadge), Nipigon, Nipigon (Schreiber), Rainy River District, Rainy River District (Atikokan), Rainy River District (Emo), Rainy River District (Rainy River), Red Lake, Red Lake (Ear Falls), Sioux Lookout, Sioux Lookout (Pickle Lake), Thunder Bay, Thunder Bay (Shabaqua), Thunder Bay (Armstrong)| |3||East||Smith Falls||General policing||Bancroft, Central Hastings, Frontenac, Frontenac (Sharbot Lake), Grenville, Hawkesbury, Killaloe, Killaloe (Whitney), Lanark County, Lanark County (Carleton Place), Leeds County, Leeds County (Thousand Islands), Leeds County (Rideau Lake), Lennox and Addington County, Lennox and Addington County (East), Lennox and Addington County (North), Prince Edward County, Quinte West, Renfrew, Renfrew (Arnprior), Russell County, Russell County (Rockland), Stormont Dundas and Glengarry, Stormont Dundas and Glengarry (Alexandria), Stormont Dundas and Glengarry (Lancaster), Stormont Dundas and Glengarry (Morrisburg), Stormont Dundas and Glengarry (Winchester), Upper Ottawa Valley, Upper Ottawa Valley (Pembroke)| |4||Northeast||North Bay||General policing||Almaguin Highlands, East Algoma, East Algoma (Elliot Lake), East Algoma (Thessalon), James Bay, James Bay (Hearst), James Bay (Cochrane), James Bay (Moosonee) Kirkland Lake, Manitoulin, Manitoulin (Gore Bay), Manitoulin (Little Current), Manitoulin (Mindemoya), Manitoulin (Espanola), North Bay, North Bay (Mattawa), North Bay (Powassan), Sault Ste. Marie, South Porcupine, South Porcupine (Iroquois Falls), South Porcupine (Gogama), South Porcupine (Matheson), South Porcupine (Foleyet), Sudbury, Sudbury (Noelville), Sudbury (Warren), Sudbury (Nipissing West), Superior East, Superior East (Chapleau), Superior East (Hornepayne), Superior East (White River), Temiskaming, Temiskaming (Englehart), Temiskaming (Temagami), West Parry Sound, West Parry Sound (Still River)| |5||Highway Safety Division||Aurora||Traffic policing||Aurora, Aurora (Barrie), Burlington, Burlington (Niagara), Cambridge, Highway 407, Highway 407 (Burlington), Port Credit, Toronto, Toronto (Whitby)| |6||West||London||General policing||Brant County, Chatham-Kent, Elgin County, Essex County, Essex County (Harrow), Essex County (Kingsville), Essex County (Lakeshore), Essex County (Leamington), Essex County (Tecumseh), Grey County, Grey County (Markdale), Grey County (Meaford), Grey County (Wiarton), Haldimand County, Huron County, Huron County (Exeter), Huron County (Wingham), Huron County (Goderich), Lambton County, Lambton County (Corunna), Lambton County (Grand Bend), Lambton County (Point Edward), Middlesex County, Middlesex County (Glencoe), Middlesex County (London), Middlesex County (Lucan) Norfolk County, Oxford County, Oxford County (Ingersol) Perth County, Perth County (Listowel), Perth County (Mitchell), South Bruce, South Bruce (Walkerton), Wellington County, Wellington County (Rockwood), Wellington County (Teviotdale)| Legislative Security ServiceEdit The Legislative Security Service consists of special constables who provide security services to the Legislative Precinct (Legislature Building and Whitney Block) and report to the sergeant-at-arms. Officer uniforms consist of white shirt, black tactical vest, radio, black pants with yellow stripe and peaked cap. The majority of policing services are provided by uniformed front-line police constables. All sworn members of the OPP, as per the Police Services Act, must attend the Ontario Police College in Aylmer, Ontario, for thirteen weeks to obtain their Basic Constable Training Diploma. The OPP also mandates additional training before and after attendance at the Ontario Police College, resulting in the longest training period among Ontario police services. After this, probationary police constables are assigned to a detachment within the OPP's six regions with a coach officer for a year of field training. At the end of probation, a decision is made regarding retention. The OPP conducts training at the Provincial Police Academy in Orillia, Ontario. The current academy was opened in 1998 on the site of the former Huronia Regional Centre. Previously, training was conducted at the OPP Training and Development Centre in Brampton, Ontario, from 1981 to 1998. Uniquely, the OPP also has the mandate to train First Nations constables from OPP administered first nations police services. Members of these services undergo the same training as OPP constables, save a different uniform. Academy attendance is not open to the general public. Uniformed non-commissioned OPP officers wear dark blue uniforms with gold lettering and shoulder flashes. Commissioned officers wear a different shoulder flash, and white shirts. Since 1985, wide, light blue stripes down the side of issued trousers have been standard, and forage caps are banded with a hat band of the same colour. Officers wear duty belts with issued equipment, and have the option of wearing either an internal ballistic vest, or an external tactical vest with MOLLE webbing and large placards indicating "police" on their chest and back. The OPP was the first major police service in Canada to issue tourniquets and trauma equipment to each officer. Previously, officer were issued light blue shirts instead of their current navy blue shirts. These shirts are now reserved for use by special constables, security officers, and auxiliary police constables. From 1997 to 2008, the official headdress of the OPP was the stetson, though commissioned ranks were still issued the forage cap. Starting in 2008, the OPP returned to the peaked cap for all officers. Officers in a specialized role will be issued different equipment, such as baseball caps. Officers serving with a specialty tactical unit may also be issued cargo pants without the distinctive stripe, a utility top, and subdued placards for their external tactical vest. Officers serving with the Tactics and Rescue Unit are issued olive green uniforms. Rank structure within the OPP is paramilitary or quasi-military in nature, with several "non-commissioned" ranks leading to the "officer" ranks. Detective ranks fall laterally with the uniform ranks and is not a promotion above. Police constables in the OPP are uniquely known as "provincial constables". Sworn rank insigniaEdit |Rank||Commissioner||Deputy commissioner||Chief superintendent||Superintendent||Inspector||Sergeant major||Staff sergeant / Detective staff sergeant||Sergeant / Detective sergeant||Provincial constable / Detective constable| Civilian rank insigniaEdit |Title||Special constable||Special constable||Auxiliary constable| |Notes||GHQ security, Queen's Park security||Digital forensics, forensic investigators, court security, offender transport||Auxiliary policing program| Auxiliary members have no police authority. They must rely on the same arrest provisions as regular citizens. There are some instances when an Auxiliary member may have the authority of a police officer. This can occur in an emergency situation, or where the OPP requires additional strength to assist with a special event. Auxiliary officers are unpaid, however are compensated for travel and meals. They are required to attend routine training administered by the OPP, and must contribute a certain number of hours monthly. The auxiliary is made up of people from diverse backgrounds. Auxiliary members are trained at the Provincial Police Academy and qualified with all use of force options. The auxiliary uniform is distinct from the uniform of a regular OPP officer. Auxiliary officers wear light blue shirts, checkered hat bands, and have their own cap badges. They wear slip-ons with the word auxiliary embroidered on them, and their jackets and dress uniforms have tabs sewn on that indicates that they are auxiliary officers. Following the disbanding of World War II asuxiliary forces, growing Cold War tension and fear of a nuclear attack led to the belief that police services should "recruit and train volunteers to augment their strength in times of emergency". As a result, in 1954, the Provincial Civil Defence Auxiliary was created, but the need to more closely associate the auxiliary with the OPP soon became apparent. On January 14, 1960, the Provincial Civil Defence Organization was dissolved. A new oversight body known as the Emergency Measures Organization—Ontario (EMO) came into being. Each department of the government became responsible for its own operational planning. The organization of auxiliary police forces became the responsibility of all interested municipal police forces, as well as the OPP. In April 1960, a new organization more closely affiliated with the OPP came into being. The Ontario Auxiliary Police were organized in 12 of the 17 OPP districts and by the end of the year, 376 volunteers had signed up to be equipped and trained by experienced OPP personnel. Two OPP inspectors were assigned to work with Emergency Measures Ontario as liaison officers for the volunteers. This close connection continues today with the OPP auxiliary playing a critical role in emergency and disaster planning and occurrences. By 1961 there were 466 auxiliary volunteers who accompanied regular provincials on traffic and law enforcement patrols and during the year logged more than twenty-six thousand hours of volunteer duty. In March 1969, a meeting took place at the Ontario Securities Commission in Toronto, Ontario, to incorporate a separate but included group of the Ontario Provincial Police Association. Membership is open to retired and currently serving members but also to civilian and auxiliary members. The OPP has approximately 1,200 cruisers in service across the province. Officers use all-wheel drive versions of the Ford Taurus, Ford Explorer, Dodge Charger and Chevrolet Tahoe for front line patrol. For specialized roles, a variety of vehicles are used, such as the Cambli International Thunder 1 armoured rescue vehicles used by the Tactics and Rescue Unit. Previously, models of the Ford Crown Victoria and Chevrolet Impala were used. Historically, from 1941 to 1989, the OPP livery was black and white. In 1989, in response to manufacturers no longer offering dual tone vehicles, the OPP switched to an all-white livery with blue and gold striping. Vehicles of this era were equipped with Federal Signal's Vector light bars with integrated traffic advisers. In 2007, the OPP announced that it would return to a black and white colour scheme. The colour scheme is accomplished with the use of vinyl wraps during in-house vehicle outfitting. The change was implemented starting in March 2007 and was completed in 2009. Vehicles of this era had detachment markings on the rear quarter panel and used Federal Signal Arjent S2 light bars. Current vehicles have eschewed the detachment markings and are equipped with Whelen Legacy light bars. All marked cruisers are equipped with pushbars. - Kanter Marine "Chris D. Lewis" 38-foot police boat - Draganflyer X6 UAV - FIU-301 UAS Ontario Provincial Police constables are armed and carry a variety of use of force equipment in the performance of their duties. The current sidearm of the OPP is the Glock 17M pistol in 9x19mm. Previously, officers were issued either the Sig Sauer P229 DAO, or the P229R DAK in .40S&W. Patrol vehicles are also equipped with the Colt Canada C8 patrol rifle in 5.56x45mm NATO, with the option of the Remington 870 in 12 gauge. All uniformed officers carry Taser X2 conducted energy weapons. The Tactics and Rescue Unit have more specialized weapons at their disposal: The Beatles's 1967 album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band contains cover art with Paul McCartney wearing an OPP patch on his fictional uniform (more easily seen in the gatefold picture). In January 2016 the origins of the patch was confirmed as a gift from an OPP corporal on September 28, 1964, at Malton Airport as the Beatles were on their way to Montreal. On the online social networking website Habbo Hotel Canada, OPP officers and spokespersons visit the online application to talk to teens on board the web site's "Infobus". During the weekly sessions, users of the Habbo service are able to ask the officers and spokespersons questions, primarily regarding online safety. Heavy Rescue: 401Edit Starting in 2016, the Discovery Channel reality TV series Heavy Rescue: 401 began following members of the OPP and local heavy tow operators, profiling their efforts during events and routine operations on Highway 401, a highway that crosses southern Ontario. In the Canadian horror film Pontypool, the OPP is called into the eponymous town to control a zombie outbreak, ultimately resulting in a massacre. The response of the government to this outbreak draws many parallels to Canadian separatist movements. The film's lead character, Grant Mazzy, vocally denounces the OPP's actions on the radio. In the television series Cardinal, the OPP is fictionalized as the Ontario Police Department (OPD), with a shoulder patch similar to that of the actual OPP except that the top element is replaced by three stylized maple leaves on a branch. OPP cruisers in the series are marked similar to actual cruisers, however the Queen's crown is replaced with a stylized beaver, and the vehicles are marked "O.P.D." instead of "O.P.P." Caledonia Land DisputeEdit The Caledonia Land Dispute began in 2006 when members of the Six Nations of the Grand River began an occupation of land that they believed belonged to them, in order to bring light to their land claims, and to the plight of aboriginal land claims across Canada. The land at the centre of the dispute was owned by a corporation planning to build a subdivision known as the Douglas Creek Estates. The Ontario Provincial Police were called in to keep the peace. Tensions led to violence and over the span of several years, the Ontario Provincial Police were criticized for perceived inaction against the native protesters by local residents. In 2011, a class-action lawsuit against the government of Ontario was settled. The Ipperwash Provincial Park is a former provincial park in Lambton County, Ontario. On September 4, 1995, natives occupied the park to bring attention to decades-old land claims that had not been recognized, resulting in the Ipperwash Crisis. The park had been expropriated from the Stoney Point Ojibway during World War II. The protest increased in tensions, resulting in the shooting and subsequent death of a protestor, Anthony O'Brien "Dudley" George, by Acting Sergeant Ken Deane of the Tactics and Rescue Unit. Deane was subsequently convicted of criminal negligence causing death. In 2003, an inquiry called the Ipperwash Inquiry, into the events at Ipperwash was convened, and concluded in 2007. The OPP now utilizes a variety of different methods in resolving conflicts at major events, most notably by the use of the Provincial Liaison Teams (PLT), formerly known as the Major Event Liaison Team (MELT) John Doe v. Ontario (Information and Privacy Commissioner)Edit In 1993 an Ontario Divisional Court case, John Doe v. Ontario (Information and Privacy Commissioner), Judge Matlow of the Ontario Divisional Court, suspected that four officers of the Toronto Police Service engaged in a fabrication of evidence and harassment of an accused party. Judge Matlow under the Ontario Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act (FIPPA), sought access to the report of the Ontario Provincial Police exonerating the officers, but was denied access to it by the OPP. Access was later granted by the FIPPA commissioner, but a judicial review of the FIPPA commissioner's order to release the report resulted in publication of the OPP report being banned. Ontario Provincial Police AssociationEdit The OPPA was established in 1954 to represent sworn and civilian members of the OPP, as well as OPP retirees. In March 2015, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police announced they were investigating fraud allegations against three top executives of the OPPA. - Richard Rohmer, honorary Deputy Commissioner of the OPP - "The OPP Museum - Historical Highlights of the Ontario Provincial Police". Ontario Provincial Police. Archived from the original on 2012-03-25. Retrieved 2012-06-19. - Ontario Provincial Police. "2008 Provincial Business Plan" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 6, 2009. Retrieved 2009-04-17. - https://www.ontario.ca/page/expenditure-estimates-ministry-community-safety-and-correctional-services-2017-18#vote3 Archived 2018-03-05 at the Wayback Machine - "Office of the Commissioner". Ontario Provincial Police. Retrieved 2019-04-09. - "Ontario Provincial Police Detachment List". Ontario Provincial Police. Retrieved 2014-01-19. - The Police Act, 1946, S.O. 1946, c. 72, s. 3 , later replaced by The Police Act, 1949, S.O. 1949, c. 72 - An Act for the better preservation of the Peace, and the prevention of Riots and violent Outrages at and near Public Works while in progress of Construction, S.C. 1845, c. 6, s. 14 , later replaced by The Public Works Peace Preservation Act, S.O. 1910, c. 12, s. 13 - An Act respecting Constables, S.O. 1877, c. 20 - under The Mines Act, 1906, S.O. 1906, c. 24, s. 190 - confirmed by The Constables Act, S.O. 1910, c. 39, s. 17 - The Provincial Police Force Act, 1921, S.O. 1921, c. 45 - The Ontario Temperance Act, S.O. 1916, c. 50 - https://www.attorneygeneral.jus.gov.on.ca/inquiries/ipperwash/policy_part/projects/pdf/Tab4_OPPEmergencyResponseServicesAComparisonof1995to2006.pdf Ipperwash Inquiry - "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-09-10. Retrieved 2010-04-27.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - "Ontario Provincial Police". www.opp.ca. Archived from the original on 2016-09-24. Retrieved 2016-05-24. - "Draganfly Innovations Inc". www.draganfly.com. Archived from the original on 2012-03-14. - "Sgt. Pepper's iconic photos reveal OPP badge on Paul McCartney's uniform - Toronto Star". Archived from the original on 2017-06-29. - "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2018-03-28. Retrieved 2017-05-25.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - "OPPA - OPP Association History". www.oppa.ca. Archived from the original on 2015-04-02. - "'Unusual transactions' in OPP union funds among allegations against top execs". 13 March 2015. Archived from the original on 14 March 2015. - Higley, Dahn (1984). O.P.P.: The history of the Ontario Provincial Police Force. Toronto: Queen's Printer. ISBN 0-7743-8964-8. - Barnes, Michael (1991). Policing Ontario: The OPP Today. Erin: Boston Mills Press. ISBN 1-55046-015-3. - Maksymchuk, Andrew F. (2008). From MUSKEG to MURDER: Memories of Policing Ontario's Northwest. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4251-7089-9. - Maksymchuk, Andrew F. (2014). "Champions of the Dead": OPP Crime-fighters Seeking Proof of the Truth. FriesenPress. ISBN 978-1-4602-4828-7. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ontario Provincial Police.| |Wikinews has related news:| - Ontario Provincial Police Website - Road Watch, was started by the Caledon, Ontario Provincial Police detachment. - Highway Safety Division - Aircraft Enforcement Program

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Understanding Tubal Pregnancy and Ectopic hCG Levels Human Chorionic Gonadotropin in Pregnancy Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is produced by an embryo once implantation has occurred. In a healthy pregnancy, the embryo implants in the uterus and the developing placenta causes hCG levels to rise. One to two weeks after conception (3-4 weeks of pregnancy, as dated from the last menstrual period), the hCG levels will be high enough to trigger a positive result on a home pregnancy test. According to the American Pregnancy Association, hCG levels will double every 48-72 hours during early pregnancy. They will typically peak between week eight and 11. hCG levels can be monitored through a blood test. Quantitative beta hCG levels are determined every 48 hours to monitor pregnancies that are considered high risk. If the levels do not increase at the expected rate, the pregnancy is considered threatened. Slow rising hCG levels may indicate a non-viable intrauterine pregnancy, or may indicate an ectopic pregnancy has occurred. You can read this article that examines more insight and research into non-doubling hCG levels. What Is an Ectopic Pregnancy? When an egg is fertilized and implants in any location other than the uterus, the pregnancy is considered ectopic. "An ectopic pregnancy accounts for 1-2% of all pregnancies," says Dr. Tami Prince, an OBGYN at the Women's Health and Wellness Center of Georgia in Greensboro, Georgia. "They represent 2.7% of all pregnancy-related deaths according to the CDC and ACOG. 90% of ectopic pregnancies occur in the Fallopian tubes." Other times, a pregnancy may implant in the abdomen, in an ovary, or on the cervix—these cases are much rarer than a tubal pregnancy. Spotting, cramping, and abdominal pain are often noted by the pregnant mother. If the pregnancy is far enough along, the ectopic pregnancy may be seen via a transvaginal ultrasound. Can a baby survive an ectopic pregnancy? When a pregnancy implants in a location outside the womb, the placenta cannot form normally and the hCG levels will not rise appropriately. The fetus does not get the necessary support it needs to develop. The embryo will rupture long before the fetus is viable. What Does an Ectopic Pregnancy Feel Like? According to New Kids-Center, here are some symptoms that you may feel if you are experiencing an ectopic pregnancy. - A mild to severe pain on the side of your pelvis. This pain may appear suddenly or gradually. - Vaginal bleeding that may seem different in color to menstrual bleeding. It may be more watery as well. - Painful bowel movements or even diarrhea. - Pain in your shoulder that increases when you lay down. This could possibly be internal bleeding that is irritating your organs. - Fainting. This is related to internal bleeding. - Heavy sweating. - Shortness of breath and/or rapid heartbeat. Do you want to know how quickly your hCG levels are increasing? Try this hCG calculator. This calculator will determine your doubling time and compare it to the average. Slow Rising hCG Levels In some healthy pregnancies, the beta hCG level does not double every 48 hours. However, this is not necessarily a cause for concern. Many women have had low hCG levels and have gone on to have healthy pregnancies. According to Dr. Amos Grunebaum, an OBGYN at Cornell Weill Medical College, you should not put too much stock in having hCG levels determine the viability of a pregnancy. With that said, there should still be some monitoring. A drop in hCG levels ranging around 36% and more could indicate a miscarriage or ectopic pregnancy. In addition, once hCG levels reach 6,000, the rate of increase begins to slow in all pregnancies. Late in the first trimester, hormone levels begin to plateau—the hCG level may even decrease a bit in the early part of the second trimester to a new, stable level that will be maintained until the pregnancy is complete. Can a blood test detect an ectopic pregnancy? A blood test merely gives a reading on hCG levels. A single quantitative hormone level is not useful for the diagnosis of an ectopic pregnancy. Serial measurements must be taken over time to determine how likely a pregnancy is to proceed. Quantitative beta hCG levels are not diagnostic for an ectopic pregnancy. These levels are simply part of a larger clinical picture – the diagnosis of an ectopic pregnancy includes the evaluation of hCG levels in addition to ultrasonography and a physical exam. If the pregnancy can be visualized in a Fallopian tube (or elsewhere), the ectopic is confirmed. If the pregnancy cannot be visualized at all, the pregnancy might be ectopic, depending on the hCG levels. If the hCG levels are above 1,800 and the embryo cannot be visualized in the womb, the suspicion for an ectopic pregnancy increases dramatically. Normal vs. Slow Rising hCG Ultrasound Diagnosis of Ectopic Pregnancy Tubal Pregnancy Diagnosis Many women suspect a problem early in pregnancy, as spotting and cramping or abdominal pain are often present. In some tubal pregnancies, there are no early warning signs, and the first sign of trouble may be a ruptured Fallopian tube. If spotting and cramping are observed, a woman should call her physician immediately. A workup will generally be ordered, including beta hCG levels and ultrasound examinations to determine the location and viability of the pregnancy. If the hormone levels are rising less than 66% over a 48 hour period, an ectopic pregnancy will be suspected. If the hCG levels are low (less than 1,800), the pregnancy may not be visible on the ultrasound machine. In this case, a woman is often presented with a choice to wait and monitor the pregnancy until it can be observed, or to have a procedure called a Dilation and Curettage (D&C) to determine if there is any pregnancy tissue is in the womb. If there is no tissue in the womb, the pregnancy is determined to be ectopic. This method of determining the location of the failing pregnancy is not preferred, as there is a chance that there is an intrauterine pregnancy, and a D&C will end the pregnancy. If this method is used, and a pregnancy is not found in the womb, the ectopic pregnancy may be treated with methotrexate. Methotrexate is injected and is often successful at ending an ectopic pregnancy without surgery. If the hormone levels are over 1,800 and the pregnancy can be visualized in a Fallopian tube, the diagnosis is certain and treatment will be scheduled immediately (by methotrexate injection if the pregnancy is in a very early stage, or by removal of the pregnancy and Fallopian tube). How Long Does It Take for an Ectopic Pregnancy to Rupture? According to Dr. Antonette Dulay, a perinatologist at Main Line Health in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, an ectopic pregnancy can rupture anytime between six and 16 weeks. The bleeding after the rupture can be very severe and life-threatening. The longer it takes for a rupture to occur, the more at risk the mother is of a life-threatening occurrance. Symptoms of an Ectopic Pregnancy Treatment with Methotrexate If a tubal pregnancy is an early stage, it may be treated medically (as opposed to surgically). Methotrexate is successful at treating tubal pregnancies when: - beta hCG levels of 5,000 or less. - No cardiac activity of the embryo is observed. - The Fallopian tube is not ruptured or torn. According to the University of Michigan, methotrexate works by preventing cell division and growth. The embryo breaks down and is passed from the Fallopian tube. If methotrexate is the chosen treatment option, hCG levels will be monitored on a regular basis until they have returned to 0. "Methotrexate can be given as a single-dose regimen, two-dose regimen, and fixed multiple-dose regimen," says Dr. Prince. "The choice of regimen is guided by the initial hCG levels and discussions with the patient about the risks and benefits of the medication. There are similar success rates for both the single-dose and multiple-dose regimens. The latter is associated with an increased risk for adverse effects." According to Dr. Prince, these side effects include diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and stomatitis. "These side effects are directly related to the fact that methotrexate stops rapidly dividing cells in the body. This includes the linings of the stomach, bowel, and mouth." According to Dr. Prince, here are some things that should be avoided during treatment. - Sexual intercourse. - Medications, foods, or vitamins that contain folic acid. Prenatal vitamins and folic acid supplements should be discontinued during treatment. - Exposure to sunlight. - Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAIDS) medications such as Ibuprofen, Aleve, or Advil as they may interfere with methotrexate. - Medications and gas-producing foods that may either mask pain or be confused with worsening symptoms. If the hormone levels begin to drop after the treatment is started, blood tests will be performed weekly until the hCG cannot be detected. This may take anywhere from 1-3 months to occur. "Two rounds of methotrexate are generally given before surgical intervention," says Dr. Prince. Surgical Treatment for Ectopic Pregnancies If medical treatment for an ectopic pregnancy fails, or if the tube ruptures or tears, surgical treatment will be required. According to research from Dr. Vanitha Sivalingam, ectopic pregnancies are the leading cause of first trimester deaths in pregnant women. Between 1980 and 2007, there were 876 maternal deaths in the U.S. related to the condition. A ruptured ectopic pregnancy is a medical emergency and must be treated immediately to save the mother's life. An ultrasound examination will generally show a significant amount of "free fluid" in the abdomen, indicating internal bleeding due to the ruptured Fallopian tube. A salpingectomy (removal of the Fallopian tube) is generally performed to remove the pregnancy and to stop internal bleeding. In some cases, the pregnancy is removed without the removal of the entire Fallopian tube - this procedure is called a salpingostomy. Both types of surgery may be performed through tiny incisions (laparascopic surgery), though they may sometimes require a larger incision (laparotomy). hCG levels may be monitored by a physician until the hormone level falls to undetectable levels. Fertility After Ectopic Pregnancy If a Fallopian tube is removed via salpingectomy and the other tube is healthy, many women will be able to conceive again. According to the American Pregnancy Association, there is roughly a 60% chance of a successful pregnancy if the Fallopian tube has been left in place. If, however, the other tube is also affected by scar tissue or other abnormalities, fertility will be significantly impacted. Fertility treatments such as in-vitro fertilization (IVF) may be required to conceive in this scenario. After a woman has experienced a tubal pregnancy, however, she is at an increased risk for having another ectopic pregnancy. Approximately 10-15% of women with a prior ectopic pregnancy will experience another. For this reason, all future pregnancies must be monitored with beta hCG levels and early utlrasound examinations may be performed to verify the location of the embryo. You can read this personal account of a successful pregnancy following an ectopic pregnancy. The Author's Experience with a Tubal Pregnancy I was approximately 5 weeks pregnant and had frequent spotting, so beta hCG levels were ordered by my obstetrician. My first result showed a level of 1,411. Two days later, a repeat blood draw indicated the level had only risen to 1,629. Three days later (over a weekend), the levels rose to 2,100. While the levels were increasing, they were rising so slowly that the pregnancy was considered a failure. I was offered a D&C, but refused since we couldn't visualize the pregnancy via ultrasound. A few days later, I woke to severe pain and rushed to the emergency room - the pregnancy was ectopic and had ruptured. I was bleeding internally and my blood pressure was dropping. I had emergency surgery to remove the Fallopian tube and pregnancy. The physical recovery took approximately one week, and I was told my other tube was not scarred, which improves our chances for conceiving again. - Dulay, A. T. Ectopic Pregnancy. From Merck Manual. - Ectopic Pregnancy: Symptoms, Causes, Risks and Treatment. From American Pregnancy Association. - Grunebaum, A. Normal hCG Levels In Early Pregnancy. From BabyMed. - Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG): The Pregnancy Hormone. From American Pregnancy Association. - Methotrexate for Ectopic Pregnancy. From Michigan Medicine. - Sivalingam, V. N., Duncan, W. C., Kirk, E., Shephard, L. A., & Horne, A. W. (2011). Diagnosis and management of ectopic pregnancy. The Journal of Family Planning and Reproductive Health Care / Faculty of Family Planning & Reproductive Health Care, Royal College of Obstetricians & Gynaecologists, 37(4), 231–240. - What Does an Ectopic Pregnancy Feel Like? From New Kids-Center. Tubal Pregnancy Treatment Poll How was your ectopic pregnancy managed? This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and does not substitute for diagnosis, prognosis, treatment, prescription, and/or dietary advice from a licensed health professional. Drugs, supplements, and natural remedies may have dangerous side effects. If pregnant or nursing, consult with a qualified provider on an individual basis. Seek immediate help if you are experiencing a medical emergency. Questions & Answers I had my first round of Methotrexate on October 5th with an HCG of 4500. My second round was on Oct 9th- HCG- 9000. My HCG levels have been as follows: Oct 11- 10000, Oct 15- 7700, and Oct 17th- 7100. I was asked to come back on Oct 21st for blood work. I am not experiencing any pain and there was no sign of fluid or blood in the ultrasound, so my doctor is hoping it would resolve on its own and not lead to surgery. What are my chances of avoiding surgery despite my ectopic pregnancy? My hCG level was 843 on Wedsnesday morning. Two days later, it increased by only 1. On Sunday, it went up to 889. Since then, a few days have passed, and it is over 1500. I still have a pregnancy of unknown location, but wondering if I'm still at risk of an ectopic. They are doing more blood tests on Thursday. If it has doubled again, can it be an ectopic pregnancy? The fact that your hCG doubled from the 23rd of September to the 25th of September is reassuring. It is interesting that your hCG did not double for a few days, but hopefully, your blood test will demonstrate an appropriate rise in level on Thursday. If your hCG continues to double, the chances of an ectopic pregnancy are greatly reduced, and your physician will continue to monitor until the pregnancy can be verified by ultrasound to be intra-uterine.Helpful 8 I received my methotrexate (MTX) shot on six days ago and my HCG was at 2160. After the shot it went up to 3200, which is odd. I was told this was normal three days later. My HCG today (twelfth day after the shot) is at 2979 and has dropped very little since my last test. Is it fine? I was not told about avoiding food rich in folate and have been having oranges and avocados. Could foods rich in folate slow down the drop in beta HCG levels? Unfortunately, folic acid can reduce the effectiveness of methotrexate. The medication works by interfering with folic acid, preventing embryonic cells from dividing and multiplying. If you consume a diet high in folates (including multi-vitamins), this may prevent the methotrexate from blocking enough activity to stop the ectopic embryo from growing. You need to return to your physician for a follow-up ultrasound and further testing to ensure the single dose was effective. You may need an additional dose of methotrexate or a different treatment to end the tubal pregnancy.Helpful 1 I found out I was pregnant on the 4th of July. My betas were rising properly than fell slightly than rose again. I feel like my doctor made a mistake. My highest HCG level was 56. I was given the methotrexate shot when the tech saw some free fluid around my right tube. I had no symptoms, and feel like they acted in haste. I feel like we should have waited to see what my betas were going to do. How often are viable pregnancies misdiagnosed? One way to confirm an ectopic pregnancy is to perform a dilation and curettage (D&C) of the uterus. If fetal tissue is found in the uterus, then the pregnancy is known to be intra-uterine. Since this method would end the pregnancy anyway, it is rarely performed instead before administering methotrexate. Since a D&C is rarely performed after methotrexate is given, it is difficult to estimate the number of false positives from beta hCG tests and ultrasound. A failure of beta hCG to double appropriately generally indicates the pregnancy is not proceeding as expected. Poor hCG numbers in the presence of fluid in the adnexa are highly indicative of an ectopic pregnancy. While it is stressful to wonder about the "what if" situation (and wonder if the pregnancy might have been typical), the likelihood is overwhelming that your pregnancy was, indeed, ectopic. Some women do choose to wait out the betas, but this is a very risky situation. In my situation, I did wait out the beta hCG, and the pregnancy was ectopic - my right Fallopian tube ruptured, and I lost a significant amount of blood and required emergency surgery. This is not a recommended course of action as it is extremely dangerous to the mother and there is nothing that can be done to save the ectopic pregnancy.Helpful 2 I had one tubal ligation 6 years ago. I missed my period this month and took a pregnancy test. It is positive. My hCG level is 5,000. Could this pregnancy be ectopic? I don't have any symptoms today and I am currently 6 weeks, 5 days pregnant. Since you have a beta hCG level, it sounds like your physician is taking blood beta hCG measurements. A single measurement is not as useful as serial measurements taken every other day to verify your hCG levels are increasing at the appropriate rate. A transvaginal ultrasound could be performed at this stage to verify the location of the gestational sac, to determine if the pregnancy is in the proper location. Pregnancy symptoms are sometimes not apparent early on in the pregnancy. I would contact your physician to find out what your care plan is, and to ask the following questions: 1) Are my hCG levels rising appropriately? 2) Could I have an early ultrasound to make sure the pregnancy is in the right location? Getting answers to these questions will determine the progress and location of your pregnancy, and will help to establish a good system of communication with your attending OB/GYN.Helpful 1

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Beauty is the only finality here below. – Simone Weil Art is the production of things which are beautiful. Beauty is what the artist strives to create. Beauty is what we seek to enjoy and contemplate in works of art. But what is beauty? If asked to define beauty we might start by saying something like “the property of being pleasing to the eye”. This definition is insufficient, however, because it is not only visible objects that are beautiful. Sound can be beautiful too. Bach’s Brandenburg concertos, Haydn’s Creation, Mozart’s Le Nozze di Figaro, and Beethoven’s 9th symphony are all works of tremendous beauty. Yet none of them can be seen. We could solve this problem by expanding our definition to “the property of being pleasing to the eye and/or the ear”? This then begs the question of why the other senses are not included as well. We have other words to describe what is pleasing to our senses of taste, smell, and touch. Why do we conceive of that which is audibly and visually appealing as a single category? That is a difficult question to answer but that is what we do. There is another question which our expanded definition of beauty raises. Is beauty “the property of being pleasing to the eye and/or the ear” or is it “the state of being considered pleasing to the eye and/or the ear”? Note the importance of this distinction. If beauty is the former, then it has tangible existence as a quality of things which are beautiful. If it is the latter, it is a projection of our own minds. The saying “beauty is in the eye of the beholder” would seem to suggest the second understanding of beauty. People do differ in what they consider beautiful. Yet they also agree. In some circumstances, two people will disagree over whether a particular person or a particular painting is beautiful. In other circumstances, there is virtually unanimous agreement that someone or something is beautiful or is not beautiful. Sometimes, disagreements about beauty appear to be entirely subjective. They are matters of personal taste. On other occasions, the disagreement indicates that something is wrong with one person’s perception. Naomi Wolf, in her best-selling book The Beauty Myth, (1) took the position that beauty is an artificial construction. The concept of beauty, Wolf wrote, was created to support the male power structure of society and keep women in a subservient position. The emphasis upon beauty in advertising, the cosmetics and fashion industries, and surgery, she argued, is that male power structure’s response to the blow it received from the triumphs of feminism earlier in the century. Wolf’s book helped launch what is called “Third Wave feminism”. It is undoubtedly true that many young women have been led into unhealthy behavior patterns by an obsession with beauty that magazines, television, and movies have in part contributed to. In this Wolf was correct, although the statistics in her book appear to have been greatly exaggerated. Is there merit then to her idea that beauty is a social construct the purpose of which is to maintain male dominance? Not really. Beauty is far too universal a value for it to be explained as an idea invented to serve as a political tool. The fact that differences of opinion as to what can be considered to be beautiful exist from individual to individual, society to society, and at different eras in a society’s history, does not negate the universality of beauty. As Matt Ridley has pointed out: And yet this flexibility stays within limits. It is impossible to name a time when women of ten or forty years were considered “sexier” than women of twenty. It is inconceivable that male paunches where ever actually attractive to women or that tall men were thought uglier than short ones. It is hard to imagine that weak chins were ever thought beautiful on either sex. If beauty is a matter of fashion, how is it that wrinkled skin, gray hair, hairy backs, and very long noses have never been “in fashion”? The more things change, the more they stay the same. (2) How then does Ridley explain the phenomenon of beauty? He says that it is in our genes. There is a reason that beautiful people are attractive. They are attractive because others have genes that cause them to find beautiful people attractive. People have such genes because those that employed criteria of beauty left more descendants than those that did not. (3) This is the explanation of evolutionary psychology. (4) The concept of sexual selection goes back to Charles Darwin. The basic gist of it is that among species that reproduce sexually, genes which produce traits which are considered attractive by the opposite sex are more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations than genes which do not, which also ensures that the genes which cause someone to consider those particular traits to be attractive are more likely to be handed down than others. Thus, a particular image of beauty is reinforced and refined through evolutionary selection over a long period of time. Evolutionary psychology attempts to explain why these traits would have been considered attractive in the first place in terms of reproductive fitness. Since females are by biological necessity the sex which bears, gives birth to, and nurtures the young, it has been the role of the male to provide for and protect women and children. This, the evolutionary psychologist says is reflected in our concept of beauty. The physical traits men find attractive in women are indicators of fertility (5) and the physical traits women find attractive in men are indicators of strength. This explanation of beauty, arising as it does out of evolutionary theory, displays the strengths and weaknesses of that theory. Materialistic science is good at discovering and explaining how things work. The connections which evolutionary psychologists have found between physical beauty and reproductive function are real. When treated as the final and complete explanation of why people are beautiful – or why we find them beautiful – it seems to be extremely reductionist, however. Long ago the Socratic school of philosophy reacted against the materialistic reductionism of the earlier Milesian school, rejecting its early scientific emphasis on questions about the makeup of the physical universe in favour of an emphasis upon questions about the higher truths of goodness, virtue, truth, and beauty. The result was a golden age for philosophy and culture in Greek civilization that would be foundational to the later Roman and Christian civilizations. In his book Beauty, (6) English aesthetician and philosopher Roger Scruton argues that evolutionary psychology provides us with an insufficient and unsatisfactory explanation of beauty. He reasons that because sexual selection could have occurred in a different way that “we cannot use the fact of sexual selection as a conclusive explanation of the sentiment of beauty, still less as a way of deciphering what that sentiment means.” (7) This does not mean that beauty and sex are unconnected. Indeed, Scruton suggests, they may be “more intimately connected” than the causal relationship proposed by evolutionary psychology implies. What does he mean by this? Scruton contrasts the theories of the evolutionary psychologists with the ideas of Plato. Beauty was an important topic of discussion in a number of Plato’s dialogues. Plato considered beauty to be the object of eros. According to Plato, eros (love) exists on a higher and a lower plane. The lower eros is sexual desire – the wish to sexually possess the person whose beauty has inspired one’s eros. The higher eros seeks to contemplate beauty itself, i.e., beauty in the abstract, the idea or “form” of beauty. There are problems with Plato’s theory too. Scruton writes: [I]t requires only a normal dose of skepticism to feel that there is more wishful thinking than truth in the Platonic vision. How can one and the same state of mind be both sexual love for a boy and (after a bit of self-discipline) delighted contemplation of an abstract idea? That is like saying that the desire for a steak could be satisfied (after a bit of mental exertion) by staring at a picture of a cow. (8) That is a good point, and Scruton expands upon it by questioning whether it is proper to speak of beauty as the object of desire. Beauty leads us to desire another person, but our desire is not fulfilled by our coming into possession of that beauty. “What prompts us, in sexual attraction, is something that can be contemplated but never possessed”. (9) This observation separates eros from other forms of desire and links the beauty which leads to sexual attraction with other kinds of beauty, such as the beauty of art. A thirsty person, has a desire for water which can be quenched by any glass of water. Eros is not like that. You fall in love with a particular person and your desire for that person cannot be fulfilled by another person. It is a particular person you want and not a generic member of a class for whom any other can be substituted. There is another way in which eros is different from other desires. If you fall in love with someone, and that person reciprocates your love, the two of you may give yourselves completely to each other, but this will not cause the desire to go away, the way drinking water causes thirst to go away. Scruton writes: And maybe this has something to do with the place of beauty in sexual desire. Beauty invites us to focus on the individual object, so as to relish his or her presence. And this focusing on the individual fills the mind and perceptions of the lover. (10) This elevates human eros above the level of the merely biological sex drive we share will all other sexual animals. Eros is further elevated when we understand the beauty of the loved one to reside not in body only, but in the soul as well. (11) We would do well to ponder what this says about the powerful trends in contemporary culture towards the dragging of eros back down to the level of mere animal instinct. That is a subject for another essay however. It is the contemplative element which the beauty which inspires eros shares with the beauty we find in nature and the beauty we create in art. Beauty inspires us to ponder and reflect, and this leads us back to look at it, or listen to it again. Perhaps here we have at least a partial explanation of why we conceive of that which appeals to sight and sound as a single category distinct from that which appeals to smell, taste, and touch. Philosophy takes us further in our understanding of beauty than science does or can. Philosophy can only take us so far, however. After that we must rely upon theology. In her essay “Forms of the Implicit Love of God” published in the posthumous collection Waiting for God, Simone Weil wrote that before the soul is visited by God and can give or refuse Him direct love the soul can only love God indirectly through other objects. This is what she calls the “implicit love of God” which she says: [C]an have only three immediate objects, the only three things here below in which God is really though secretly present. These are religious ceremonies, the beauty of the world, and our neighbor. Accordingly there are three loves. (12) Immediately before expanding upon each of these in reverse order, she writes of this “veiled form of love” that: At the moment when it touches the soul, each of the forms that such love may take has the virtue of a sacrament. (13) That is strong language. A sacrament is an event in which something ordinary, everyday, and earthly is transformed by the presence of God so that His love, mercy, and grace are communicated to the soul through it. Weil repeats the comparison a number of times in her discussion of how the soul can love God through the beauty of the world. Man, she writes, has been an “imaginary likeness” of the power of God, to empty himself of in imitation of the kenosis of Christ. This emptying consists of renouncing our claim to be the centre of the universe. This the love whereby we love the true centre of the universe, God, through our neighbor and “the order of the world” which is the same thing as the “beauty of the world”. The beauty of the world is the “commonest, easiest, and most natural way of approach” of the soul to God, for God “descends in all haste to love and admire the tangible beauty of his own creation through the soul that opens to him” and uses “the soul’s natural inclination to love beauty” as a trap to win the soul for Himself. (14) The idea that through beauty the soul connects with God is the next step beyond the Platonic notion that we progress from love of beauty on earth to contemplation of the higher beauty which exists in the realm of the forms. Weil goes on to say that the beauty she is talking about belongs to the universe itself, which is the only thing other than God which can properly be called beautiful, all other things being called beautiful in a derivative sense because they are part of the beautiful world or imitate its beauty. “All these secondary kinds of beauty are of infinite value as openings to universal beauty” she writes “But, if we stop short at them, they are, on the contrary, veils; then they corrupt.” (15) This is similar to Plato’s view of those who are satisfied with the consummation of the lower eros and do not go on the higher eros which is the contemplation of beauty itself. It is here that Weil makes the observation that forms the epigram to this essay. “Beauty is the only finality here below”. (16) What she means by this, is that beauty exists for its own sake rather than as a means to another end and that it is the only thing in this world of which that can be said. This, she contrasts to all other things, saying that “all the things that we take for ends are means” and that beauty “seems itself to be a promise…but it only gives itself; it never gives anything else”. It is because of this, she argues, that beauty “is present in all human pursuits”. It is present in the pursuit of power, for example, and it is present in art, science, physical work, and carnal love. (17) Of art she writes: Art is an attempt to transport into a limited quantity of matter, modeled by man, an image of the infinite beauty of the entire universe. If the attempt succeeds, this portion of matter should not hide the universe, but on the contrary it should reveal its reality to all around. (18) Weil does not hesitate to take this to its logical conclusion: Works of art that are neither pure and true reflections of the beauty of the world nor openings onto this beauty are not strictly speaking beautiful; their authors may be very talented but they lack real genius. That is true of a great many works of art which are among the most celebrated and the most highly praised. Every true artist has had real, direct, and immediate contact with the beauty of the world, contact that is of the nature of a sacrament. God has inspired every first-rate work of art, though its subject may be utterly and entirely secular; he has not inspired any of the others. Indeed the luster of beauty that distinguishes some of those others may quite well be a diabolic luster. (19) It is interesting, upon reading these words about art, to reflect upon the familiar verse from the Book of Genesis which tells us that God created man in His own image. We are God’s workmanship, His art. What does it mean that we are created “in His image”? Theologians have puzzled over that question for centuries. Where is the “imago Deo” to be found? Is it in our rational faculties as many have proposed? Dorothy Sayers did not think so. In an essay on the subject of “the image of God’ in her book The Mind of the Maker, she wrote: It is observable that in the passage leading up to the statement about man, he has given no detailed information about God. Looking at man, he sees in him something essentially divine, but when we turn back to see what he says about the original upon which the "image" of God was modelled, we find only the single assertion, "God created". The characteristic common to God and man is apparently that: the desire and the ability to make things. (20) This characteristic, creativity, manifests itself in what we call art. If God’s image in man lies in his creativity this surely lends weight to the idea that there is something “of the nature of a sacrament” about true art. It is interesting that these two women, one an orthodox Anglican, the other a very unorthodox convert to Christianity who refused baptism on the grounds that God wanted her to identify with the unbeliever (21), writing at approximately the same time, would strike upon thoughts that in a strange but fitting way complement each other. We have pursued beauty, from the scientific explanation of a trait which generates reproductive fitness by attracting sexual partners, to a philosophical view of beauty as an object of contemplation which elevates man from the level of the beast, to a spiritual view of beauty as a meeting place between the human soul and God. There is no higher ground to seek. (1) Naomi Wolf, The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty are Used Against Women (New York: William Morrow, 1991) (2) Matt Ridley, The Red Queen: Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature (New York: Harper Perennial, 2003) p. 281. The first edition of this book was published in hardcover by Penguin in 1993. (3) Ibid, p. 280. (4) A layman's introduction to evolutionary psychology is Robin Wright’s The Moral Animal: Why We Are the Way We Are: The New Science of Evolutionary Psychology (New York: Vintage Books, 1994). (5) Ridley discusses the late Devendra Singh’s research into the correlation between the “hourglass figure” and fertility, and also points to the connection between feminine beauty and youth. (6) Roger Scruton, Beauty, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009). This book was reissued this year in paperback as part of Oxford’s “Very Short Introductions” series, now bearing the subtitle “A Very Short Introduction”. (7) Ibid, p. 32. (8) Ibid, p. 35. (9) Ibid, p. 36. (10) Ibid, pp. 38-39. (11) Ibid, pp. 39-43 (12) Simone Weil, Waiting For God, (New York: Harper Perennial Classics, 2001) p. 83. This is a reprint of the translation by Emma Craufurd first published by G. P. Putnam’s Sons in 1951. The French edition came out in 1950, seven years after her death in England. (13) Ibid, p. 84. (14) Ibid, pp. 99-103, quotations taken from pages 99, 100, and 103. (15) Ibid, p. 104. (16) Ibid, p. 105. (17) Ibid, pp. 105-112, quotations taken from pages 105 and 106. (18) Ibid, p. 107 (20) Dorothy L. Sayers, The Mind of the Maker (London: Methuen, 1941) p. 17. http://www.worldinvisible.com/library/dlsayers/mindofmaker/mind.02.htm (21) Simone Weil was born Jewish but converted to Christianity. Waiting for God is a collection of letters and essays that was published after her death. Most of the letters were written to her friend Dominican priest Father Joseph-Marie Perrin explaining why she was turning down his pleas for her to be baptized. These were written around the time of her flight from France in 1942. My Last Post 2 years ago

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Objectives Children exposed to electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) adverts may perceive occasional tobacco smoking as less harmful than children not exposed to e-cigarette adverts. Given the potential cross-cueing effects of e-cigarette adverts on tobacco smoking, there is an urgent need to establish whether the effect found in prior research is robust and replicable using a larger sample and a stronger control condition. Design A between-subjects experiment with one independent factor of two levels corresponding to the advertisements to which participants were exposed: glamorous adverts for e-cigarettes, or adverts for objects unrelated to smoking or vaping. Participants English school children aged 11–16 (n=1449). Outcomes Perceived harm of occasional smoking of one or two tobacco cigarettes was the primary outcome. Secondary outcomes included: perceived harm of regular tobacco smoking, susceptibility to tobacco smoking and perceived prevalence of tobacco smoking in young people. Perceptions of using e-cigarettes were gauged by adapting all the outcome measures used to assess perceptions of tobacco smoking. Results Tobacco smokers and e-cigarette users were excluded from analyses (final sample n=1057). Children exposed to glamorous e-cigarette adverts perceived the harms of occasional smoking of one or two tobacco cigarettes to be lower than those in the control group (Z=−2.13, p=0.033). An updated meta-analysis comprising three studies with 1935 children confirmed that exposure to different types of e-cigarette adverts (glamorous, healthful, flavoured, non-flavoured) lowers the perceived harm of occasional smoking of one or two tobacco cigarettes (Z=3.21, p=0.001). Conclusions This study adds to existing evidence that exposure to e-cigarette adverts reduces children’s perceptions of the harm of occasional tobacco smoking. - preventive medicine - public health - priority populations - electronic cigarettes - e-cigarette marketing - tobacco smoking This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt and build upon this work, for commercial use, provided the original work is properly cited. See: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Statistics from Altmetric.com - preventive medicine - public health - priority populations - electronic cigarettes - e-cigarette marketing - tobacco smoking Strengths and limitations of this study We replicate and extend prior findings regarding the perceived harm of occasional tobacco smoking using a larger sample and a stronger control condition. Meta-analysis of three studies confirms that exposing children to different e-cigarette adverts (glamorous, healthful, flavoured, or non-flavoured) lowers their perceived harm of occasional tobacco smoking. The present study was limited in several respects: the primary outcome measured perceived risk of smoking, not behaviour; and the design used only momentary exposure to e-cigarette adverts. Fewer children are smoking tobacco cigarettes today than several decades ago. However, the advent of electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) could disrupt this trend. The availability and use of e-cigarettes has risen rapidly in the last six years with an estimated 12%–24% of children aged 11–18 experimenting at least once with e-cigarettes in Great Britain in 2015/2016,1 and 13.5% of middle schoolers and 37.7% of high schoolers in the USA in 2016.2 3 E-cigarettes have the potential for benefit and harm, the nature and scale of each being uncertain in the absence of much evidence. One potential benefit comes from providing a safe delivery mechanism for nicotine and an effective cessation aid. Evidence is accumulating to suggest that e-cigarettes can successfully be used as cessation aids by smokers.4 5 Of concern, however, is their potential to make attitudes towards tobacco smoking more positive (ie, to renormalise it) through, for example, marketing of objects that appear very similar to tobacco cigarettes that appeal to both adult and children who are non-smokers. Any such impact on children is of particular concern given the potential for any changes in attitudes to tobacco smoking to increase the chances of tobacco smoking in this group in particular.3 6 7 Several prospective studies in the USA and UK have found that among children, e-cigarette use predicts tobacco smoking one year later.8–12 By contrast, population-level data show that the rising use and experimentation of e-cigarettes among children is accompanied by a continued decline in regular tobacco smoking in that group, from 15.8% to 8% among US high schoolers and from 4.3% to 2.2% among US middle schoolers in the period from 2011 to 2016,2 and from 5% in 2011 to 3% in 2016 among 11–15 year olds in England.13 Similar declines in rates of ever smoking tobacco (25% to 19%) were recorded in England from 2011 to 2016, with no change in the rates of occasional smoking (4% both in 2011 and 2016).13 Any impact on tobacco use of the recent upsurge in e-cigarette use in children will become more certain as the period of observation is extended. Experimental studies can also provide pertinent evidence. The limited experimental evidence concerning the impact of e-cigarette exposure on children has focused on exposure to e-cigarette advertising. In one study, children exposed to televised e-cigarette adverts expressed more positive attitudes towards and greater intentions to use e-cigarettes.14 In another study, children seeing candy-flavoured e-cigarette adverts found these adverts more appealing and were more interested in buying and trying the products when compared with those children exposed to non-flavoured e-cigarette adverts.15 But in neither study did exposure to e-cigarette advertisements significantly increase the appeal of smoking tobacco cigarettes. Only one study to date has found a cross-product influence of e-cigarette adverts on perceptions of the harms of occasional tobacco smoking.16 In this study, exposing children to e-cigarette adverts characterised as depicting glamour or health had no significant impact on the appeal of smoking tobacco cigarettes, or the perceived harm of smoking more than 10 cigarettes per day. However, those exposed to either set of adverts perceived the harms of smoking one or two tobacco cigarettes occasionally to be lower than did those not exposed to any adverts. Even though the size of the effect of perceived risk on routine or habitual behaviours is small to moderate,17 18 it is nonetheless important in this context given the harms of tobacco smoking. Perceived harm (risk) of occasional smoking predicts tobacco smoking.19 20 Furthermore, although the health consequences of occasional smoking can be as severe as regular smoking,21 young smokers who smoke occasionally do not consider themselves smokers, believing they are immune to the risks associated with smoking, and have low intentions to quit.22 23 In a similar vein, perceived risk significantly predicts intentions and behaviours generally,17 18 as well as more specifically in relation to smoking, with perceived harm associated with greater likelihood of staying abstinent or quitting if smoker.24–26 The aim of the present study is to replicate and extend recent findings showing that children perceive the harms of occasional tobacco smoking to be lower after exposure to e-cigarette adverts. By using a larger sample of children aged 11–16 and a control condition with equivalent task demands in which children were exposed to adverts for objects unrelated to tobacco smoking or vaping (pens), we sought to provide a more robust estimate of the effect found by Petrescu and colleagues.16 In addition to assessing children’s perceptions of the harms of occasional tobacco smoking, the present research also aimed to extend prior literature by examining children’s perceptions of the harms of regular tobacco smoking, the perceived normativeness of tobacco smoking, and children’s susceptibility to future tobacco smoking. In order to provide a more complete understanding of children’s perceptions towards different nicotine products, we adapted all the measures assessing perceptions of tobacco smoking to also assess children’s perceptions pertaining to e-cigarette use (including perceived harm, normativeness and potential susceptibility for future use). A between-subjects experiment with one independent factor of two levels corresponding to the advertisements to which participants were exposed: Adverts depicting e-cigarette use as glamorous. Adverts for objects (pens) unrelated to tobacco smoking or vaping (control condition). Data were collected from 1449 English school children aged between 11 and 16 years (sampled from three schools, two based in Cambridgeshire and one based in Hampshire). Data were collected and analysed between January and September 2016. Randomisation was successful: there were no significant differences between the two experimental groups on any of the demographic, smoking or e-cigarette use characteristics measured. Ever-smokers and ever-users of e-cigarettes were excluded from the analyses leaving a final sample of 1057 participants. Characteristics of the full and final samples are shown in table 1A and B, respectively. This sample size provided more than 90% power at α=0.05 to detect a small-sized effect (d=0.27) of glamorous e-cigarette adverts on the perceived harm of occasional tobacco smoking (based on a recent study by Petrescu et al),16 allowing for a reduction in sample size caused by excluding children with prior tobacco smoking or e-cigarette use.27 Each experimental condition displayed 10 adverts, with the control condition showing adverts of pens, and the e-cigarette condition showing adverts associating e-cigarette use with glamour. The e-cigarette adverts were taken from Petrescu et al.16 The e-cigarette adverts for that study were sampled from the Stanford Adverts Repository (http://tobacco.stanford.edu/tobacco_main/index.php). A subset of 40 possible e-cigarette adverts were pilot tested with 16 year olds. Ten adverts were selected based on ratings for their depiction of glamour (for more details see Petrescu et al).16 The adverts for the control condition were selected from a larger sample of pen adverts. The pen adverts were sourced online. Pen adverts were chosen as the control stimuli due to their similar shape and look to tobacco and e-cigarettes. Three authors (MV, ASJW, SC) selected pen adverts to match the content of the e-cigarette adverts, including the presence of a person (with four adverts showing a woman using a pen, four adverts showing a man using a pen and two adverts with no person in the advert). Perceived harm of occasional tobacco smoking was assessed by an item adapted from Wakefield et al.28 ‘How dangerous do you think it is to smoke one or two cigarettes occasionally?’ rated on a five-point scale, 1=not very dangerous to 5=very dangerous. Perceived harm of tobacco smoking regularly and in general was measured using two items.28 ‘Smoking can harm your health’ rated from 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree, and ‘How dangerous do you think it is to smoke more than 10 cigarettes a day?’ rated from 1=not very dangerous to 5=very dangerous. These were analysed separately as in previous studies.28 29 Perceived risk of developing tobacco-related diseases was measured by items adapted from Pepper et al.30 ‘How likely do you think it is that smoking tobacco cigarettes more than 10 times a day regularly (smoking tobacco cigarettes once or twice occasionally) would cause you to develop each of the following in the next 10 years? (If you’re not sure, please give us your best guess) (a) lung cancer, (b) heart disease and (c) mouth or throat cancer’. Ratings were provided on scales from 1=not at all likely to 5=extremely likely. Two separate composite indices were made for perceived risk from regular (α=0.76) and occasional (α=0.90) tobacco smoking, respectively. Prevalence estimates of tobacco smoking were given on an open-ended question: ‘How many young people your age out of 100 do you think smoke tobacco cigarettes?’.31 Susceptibility to tobacco smoking was measured using three items: ‘Do you think you will be smoking tobacco cigarettes when you are 18 years old?’; ‘Do you think you will smoke a tobacco cigarette at any time during the next year?’ and ‘If one of your friends offered you a tobacco cigarette, would you smoke it?’.32 Participants were categorised as susceptible if they did not respond ‘definitely not’ to all three items. Appeal of adverts was assessed by asking: ‘How much do you like this advert (not the product)?’.33 Responses ranged from 1=not at all to 4=a lot. Responses to the 10 adverts had high internal consistency (α=0.80) and were averaged into a single index. Interest in buying and trying products displayed in the adverts was assessed with the item: ‘Does this advert make you want to buy and try this product?’ with scores ranging from 1=not at all to 4=yes, a lot.33 Responses had high internal consistency across the 10 adverts and were averaged into a single index (α=0.85). Perceptions of e-cigarette use: All of the outcomes described above, gauging perceptions of tobacco smoking, were adapted to also assess perceptions of using e-cigarettes (including: perceived harm of occasional and regular/general use of e-cigarettes; perceived risk of developing tobacco related diseases by using e-cigarettes regularly/occasionally; prevalence estimates of e-cigarette use; and susceptibility to use e-cigarettes). The composite indices for perceived risk from regular (α=0.93) and occasional (α=0.95) e-cigarette use had good interitem reliabilities. Tobacco smoking was measured with two items: ‘Have you ever smoked a tobacco cigarette?’ and ‘Have you ever tried tobacco cigarette smoking, even one or two puffs?’.32 Items assessing tobacco cigarette smoking were adapted to assess use of e-cigarettes: ‘Have you ever used an e-cigarette?’ and ‘In the past 30 days, on how many days did you use an e-cigarette?’ For dual users, we also asked: ‘If you are both smoking tobacco cigarettes and using e-cigarettes, which product did you start using first?’. Gender, age and ethnicity were also recorded. Prior passive parental consent was obtained, and the head teachers of the schools acted in loco parentis during data collection. The schools sent parents of eligible children letters to their home addresses and e-mail accounts with the Information Sheet and Opt-out Consent Forms for the present study. Children who were opted out from participating in the study took part in alternative lesson arrangements organised by the schools. Before commencing the study, children also verbally assented to participation. Participating children were then reminded that they could withdraw from the study at any point. The study materials were presented in paper–pencil format, with each participant receiving a booklet corresponding to one of the two experimental conditions depending on randomisation. Participants in the e-cigarette and control advert conditions were each exposed to a series of 10 print adverts in their booklets. To ensure that participants engaged with the adverts, after each advert, they were asked to rate the appeal of the advert, and their interest in buying and trying the product (see Measures section). Children in both experimental conditions were told that the study was about their views on e-cigarettes and tobacco cigarettes. Children completed the experimental booklets at their own pace, and exposure to the adverts was not timed. The order in which the adverts appeared was fixed across participants. Potential confusion between e-cigarettes and tobacco cigarettes was managed by: (1) presenting all items pertaining to tobacco cigarettes and e-cigarettes in two separate sections; (2) adding a heading at the beginning of each section informing participants that the next section will deal with either tobacco or e-cigarettes; (3) including a picture of a tobacco cigarette and a picture of an e-cigarette at the beginning of each section; and (4) including a definition of e-cigarettes before the presentation of adverts and before assessing e-cigarette-related items. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the two groups, using a pre-established random sequence generated by the statistical package R. Prior to the testing session, the different versions of the booklets were arranged in the prerandomised order and these booklets were then distributed during testing. Both experimenters and participating children were blinded to allocated randomisation (even though children were exposed to adverts, they only saw one type of advert and were not aware of what kind of adverts the other children were shown). Experimenters made sure that participants finishing earlier than others remained seated until everyone had finished. Once participants had completed their questionnaires, they were provided with a verbal and written debrief about the nature of the study. Patient and public involvement Four children who were the same age as eligible participants were asked to comment on the questionnaire materials prior to testing. The children gave suggestions on how the materials could be edited to make them easier to understand for participating children. The children who piloted the materials were not involved in study recruitment and conduct. Participating children will be informed of the study results with a short summary message distributed via their schools. All analyses were conducted using SPSS (V.23), R (V.3.3.1) and Review Manager (V.5.3). Responses on the primary and secondary outcomes were not normally distributed. Subsequent analyses were therefore conducted using non-parametric statistical tests (Mann-Whitney U, χ2 and ordinal regression) to test equality of the location parameter between treatment groups. To provide a summary of the effects of e-cigarette advertising on perceived harm of occasional tobacco smoking, we meta-analysed the present data and the results of two published studies that also examined the impact of different types of e-cigarette adverts on perceptions of tobacco harm.34 We searched published records for studies that could be synthesised, so the meta-analysis provides an accurate representation of all evidence currently available to us (for more details on the search strategy used and the included/excluded studies for the meta-analysis, please see online supplementary materials). All measures, experimental conditions and sample size calculations are reported in the manuscript. Exploratory analyses were also conducted on the subsample made up of ever-smokers and ever-users of e-cigarettes in order to explore whether e-cigarette adverts will have similar effects in that subsample (please see online supplementary materials). Additional exploratory analyses examined whether age, gender or ethnicity moderated the effects of experimental condition on the primary outcome of interest (these analyses can be seen in the online supplementary materials). Supplementary file 1 Perceived harm of occasional tobacco smoking: Children exposed to glamorous e-cigarette adverts (mean rank=508.69) perceived the danger as lower than did the control group (mean rank=546.84, Mann-Whitney U=129045.500, Z=−2.129, p=0.033). Using ordinal regression (controlling for clustering at the level of school) replicated these results (t=−2.131, p=0.033). There were no statistically significant differences between the experimental groups in the perceived harm of regular smoking and smoking in general; perceived risk of developing tobacco-related diseases due to regular and occasional smoking; perceived susceptibility to smoking tobacco cigarettes; or the prevalence estimates for tobacco smoking. Similarly, there were no statistically significant differences between the experimental groups in: perceived harm of using e-cigarettes occasionally, regularly or in general; perceived risk of developing tobacco-related diseases due to regular and occasional use of e-cigarettes; perceived susceptibility to using e-cigarettes; or prevalence estimates for using e-cigarettes. Please see table 2 for more details on these analyses. Children exposed to glamorous e-cigarette adverts (mean rank=426.32) liked the adverts less than did those in the control group (mean rank=628.80, Mann-Whitney U=86 133.500, Z=−10.797, p<0.001). Furthermore, children exposed to glamorous e-cigarette adverts (mean rank=393.83) were less interested in buying and trying the products shown in the adverts than were those in the control group (mean rank=660.39, Mann-Whitney U=69 202.500, Z=−14.298, p<0.001). The same measure of perceived harm of occasional tobacco smoking was used in two other similar studies (see online supplementary materials for more details on the search strategy used to identify eligible studies for synthesis). These assessed the impact of exposure to candy-like flavoured and non-flavoured e-cigarette adverts,15 and the impact of glamorous and healthful e-cigarette adverts.16 Using results from these two studies and the current study, we conducted a meta-analysis (using Review Manager V.5.3) of the continuous outcome, comparing those exposed to any type of advert for e-cigarettes with those in the control groups. Exposing children to adverts for e-cigarettes decreased their perceived harm of occasional tobacco smoking: SMD=−0.15, 95% CI −0.24 to –0.06, I2=48%, Z=3.21, p=0.001 (see figure 1). Similar results were obtained when dichotomising responses to this outcome (as in Petrescu et al).16 Children exposed to e-cigarette adverts depicting glamour perceived the harms of smoking one or two tobacco cigarettes occasionally to be lower than did those exposed to unrelated adverts. These results corroborate previous findings.16 An updated meta-analysis comprising three studies (including the present study) with 1935 children confirmed that exposure to different types of e-cigarette adverts (glamorous, healthful, flavoured, or non-flavoured) lowers the perceived harm of occasional smoking of one or two tobacco cigarettes. The current study also replicates previous findings that exposure to glamorous and other types of adverts does not affect children’s perceptions of the (high) harm of regularly smoking more than 10 tobacco cigarettes per day.15 16 Our findings suggest that exposure to adverts for e-cigarettes may lead to differences in how children perceive the harms of tobacco smoking. The absence of a significant impact of viewing e-cigarette adverts on perceptions of the harms associated with regularly smoking more than 10 tobacco cigarettes a day is encouraging (see also15 16). However, the impact on perceived harms of occasional smoking is concerning given that such perceptions can predict subsequent smoking.19 20 Young occasional smokers in particular do not consider themselves smokers, believing they are immune to the risks associated with smoking, with low intentions to quit.22 23 The effect of e-cigarette adverts on perceived harms of occasional tobacco smoking is therefore both theoretically and empirically important, given that perceived harm (risk) is a key construct affecting health behaviour change in multiple theories of behaviour change (see35). Furthermore, the observed differential effects on the perceived harms of occasional versus regular smoking may provide an indication that the former behaviour may be easier to mentally ‘justify’, thereby providing another potential route to self-regulation failure.36 Interestingly, children perceived that the harm of occasional tobacco smoking was lower when they were exposed to e-cigarette adverts, even though they rated the e-cigarette adverts as significantly less appealing and professed a lower interest in buying and trying the e-cigarettes when compared with the pens shown in the control condition. These findings may have important ramifications for future research and policy, since they suggest that the cross-product impact of e-cigarette adverts may largely work via an unconscious, implicit route that may not necessarily affect self-reported explicit appeal, but may change perceptions of harm (risk) which feed into children’s behavioural decisions. These hypotheses merit further testing. In more general terms, the population consequences of our findings are currently unknown. Two sets of outcomes need to be considered. First, the possible impact on tobacco smoking and second the possible impact on attitudes towards tobacco smoking. First, a small change in perceived harm of occasional smoking and no change in the already high perceived harm of smoking 10 or more cigarettes on a regular basis may have no impact on the likelihood that children smoke tobacco cigarettes. This is supported by the evidence that perceived harms of occasional tobacco smoking have a small to moderate effect on actual smoking.19 20 It is also consistent with the evidence that despite exposure to adverts and vaping, there is no corresponding increase in the overall rates of children smoking tobacco. Indeed, the decline in rates observed over the last two decades has continued.13 27 37 Nonetheless, any impact of e-cigarette adverts on tobacco smoking in children demands attention from policy makers. Second, a lower perceived harm of occasional smoking may lead to more positive attitudes towards tobacco smoking and the tobacco industry, which in turn may result in more negative attitudes towards tobacco control policies. In high-income countries, public attitudes towards tobacco control policies, particularly those targeting children, are currently very positive.38 39 Such attitudes are important in supporting policy makers in implementing effective tobacco control policies. Any lessening of these positive attitudes towards tobacco control would be a concern. Strengths and limitations with future directions The large sample of children and the use of a control condition in which children were exposed to a battery of adverts of objects unrelated to tobacco cigarettes or e-cigarettes strengthen the conclusions that can be drawn from the present study. By using a control condition in which children were exposed to pen adverts, we were able to isolate the effects of e-cigarette adverts, and conclude that findings of lowered harm of occasional tobacco smoking can be attributed to e-cigarette adverts and not to viewing adverts more generally. Another strength of the current study is its contribution to an updated meta-analysis providing the most robust evidence to date that e-cigarette adverts of different kinds (glamorous, healthful, flavoured, or non-flavoured) may have a cross-product influence in lowering children’s perceptions of the harms of occasional tobacco smoking. The study was limited in several respects. The primary outcome was a belief and not a behaviour. Future studies should examine whether perceptions of harm following exposure to e-cigarettes translate into actual smoking behaviour. The between-subjects design allowed us to control for any possible carry-over effects of the different types of adverts. But this design also limits our ability to account for baseline differences in susceptibility to future tobacco smoking. Future research might usefully incorporate within-subjects designs or assess baseline levels of susceptibility to tobacco smoking which could be controlled for in subsequent analyses. The study was further limited in assessing the impact of momentary exposure to e-cigarette adverts. The results may therefore provide an underestimation of the true effects of e-cigarette advertising which is more dynamic and pervasive in everyday settings (eg, billboards, posters, internet). Future research should examine other forms of e-cigarette advertising, and use a longitudinal design to corroborate the present findings. Further research is also warranted on the link between exposure to e-cigarette adverts, attitudes towards the tobacco industry and support for tobacco control policies. Field experiments would provide a useful complement to the present study, since it is unclear whether the present findings obtained via a survey administered in schools are generalisable to the real world. Furthermore, it is possible that the adverse effects of e-cigarette advertising found in this study may be short-lived. Whether short exposure to e-cigarette adverts has long-term effects on perceived harms of occasional tobacco smoking can only be ascertained by assessing outcomes in the longer as well as shorter term. Our findings suggest that policies regarding e-cigarette advertising need to take into account the potential adverse cross-cueing effects on tobacco smoking among children. The present study coupled with two previous studies that have examined perceptions of the harms of tobacco smoking following exposure to e-cigarette adverts among children suggests the need to re-examine current regulations on advertising. E-cigarette advertising in the European Union (EU) is currently subsumed under the new Tobacco Products Directive (TPD).40 These recent regulations limit the exposure of children to TV and newspaper e-cigarette advertising. However, the implementation of these regulations across EU member states still allows some form of e-cigarette advertising (posters, leaflets, billboards in shops), so children are still exposed to e-cigarette adverts. The TPD also does not explicitly prohibit the use of advertising themes/content that may be particularly appealing to children (such as flavoured, or glamorous e-cigarette adverts). Likewise, in the USA, the Food and Drug Administration recently began regulating e-cigarettes, but these regulations do not include provisions to curb children’s exposure to e-cigarette advertising or to restrict e-cigarette adverts with potentially youth-appealing themes/content.41 This study adds to existing evidence that exposure to e-cigarette adverts reduces children’s perceptions of the harm of occasional tobacco smoking. Further studies are warranted, using longitudinal and experimental designs, to assess a wider range of possible impacts of the marketing of e-cigarettes including attitudes towards the tobacco industry and tobacco control policies. We would like to thank Emma Cartwright, Catherine Galloway and Zorana Zupan for their assistance with data collection. We would also like to thank all participating children and the children who piloted the materials, as well as the teachers who assisted with the project. Contributors MV supervised the study and oversaw the acquisition of data. MV and D-LC were responsible for the data analysis. MV drafted the manuscript. ASW, SC, D-LC, SS and TMM provided critical revisions to the manuscript. All authors collaborated in designing the study, contributed to the interpretation of results and read and approved the final version of the manuscript. Funding This report is an independent research commissioned and funded by the National Institute for Health Research Policy Research Programme (Policy Research Unit in Behaviour and Health (PR-UN-0409-10109)). Disclaimer The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the NHS, the National Institute for Health Research, the Department of Health and Social Care or its arm’s-length bodies and other government departments. The final version of the report and ultimate decision to submit for publication was determined by the authors. Competing interests None declared. Patient consent Not required. Ethics approval University of Cambridge’s Psychology Research Ethics Committee [PRE.2015.106]. Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed. Data sharing statement We are willing to make all data available to any interested parties. Please contact the corresponding author for more information. If you wish to reuse any or all of this article please use the link below which will take you to the Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink service. You will be able to get a quick price and instant permission to reuse the content in many different ways.

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By Christopher Ging, PhD, DOM, Lic. Acupuncturist Copyright May 6, 2003, Alternative Medicine Inc Say Good-bye to Pain Culprits behind Pain: Pain is a signal, information carrier of meridian blockage, infection, blood clots, low pH…; it is a process, not a disease. Millivolt (mv) is above 80 mV. 1 milli Volt = 1 / 1,000 Volt. Pain does not exist when millivolt is under 60 mv. Numbness condition when milli Voltage is under 40mv. The underlying root of causes of chronic pain: - Chi Blockage- Meridian/acupuncture points. Blockage leads to lactic acid build up.What is meridian? A meridian has many acupuncture points, surrounded by nerves, located in the end plate of arterial and vein capillaries. The acupuncture points maintain a certain distance in between so that it can cause adequate vibration of an associated artery and vein. A meridian travels through two or three organs and connects them together. The acupuncture points of each meridian carry resonant frequency to cause adequate vibration of artery and vein of an associated organ. Each meridian carries a unique frequency. If the acupuncture points in a meridian are blocked or short circuited, not able to generate resonant frequency to cause the arteries and veins to vibrate, it would cause pain and immediately impact the function of the associated organ. If pain is ignored, it could lead to a number of severe physical issues. - Sluggish blood circulation - pH value is too low (acidic burning) or too high (blood vessel is freezing, squeezing the nerves causing migraine pain, joint pain parasitic/fungus/yeast/bacteria/viral infection (regional low pH) leads to oxygen deficiency (hypoxymia), sluggish blood circulation and blood clotting. - headache may be related to neck - liver functional – lactic acid-glucose - gall bladder/pancreas (worry, anxiety) package. - emotional stress- worry, frustration – fear –anxiety – broken heart Acting much like an alarm system in a building, pain is an amazing protective mechanism for the human body. Without feeling pain, that person is dead. The pain mechanism is constantly on the alert to detect any damaging stimulus (physical, psychological and spiritual) that is likely to block the flow and harm the body. The sensation of pain, like body temperature, blood pressure, and pH value, serves as a sign and warrants our immediate attention and further investigation of the root cause. The nerve bundle has four different sizes: Alpha, Beta, Gamma and Delta. The thinner the nerve bundle the less stable the electrical potential of cell membrane. When the electrical potential of cell membrane is above 80 mini volts, the cells may begin to feel itch and/or pain. The numbness or no sensational feeling indicates that the electrical potential of cell membrane is lower than 50 mini volts (mv). The Cool Needling technique of acupuncture could lower the electrical potential of cell membrane to 60-50 mv; therefore, it can effectively and immediately relieve the pain. Conventional hospice program using the drugs such as Morphine and other narcotics for pain management, only treats the symptom by suppressing the pain; it is too costly and has too many side effects to the patients who are dying. The chemical toxins in the narcotic drugs gradually kill the patients. The body has an inherent ability to sedate pain by the secretion of endogenous analgesic-effect neurotransmitter/hormones (endorphin, enkephalin, dopamine, acetylcholine) being constantly released from central nervous system, limbic system, and peripheral nervous system. In other words, pain is normally not perceivable as long as the pain resulting from a damaging stimulus is under a person’s threshold of pain. However, pain will be felt once it goes beyond a person’s threshold of pain. Although unpleasant, pain is useful when it leads to awareness and elimination of the underlying root causes of the damaging stimulus. To stop a pain symptom, it is imperative to identify its underlying root causes. The sensation of tasting, smelling, seeing, hearing is rather specific compared with the sensation of pain. The purpose of pain is merely to indicate that a stimulus is damaging; however, it does not inform the brain about the exact location of the root causes of the pain. In other words, the sensation of pain can be deceiving: where the pain is felt may not be the location of the pain’s root cause. For example, a pain that is felt along the lateral side of the leg(s) could be attributable to the canine tooth, liver or gall bladder cancer, digestive conditions, gall bladder stone, intestinal problem, bone fracture of L4 – S1, blood clots, arthritis, tendonitis, anger/frustration and so on. Therefore, it is essential to identify the underling root causes of the physical pain before treatment or the patient’s goal might not be quickly achieved. Migraine, neck sprain/pain may be related to both Urinary M. and Gall Bladder M or just Gall Bladder M. Shoulder Blade sore/pain, cough may be related to both Urinary M. and Lung M or just Lung M. Lumbago, Sacrum, knee pain may be related to both Urinary M. and Kidney M or just Kidney M. Q. What are the primary underlying root causes of a physical pain? A. Negative ion deficiency Negative ions exists abundantly in the forest, water falls, mountain, rain, water fountains and in the morning. The deficiency of negative ions can cause (1) the blood to be acidic and edema due to excessive sodium and calcium not able to flow out of the cell; (2) potassium and magnesium not able to flow into the cell for creating membrane potential. As a result, toxins build up, the blood is filthy and the liver and the kidney are overloaded. Weak membrane potential blocked the ion pathway (sodium and calcium locked inside of the cell), toxins build up, filthy blood and overloaded kidney and liver are in vicious cycle causing chronic diseases, arthritis and chronic pain… B. Yin-Yang is out of balance. Yin and Yang are nomenclature. They are dual system for balancing mechanism. Any matter can be broken into two: yin and yang such as negative ions balanced with positive ions; acids balanced with alkaline, cAMP balanced with cGMP. As a result of yin-yang imbalance, yin dominates yang or yang supersedes yin, either of which destroy the counter balance mechanism causing blood or chi stagnation, leading to physical or emotional blockage. Blockage is the primary underlying root cause of the pain. To stop the pain, any pathogenic blockage has to be removed. There are two kinds of pathogenic blockage: 1. Blood clotting (coagulation) - Any chronic disease for more than one year can cause blood clotting due to chronic infection, autoimmune disease, and cumulative toxins in the connective tissue. - pH is not within normal range indicating positive ions are not balanced with negative ions. - Liver, spleen/pancreas dysfunction fails to perform as a scavenger to sweep out the debris of dead red blood cells. The liver dysfunction also allows the lactate build-up in the muscle and blocks the lymphatic nodes causing blood clotting. - Mineral deficiency causes the tissue acidic and burning. - Excessive heat released by excessive cortisol production (adrenal-thyroid stress) and/or excessive oxidation. Oxygen (coolant) deficiency also can over heat up the body due to shallow breathing. Heat excess evaporates the water in the plasmic blood. As a result, the plasmic blood becomes thick and blood clots are gradually formed. Cortisol is an immune system suppressor and blood coagulation factor. - Overuse certain muscles, tendons, ligaments or nerve damage. - cAMP (cyclic Adensine Monophosphate) deficiency due to hormonal imbalance or sluggish energy metabolism. - Local infection due to fungal/bad yeast/bacterial/viral infection or the waste product quickly piling up in the connective tissues (a dump fill) results in connective tissue blockage. - Radiation, scalding/burning - Low pH value – high acidity causing constant tissue damage - DIC (disseminated intravascular coagulation) disease or heparin, - PG (prostaglandin) deficiency affecting dilation of the blood vessels. 2. Meridian pathway (energetic) blockage due to: - physical blood clotting gradually block meridian pathways - holding anger for so long and still not willing to release the forgiving spirit - spiritual vipers, spiritual attack. - emotional stress such as anxiety, fear, anger, depression, broken heart, trying to please (performance orientation) - lack of deep and sound sleep The damaged tissues failed to be repaired due to tryptophan, melatonin deficiency that would hinder GTH (growth hormone) from being released. Cytokines (interleukin, interferon, lympokine) are hormone like substances. They coordinate immune system chemicals. Sound sleep plays an important role in the process of cytokines production. - Short of energy. Sluggish energy slows down the blood circulation, gradually breeds an environment for blood clotting. To enhance the pain threshold, live a healthy and pain free life, you need to begin practicing the following healthy lifestyles: - Use hot water, Epsom salt and lavender oil for foot reflexology Soak the feet with the hot water and 3 tablespoons of Epsom salt and 3 drops of lavender oil for 15 minutes at 8:30 p.m. You may use the thena muscule of the palm to massage the bottom of the feet for yourself, your spouse and children for comfort, better sleep and intimate relationship. - Go to bed before 10:00 p.m. and enjoy deep and sound sleep during the night. If you could not go to bed before 10:00 p.m. due to the job schedule, change the career or find another job. More important, do not eat late, work late, or get yourself excited about a project two hours before the bedtime. Forgive as God has forgiven you. Before the bedtime, practice to forgive your enemy or any person who has ever caused you anger, frustrated or dismayed. Meditate and offer thanksgiving prayer to God that God has bestowed upon you many blessings and kept you alive on the earth. You have job to do and to serve God’s kingdom tomorrow. Pray that God will send myriads of angels to bless your sleep. While you are lying on the bed, practice Chi-Qong exercise to wind down your brain wave, paving the way for deep and sound sleep through the night. If you cannot sleep through the night after mediation and prayer, you may call Dr. Ging for consultation. - At least 25- minute stretch exercise or Yoga exercise in the morning or before sunset. - Morning and bedtime, kisses and hugs with prayer at least for 3 minutes. Hug left side to left side, heart to heart. - Take Dr. Ging’s Liver Balancer Herbal Formula. - Take Black Sesame Powder for breakfast and as an afternoon snack. Make a paste by mixing Black Sesame Powder with a little boiling water and honey for breakfast. For afternoon snack, you may add Chinese Rock Salt instead of honey. - Be sure that you have bowel movement in the morning. The stool should be long, neither too soft nor too hard; normal stool color is beautiful golden brown. If your stool color appears either dark color or green/gray color, it indicates you have sluggish food assimilation. - Be sure that you have good energy throughout the day without relying on caffeine or cigarettes. If you do not have good energy, consult with Dr. Ging and learn to practice Feast Upon Sun Ray Chi Qong exercise so that you can receive abundant energy from the Sun Ray by staring at the sun rise in the early morning or sunset for 15 minutes. Do not practice Sun Ray Chi Qong exercise after 7:30 am, lest your eyes may be harmed. Q. What is referred pain related to the meridian pathway blockage? - Heart meridian blockage can cause chest pain, scapula pain (T1 through T5), and little finger pain. Liver meridian blockage can cause pain all over the body, migraine headache, headache on the top of the head, neck/shoulder pain, right rib cage pain extending to middle of the back, abdominal pain, cramp before or during a menstruation cycle, spasm, muscle tightness, clumsy, the pain in the first toe.Gall Bladder meridian blockage can cause eye pain, pain along the later side of leg, pain in the fourth toe.Kidney meridian blockage can cause joint pain, rheumatoid arthritis, bone pain, lumbar pain, scoliosis, knee pain, Achilles-heel pain, disk degeneration or protrusion, osteoporosis, pain on the occipital region. Spleen/pancreas meridian blockage can cause right side rib cage pain, frontal pain, heart burn, abdominal pain, femoral pain (medial side of thigh and leg). - Cancer pain: Esophagus cancer pain: dull pain is felt in the chest area Prostate cancer pain: feel burning pain or lumbar pain while urination Lung cancer pain is felt starting T7 extended to the shoulder Kidney cancer pain: lumbago, knee pain - Chemotherapy (killing the normal cells causing bone marrow area, spinal nerve sensitive) - How to differentiate healing pain from pathogenic related pain? When lung cancer starts shrinking, the pain will be shifted from T6, T7 area to the shoulder; then shift to the neck. In other words, when the cancer begins to be shrunk, the pain may be shifted back to the area where the cancer is initially headquartered. Q. Why certain pain such as fibromyalgia is so stubborn to be subdued? A. If you have experienced pain, it would be much easier to detect the underlying root causes and treat it accordingly at the early stage. When pain is left untreated for a certain period of time, it becomes chronic pain where chronic infection is gradually developed and begins to invade into multiple terrains of the tissues (muscles, fascia, tendons, ligaments, and nerves) causing tissue entanglement, swollen, hardening, blood clots, energetic blockage, and severe physical damage in the organs. So often, we miss the healing time. It is too late to fix it. This is why certain pain is so stubborn to be subdued. It takes much longer time to treat long past due chronic pain than a new acute pain. In Dr. Ging’s opinion, most of chronic pain results from chronic disease such as chronic fatigue, insomnia, irregular menstruation, the heart disease, diabetes… left untreated or not receiving proper treatment in time. Therefore, when feeling ill, do not procrastinate to consult with your health care professional for identifying the root causes first, then treat it, lest the healing time should be passed. If your ailment persists or gets worse after being treated for 6 weeks, you need to get second or third opinion to find out the true underlying root causes of your ailment. Dr. Ging is available to you for the second or third opinion. Fibromyalgia is a chronic disease. The reason that it is difficult to treat fibromyalgia is because treatment started without detecting the true underlying root causes of the pain problem. According to Dr. Ging’s research and clinical study, the pain/soreness related to fibromyalgia is primarily attributable to chronic fatigue and emotional stress impacting the quality of sleep during the night. When the patient’s sleep pattern, emotional stress, and energy metabolism are corrected, the symptoms associated with fibromyalgia disappears. Q. What are the most effective therapies to treat symptoms of pain? A. Currently, no single therapy outweighs the other therapies. All the therapies mutually complement each other. A multi-disciplinary approach is usually more effective than a single disciplinary approach. To eliminate the pain requires not only a broad base of medical knowledge but also mastery of the art of medicine in combining pain relief therapies to achieve optimal clinical results. Besides conventional pain management therapies, the following alternative therapies have proven effective in treating pain: Steam Infusion with Chinese Herbs: - Spectacular effect of ginger to heal the pain - Ion Balance by green vegetable juicing, colon cleanse, salting-out, trace mineral intake, Chi-Qong exercise. Dr. Ging and his brother, Yu-Pin Cheng has researched and developed herbal syrup (external use only) to relieve the pain resulting from chronic disease, injury or rheumatoid arthritis, and auto accident. The steam infusion therapy is also effective in treating the joint pain, neck/shoulder pain, chest pain, lower back pain, knee pain, and abdomen pain. The procedure is simple. Prior to starting the steam infusion therapy, you simply pour six cups of water with 4 ounces of the pain- relief herbal syrup into a container placed under the seat of steam cabinet. Set a suitable temperature, then turn on the switch. You sit in the steam cabinet for 20 minutes per session, two to three sessions a week. To speed up the healing, it is recommended that intake herbal formula be taken along with steam infusion therapy (1 to 3 times per week). - Acupuncture:the puncture of the skin with needle(s) to initiate a series of synoptic impulses ascending to the brain. The brain integrates the messages based on synoptic impulses, starts releasing endogenous analgesic neurotransmitters to sedate pain, and triggers a series of biochemistry changes to bring the equilibrium back to the system.Acupuncture is effective in treating referred pain, acute pain, arthritis, and chronic pain resulted from cancer and/or a visceral disease. - Cupping Therapy: an effective method to relieve acute pain by sucking out blood clots from regional subcutaneous capillaries using a cup containing negative pressure, made from either glass, plastic or bamboo. - Chi Qong Energy, Tai-Chi Breathing Exercise:is slow-movement therapy starts with relaxing your body and casting out your secular concerns from your brain so that you can begin enjoying tranquility of the mind (Zu-Jin). Then, you practice breathing techniques along with slow somatic movements to direct Chi – vital life energy – to flow through internal organs and to bring the equilibrium back to the body.Chi Qong is one of the most powerful and effective therapy compared with the other TCM therapies being used clinically in China to control tumor growth and reduce the numerous symptoms associated with cancer such as pain, insomnia, nausea, irregular bowel movement, and fatigue. - Chinese Tui-Na Massage, Chiropractic Manipulation) Therapy: massage can benefit such conditions as muscle spasm, spinal curvatures, soreness related to injury and stress, headaches, whiplash injury, temporomandibular joint syndrome (TMJ). Massage can also help reduce swelling, correct posture, improve body motion, and facilitate the elimination of toxins from the body. - Neural Therapy ( Trigger Point Injections): is a gentle healing technique that was originally developed in Germany. It involves the injection of local anesthetics such as procaine into automatic ganglia, peripheral nerves, scars, glands, acupuncture points, trigger points, and tooth cavity, as well as other tissues to unblock the energetic flow and therefore relieve the pain. Neural therapy is based on the theory that trauma can produce long-standing disturbance in the electrochemical function of tissues. Neural therapy injection can often instantly and lastingly resolve chronic pain once the location of the underlying root causes of the pain is precisely identified. - Sclerotherapy (Prolotherapy): a method of injection treatment designed to stimulate healing of the ligaments, tendons, and joints. Various irritant solutions are injected into the problem area to encourage repair of damaged tissue, reduce the swelling, rebuild the immunity, and weld disabled ligaments and tendons to bone by stimulating the production of new bone and fibrous tissue cells. - Bio Ray – is computer programmable spectrum based on the work of Raymond Rife. It is effective in treating cancer pain and AIDS, and other chronic diseases. In Conventional Western Medicine… Pain symptom is tackled by surgery, injections and/or nerve blocks, drugs such as aspirin, Tylenol, codeine, morphine, cortisone, etc. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), which has been used for pain management since 770 B.C. places primary emphasis on eliminating the root causes of the pain, and bringing the harmony, energetic flow, equilibrium and whole health back to the body. TCM uses the following therapies for eliminating/managing the pain: · Acupuncture · Chi Qong Breathing or Tai-Chi Exercise · Natural Herbs · Cupping Therapy · Moxbusion · Twei-Na (Chinese Massage) Q. How can acupuncture therapy eliminate/manage the pain? A. Acupuncture has been a popular healing art used in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) for centuries to treat a variety of ailments. It was thought to restore balance and harmony to the treated areas by means of the chemical change induced by the acupuncture stimulation. Clinical researchers believed that acupuncture’s ability to achieve anesthesia and/or analgesia was the result of the initiation of a series of synoptic stimulations that resulted in the formation of some type of analgesic substance. In 1975, research by independent pharmacology groups discovered the existence of endogenous morphine-like substances, namely the leu-enkephalin and met-enkephalin, the structures of which are simple polypeptides that have powerful analgesic properties. Immediately, acupuncturists speculated about whether the action of acupuncture resulted in the stimulation of production of these endorphins/enkephalins which in turn, enhanced the threshold of a person’s pain. Clinical studies have proven that this is indeed true. Since then, scientific researchers and medical practitioners have pursued a deeper understanding of the mechanism of acupuncture analgesia using neurochemical and neuropharmacological approach. Not only can acupuncture eliminate (or manage) the agony of pain by enhancing endogenous analgesia, it can also produce anesthesia sufficient for surgical procedures allowing the patient to be awake and to communicate with the surgeon during the operation. Q. Are you taking high dosages of pain medication, morphine or other opioids and still suffering? A. One of the toughest challenges facing the conventional medicine today is the management of severe pain. Morphine and other opioids are commonly used to help manage pain in patients with cancer, back injuries, and/or chronic intractable pain. Sometimes these drugs do not provide enough pain relief even in high dosages. They often have unpleasant or debilitating side effects such as nausea, headaches, and constipation. When these drugs no longer serve the patient well, Traditional Chinese Medicine has proven to be an effective alternative – or additive – to reduce the pain associated with cancer or chronic intractable pain. Q. Are there any side effects from the treatment of TCM therapies? A. No. There are no known side effects associated with TCM therapies because they are natural-based therapies. Q. How many acupuncture treatments will it take to reduce pain from cancer? A. It depends on the stage of cancer and the severity of pain. It normally takes a week to reduce pain. The patients are required to have two clinical treatments a week for the first month; then, one treatment a week. In addition, VitalChi Cancer Pain Support formulas would have a wide applicability to a cross-section of cancer patients; they are particularly effective in relieving cancer pain and enhancing energy to sustain the patient to go through full gamut of chemotherapy/radiation therapy program. Q. How do I use the herbal formulas for reduction of cancer pain and to expel the toxic substance from the bone marrow area which have resulted from chemotherapy? - First, take VitalChi COLON CLEANSE formula before taking the Cancer Pain Support herbal formulas. If patient is constipated, highly acidic or toxic, heat-sensitive, feel low grade fever or burning heat or has fever resulting from a virus or shortly after the chemotherapy, it is recommended that the COLON CLEANSE formula be taken for 5 days as one cycle. The patient may take up to three cycles to root out constipation. If the patient starts experiencing diarrhea more than 4 times a day, he or she may cut down to one dosage or stop taking the formula. COLON CLEANSE Formula: $80.00 for a 12-days supply. - Second, take VitalChi GeneChi formula along with Liver Balancer formula. VitalGene formula: $150.00 for a 30-day supply per patient. Liver Balancer formula: $150.00 for a 30-day supply per patient. - Third, take VitalChi GOLDEN LIGHT formula Golden Light formula: $150.00 for a 30-day supply per patient. Q. How to apply the herbal formulas for reduce the knee pain, lumbar pain or arthritis related pain? A. VitalChi’s Kidney Balancer formula will help you relieve the joint pain. In fact, many patients report visible results starting in just a few days. In addition, Kidney Infection formula can balance your blood sugar and enhance your kidney detoxification function. The statements above have not been evaluated by the FDA. The nutritional suggestions, research and anecdotes provided are not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease and should not be used as a substitute for sound medical advice.

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Faelish War of Resistance But Also the Construction of the Nation The Faelish War of Resistance But Also the Construction of the Nation (Faelish: Cocadhe in Anglirse lit. "War against the English"),or the Anglo-Faelish War was a guerrilla war mounted by partisans against the British government and its forces in Faeland. It began in February 1921, following the Irish Republic's successful war of independence. Both sides agreed to a peace in March 1925, though violence continued in the east (mostly between groups of Irish and English descent). The post-ceasefire talks led to the Treaty of London, which ended British rule in most of Faeland and established the Federation of Faelish Free States. Internal (cf. civil) hostilities continued, however, until October 1935; with most action occurring in Litus and New Norwich. - 1 Origins - 2 Chronology - 2.1 Initial Hostilities - 2.2 March Inland, Violence Spreads - 2.3 The Doldrums - 2.4 Escalation, Summer 1922 - 2.5 Violence Peaks in the East, Fall & Winter 1922 - 2.6 Fighting in the West, Fall & Winter 1922-23 - 2.7 Ceasefire - 2.8 Treaty and Independence, 10 March 1925 - 2.9 Civil War The Stripping Crisis Since the beginning of Union with Great Britain, Faelish nationalists in the Midlands had been demanding Home Rule, or self-government, from Britain. Fringe organizations claimed that Litus only cared for itself, and that the Duchy of Faeland operated at the service of none in the hinterlands, and that the system of government left little recourse for the average subject of the crown. The Dukes often gave away tracts of land -"stripping"- in return for political favors, displacing many people and creating extremely complex questions of eminent domain (see also British Biscayne Company). The demand for Home Rule was never granted by the British Government, prompting a prolonged crisis within the colony as Litus Unionists formed armed organizations —the Volunteers— to resist the growing numbers of Faels who would come to Litus to attempt to enter politics. In turn, Nationalists formed their own military organization, the Faelish Volunteers. Many elections and plebiscites devolved into bloody brawls between the opposing sides. By the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, The majority of Nationalists did not support Britain and the Allied war effort in Europe, the intention being to ensure the departure of troops in Faeland instead of supplying soldiers while being occupied by British troops. There were several attempts at impressment, but these largely failed. Although the number of troops stationed did decline somewhat, generally speaking the tactic failed to significantly decrease British presence. There were several instances of violence committed by Faels against other Faels who attempted to fulfill their conscription requirements and report to recruiting stations. Immediately following the end of the First World War, a former soldier named Liam Quinn led a failed coup against the British administrative center in Althóan. The leader of a federation of nationalist fraternities known as the Free Brotherhood, Liam's plan for revolt was realized in the winter of 1918. The Brotherhood, now explicitly declaring a republic, launched an insurrection whose aim was to end British rule and to found a Faelish Republic. The rising, in which over four hundred people died, was almost exclusively confined to Althóan and was put down within one month, but the British response, executing every member of the insurrection and arresting thousands of nationalist activists, galvanized support for the separatist movement in general. To modern Faelish nationalists, the Faelish War of Independence had begun with this "Proclamation of the Faelish Republic" during —what they call in reference to the Easter Rising— the Christmas Rising of 1918. Nationalists argue that the conflict of 1921-25 (and indeed the subsequent civil war of 1925-35) were in fact the defense of this Republic. When the Irish War of Independence began in 1919, Faeland remained peaceful, if tense. As the battles escalated, the IRA saw fit to use the Irish-settled Dhíall region of Faeland as a munitions cache and training base. Only later in the war did the British have the resources to begin allocating troops to thwart this activity, and by then the fight was largely over. Seeing that the British were near capitulation, orders were sent to begin hostilities against occupying forces on Faeland, and as the war drew to a close in Ireland, many IRA soldiers made their way to Faeland to begin a push to liberate the island. In February of 1921 in the city of Kilgare the Faelish Republican Army was established, largely composed of Irish veterans. With a stated goal of continuing the fight to purge the British from Celtic lands, the first attacks were made on minor outposts in Kilgare, Kingston and Bell's Wharf. While it was not clear in the beginning of the 1920's that the Faels ever intended to gain independence by military means, and war was not explicitly threatened in most manifestos of nationalist groups, an incident occurred on 2 February 1921. Several Irish revolutionaries acting independently at Dearbháil, in County Bideac, led by Patrick Rorgan and Donovon Costello, attacked and shot two Royal Faelish Regiment regulars, who were on furlough in the area but in uniform. Costello later recalled that: "We took action with the intent of starting a war. So we intended to kill some of the occupying foreign force whom we looked upon as the foremost and most important branch of the enemy forces. The group primarily responsible for the buttressing of the regime. The anticipated affect was to cause retribution, but in that we hoped it would be demonstrated how vicious our overlords were." This is widely regarded as the beginning of the War of Independence, even though the men acted on their own initiative to try to start a war. The British government declared martial law in the town under the Defence of the Realm Act but troops were slow to arrive. Without an organized political branch of resistance, war was not formally declared by the Faelish people until well into the conflict, however. March Inland, Violence Spreads Despite the establishment of an IRA counterpart (FRA), native and mixed Faels in both the Dhiall and neighboring Duchy territories formed their own Faelish Independence Battalions to assist the Irish rebels in their advance. This would be repeated in many localized areas of fighting; and politics and names would often overlap and contradict each other. Being grassroots militia, the form and operation of the units varied widely. The principal tactic of the combined forces (numbering only around 2,000 irregular soldiers) was to push strait through the British Duchy to the capital in Althóan. Despite little resistance along the line of advance, the combined FRA-FIB force arrived in the capital haphazardly. It had been a necessary precaution to scatter themselves along a wide front to avoid wholesale capture or ambush. Their arrival in the city was marked by fear on the part of the relatively small British garrison, who stayed in their fortress a full two days before sallying forth to find partisans. The volunteers attacked British government and private property along their march, carried out raids for arms and funds and targeted and killed prominent members of the British administration and Duchy gentry. Among the first was Baronet William C. Higgins, 2nd Lord Tighearnan, who was shot dead in his manor for having shot civilians for unlawful assembly and drilling. They mimicked the successful tactics of the IRA before them, conducting fast and violent raids without uniform and continuing on, living off the land as they went. Although some leaders already called for conventional warfare in order to legitimize the action in the eyes of the world (particularly among the FIB), the more practically experienced veterans and the broader leadership among the FRA opposed these tactics as they were largely impractical without a central government. Still fewer preferred a campaign of civil disobedience rather than armed struggle (largely confined to the west coast). The violence used was at first deeply unpopular with the people; only later, after the atrocities of the first battle of the war would attitude toward the militants become favorable. During this early part of the conflict, roughly from March 1921 to the middle of May, there was a relatively limited amount of violence. Much of the nationalist campaign involved militia mobilization and the slow, unorganized move south toward Althóan. The FRA's main target throughout this period of the conflict was mainly local bigwigs and politicians, and the FIB took a largely defensive stance. Because of this lack of cohesion, the British were slow to set a strategy for attack and thus did not mobilize infantry until almost mid-summer. Battle of Althóan This lack of British presence allowed the arriving rebel forces to fan out across the city and take up residence in private homes. At this stage, almost all Faelish combatants were from the FRA, and totaled around 2,500 troops. As it became apparent in the first 48 hours that the British were not likely to attack outright nor arrest civilians (it is suspected they only numbered around 500 and kept to the security of their fortress), an estimated 500-1000 volunteers formed a local FIB Unit. Thus strengthened, the FRA were the first to rally themselves for a direct attack. Forming into 10 man squadds armed with mostly pistols and bolt action rifles, it was decided to move house by house toward the site of the British garrison. With no heavy artillery, the only way in was to control the surface of the city and use the sewers to infiltrate and seize the fort. As Faelish troops increased pressure around the city and maintained firing positions in apartment buildings, word arrived that the British were finally arriving in force. The attempt to seize the fort was now more crucial than ever lest the encircling Faels be in turn surrounded themselves. The British forces split themselves, as predicted, and surrounded the city. They moved in with ferocity, finding the most affective method of attack was to shell the buildings in which sharpshooters had taken up positions. The folly of the attack was demonstrated when, after bombardment, the British moved in to find that the Faels had survived underground and the fight remained hand to hand and building to building. Both sides sent smaller and smaller units into neighboring buildings, hoping to take up positions in as many places as possible before the opposing forces could. Within days, no one could operate freely outside any structures. At this point, the British began a retreat and again shelled the city for a shocking two days, killing civilians and generating much support for the revolt across the island. The city was reduced to rubble; the battle raged across the battered terrain and in the sewers as soldiers attempted to surprise their enemies. While the fighting continued, several hundred FIB volunteers approached the city from neighboring suburbs and towns in an effort to turn the tide. With fewer homes and buildings which the British could use to quarter troops, it became apparent that the struggle was becoming more and more difficult. A tactical retreat to better ground was required. The British pulled out but regrouped outside the city, the Faelish groups began to squabble over the next move. The final decision was made to evacuate the city, and fan out to flank the British troops and pick them off slowly. It was hoped that this could force them into a general retreat in which the entire column could be harassed. Faced with a two-front battle, General Howe of the British Army did indeed initiate a retreat. However, the Faels had failed to anticipate the British access to transport, and were largely unable to keep pace with the evacuating British forces. Following the initial fight in Althóan, the British resolved to not lose this colony, as they had Ireland. The fighting subsided as they retreated to Litus. London ordered conscription and deployment of troops to aid the RFR, which was well-equipped and in good strength, but could not hope to fight more than a single front by itself. Reports came to Georgetown of increasing partisan activity; and that the Midlands were out of practical control by the central administration. Through the winter of 1921-22, the British responded to the escalating lawlessness on the frontier with the Colony by increasing use of force. Reluctant to deploy the Royal Faelish Regiment prematurely, both the Duchy and the Kingdom of Faeland set up paramilitary units to resist the raids and attacks of the FRA forces sending columns south along the northern Teraba Range through Valaduria. The Royal Auxiliary were set up to bolster the flagging RFR. two thousand strong, they were mainly Litan ex-police and army. First deployed in January 1922, most came from the coastal cities, and were of English descent. While officially they were a reserve branch of the RFR, in reality they were rapidly deployed as a paramilitary force. They gained a reputation for ill discipline due to a policy of so-called "independent operation" in which they were given standing orders "to resist insurrection wherever possible befitting good judgment on behalf of His Majesty's Government". In response to FRA actions, in the early spring of 1922, the "Augs" burned and sacked numerous small towns across the border with Valaduria and the Colony, including Tiemro, Uley, and Oxgreen. With British troops arriving at the Gaól Plain and the Kingdom of Faeland bolstering its forces, the Faelish forces were unable to move in either direction. The central plains were under their control for the time being, but ability to resist an organized invasion seemed doubtful. Many FRA units began moving into the highlands in an anticipated push into the center of the Kingdom. Meanwhile the northern group, composed mainly of FIB recruits, was sent west to intercept British reinforcements, while other largely veteran Irish FRA groups set out across the mountains to look for volunteers in the country around Séanchus Mor. Both groups were receiving recruits daily and, despite lack of heavy arms, many arrived with rifles and handguns (but little ammunition). Portuguese and Spanish volunteers from the south bolstered their strength and supplied limited ammunition. This added another political element to the fight, as many of these men were socialists and other political outcasts from the Iberian peninsula. A significant number were Basques, looking to train for their own revolt back home. Calling itself the First Faelish Army, the FIB arrived at Caer Gybi and began fortifying the position, unsure what artillery the British might have in Tharcladda. Reports were vague, but it seemed the British were confined to the city, but well stocked and likely to move forward. Escalation, Summer 1922 The Second Faelish Army, often called Second Group from its polyglot nature (FRA, Spanish, Valadurian, and Vilan volunteers), pushed east across the mountains toward the Kingdom, encountering heavy British resistance, despite having acquired approximately 10,000 volunteers since leaving Séanchus Mor. A number of events dramatically escalated the conflict in the middle of 1922, primarily in the east. First, the Lord Mayor of Middlesex, Philip Crumby, was assassinated by FRA "Intelligence Squads" for his personal support of the Auxiliary. Then, on 21 July 1922, there was a day of dramatic bloodshed in Georgetown. In the early morning, another elite squad attempted to wipe out the British Viceregency in the capital. The Squad shot 12 people, killing 7 and wounding 5. They consisted of the Duke's and Viceroy's officers, a general and one minister. In response, Auxiliaries drove trucks into the suburbs where Faels lived, shooting into houses. Later that day two republican prisoners were killed in the Georgetown Customs House. The official account was that the two men were shot "while trying to escape", which was rejected by Faelish nationalists who were certain the men had been tortured then murdered. On 27 July, only a week later, the west Larnic unit of the FRA, under Homer Macraigh, ambushed a patrol of Auxiliaries at Cloagh in Duchy territory, killing the entire 21-man patrol. These actions marked a significant escalation of the conflict. In response counties Wight, Kings, and New Kent all raised militia and enforced martial law across the border. Shortly afterward, in August 1921, "official reprisals" were sanctioned by the British and they began with the burning of towns suspected of hiding rebels, namely Kells, Baille Vaughn, Baille Anhwar, Atha Cliath, and Sloain. This caused a massive surge in recruits to the FRA forces operating in the area (incidentally, they were operating primarily out of Cinnte). Battle of Tara On August 1, the Militia, Auxiliary and two companies of Royal Faelish regulars occupied the city of Tara expecting an all out attack. Many of the FRA leaders did not want to take the bait, but the new recruits were nearly impossible to control, and it was decided that the best way to maintain order was to give in to their demands. The Second Group was by this time reduced to around 5,000 variously armed soldiers under numerous commanders. With no siege equipment, the consensus was to surround the city and move in hard, fast, and with no retreat to swarm the British before they could form up enough artillery to repel the charge. Around 230 vehicles, including cars and trucks and a few motorcycles, were appropriated. Roughly two dozen of these were laiden with explosives and sent in ahead of the main columns to disrupt the British troops. Quickly following were the remaining vehicles to get into the heart of the city quickly as the soldiers on foot followed behind. Many of the trucks were mowed with machine gun fire after the explosions from the previous wave, and in fact slowed the infantry charge into the city. The explosions hadn't altogether achieved their objectives but fires erupted throughout the city, leaving the encircled British troops little choice but to surrender. It is estimated that around 2,000 British soldiers escaped to the countryside, heading south to safety. Violence Peaks in the East, Fall & Winter 1922 During the following four months after the capitulation of Tara, there was a spiraling of the death toll in the conflict, with 1,000 people being killed in the months between leading to 1923, including the RFR, the Auxiliary and the counties' militia, as well as the FRA and their volunteer allies and also civilians from both groups. In addition, 4,500 personnel on both sides of the conflict were interned and often mistreated. In the middle of this violence, a provisional government in Boru had formally declared Faeland independent and war on Britain on 7 September 1922. During the fall, many units pushed south, using the mountains as a base and raiding towns and military posts. A 500-strong FRA unit fought a large-scale action against 1,200 British troops at Faultois. They narrowly avoided being trapped by converging British columns and inflicted between ten and thirty killed on the British side. Just two days later, the Murcadh FRA and 4th Valadurian Volunteers attacked a train in Harper's Break County north of Port William. Twenty British soldiers were killed or injured, as well as two FRA men and three civilians. Most of the actions in the war were on a smaller scale than this, but with shocking frequency (scholars estimate that there were at least 4 instances of violence involving 5 or more men per day, for four months). The FRA did have other significant victories in cities, but kept Georgetown largely terrorized for the duration of the year. The biggest single loss for the FRA, however, came in Grand Break. On 25 November 1922, several hundred FRA men from the Ewell Brigade occupied and burned the Custom House (the center of local government in the city). This was intended to cut the kingdom in half, but failed to recognize that the mountain ranges to the east of the city were too distant to provide enough support from raiding parties in the hills and that the Fhendiac Peninsula gave ample distance to the approaching British forces to avoid harassment. The RFR was able to successfully enter the city and shell the Custom House to rubble, affectively ending any ability cut the country in two. From here on out the Second Group operated entirely using raids and hit-and-run attacks, having lost the initiative and without the logistical support to occupy any large settlements. Nevertheless, many military historians have concluded that the Faelish fought a largely successful and lethal guerrilla war, which forced the British government to conclude that the FRA could not be defeated outright, as they operated too unconventionally. Additionally, in what might now be seen as traditional guerrilla objectives, the Second Group succeeded by not being defeated, and thus prevented the units in the eastern theater from invading and linking up with the western troops. Fighting in the West, Fall & Winter 1922-23 After a lull in violence in the west over the new year, killings there intensified again in the winter of 1922-23. The western FIB units came under pressure from the leadership to step up attacks in line with the east of the country. Predictably, this unleashed British reprisals against Faels in the Gáol. For example, in February 1923, the FRA cells in Tharcladda shot dead two Auxiliaries in the city center. The same night, two Faels were killed in response. In the following week, sixteen more Faels were killed and 216 Catholic homes burned in reprisal - events known to have earned more support for the cause. In April Frances Devalin came to Georgetown to meet the British Viceroy of Faeland, Lord Spancehill, and was smuggled through by the RFR. The two leaders discussed the possibility of a truce in the country and an amnesty for prisoners. Spancehill proposed a compromise settlement based on the Government of Faeland Act, with limited independence for the Kingdom and autonomy for the Midlands within a "Home Rule" context. However, the talks came to nothing and violence continued. The town at Caer endured siege during the talks, only relieved by sporadic local units. The first army fought in the forests and foothills throughout the cold months. This, however, effectively pinned down the western British forces and provided ample time for the Second Group to advance over the mountains and into Litus, where the fighting was much more brutal. The conflict in Faeland ended with a ceasefire on 15 September 1924, having reached a stalemate. Talks that had looked promising the previous year had stalled in December when David Lloyd George insisted that the FRA first surrender their arms. Fresh talks with the Prime Minister resumed in the spring and resulted in the Ceasefire. From the point of view of the British government, it appeared as if the FRA's guerrilla campaign would continue indefinitely, with spiraling costs in British casualties and in money. More importantly, the British government was facing severe criticism at home and abroad for the actions of British forces in Faeland. The FRA had been hard pressed by the deployment of more regular British soldiers to Faeland and by the lack of arms and ammunition. On 24 September 1924, the British Coalition Government's Cabinet decided to propose talks with the leaders of the revolt. Most FRA officers on the ground interpreted the Ceasefire merely as a temporary respite and continued recruiting and training volunteers. Nor did attacks on the RFR or British Army cease altogether. Between December 1924 and February of the next year, there were 50 recorded attacks by the FRA on the soon to be disbanded RFR, leaving dozens dead. On 18 February 1924, Eric O'Cora's FIB unit raided the barracks at Tara, taking 40 soldiers prisoner and seizing over 600 weapons and thousands of rounds of ammunition. Over 100 Protestant families fled the area after the killings. The continuing resistance of many FRA leaders was one of the main factors in the outbreak of the Faelish Civil War as they refused to accept the Anglo-Faelish Treaty that had been negotiated with the British. Treaty and Independence, 10 March 1925 Ultimately, the peace talks led to the negotiation of the Treaty of London, which was then ratified in triplicate: by Georgetown, London, and Althóan. The treaty allowed Litus, which had been created by the Act of Union, 1802, to remain a part of the British Commonwealth. As agreed, Lito would be a dominion of the Empire. The republican negotiators understood that the Commission would redraw the border according to local nationalist or unionist majorities. A new system of government was created for the new Federation of Free States (the initial, British-proposed name for the Federated Republics of Faeland established by the constitution). For the first year two governments co-existed: an Assembly answerable to the people and headed by President Samuels, and a Provisional Government nominally answerable to the House of Nations of Faeland and appointed by the King of England after the treaty. The complexity of this was such that it was quite difficult to effectively end the fighting between Faels and English in Lito. Most of the independence movement's leaders were willing to accept this compromise, at least for the time being, though many militant Republicans were not. A majority of the pre-Ceasefire FRA who had fought in the War of Independence, led by Gwynn Mcculough, refused to accept the Treaty and in May 1925 repudiated the authority of the government, which it accused of betraying the ideal of the Faelish Republic. To complicate matters, the various member states of Faeland were clamoring for their own rights (i.e. Valaduria, Pentapolis etc.). Main Article: Faelish Civil War While the violence in Lito was still raging, the British made a swift exit. In April 1926, an executive board of Faelish officers repudiated the treaty and the authority of the Provisional Government which had been set up to administer it. These Republicans held that the government did not have the right to leave anything to Britain. A hardline group of Anti-Treaty men occupied several public buildings in Georgetown in an effort to bring down the treaty and re-start the war with the British people in Faeland. The subsequent Faelish Civil War lasted until mid-1935 and cost the lives of many of the leaders of the independence movement, notably the head of the Provisional Government. Total casualties have never been determined but were perhaps higher than those in the earlier fighting against the British. The war would end with a forced peace brought about by several other pages who tired of the conflict.

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A spectroradiometer is a light measurement tool that is able to measure both the wavelength and amplitude of the light emitted from a light source. Spectrometers discriminate the wavelength based on the position the light hits at the detector array allowing the full spectrum to be obtained with a single acquisition. Most spectrometers have a base measurement of counts which is the un-calibrated reading and is thus impacted by the sensitivity of the detector to each wavelength. By applying a calibration, the spectrometer is then able to provide measurements of spectral irradiance, spectral radiance and/or spectral flux. This data is also then used with built in or PC software and numerous algorithms to provide readings or Irradiance (W/cm2), Illuminance (lux or fc), Radiance (W/sr), Luminance (cd), Flux (Lumens or Watts), Chromaticity, Color Temperature, Peak and Dominant Wavelength. Some more complex spectrometer software packages also allow calculation of PAR µmol/m²/s, Metamerism, and candela calculations based on distance and include features like 2- and 20-degree observer, baseline overlay comparisons, transmission and reflectance. Spectrometers are available in numerous packages and sizes covering many wavelength ranges. The effective wavelength (spectral) range of a spectrometer is determined not only by the grating dispersion ability but also depends on the detectors’ sensitivity range. Limited by the semiconductor's band gap the silicon-based detector responds to 200-1100 nm while the InGaAs based detector is sensitive to 900-1700 nm (or out to 2500 nm with cooling). Lab/Research spectrometers often cover a broad spectral range from UV to NIR and require a PC. There are also IR Spectrometers that require higher power to run a cooling system. Many Spectrometers can be optimized for a specific range i.e. UV, or VIS and combined with a second system to allow more precise measurements, better resolution, and eliminate some of the more common errors found in broadband system such as stray light and lack of sensitivity. Portable devices are also available for numerous spectral ranges covering UV to NIR and offer many different package styles and sizes. Hand held systems with integrated displays typically have built in optics, and an onboard computer with pre-programmed software. Mini spectrometers are also able to be used hand held, or in the lab as they are powered and controlled by a PC and require a USB cable. Input optics may be incorporated or are commonly attached by a fiber optic light guide. There are also micro Spectrometers smaller than a quarter that can be integrated into a system, or used stand alone. The field of spectroradiometry concerns itself with the measurement of absolute radiometric quantities in narrow wavelength intervals. It is useful to sample the spectrum with narrow bandwidth and wavelength increments because many sources have line structures Most often in spectroradiometry, spectral irradiance is the desired measurement. In practice, the average spectral irradiance is measured, shown mathematically as the approximation: Where is the spectral irradiance, is the radiant flux of the source (SI unit: watt, W) within a wavelength interval (SI unit: meter, m), incident on the surface area, (SI unit: square meter,m²). The SI unit for spectral irradiance is W/m3. However it is often more useful to measure area in terms of centimeters and wavelength in nanometers, thus submultiples of the SI units of spectral irradiance will be used, for example μW/cm2*nm Spectral irradiance will vary from point to point on the surface in general. In practice, it is important note how radiant flux varies with direction, the size of the solid angle subtended by the source at each point on the surface, and the orientation of the surface. Given these considerations, it is often more prudent to use a more rigorous form of the equation to account for these dependencies Note that the prefix “spectral” is to be understood as an abbreviation of the phrase “spectral concentration of” which is understood and defined by the CIE as the “quotient of the radiometric quantity taken over an infinitesimal range on either side of a given wavelength, by the range”. Spectral power distributionEdit The spectral power distribution (SPD) of a source describes how much flux reaches the sensor over a particular wavelength and area. This effectively expresses the per-wavelength contribution to the radiometric quantity being measured. The SPD of a source is commonly shown as an SPD curve. SPD curves provide a visual representation of the color characteristics of a light source, showing the radiant flux emitted by the source at various wavelengths across the visible spectrum It is also a metric by which we can evaluate a light source's ability to render colors, that is, whether a certain color stimulus can be properly rendered under a given illuminant. Sources of errorEdit The quality of a given spectroradiometric system is a function of its electronics, optical components, software, power supply, and calibration. Under ideal laboratory conditions and with highly trained experts, it is possible to achieve small (a few tenths to a few percent) errors in measurements. However, in many practical situations, there is the likelihood of errors on the order of 10 percent Several types of error are at play when taking physical measurements. The three basic types of error noted as the limiting factors of accuracy of measurement are random, systematic, and periodic errors Random errors are variations about that mean. In the case of spectroradiometric measurements, this could be thought of as noise from the detector, internal electronics, or the light source itself. Errors of this type can be combated by longer integration times or multiple scans. Systematic errors are offsets to the predicted “correct” value. Systematic errors generally occur due to the human component of these measurements, the device itself, or the setup of the experiment. Things such as calibration errors, stray light, and incorrect settings, are all potential issues. Periodic errors arise from recurrent periodic or pseudo-periodic events. Variations in temperature, humidity, air-motion, or AC interference could all be categorized as periodic error. In addition to these generic sources of error, a few of the more specific reasons for error in spectroradiometry include: - The multidimensionality of the measurement. The output signal is dependent on several factors, including magnitude of measured flux, its direction, its polarization, and its wavelength distribution. - The inaccuracy of measuring instruments, as well as the standards used to calibrate said instruments, cascaded to create a larger error throughout the entire measurement process, and - The proprietary techniques for reducing multidimensionality and device instability error. Gamma-scientific, a California-based manufacturer of light measurement devices, lists seven factors affecting the accuracy and performance of their spectroradiometers, due to either the system calibration, the software and power supply, the optics, or the measurement engine itself. Stray Light: Stray light is unwanted wavelength radiation reaching the incorrect detector element. It generates erroneous electronic counts not related to designed spectral signal for the pixel or element of the detector array. It can come from light scatter and reflection of imperfect optical elements as well as higher order diffraction effects. The second order effect can be removed or at least dramatically reduced, by installing order sorting filters before the detector. A Si detectors sensitivity to visible and NIR is nearly an order of magnitude larger than that in the UV range. This means that the pixels at the UV spectral position respond to stray light in visible and NIR much more strongly than to their own designed spectral signal. Therefore, the stray light impacts in UV region are much more significant as compared to visible and NIR pixels. This situation gets worse the shorter the wavelength. When measuring broad band light with small fraction of UV signals, the stray light impact can sometimes be dominant in the UV range since the detector pixels are already struggling to get enough UV signals from the source. For this reason, calibration using QTH standard lamp can have huge errors (more than 100%) below 350 nm and Deuterium standard lamp is required for more accurate calibration in this region. In fact, absolute light measurement in the UV region can have large errors even with the correct calibration when majority of the electronic counts in these pixels is result of the stray light (longer wavelength strikes instead of the actual UV light). Calibration Errors: There are numerous companies that offer calibration for spectrometers, but not all are equal. It is important to find a traceable, certified laboratory to perform calibration. The calibration certificate should state the light source used (ex: Halogen, Deuterium, Xenon, LED), and the uncertainty of the calibration for each band (UVC,UVB,VIS..), each wavelength in nm, or for the full spectrum measured. It should also list the confidence level for the calibration uncertainty. Incorrect Settings: Like a camera, most spectrometers allow the user to select the exposure time and quantity of samples to be collected. Setting the integration time and the number of scans is an important step. Too long of an integration time can cause saturation. (In a camera photo this could appear as a large white spot, where as in a spectrometer it can appear as a dip, or cut off peak) Too short an integration time can generate noisy results (In a camera photo this would be a dark or blurry area, where as in a spectrometer this may appear are spiky or unstable readings). The exposure time is the time the light falls on the sensor during a measurement. Adjusting this parameter changes the overall sensitivity of the instrument, as changing the exposure time does for a camera. The minimum integration time varies by instrument with a minimum of .5 msec and a maximum of about 10 minutes per scan. A practical setting is in the range of 3 to 999 ms depending on the light intensity. The integration time should be adjusted for a signal which does not exceed the maximum counts (16-bit CCD has 65,536, 14-bit CCD has 16,384). Saturation occurs when the integration time is set too high. Typically, a peak signal of about 85% of the maximum is a good target and yields a good S/N ratio. (ex: 60K counts or 16K counts respectively) The number of scans indicates how many measurements will be averaged. Other things being equal, the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) of the collected spectra improves by the square root of the number N of scans averaged. For example, if 16 spectral scans are averaged, the SNR is improved by a factor of 4 over that of a single scan. S/N ratio is measured at the input light level which reaches the full scale of the spectrometer. It is the ratio of signal counts Cs (usually at full scale) to RMS (root mean square) noise at this light level. This noise includes the dark noise Nd, the shot noise Ns related to the counts generated by the input light and read out noise. This is the best S/N ratio one can get from the spectrometer for light measurements. How it worksEdit The essential components of a spectroradiometric system are as follows: - Input optics that gather the electromagnetic radiation from the source (Diffusers, Lenses, Fiber optic light guides) - An entrance slit, determines how much light will enter the spectrometer. A smaller slit with have greater resolution, but less overall sensitivity - Order sorting filters for reduction of second-order effects - Collimator directs the light to the Grating or prism - A grating or prism for dispersion of the light - Focusing optics to align the light onto the Detector - A detector, CMOS sensor or CCD array - A control and logging system to define data and store it. - Input optics The front-end optics of a spectroradiometer includes the lenses, diffusers, and filters that modify the light as it first enters the system. For Radiance an optic with a narrow field of view is required. For total flux an integrating sphere is required. For Irradiance cosine correcting optics are required. The material used for these elements determines what type of light is capable of being measured. For example, to take UV measurements, quartz rather than glass lenses, optical fibers, Teflon diffusers, and barium sulphate coated integrating spheres are often used to ensure accurate UV measurement. To perform spectral analysis of a source, monochromatic light at every wavelength would be needed to create a spectrum response of the illuminant. A monochromator is used to sample wavelengths from the source and essentially produce a monochromatic signal. It is essentially a variable filter, selectively separating and transmitting a specific wavelength or band of wavelengths from the full spectrum of measured light and excluding any light that falls outside that region. A typical monochromator achieves this through the use of entrance and exit slits, collimating and focus optics, and a wavelength-dispersing element such as a diffraction grating or prism. Modern monochromators are manufactured with diffraction gratings, and diffraction gratings are used almost exclusively in spectroradiometric applications. Diffraction gratings are preferable due to their versatility, low attenuation, extensive wavelength range, lower cost, and more constant dispersion. Single or double monochromators can be used depending on application, with double monochromators generally providing more precision due to the additional dispersion and baffling between gratings. The detector used in a spectroradiometer is determined by the wavelength over which the light is being measured, as well as the required dynamic range and sensitivity of the measurements. Basic spectroradiometer detector technologies generally fall into one of three groups: photoemissive detectors (e.g. photomultiplier tubes), semiconductor devices (e.g. silicon), or thermal detectors (e.g. thermopile). The spectral response of a given detector is determined by its core materials. For example, photocathodes found in photomultiplier tubes can be manufactured from certain elements to be solar-blind – sensitive to UV and non-responsive to light in the visible or IR. CCD (Charge Coupled Device) arrays typically one dimensional (linear) or two dimensional (area) arrays of thousands or millions of individual detector elements (also known as pixels) and CMOS sensors. They include a silicon or InGaAs based multichannel array detector capable of measuring UV, visible and near-infra light. CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) sensors differs from a CCD in that they add an amplifier to each photodiode. This is called an active pixel sensor because the amplifier is part of the pixel. Transistor switches connect each photodiode to the intrapixel amplifier at the time of readout. - Control and logging system The logging system is often simply a personal computer. In initial signal processing, the signal often needs to be amplified and converted for use with the control system. The lines of communication between monochromator, detector output, and computer should be optimized to ensure the desired metrics and features are being used. The commercially available software included with spectroradiometric systems often come stored with useful reference functions for further calculation of measurements, such as CIE color matching functions and the V curve. Spectroradiometers are used in many applications, and can be made to meet a wide variety of specifications. Example applications include: - Solar UV and UVB radiation - LED measurement - Display measurement and calibration - CFL testing - Remote detection of oil slicks Plant research and development - Leslie D. Stroebel and Richard D. Zakia (1993). Focal Encyclopedia of Photography (3rd ed. ed.). Focal Press. p. 115. ISBN 0-240-51417-3 - Berns, Roy S. "Precision and Accuracy Measurements." Billmeyer and Saltzman's Principles of Color Technology. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2000. 97-100. Print - Kostkowski, Henry J. Reliable Spectroradiometry. La Plata, MD: Spectroradiometry Consulting, 1997. Print. - Sanders, Charles L., and R. Rotter. The Spectroradiometric Measurement of Light Sources. Paris, France: Bureau Central De La CIE, 1984. Print. - GE Lighting. "Learn About Light: Spectral Power Distribution Curves: GE Commercial Lighting Products." Learn About Light: Spectral Power Distribution Curves: GE Commercial Lighting Products. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2013. <"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-12-14. Retrieved 2013-12-11.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)> - Schnedier, William E., and Richard Young, Ph.D. Spectroradiometry Methods. Application Note (A14). N.p., 1998. Web. <http://biology.duke.edu/johnsenlab/pdfs/tech/spectmethods.pdf> - Gamma Scientific. "Seven Factors Affecting Spectroradiometer Accuracy and Performance." Gamma Scientific. N.p., n.d. Web. <http://www.gamma-sci.com/spectroradiometer-accuracy-performance/>. - Bentham Instruments Ltd. A Guide to Spectroradiometry: Instruments & Applications for the Ultraviolet. Guide. N.p., 1997. Web. <http://www.bentham.co.uk/pdf/UVGuide.pdf> - American Astronomical Society. "Study Notes: AAS Monochromator." Study Notes: AAS Monochromator. N.p., n.d. Web. 2013. <"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-12-11. Retrieved 2013-12-11.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)>. - Ready, Jack. "Optical Detectors and Human Vision." Fundamentals of Photonics (n.d.): n. pag. SPIE. Web. <http://spie.org/Documents/Publications/00%20STEP%20Module%2006.pdf>. - J. W. Campbell, "Developmental Solar Blind Photomultipliers Suitable for Use in the 1450–2800-Å Region," Appl. Opt. 10, 1232-1240 (1971) http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ao/abstract.cfm?URI=ao-10-6-1232 - Apogee Instruments. Spectroradiometer PS-100 (350 - 1000 Nm), PS-200 (300 - 800 Nm), PS-300 (300 - 1000 Nm). N.p.: Apogee Instruments, n.d. Apogee Instruments Spectroradiometer Manual. Web. <http://www.apogeeinstruments.com/content/PS-100_200_300manual.pdf>. - Mattson, James S., Harry B. Mark Jr., Arnold Prostak, and Clarence E. Schutt. Potential Application of an Infrared Spectroradiometer for Remote Detection and Identification of Oil Slicks on Water. Tech. 5th ed. Vol. 5. N.p.: n.p., 1971. Print. Retrieved from <http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/es60052a004> - McFarland, M and Kaye, J (1992) Chlorofluorocarbons and Ozone. Photochem. Photobiol. 55 (6) 911-929. - Basic Light Measurement Principles An article from International Light Technologies on basic principles

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For many people, acne can be extremely distressing. However, it is much more common than you might think. Acne vulgaris, otherwise known as common acne, is the eighth most prevalent disease in the world. Young people are most likely to have the condition - approximately 80% of people with acne are aged 11 to 30. Although symptoms will usually fade over time without acne treatment, there are many steps you can take to help treat the condition. Acne is caused by the pores in the skin becoming blocked with dead skin, bacteria or oil. The pores act as openings to follicles, which are made up of hair and oil-producing glands called sebaceous glands. These glands produce oil (known as sebum) which travels up the glands, out of the pores, and lubricates the skin. When a problem occurs in this lubrication process, the pore becomes clogged and the oil is unable to escape. This causes spots to form. Depending on the severity of acne, there are a range of treatments available. In mild cases, a local pharmacist should be able to advise you on an effective treatment using over-the-counter topical treatments. Severe cases may require prescription medications. There are also a variety of high street products, natural remedies and at-home approaches to treating acne. Acne is a very common condition that causes spots, oily skin and inflammation. Otherwise known as acne vulgaris, it most commonly develops on the face, back and chest, as well as the shoulders and arms. Although most frequent in teenagers, acne can also affect babies, pregnant women and adults. It can range from mild acne (occasional pimples), to moderate (inflammatory papules) or severe (nodules and cysts). If you think you might have acne, we can help with: What acne do I have? And what are the common symptoms of acne? The symptoms of acne include: The severity of your acne will depend on which of these symptoms you have, and your treatment will change with it. Usually, your doctor will assess the severity of acne by the type of spots you have, and how many there are. Acne affects more than just the face. Acne breakouts can also occur on the neck, chest, back, shoulders and upper arms, and occasionally the scalp or buttocks. Most often treated with over-the-counter topical medicine, mild acne is considered to be primarily whiteheads or blackheads, with the occasional papule or pustule, and no nodules or cysts. The characteristics of mild acne include: If you have widespread whiteheads or blackheads, with multiple papules and/or pustules, you are likely to have moderate acne. Moderate acne usually requires prescription medication and may seem to get worse before it gets better. The characteristics of moderate acne include: With severe acne, you will have many large, painful papules, pustules, nodules or cysts. Your spots may turn a deep red or purple colour and often causes acne scars. Prompt treatment from your GP can minimise this risk, and they may refer you to a dermatologist. The characteristics of moderate acne include: You should see your GP if: Not all spots are acne. If you think there is something unusual about your symptoms it is recommended that you consult your GP. Despite being so common, acne is a very varied condition. The six main types of spots caused by acne are whiteheads, blackheads, papules, pustules, cysts and nodules. As these types vary in severity, knowing which spots you suffer from is important to identify the correct treatment. Receiving prompt, correct treatment reduces the risk of long-term skin complications such as scarring or dark spots. If you are unsure about what type of acne spots you have, we can help with: What type of acne do I have? And what are blackheads? One of the most frequent types of acne is whiteheads: small, round, white bumps on the skin's surface. Whiteheads are caused by the pores in your skin becoming clogged with dead skin, bacteria and oil. If these clogged pores are ‘closed’ (covered with a layer of thin skin), they appear white on the surface. Often seeming to develop at the worst time, whiteheads can be annoying. However, they are little to worry about. Whiteheads can be easily treated through over-the-counter medical treatments and small lifestyle changes. The other type of mild acne is blackheads. Blackheads are similar to whiteheads except for one key difference. As the top of the clogged pores are open, the surface of these spots appear dark or black instead of white. Contrary to popular belief, this black colour is not from dirt but because bacteria or dead skin cells are reacting with oxygen. If you have red bumps on the surface of your skin, you might have acne papules. Acne papules are inflamed blemishes that form when there is a high break in the follicle wall. They often feel hard, tender and sore. Also known as pimples or zits, papules often turn into pustules. If you’re concerned about papules, an over-the-counter treatment such as calamine lotion or benzoyl peroxide gel might soothe the inflammation. Pustules look similar to papules but are often larger. You can identify this type of acne from the white tips at the centre, caused by a build-up of fluid or pus. Pustules can develop on any part of the body, but this form of acne most commonly affects the back, chest and face. If your acne is severe, it is likely to include nodules. Nodular acne is made up of large, inflamed and painful bumps. When blocked pores become more irritated they grow even bigger and affect deeper layers of the skin. If you have nodular acne you should visit your GP to receive the right treatment. Cystic acne is the most severe type of spot caused by acne. Cystic acne is caused by bacteria trapped inside of your pores reaching too deep into your skin. Compared to nodules, cysts are often softer and contain pus, looking similar to boils. You should avoid any temptation to pop cysts as this carries a large risk of causing permanent scarring. Instead, see your GP to receive the correct treatment. Acne occurs when the pores in the skin become blocked with dead skin, bacteria or oil. Each pore is an opening to a follicle, made up of hair and an oil-producing gland called the sebaceous gland. These glands release oil (known as sebum), which travels up the hair, out of the pore and onto your skin. The oil helps keep your skin lubricated and soft. When a problem occurs in this lubrication process, the pore becomes clogged and the oil is unable to escape. When this happens, spots form. There are a number of risk factors which increase the likelihood of this happening including diet, stress and hormones. If you are unsure of what causes acne, we can help with: What is hormonal acne? And does stress cause acne? Acne can be caused by: Four key factors can aggravate or trigger acne: Acne affects any part of the body where there are many sebaceous glands in the skin. The areas most commonly affected by acne are the face, back, chest, shoulders and upper arms. Though less frequent, acne can also affect the scalp and buttocks. One of the common causes of acne is the fluctuations in your hormones. A rise in androgens, such as testosterone, can increase oil production and the risk of your pores becoming clogged. Though most common in teenagers during puberty, hormonal acne can also affect adults. According to Ayurvedic tradition, areas on our body reflect our inner health. However, there’s little to no scientific evidence that this is true. Many acne face maps suggest unproven links between where acne affects you and why. For instance, forehead acne does not equal liver disease, despite what you might read. With the rise of social media, many people adopt skincare advice given to them by influencers. Because of this, acne has many myths associated with it. These myths often cause more harm than good. Some of the most frequent acne myths include poor hygiene, bad diet or an unhealthy lifestyle. Here are the most common misconceptions debunked. We can help with: Are there any foods that cause acne? And can you get acne at any age? Despite what you may have heard, spot popping or squeezing may make your acne worse. Squeezing your spots can push bacteria and pus deeper into the skin, causing more swelling and redness. It may also leave you with permanent scarring. If you are wondering whether diet affects acne, you’re not alone. Research is constantly being carried out to identify whether a correlation exists between diet and breakouts. At the moment, research suggests there is no clear link that diet causes acne, though it may influence it. Despite the uncertainty surrounding diet and acne, it is always recommended you follow a healthy diet and lifestyle. A balanced diet is good for your heart and overall health, and is generally good for your skin. Poor hygiene does not cause acne. Many of the biological reactions that cause acne occur beneath the skin, so the cleanliness of your skin has no impact. In fact, excessive washing may make it worse. If acne affects your self-esteem, oil-free or water-based make-up can still be used as most cosmetics and skin-care products do not clog pores. Choose products that are labelled as being ‘non-acnegenic’ (should not cause acne) or ‘non-comedogenic’ (should not cause blackheads or whiteheads). Contrary to the common assumption that acne only affects teenagers, acne can also affect adults and babies. Acne most commonly starts during puberty, affecting more than 85% of teenagers, because of increased hormone activity that produces more oil. However, adult acne does affect people in their twenties, thirties and forties. Depending on the severity of acne, there is a range of treatments available. If symptoms are mild, over-the-counter topical treatments may be prescribed by your local pharmacist. In more severe cases, prescription medications may be required. There are also a variety of natural remedies, high street products and at-home approaches to treating acne. If you are unsure which treatment is best for you, we can help with: How do I get rid of acne? And what is the best acne treatment? Acne treatments fall into the following categories: Topical treatments will usually be your first choice if you have mild to moderate acne. Apply them to the entire affected area of the skin, not just to individual spots. Depending on the treatment, it is recommended that you apply either every night or twice daily. Topical treatments include: Prescribed topical preparations may contain one or a combination of the above. If your face goes red or is irritated by a topical treatment, stop for a few days. You should then try using the treatment less often, for example once or twice a week, before building up gradually to regular daily use. Do not use isotretinoin if you are pregnant or think you might be pregnant as it can cause birth defects. Use multiple methods of contraception for one month before, during, and one month after treatment. Your GP may prescribe a course of antibiotic tablets to be taken in combination with a topical treatment. These tablets are usually erythromycin or a type of tetracycline. You should take your course of antibiotics for at least two months, continuing use for six months after there is no further improvement. Oral treatments work best when combined with a topical gel or cream, usually a topical retinoid. Sometimes the first antibiotic that your GP tries does not work, but if this is the case, there are several alternatives that you can try. It is important to return for review, in order to change the treatment if needed. When taking oral antibiotics, you may find that you experience side effects, such as stomach upset, or thrush. If this is the case, you should see your GP to consider whether you can switch to a different medication. In cases of severe or resistant acne, where oral antibiotics combined with topical treatments are not effective, the GP may consider a specific type of oral contraceptive pill, called co-cyprindiol, for women. While this treatment is often effective to treat acne, it carries the risk of deep vein thrombosis (a blood clot, usually in the leg). Your GP may decide to refer you to the dermatologist, and consideration may be given to starting oral retinoids. This is an effective but potent treatment for acne, and cannot be taken if there is any possibility of pregnancy. It can also have an impact on mood, mental health, and rarely cause blood abnormalities. For these reasons, a full assessment and regular monitoring is required when taking it. There are a number of natural acne treatments that may help get rid of acne. As many of these remedies are quite potent, make sure to dilute them before applying them to your skin. Methods to treat acne naturally include: There are many steps you can take at home to help ease the symptoms of acne: Though difficult to prevent, there are many steps that you can take to help reduce the risk of acne. These small lifestyle changes address the common causes of acne that lead to breakouts. If you want to know what steps you can take towards acne prevention, we can help with: How do you fight acne? And can acne be cured? While it is sensible to wash with a gentle cleanser, you should avoid washing affected areas more than twice a day. Excessive washing can irritate the skin and aggravate symptoms. Stress can aggravate acne. Try to get enough sleep and practice relaxation techniques in order to reduce the risk of breakouts. Touching your face can trigger more acne, lead to infection or cause permanent scarring. If you find that the sun aggravates your acne, you aren’t alone. Some acne medications make you more susceptible to the sun’s rays. Try to regularly use a noncomedogenic sunscreen. It is recommended that everyone uses sunscreen on the face daily, regardless of underlying skin conditions, in order to protect the skin from sun damage. As a complication of acne, acne scars can occasionally develop. The three main types of acne scarring are ice pick scars, rolling scars and boxcar scars. These acne scars can lead to emotional distress. Any acne spot can cause scarring, but it is most frequent when nodules and cysts burst and damage the skin. Scarring can also occur if spots are picked at or popped. If you want to find out more about acne scars, we can help with: What are acne scars? And can I remove acne scars? Acne scars are most often caused by severe acne such as nodules or cysts. When these spots burst they damage the nearby skin, causing scarring. Acne scars can also be caused by picking or squeezing your spots, so it is important to avoid this. There are three main types of acne scar: Unfortunately, there is no easy treatment for acne scar removal. Under the NHS, the options are classed as cosmetic surgery and so are usually unavailable. The types of treatment available to reduce acne scars are: While many people want to instantly banish acne scars, learning to cope with them is equally important. Acne scars can often cause anxiety, stress and depression. If you find you have little interest in seeing your friends or are anxious to leave home, it is important to speak to your GP. It can be very worrying for parents if their baby develops acne. However, baby acne (neonatal acne) is actually a very common, often temporary condition that fades within a few months. Resulting in tiny red or white bumps or pimples, baby acne occurs in approximately 20% of newborns. Thankfully, there are steps that you can take at home to help your baby beat the condition. If you think your child might have baby acne, we can help with: How long does it take for baby acne to go away? And what can you put on baby acne? If you’ve noticed small red or white bumps on your baby’s cheeks, nose and forehead, they may have baby acne. These breakouts may also appear on your baby’s chin, scalp, neck, back or chest. Baby acne often develops within the first two weeks after birth, but can develop any time before six weeks of age. If your baby has developed acne after six weeks of age, it is important to visit your GP. This may be a sign of an underlying health problem which a skin exam, blood test or x-ray is needed to rule out. Although baby acne and eczema can look quite similar, there are differences to help tell them apart. A number of over-the-counter skin creams can make eczema less itchy. Unfortunately, the exact cause of baby acne is currently unknown. However, research suggests that it seems to be associated with maternal hormones that pass from the placenta to the baby during pregnancy. Baby acne usually clears within a month by itself. If your baby’s acne does not clear within this time, you may wish to see a GP. Baby acne is generally nothing you need to worry about, clearing by itself without any specific home-care or medical care. There are steps you can take, however, to help keep your baby’s skin as healthy as possible: As the body begins to develop, these hormones stimulate the oil-producing glands within the skin’s pores. When these glands produce more oil, the pores clog and form spots. Thankfully, there are steps that you can take to get through it. If you have teenage acne, we can help with: What is the best treatment to use for teenage acne? And does teenage acne go away? As acne is so common in teenagers, it can be easy to think it will just pass on its own. However, though hormonal acne is an almost guaranteed part of teenage life, there are a number of treatments available that can reduce symptoms. Over-the-counter products or a visit to your GP can prevent acne from worsening and help avoid acne scars. It may seem obvious, but for hormonal acne treatment to work, you must keep using it. If other responsibilities are adding up or improvement isn’t instantaneous, it can be easy to forget this. Make sure to maintain regular use of your treatment to ensure maximum results. During your teenage years, everything can seem stressful. Exams, job hunting and planning for your future can all add pressure. However, stress can cause acne to flare up. Try to destress by effectively balancing your time between study and social occasions, and take regular time for yourself to relax. You may have found that acne has caused a negative effect on your self-esteem or self-confidence. This isn’t unusual. Research has shown that acne can lead to depression, anxiety, or both. It is important you start the right course of treatment to help clear your acne and these worries. If you have any of the following symptoms, visit your GP to find a solution for your acne: Having a one-to-one meeting with your GP can give you space to discuss your acne and find the right treatment. Rather than waiting for acne to clear on its own, your GP may be able to prescribe you an effective topical or oral medicine. More than one out of every two women can expect to develop acne during pregnancy. However, managing this can be tricky. Treatments applied to your skin or swallowed may enter your bloodstream and affect your baby. As such, self-care is often the best place to start. Washing regularly and avoiding irritants are simple steps you can take to manage the condition. If you have developed acne while pregnant, we can help with: How do I treat acne during pregnancy? And what medications can I take during pregnancy? More than one out of every two pregnant women can expect to develop acne. The primary cause is an overproduction of oil (sebum) because of increased hormone levels in the first trimester. In some cases, it can be severe, but can most often be treated with self-care and medication. If you have acne during pregnancy, the first step is self-care: If these treatments do not work, medication is available. However, you should always check with your GP that the treatment will not impact your pregnancy. Acne medication such as oral isotretinoin (Amnesteem, Claravis) and topical retinoids are known to cause birth defects. They must be avoided during pregnancy. If you want to steer away from acne medications during pregnancy, there are a number of all-natural remedies that may help ease your acne: Unfortunately, there is no guaranteed way to avoid acne when pregnant. However, regular self-care can reduce the risk. It is recommended that you see a GP who will be able to accurately diagnose your acne instead of attempting to diagnose yourself. We can help with: What does acne look like? There are a small number of spots, bumps and lesions so this acne is considered mild: Multiple whiteheads, blackheads, papules and pustules: Large, painful papules, pustules, nodules or cysts. Spots have turned a deep red or purple colour: A clogged pore closed with a layer of skin, appearing white on the surface: A clogged pore exposed to open air, causing the surface of the spot to turn dark or black: Red bumps on the surface of the skin that often feel hard, tender and sore: Similar to papules but often larger with white tips at the centre from build-up fluid or pus: Large, inflamed and painful bumps affecting deeper layers of the skin: A similar size to nodules, cysts resemble boils and are often softer and contain pus: Small, deep holes in the surface of the skin that resemble punctures: Image source: Acne Scars: Pathogenesis, Classification and Treatment. Gabriella Fabbrocini et al. These are broad depressions with sharply defined edges: These scars have smooth edges that give the skin a rolling or uneven appearance: Our vision is to change lives with convenient, accessible healthcare. With over 150 private doctor clinics across the UK, you can find your nearest surgery and see a GP in minutes. Our private doctors can diagnose the severity of your acne and provide expert treatment and advice. Find out how severe your acne is and get the right treatment today. We can help with: Where is your nearest GP practice? And how can Medicspot help? The Medicspot clinical station allows doctors to look at your skin close-up to diagnose and treat acne vulgaris. Find your nearest walk in centre today.

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The Collaborative International Dictionary of English v.0.48: Tree \Tree\ (tr[=e]), n. [OE. tree, tre, treo, AS. tre['o], tre['o]w, tree, wood; akin to OFries. tr[=e], OS. treo, trio, Icel. tr[=e], Dan. trae, Sw. tr[aum], tr[aum]d, Goth. triu, Russ. drevo, W. derw an oak, Ir. darag, darog, Gr. dry^s a tree, oak, do`ry a beam, spear shaft, spear, Skr. dru tree, wood, d[=a]ru wood. [root]63, 241. Cf. Dryad, Germander, Tar, n., Trough.] 1. (Bot.) Any perennial woody plant of considerable size (usually over twenty feet high) and growing with a single Note: The kind of tree referred to, in any particular case, is often indicated by a modifying word; as forest tree, fruit tree, palm tree, apple tree, pear tree, etc. 2. Something constructed in the form of, or considered as resembling, a tree, consisting of a stem, or stock, and branches; as, a genealogical tree. 3. A piece of timber, or something commonly made of timber; -- used in composition, as in axletree, boottree, chesstree, crosstree, whiffletree, and the like. 4. A cross or gallows; as Tyburn tree. [Jesus] whom they slew and hanged on a tree. --Acts 5. Wood; timber. [Obs.] --Chaucer. In a great house ben not only vessels of gold and of silver but also of tree and of earth. --Wyclif (2 Tim. ii. 20). 6. (Chem.) A mass of crystals, aggregated in arborescent forms, obtained by precipitation of a metal from solution. See Lead tree, under Lead. Tree bear (Zool.), the raccoon. [Local, U. S.] Tree beetle (Zool.) any one of numerous species of beetles which feed on the leaves of trees and shrubs, as the May beetles, the rose beetle, the rose chafer, and the Tree bug (Zool.), any one of numerous species of hemipterous insects which live upon, and suck the sap of, trees and shrubs. They belong to Arma, Pentatoma, Rhaphigaster, and allied genera. Tree cat (Zool.), the common paradoxure (Paradoxurus Tree clover (Bot.), a tall kind of melilot (Melilotus alba). See Melilot. Tree crab (Zool.), the purse crab. See under Purse. Tree creeper (Zool.), any one of numerous species of arboreal creepers belonging to Certhia, Climacteris, and allied genera. See Creeper, 3. Tree cricket (Zool.), a nearly white arboreal American cricket (Ecanthus niv[oe]us) which is noted for its loud stridulation; -- called also white cricket. Tree crow (Zool.), any one of several species of Old World crows belonging to Crypsirhina and allied genera, intermediate between the true crows and the jays. The tail is long, and the bill is curved and without a tooth. Tree dove (Zool.) any one of several species of East Indian and Asiatic doves belonging to Macropygia and allied genera. They have long and broad tails, are chiefly arboreal in their habits, and feed mainly on fruit. Tree duck (Zool.), any one of several species of ducks belonging to Dendrocygna and allied genera. These ducks have a long and slender neck and a long hind toe. They are arboreal in their habits, and are found in the tropical parts of America, Africa, Asia, and Australia. Tree fern (Bot.), an arborescent fern having a straight trunk, sometimes twenty or twenty-five feet high, or even higher, and bearing a cluster of fronds at the top. Most of the existing species are tropical. Tree fish (Zool.), a California market fish (Sebastichthys Tree frog. (Zool.) (a) Same as Tree toad. (b) Any one of numerous species of Old World frogs belonging to Chiromantis, Rhacophorus, and allied genera of the family Ranidae. Their toes are furnished with suckers for adhesion. The flying frog (see under Flying) is an example. Tree goose (Zool.), the bernicle goose. Tree hopper (Zool.), any one of numerous species of small leaping hemipterous insects which live chiefly on the branches and twigs of trees, and injure them by sucking the sap. Many of them are very odd in shape, the prothorax being often prolonged upward or forward in the form of a spine or crest. Tree jobber (Zool.), a woodpecker. [Obs.] Tree kangaroo. (Zool.) See Kangaroo. Tree lark (Zool.), the tree pipit. [Prov. Eng.] Tree lizard (Zool.), any one of a group of Old World arboreal lizards (formerly grouped as the Dendrosauria) comprising the chameleons; also applied to various lizards belonging to the families Agamidae or Iguanidae, especially those of the genus Urosaurus, such as the lined tree lizard (Urosaurus ornatus) of the Tree lobster. (Zool.) Same as Tree crab, above. Tree louse (Zool.), any aphid; a plant louse. Tree moss. (Bot.) (a) Any moss or lichen growing on trees. (b) Any species of moss in the form of a miniature tree. Tree mouse (Zool.), any one of several species of African mice of the subfamily Dendromyinae. They have long claws and habitually live in trees. Tree nymph, a wood nymph. See Dryad. Tree of a saddle, a saddle frame. Tree of heaven (Bot.), an ornamental tree (Ailantus glandulosus) having long, handsome pinnate leaves, and greenish flowers of a disagreeable odor. Tree of life (Bot.), a tree of the genus Thuja; arbor Tree onion (Bot.), a species of garlic (Allium proliferum) which produces bulbs in place of flowers, or among its flowers. Tree oyster (Zool.), a small American oyster (Ostrea folium) which adheres to the roots of the mangrove tree; -- called also raccoon oyster. Tree pie (Zool.), any species of Asiatic birds of the genus Dendrocitta. The tree pies are allied to the magpie. Tree pigeon (Zool.), any one of numerous species of longwinged arboreal pigeons native of Asia, Africa, and Australia, and belonging to Megaloprepia, Carpophaga, and allied genera. Tree pipit. (Zool.) See under Pipit. Tree porcupine (Zool.), any one of several species of Central and South American arboreal porcupines belonging to the genera Chaetomys and Sphingurus. They have an elongated and somewhat prehensile tail, only four toes on the hind feet, and a body covered with short spines mixed with bristles. One South American species (Sphingurus villosus) is called also couiy; another (Sphingurus prehensilis) is called also c[oe]ndou. Tree rat (Zool.), any one of several species of large ratlike West Indian rodents belonging to the genera Capromys and Plagiodon. They are allied to the Tree serpent (Zool.), a tree snake. Tree shrike (Zool.), a bush shrike. Tree snake (Zool.), any one of numerous species of snakes of the genus Dendrophis. They live chiefly among the branches of trees, and are not venomous. Tree sorrel (Bot.), a kind of sorrel (Rumex Lunaria) which attains the stature of a small tree, and bears greenish flowers. It is found in the Canary Islands and Tree sparrow (Zool.) any one of several species of small arboreal sparrows, especially the American tree sparrow (Spizella monticola), and the common European species Tree swallow (Zool.), any one of several species of swallows of the genus Hylochelidon which lay their eggs in holes in dead trees. They inhabit Australia and adjacent regions. Called also martin in Australia. Tree swift (Zool.), any one of several species of swifts of the genus Dendrochelidon which inhabit the East Indies and Southern Asia. Tree tiger (Zool.), a leopard. Tree toad (Zool.), any one of numerous species of amphibians belonging to Hyla and allied genera of the family Hylidae. They are related to the common frogs and toads, but have the tips of the toes expanded into suckers by means of which they cling to the bark and leaves of trees. Only one species (Hyla arborea) is found in Europe, but numerous species occur in America and Australia. The common tree toad of the Northern United States (Hyla versicolor) is noted for the facility with which it changes its colors. Called also tree frog. See also Piping frog, under Piping, and Cricket frog, Tree warbler (Zool.), any one of several species of arboreal warblers belonging to Phylloscopus and allied Tree wool (Bot.), a fine fiber obtained from the leaves of The Collaborative International Dictionary of English v.0.48: White \White\ (hw[imac]t), a. [Compar. Whiter (hw[imac]t"[~e]r); superl. Whitest.] [OE. whit, AS. hw[imac]t; akin to OFries. and OS. hw[imac]t, D. wit, G. weiss, OHG. w[imac]z, hw[imac]z, Icel. hv[imac]tr, Sw. hvit, Dan. hvid, Goth. hweits, Lith. szveisti, to make bright, Russ. sviet' light, Skr. [,c]v[=e]ta white, [,c]vit to be bright. [root]42. Cf. Wheat, Whitsunday.] 1. Reflecting to the eye all the rays of the spectrum combined; not tinted with any of the proper colors or their mixtures; having the color of pure snow; snowy; -- the opposite of black or dark; as, white paper; a white skin. "Pearls white." --Chaucer. White as the whitest lily on a stream. --Longfellow. 2. Destitute of color, as in the cheeks, or of the tinge of blood color; pale; pallid; as, white with fear. Or whispering with white lips, "The foe! They come! they come!" --Byron. 3. Having the color of purity; free from spot or blemish, or from guilt or pollution; innocent; pure. White as thy fame, and as thy honor clear. --Dryden. No whiter page than Addison's remains. --Pope. 4. Gray, as from age; having silvery hair; hoary. Your high engendered battles 'gainst a head So old and white as this. --Shak. 5. Characterized by freedom from that which disturbs, and the like; fortunate; happy; favorable. On the whole, however, the dominie reckoned this as one of the white days of his life. --Sir W. 6. Regarded with especial favor; favorite; darling. Come forth, my white spouse. --Chaucer. I am his white boy, and will not be gullet. --Ford. Note: White is used in many self-explaining compounds, as white-backed, white-bearded, white-footed. White alder. (Bot.) See Sweet pepper bush, under White ant (Zool.), any one of numerous species of social pseudoneuropterous insects of the genus Termes. These insects are very abundant in tropical countries, and form large and complex communities consisting of numerous asexual workers of one or more kinds, of large-headed asexual individuals called soldiers, of one or more queens (or fertile females) often having the body enormously distended by the eggs, and, at certain seasons of numerous winged males, together with the larvae and pupae of each kind in various stages of development. Many of the species construct large and complicated nests, sometimes in the form of domelike structures rising several feet above the ground and connected with extensive subterranean galleries and chambers. In their social habits they closely resemble the true ants. They feed upon animal and vegetable substances of various kinds, including timber, and are often very destructive to buildings and furniture. White arsenic (Chem.), arsenious oxide, As2O3, a substance of a white color, and vitreous adamantine luster, having an astringent, sweetish taste. It is a White bass (Zool.), a fresh-water North American bass (Roccus chrysops) found in the Great Likes. White bear (Zool.), the polar bear. See under Polar. White blood cell. (Physiol.) See Leucocyte. White brand (Zool.), the snow goose. White brass, a white alloy of copper; white copper. White campion. (Bot.) (a) A kind of catchfly (Silene stellata) with white (b) A white-flowered Lychnis (Lychnis vespertina). White canon (R. C. Ch.), a Premonstratensian. White caps, the members of a secret organization in various of the United States, who attempt to drive away or reform obnoxious persons by lynch-law methods. They appear masked in white. Their actions resembled those of the Ku Klux Klan in some ways but they were not formally affiliated with the Klan, and their victims were often not black. White cedar (Bot.), an evergreen tree of North America (Thuja occidentalis), also the related Cupressus thyoides, or Chamaecyparis sphaeroidea, a slender evergreen conifer which grows in the so-called cedar swamps of the Northern and Atlantic States. Both are much valued for their durable timber. In California the name is given to the Libocedrus decurrens, the timber of which is also useful, though often subject to dry rot. --Goodale. The white cedar of Demerara, Guiana, etc., is a lofty tree (Icica altissima syn. Bursera altissima) whose fragrant wood is used for canoes and cabinetwork, as it is not attacked by insect. White cell. (Physiol.) See Leucocyte. White cell-blood (Med.), leucocythaemia. White clover (Bot.), a species of small perennial clover bearing white flowers. It furnishes excellent food for cattle and horses, as well as for the honeybee. See also White copper, a whitish alloy of copper. See German silver, under German. White copperas (Min.), a native hydrous sulphate of iron; White coral (Zool.), an ornamental branched coral (Amphihelia oculata) native of the Mediterranean. White corpuscle. (Physiol.) See Leucocyte. White cricket (Zool.), the tree cricket. White crop, a crop of grain which loses its green color, or becomes white, in ripening, as wheat, rye, barley, and oats, as distinguished from a green crop, or a root crop. White currant (Bot.), a variety of the common red currant, having white berries. White daisy (Bot.), the oxeye daisy. See under Daisy. White damp, a kind of poisonous gas encountered in coal White elephant (Zool.), (a) a whitish, or albino, variety of the Asiatic elephant. (b) see white elephant in the vocabulary. White elm (Bot.), a majestic tree of North America (Ulmus Americana), the timber of which is much used for hubs of wheels, and for other purposes. White ensign. See Saint George's ensign, under Saint. White feather, a mark or symbol of cowardice. See To show the white feather, under Feather, n. White fir (Bot.), a name given to several coniferous trees of the Pacific States, as Abies grandis, and Abies White flesher (Zool.), the ruffed grouse. See under White frost. See Hoarfrost. White game (Zool.), the white ptarmigan. White garnet (Min.), leucite. White grass (Bot.), an American grass (Leersia Virginica) with greenish-white paleae. White grouse. (Zool.) (a) The white ptarmigan. (b) The prairie chicken. [Local, U. S.] White grub (Zool.), the larva of the June bug and other allied species. These grubs eat the roots of grasses and other plants, and often do much damage. White hake (Zool.), the squirrel hake. See under White hawk, or White kite (Zool.), the hen harrier. White heat, the temperature at which bodies become incandescent, and appear white from the bright light which White hellebore (Bot.), a plant of the genus Veratrum (Veratrum album) See Hellebore, 2. White herring, a fresh, or unsmoked, herring, as distinguished from a red, or cured, herring. [R.] --Shak. White hoolet (Zool.), the barn owl. [Prov. Eng.] White horses (Naut.), white-topped waves; whitecaps. The White House. See under House. White ibis (Zool.), an American ibis (Guara alba) having the plumage pure white, except the tips of the wings, which are black. It inhabits tropical America and the Southern United States. Called also Spanish curlew. (a) Thin sheets of iron coated with tin; tinned iron. (b) A hard, silvery-white cast iron containing a large proportion of combined carbon. White iron pyrites (Min.), marcasite. White land, a tough clayey soil, of a whitish hue when dry, but blackish after rain. [Eng.] White lark (Zool.), the snow bunting. (a) A carbonate of lead much used in painting, and for other purposes; ceruse. (b) (Min.) Native lead carbonate; cerusite. White leather, buff leather; leather tanned with alum and White leg (Med.), milk leg. See under Milk. White lettuce (Bot.), rattlesnake root. See under White lie. See under Lie. (a) (Physics) Light having the different colors in the same proportion as in the light coming directly from the sun, without having been decomposed, as by passing through a prism. See the Note under Color, n., 1. (b) A kind of firework which gives a brilliant white illumination for signals, etc. White lime, a solution or preparation of lime for White line (Print.), a void space of the breadth of a line, on a printed page; a blank line. (a) Any light-colored flesh, especially of poultry. (b) Food made from milk or eggs, as butter, cheese, etc. Driving their cattle continually with them, and feeding only upon their milk and white meats. White merganser (Zool.), the smew. (a) Any one of several white alloys, as pewter, britannia, (b) (Metal.) A fine grade of copper sulphide obtained at a certain stage in copper smelting. White miller. (Zool.) (a) The common clothes moth. (b) A common American bombycid moth (Spilosoma Virginica) which is pure white with a few small black spots; -- called also ermine moth, and virgin moth. See Woolly bear, under Woolly. White money, silver money. White mouse (Zool.), the albino variety of the common White mullet (Zool.), a silvery mullet (Mugil curema) ranging from the coast of the United States to Brazil; -- called also blue-back mullet, and liza. White nun (Zool.), the smew; -- so called from the white crest and the band of black feathers on the back of its head, which give the appearance of a hood. White oak. (Bot.) See under Oak. White owl. (Zool.) (a) The snowy owl. (b) The barn owl. White partridge (Zool.), the white ptarmigan. White perch. (Zool.) (a) A North American fresh-water bass (Morone Americana) valued as a food fish. (b) The croaker, or fresh-water drum. (c) Any California surf fish. White pine. (Bot.) See the Note under Pine. White poplar (Bot.), a European tree (Populus alba) often cultivated as a shade tree in America; abele. White poppy (Bot.), the opium-yielding poppy. See Poppy. White powder, a kind of gunpowder formerly believed to exist, and to have the power of exploding without noise. A pistol charged with white powder. --Beau. & Fl. White precipitate. (Old Chem.) See under Precipitate. White rabbit. (Zool.) (a) The American northern hare in its winter pelage. (b) An albino rabbit. (a) (Eng. Law) Formerly, rent payable in silver; -- opposed to black rent. See Blackmail, n., 3. (b) A rent, or duty, of eight pence, payable yearly by every tinner in Devon and Cornwall to the Duke of Cornwall, as lord of the soil. [Prov. Eng.] White rhinoceros. (Zool.) (a) The one-horned, or Indian, rhinoceros (Rhinoceros Indicus). See Rhinoceros. (b) The umhofo. White ribbon, the distinctive badge of certain organizations for the promotion of temperance or of moral purity; as, the White-ribbon Army. White rope (Naut.), untarred hemp rope. White rot. (Bot.) (a) Either of several plants, as marsh pennywort and butterwort, which were thought to produce the disease called rot in sheep. (b) A disease of grapes. See White rot, under Rot. White sage (Bot.), a white, woolly undershrub (Eurotia lanata) of Western North America; -- called also winter White salmon (Zool.), the silver salmon. White salt, salt dried and calcined; decrepitated salt. White scale (Zool.), a scale insect (Aspidiotus Nerii) injurious to the orange tree. See Orange scale, under White shark (Zool.), a species of man-eating shark. See White softening. (Med.) See Softening of the brain, under White spruce. (Bot.) See Spruce, n., 1. White squall (Naut.), a sudden gust of wind, or furious blow, which comes up without being marked in its approach otherwise than by whitecaps, or white, broken water, on the surface of the sea. White staff, the badge of the lord high treasurer of White stork (Zool.), the common European stork. White sturgeon. (Zool.) See Shovelnose White sucker. (Zool.) (a) The common sucker. (b) The common red horse (Moxostoma macrolepidotum). White swelling (Med.), a chronic swelling of the knee, produced by a strumous inflammation of the synovial membranes of the kneejoint and of the cancellar texture of the end of the bone forming the kneejoint; -- applied also to a lingering chronic swelling of almost any kind. White tombac. See Tombac. White trout (Zool.), the white weakfish, or silver squeteague (Cynoscion nothus), of the Southern United White vitriol (Chem.), hydrous sulphate of zinc. See White vitriol, under Vitriol. White wagtail (Zool.), the common, or pied, wagtail. White wax, beeswax rendered white by bleaching. White whale (Zool.), the beluga. White widgeon (Zool.), the smew. White wine. any wine of a clear, transparent color, bordering on white, as Madeira, sherry, Lisbon, etc.; -- distinguished from wines of a deep red color, as port and Burgundy. "White wine of Lepe." --Chaucer. White witch, a witch or wizard whose supernatural powers are supposed to be exercised for good and beneficent purposes. --Addison. --Cotton Mather. White wolf. (Zool.) (a) A light-colored wolf (Canis laniger) native of Thibet; -- called also chanco, golden wolf, and (b) The albino variety of the gray wolf. White wren (Zool.), the willow warbler; -- so called from the color of the under parts.

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Psychology at the end of the world Psychological research in Antarctica addresses a number of key issues that are important to understanding how people (as individuals and groups) function in isolated and extreme environments: the selection of appropriate personnel to work/live there; the processes of adaptation to the conditions; and the psychological consequences (both beneficial and detrimental) of prolonged residence there. The importance of these issues underpins the exploits of the earliest explorers and continues in present-day attempts to utilise the Antarctic environment as an analogue for deep space missions. Great God! This is an awful place. Robert Falcon Scott In memories we were rich. We had pierced the veneer of outside things… grown bigger in the bigness of the whole. We had seen God in his splendour, heard the text that nature renders. We had touched the soul of man. It may be considered something of an irony that the place on earth that has arguably presented human beings with the greatest of physical and psychological challenges has attracted so little attention from psychologists – the keepers of the science that seeks to comprehend what Shackleton (1919/1999, p.226) described as ‘the soul of man’. But it is equally fair to say that the relevance and importance of psychology in the ‘South’ has not been altogether ignored either. Cherry-Garrard, a member of Scott’s 1912 expedition concluded his own account of that fateful adventure with a mournful recognition of the importance of ‘polar psychology’, claiming that on the white continent fundamental questions of value arose – ‘what is worth what?’ He reflected upon the ‘unique factors’ of the Antarctic environment ‘…especially the complete isolation’ (Cherry-Garrard, 1922/2003, p.595), which today remains at the heart of what drives behavioural science at the end of the world. The pertinence of psychological adaptation to Antarctic exploration, however, had been apparent even before Scott’s travails. During De Gerlache’s 1898/99 expedition aboard the Belgica,the first ship to winter in the Antarctic, the ensuing stresses led to widespread psychological disturbance amongst the crew. ‘Mentally, the outlook was that of a madhouse’ wrote the ship’s doctor (citedin Huntford, 1999, p.53). However, for one of those aboard – Roald Amundsen – it provided a formative learning experience on the importance of man-management, a lesson which was not lost throughout his later quest for the South Pole. The context and importance of understanding men and women in extreme climes has undoubtedly changed. Beyond the personal diaries of polar travellers, early attempts to discuss the psychological issues pertinent to polar exploration did little more than recognise the spiritual impact of the environment on human thought or else recount the commonsense strains and irritations resulting from the intense nature of the work, blending this with discussions of the dreams of Antarctic travellers (Fogg, 1992). Since the advent of the International Geophysical Year (1957–1958) and the attendant growth in Antarctic work stations, concerns have been more pragmatic – how to identify those best suited to working there. Precipitated by the mental breakdow of an individual at one station and interpersonal meltdown due to poor leadership at another, US stations set the ball rolling with extensive use of attitude and personality tests. While much of the psychological research conducted in Antarctica has been characterised by the (necessarily) small sample sizes and attendant restricted statistical power (Taylor, 1987), an analysis of over 1000 people who had wintered led to the conclusion that three factors were critical to effective performance in the Antarctic. Subsequently replicated in a number of studies, these factors have been described as ability (competence), stability (mental health) and compatibility (social skills) (Suedfeld, 1991). In personnel selection, viewed by many as constituting the core of Antarctic polar psychology, quantitative methods have been favoured (though interviews, self-reports and projective test have also been employed) and together have set the tone for much of the behavioural science research conducted by nations with a presence in the Antarctic. For example Rosnet et al. (2000) related ‘good’ cognitive and psychomotor performance in a group of male French Antarctic staff to low scores on extraversion and assertiveness, whilst Peri et al. (2000), working with an Italian team, linked successful Antarctic performance to resistance to stress as well as emotional stability. Given the predilection for empiricism in British philosophical thought, however, it is of interest that the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) continue to eschew the use of psychometric tests and psychiatric screening in favour of a formal application and personal interview for determining suitability. Nowadays the importance of Antarctica as a milieu for human habitation derives from its status as a prototypical extreme and unusual environment, important in scientific research because it could serve as an analogue for off-planet journeys and settlements (Suedfeld & Weiss, 2000). It has been said that it is ‘as close to Mars as we can get’ (Wheeler 1999, p.61). In fact, Vostok – the Russian base in East Antarctica where the lowest temperature on the planet has been recorded (–89.2C) – was formerly used as a behavioural test bed for the Soviet Salyut space programme. The first International Biomedical Expedition to the Antarctic (Rivolier et al., 1988) – where a multinational team of 12 travelled for 10 weeks across the polar plateau conducting investigations in physiology, biochemistry, microbiology, immunology, epidemiology and psychology – has had lasting influence as a potential simulation of human adaptation in an off-world environment. Besides the physical aspects of the Antarctic terrain and the parallels between the length of the austral winter and the duration of deep space missions, the human aspects of Antarctic life that render this comparison meaningful are numerous; ‘physical danger, a hostile climate, dependence on external supplies, isolation, enforced small-group togetherness, restricted mobility and social contact, and the disruption of normal recreational and professional activities’ (Suedfeld, 1991, p.653). From these issues stem further problems – communication with home, potential medical emergencies and equipment breakdowns, not to mention isolation from normal family life, social and sexual relationships. ‘Both sexually and socially the polar explorer must make up his mind to be starved’ wrote Cherry-Garrard (1922, p.596), and investigation of the former has almost constituted a taboo (Huntford, 1999). With the above catalogue of physical and psychological challenges it is important to understand not just the nature of the people who are likely to endure these better but to ascertain what the processes of adaptation to them are. Researchers have identified a ‘winter-over syndrome’ including insomnia, depressed mood, irritability, reduced physical and cognitive tempo, social withdrawal, and fugue-like states (the 20-foot stare in the 10-foot room, referred to as the Antarctic stare), as well as psychosomatic symptoms. Many of these responses are consequences of disrupted circadian rhythms whilst some can be considered reasonable adaptations to an environment lacking in stimulation and demanding prolonged exposure to constant darkness (Suedfeld & Weiss, 2000). Only rarely do these reactions reach levels that warrant clinical intervention however, with the prevalence of psychiatric disorders at Antarctic research stations estimated at around 5 per cent (Lugg, 2005; Palinkas, Glogower et al., 2004) with mood and sleep disorders being the more commonly cited complaints (Palinkas & Suedfeld, 2008). Though this rate is not high it should be remembered that the people manifesting these problems belong to an already highly screened population. It has been suggested (Palinkas & Houseal, 2000) that adaptation to the prolonged isolation and confinement may occur over a number of stages and can be related to Selye’s notion of a general adaptation syndrome. More recently Palinkas and Suedfeld (2008) argued that the seasonal occurrence of symptoms in fact suggests the existence of three overlapping syndromes: the winter-over syndrome described above, the polar T3 syndrome (a cyclic pattern of mood strongly resembling seasonal variation in serum thyrotropin-stimulating hormone concentrations seen at the polar regions), and subsyndromal seasonal affective disorder. The emphasis on individual adaptability and biomedical analysis, however, has not precluded a social perspective. Not surprisingly interpersonal relationships are seen as a critical factor in polar wintering (Palinkas et al., 1995), and the social environment may in fact exer a stronger influence on coping and psychological well-being than the unique physical environment. The nature of leadership, conformity to group norms – which may assume added importance in an isolated and confined environment – and the effects of social comparison in groups whose composition may vary along lines of social class, occupation or gender are all important determiners of how ‘Antarcticans’ function in their social milieu (Palinkas & Suedfeld, 2008). Then there is the question of the role of culture in moderating or mediating how groups function. Investigating this question, Palinkas, Johnson and colleagues (2004) administered the Profile of Mood States along with various indices of structural and functional social support to 13 winter-over crews from five nations. They found changes in different mood states occurred at different stations (those with an individualistic cultural orientation tended to exhibit both low social support and low negative mood) and that the relationship between mood and social support varied with national group. This demonstration of different patterns of psychosocial adaptation in workers from different countries is of relevance not only for planning collaborative work in the polar regions but also for determining the composition and functioning of multinational crews for potential long-duration missions in space. Much of the psychological work in the south, then, has focused on what can go wrong and to whom. But it has not escaped the attention of observers past and present that profound positive changes may also occur: that the continent ‘has also melted frozen hearts’ (Wheeler, 1999, xviii). Shackleton’s remarks that opened this piece are testament to the ‘cosmic perspective ’ that the Antarctic seems to stimulate – reflections on the beauty, spiritual significance and grandness of nature – issues, though relatively neglected in the research literature, to be found in abundance in the diaries, interviews and personal accounts of numerous Antarctic travellers. Despite the attention given to negative reactions the evidence base in fact indicates that positive reactions are more common (Wood et al., 2000), which broadly speaking may relate either to situational characteristics or having successfully surmounted the challenges posed by the environment (Palinkas & Suedfeld, 2008). Woods and colleagues comment that the relatively high percentage of returning Australian winterers (25 per cent) would suggest that the experiences are sufficiently gratifying to warrant a return visit to what is a harsh environment, a view endorsed by Steel (2000) in his investigation of positive place attachment to the polar regions. In their own research they found the most frequent positive experiences were related to field trips, a feeling that life is good, communications with outside, and feelings of awe engendered by the environment. Not surprisingly given the predominance of positive affective reactions to the Antarctic environment, a number of studies report high levels of emotional adjustment – which in combination with successful coping strategies, whether honed in the challenging Antarctic environment or brought there from home, may translate into longer-term emotional and physical well-being (Palinkas et al., 1995) and more successful careers (Palinkas & Suedfeld, 2008) in an example of post-return growth. In matters of psychology, beyond the realm of personality, adaptation, social interaction, social support, leadership and cognitive history, there remains in Antarctica the issue of identity. The Antarctic landscape has to some appeared to offer freedom from ‘cultural moorings’ (Wheeler, 1999, p.68), being ‘intact, complete and larger than my imagination could grasp…sufficient unto itself untainted by the inevitable tragedy of the human condition’ (p.99). Yet it may well be that the strength of an Antarctic identity is what sets apart those who adapt successfully and thrive there from those who do not. Antarctica, as a place where people live and work, albeit in small numbers, and potentially free from the shackles of national territorial bonds, offers a natural laboratory from within which psychologists could understand not just the nature and dynamics of the bonds that develop between person and place or people and place, but also how these relate to the development of identity – both its personal and social/cultural dimensions. The study of the psychological relationships between people and place is still in its infancy (Bell et al., 2001; Droseltis & Vignoles, 2009), and while Palinkas (n.d.) notes that Antarctica’s lack of indigenous inhabitants has meant that it has never attracted serious attention from anthropologists, the people who inhabit Antarctica are worthy of serious study if for no other reason than that their identity is rooted in cultural practice and experience rather than biological essence. The study of identity in Antarctica may have important ramifications for how we think about social identity itself, that it is not necessarily related to social comparison or grounded in conflicted relationships. There are as well additional reasons for such an interest. Currently psychological studies of Antarctic personnel are situated within the working group on Human Biology and Medicine – a reflection of a preoccupation with work performance in an extreme environment. This, however, has its limitations. As indicated, Antarctica is considered a prototypical environment for deep-space missions. If ever humans do venture into the cosmos, then they will invariably, and of necessity, develop their own off-world cultures and identities. The processes of understanding such identity formation and what issues will ensue from it can begin now. The practical significance of this may well pertain to current projects as well as to future work undertaken in isolated and extreme environments. There is certainly evidence that social rifts or microcultures may emerge in Antarctic work teams along the lines of existing social identities (based around nationality, occupational role and gender, for example (Palinkas, n.d.). The question of how significant these are or might be over prolonged periods of contact in an extreme environment is unknown. Intergroup contact theory (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006) would, however, suggest that engaging people of equal status in prolonged, cooperative and supported activity of high importance can overcome existing social divisions. Thus, current evidence of social tensions in Antarctic work teams and the presence of national microcultures does not preclude the emergence of an overarching Antarctic group identity. The worst way to have best time Cherry-Garrard considered an Antarctic expedition ‘the worst way to have the best time of your life’. Hopefully this brief review has also shown that travelling, working and living in the polar environment, where many of the usual parameters that control psychological processes are attenuated or stripped away, may offer deep insights into the human condition, revealing the inner man or woman (Suedfeld, 1998). Nowadays of course, getting to the Antarctic is less arduous and more fun than it once was, and ‘being there’ even better. - Ron Roberts is Senior Lecturer in Psychology at Kingston University [email protected] Transcendent and tragic In Antarctica the transcendent coexists with the tragic, a juxtaposition of beauty and threatening natural power that gives rise to and simultaneously reflects a unique social construction of place. It is as if the sociocultural ‘memory’ of the Antarctic, constructed through literature, photography, personal diaries, national myth, raw experience, historical monuments and personal imagination – born in the heroic age of Shackleton’s endurance, Amundsen’s triumph and Scott’s demise – continues to shape how it is experienced. For some it may afford a respite from the ills we have beset upon the world and offer an alternative vision of an unspoilt existence, whilst for others it may seem altogether less welcoming, but for both parties a reaction is shaped from the interplay of public (social) representations (Moscovici & Duveen, 2000) of place and the ‘emotional geography’ and personal history of the self. Representations of Antarctica have arguably come to comprise what Liu and Hilton (2005) describe as a charter – a founding representational myth that ascribes to it a set of characteristics that govern its historical mission. More usually, historical incidents of warfare are privileged in the events that shape the myths of identity and nation bonded to land. In the case of Antarctica it is arguably the absence of these from its history (though death certainly plays its part) and the lack of national ownership that form key elements in its construction, setting it uniquely apart from the rest of the earth in realms other than its climate and terrain. It is these that have helped shape its future as a natural reserve devoted by international agreement to peace and science and protected therein from territorial claims or military and industrial misadventure. The classic Antarctic literature of the age of exploration not only forms the backdrop to our contemporary social constructions, it also opens a window on our recent cognitive history, reflecting to us the desires and hopes of the ‘professional dreamers’ (Kaiser & Herzog, 2008) of the past through the mirrors of culture, class, gender, and national and imperial aspiration. The subjugation of personal achievement, want and ambition to the mores of the nation – so evident in the writings of the early explorers (see for example Huntford, 1999; Scott, 2006) – tells us much, if we care to listen, about the reins on our current psychological make-up. ‘The past’, as American writer Greil Marcus once remarked is not just ‘another country’. It lives and breathes in the present, as do its architects, and from it we form the bridge to the future. Bell, P.A., Greene, T., Fisher, J. & Baum, A.S. (2001). Environmental psychology. Hove: Psychology Press. Cherry-Garrard, A. (2003). The worse journey in the world. London: Pimlico. (Original work published 1922) Droseltis, O. & Vignoles, V.L. (2009). Toward an integrative model of place identification: Dimensionality and predictors of intra-personal level place preferences. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30, Fogg, G.E. (1992). A history of Antarctic science. New York: Cambridge University Press. Huntford, R. (1999). The last place on earth. New York: The Modern Library. Kaiser, H. (Producer) & Herzog, W. (Director) (2008). Encounters at the end of the world [Motion picture]. USA: THINKFilm. Liu, J.H. & Hilton, D.J. (2005). How the past weighs on the present: Social representations of history and their role in identity politics. British Journal of Social Psychology, 44, 537–556. Lugg, D. (2005). Behavioral health in Antarctica. Aviation Space and Environmental Medicine, 76(6 Suppl.), B89–93. Moscovici, S. & Duveen, G. (Eds.) (2000). Social representations: Explorations in social psychology. Cambridge: Polity. Palinkas, L.A. (n.d.). On the ice: Individual and group adaptation in Antarctica. Unpublished manuscript. Palinkas, L.A., Glogower, F., Dembert, M. et al. (2004). Incidence of psychiatric disorders after extended residence in Antarctica. International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 63(2), 157–168. Palinkas, L.A. & Houseal, M. (2000). Stages of change in mood and behaviour during a winter in Antarctica. Environment and Behavior, 32(1), 128–141. Palinkas, L.A., Johnson, J.C., Boster, J.S. et al. (2004). Cross-cultural differences in psychosocial adaptation to isolated and confined environments. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 75(11), 973–980. Palinkas, L.A. & Suedfeld, P. (2008). Psychological effects of polar expeditions. The Lancet, 371, 9607, 153–163. Palinkas, L.A., Suedfeld, P. & Steel, G.D. (1995). Psychological functioning among members of a small polar expedition. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 66, Peri, A., Scarlata, C. & Barbarito, M. (2000). Preliminary studies on the psychological adjustment in the Italian Antarctic summer campaigns. Environment and Behaviour, 22(1), 72–83. Pettigrew, T.F. & Tropp, L.R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 751–783. Rivolier, J., Goldsmith, R., Lugg, D.J. & Taylor, A.J.W. (1988). Man in the Antarctic: The scientific work of the International Biomedical Expedition to the Antarctic (IBEA). London: Taylor & Francis. Rosnet, E., Le Scanff, C. & Sagal, M-S. (2000). How self image and personality influence performance in an isolated environment. Environment and Behavior, 32(1), 18–31. Scott, R.F. (2006). Journals: Captain Scott’s last expedition. Oxford: Oxford World’s Classics. Shackleton, E. (1999). South: The Endurance expedition. Harmondsworth: Penguin. (Original work published 1919) Steel, G.D. (2000). Polar bonds: Environmental relationships in the polar regions. Environment and Behavior, 32(6), 796–816. Suedfeld, P. (1991). Polar psychology: An overview. Environment and Behavior, 23(6), 653–665. Suedfeld, P. (1998). What can abnormal environments tell us about normal people? Polar stations as natural psychology laboratories. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 18, 95–102. Suedfeld, P. & Weiss, K. (2000). Antarctica: Natural laboratory and space analogue for psychological research. Environment and Behavior, 32(1), 7–17. Taylor, A.J.W. (1987). Antarctic psychology. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Bulletin no. 244. SIPC, Wellington. Wheeler, S. (1999). Terra incognita. New York: The Modern Library. Wood, J., Hysong, S.J., Lugg, D. & Harm, D.L. (2000). Is it really so bad? A comparison of positive and negative experiences in Antarctic Winter Stations. Environment and Behavior, 32(1), 84–110. BPS Members can discuss this article Already a member? Or Create an account Not a member? Find out about becoming a member or subscriber

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Ep. 7 The Musical Politics of Belonging in 1917: A Conversation with Douglas Bomberger Dr. Douglas Bomberger In this episode, we discuss questions of belonging, boundaries, and the role of music in war as we examine the tumultuous year of 1917 that led America into World War I. Dr. Douglas Bomberger leads us in the study of four characters: Carl Muck, Ernestine Schuman-Heink, Fritz Kreisler, and the Original Dixieland Jazz Band. Through the lives of these characters, we study the role of the National Anthem in articulating belonging, traumas of war, exoticism, and whether music is an instrument of peace or a tool for war. Keywords: 1917, belonging, national anthem, star spangled banner, Carl Muck, Fritz Kreisler, music history, jazz history Dr. Douglas Bomberger is Professor of Musicology at Elizabethtown College. He has published six books and over 100 articles on subjects as diverse as the medieval origins of the keyboard mechanism and the ragtime-inspired compositions of Stravinsky and Hindemith. He has also edited 450 articles and written 40 articles as senior editor for nineteenth-century concert music for the New Grove Dictionary of American Music. In 2019, he was the recipient of Elizabethtown College’s Ranck Prize for Research Excellence. We sat down to discuss the peacebuilding implications of his newest book, Making Music American: 1917 and the transformation of American Culture. Bomberger, E. D. (2019). Making music American: 1917 and the transformation of culture. New York: Oxford University Press. Kreisler, F. (1917). Four weeks in the trenches: The war story of a violinist. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books Yuval-Davis, N. (2011). The politics of belonging: Intersectional contestations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 1. How do we articulate a politics of belonging through music? 2. When is music a force for peace or a tool for war? We often teach the positive aspects of music being a "universal language of connection." Should we also teach the darker side of music? 3. When does exoticism inform a musical curiosity? When is it harmful, objectifying and stereotyping the music of the Other? D. Bomberger: 00:01 History is not static. It doesn't stand still, but sometimes it tumbles along so quickly that people are just swept along in its wake. Shorner-Johnson: 00:11 You are listening to the music and peacebuilding podcast, a professional development network at music peacebuilding.com exploring intersections of peacebuilding, sacredness, community, creativity and imagination through research and story. Dr. Douglas Bomberger is professor of musicology at Elizabethtown college. He has published six books and over 100 articles on subjects as diverse as the medieval origins of the keyboard mechanism and the ragtime inspired compositions of Stravinsky and Hindemith. He has also edited 450 articles and written 40 articles as senior editor for 19th-century concert music for the new Grove Dictionary of American Music. In 2019 he was the recipient of Elizabethtown College's Ranck prize for research excellence. We sat down to discuss the peacebuilding implications of his newest book: Making Music American: 1917 and the Transformation of American Culture. Shorner-Johnson: 01:19 Tell me about how you became interested in 1917 and why 1917 is an important year that should be studied. D. Bomberger: 01:26 This is an unusual project for me in that I started out thinking about a narrative method and I found a topic later, so let me explain. I have long admired the works of Eric Larson and uh, Isabella Wilkerson and others who take several different stories, trace them simultaneously and then see how they come together at the end. And I always wanted to apply that method to a music history topic. After searching around, I realized that 1917 would be ideal because this was the year, not only that jazz was first introduced to the listening public through records. It was also the first year that, uh, German music was coming under heavy scrutiny because of world war one. And so these things came together in a way that I thought would be compelling. So that's what attracted me to 1917. Shorner-Johnson: 02:25 Hmm. I love the way that that narrative method, I think it's one of the first times I've seen the narrative method really trace the side by side development of classical and jazz music. And it's interesting to see how much they don't intersect as well as where they do intersect. And that narrative method seems to work really well for that. D. Bomberger: 02:43 Precisely. One of the aspects of music history in general is that traditionally it has been studied in separate spheres. And so jazz specialists specialized in jazz, rock specialists, specialize in rock, hip hop specialists know about hip hop and classical music specialists tend to focus on their areas, but the real world music doesn't happen that way. People listen to all kinds of music. And so the idea that you could hear completely different types of music on the same day walking on the streets of New York was a, an insight that I wanted to bring to people. Shorner-Johnson: 03:27 Preview for us, why is 1917 important? D. Bomberger: 03:30 1917 is really the turning point in the United States involvement in world war one. The war began in 1914 in Europe and uh, the, the different sides quickly lined up, uh, on the one side were Germany and Austria on the other side were France, England, and Russia. And those, uh, sides were deeply entrenched within a month of the start of the war in 1914, the United States remained officially neutral for the next three years and did its level best to stay out of the war. But in 1917, it became impossible, at least in the eyes of Congress and the president to stay out of the war. The, uh, German government increased its, uh, aggressive tactics, uh, among other things. Uh, it reinstigated submarine warfare in February and then, uh, with attacks against merchant ships and then also, uh, tried to, uh, arrange a secret treaty with Mexico to, uh, to sabotage the United States. So in light of that, the United States reluctantly got into the war. So that's the historical backdrop. What happened then was that because the United States had not been part of a major war since the Spanish American war in the late 19th century, there really was a lack of manpower, equipment, expertise and everything. So it took about seven months for American troops to reach the front lines. And during those seven months then, we can trace changing attitudes. As the government declares war, Americans reconciled themselves to the idea of going to war and then by November the country adopted a posture of total warfare. Speaker 4: 05:24 [inaudible] Shorner-Johnson: 05:26 dr Bomberger's book employees and narrative method similar to that of Isabel Wilkerson and Eric Larson. He uses it to follow the parallel lives of key characters. Carl Muck and Ernestine Schuman-Heink were prominent musicians who experienced identity and belonging differently based upon heritage, role and performance choices. The famous violinist Fritz Kreisler was already traumatized by war and in 1917 was searching for the universal within music and finally we look to the original Dixieland jazz band to study jazz sound as a frenzied American identity, and an exotic object. Each of these stories frames questions of: what does it mean to belong? How does music construct boundaries? Who is in and out? What does it mean to be exotic or different? Is music or force for peace or a tool for war? And, how rational are human beings? What is the power of emotion or falsehood? Let's enter these questions as we discussed the pivotal year 1917 Shorner-Johnson: 06:47 let's move into this. Maybe it's a philosophical question that all of these people in your book are examining this, this idea of what is music good for and attached to that question about is music. Is classical orchestral music a universal art form or is it a national art form? Well, let me read one quote from Fritz Kreisler at one point in your book I think page two 20 he says, "I will never stand for any inclusion of the national element in art. I would as quickly oppose any attempt in Vienna to agitate against French music. The higher art goes. The less it has to do with terrestrial things. It is like religion, philosophy. Music has no vehicle in which it is held down or confined in nationalities any more than religion is for one favorite people alone. So safe to say Fritz Kreisler and a few others are articulating this idea of the noble art form that rises above the nationhood. D. Bomberger: 07:43 This is really the crux of the book and it really gets at the question of what music symbolizes. Is music something that is, uh, detached from other aspects of life and it is just simply a pure art form, or is it something that bears very strong emotional and national connotations? Uh, another musician who really had strong opinions on this topic was Walter Damrosch, the conductor of the New York Symphony. And, uh, at the New York Symphony's first performance in October, 1917, when the war frenzy was really starting to heat up, he expressed his views very, very clearly. And, uh, this is what he said about the idea of music as a universal art. He said "to me, it would seem unutterably wrong and ethically false to carry our righteous indignation against the German government to the point of excluding the great German masters to whom we as a people owe so much. How can we look upon Bach or Beethoven or Brahms as Prussians when they are great creative artists who have through their genius contributed to the development of the world and who no longer belonged only to the country in which they happen to have been born, but are part and parcel of the emotional and artistic life of the entire civilized world." So for him, the answer was very clear. And music is a universal cultural treasure that can be enjoyed by all people in all times and places. At this moment in history, though he was really in the minority and more and more of his fellow countrymen, uh, believed that music had very strong symbolic power. And so the idea of German music on American stages became almost overnight a, a real flashpoint for debate. Shorner-Johnson: 09:39 And it's, I think it's a good context to remember that this point in time, based on reading the book, German music, uh, owns a significant part of the played repertoire of orchestras, American composers, are not really in the spotlight yet. There's a little bit of French, a little bit of Russian music, but if it felt like from reading the book that German music held a major part in the repertoire, D. Bomberger: 10:02 you're absolutely right. And rightly or wrongly, uh, the, uh, German composers had really dominated, uh, European and, uh, American concert stages, uh, from about 1750 through 1917. And so the, uh, the Germans, uh, were rightly proud of all their composers who had been born and trained in Germany who went on to fame and glory. Uh, on the other hand, uh, there was this, uh, this feeling that the music was a universal cultural treasure. And so it really is a dilemma and a debate. Is it a national point of pride or is it a universal cosmopolitan treasure? And this was the debate that was raging in the fall of 1917. Shorner-Johnson: 10:52 And I may be reading too much into it here, but I, I seem to sense that when people would say that it's a universal cosmopolitan treasure, that there is a hidden belief in the beginning of 1917 that this universal treasure would help to mitigate the tensions of, of nations because there is already this bond that exists that might prevent war. Is that safe to say? D. Bomberger: 11:19 This was the idea of espoused by Fritz Kreisler especially, and he articulated it better than anyone else. He said, after this war is over, that's when music will bring people back together again. And he said, we may be going crazy now, but when the war is over, people will return to music as a source of unity as a pacification rather than as a war-like element. Speaker 5: 11:49 [inaudible] Shorner-Johnson: 11:54 Fritz Kreisler wrote about the trauma of war as a front-line soldier. In Kreisler's book, He described a frenzy of nationalism and national anthems as preparation for war. He reflected one day we were all ordinary civilized men. Two or three days later, our culture had dropped aside like a cloak and we were brutal and primeval." The first death he experienced as a soldier held memory, "a soldier of my platoon while digging in the trench suddenly leaned back, began to cough like an old man, a little blood broke from his lips and he crumpled together in a heap and lay quite still. The man had been a favorite with all his fellows by reason of his good humor and that he was now stretched out dead. Seemed unbelievable. I saw a great many men die afterwards, some suffering horribly, but I do not recall any death that affected me quite so much as that of my first victim in my platoon. War, for Kreisler, is trauma Speaker 6: 13:18 [inaudible], Shorner-Johnson: 13:26 Bomberger quotes Kreisler In 1917. "I will never stand for any inclusion of the national element in art. I would As quickly oppose any attempt in Vienna to agitate against French music. The higher art goes, the less it has to do with terrestrial things. It is like religion and philosophy. Music has no vehicle in which it is held down and confined to nationalities anymore than religion is for one favored people alone. In a different way, The singer, Ernestine Schuman-Heink, experienced the anxiety and the horror of war through motherhood with five sons in the military on both sides of the war. Speaker 6: 14:13 [Singing Danny Boy] Shorner-Johnson: 14:52 Where do our loyalties lie and how does a national Anthem construct a sense of belonging. In the introduction of the politics of belonging. You've all Davis writes, the emotional components of people's constructions and identities become more central. The more threatened and less secure they become. Such arousal can lead to violence. To what extent does a national Anthem construct a sense of who we are? How does an Anthem construct stories about who belongs and who doesn't? [music] Who gets to play the Anthem? How should it be played? Is the Anthem rebellion or steadfast strength? Speaker 5: 15:50 [music] Shorner-Johnson: 15:55 hope for change or constancy? Speaker 5: 15:59 [National Anthem] Shorner-Johnson: 16:08 can it be sung like this? [National Anthem] Or changed to four/four time in post 9/11 [inaudible] Speaker 5: 16:33 [inaudible] Speaker 7: 16:33 1917 begins as universal connection through music. Let's follow the fast-paced story of this fascinating year. Shorner-Johnson: 16:40 So then things change. I love this quote that you have from, from William w star Myers of Princeton. And he says, "to my sense of things, the star Spangled banner is good music. It expresses one of the noblest of human emotions, patriotism. And I feel that it is a higher emotion than any that may be expressed in the ninth symphony of Beethoven." Ouch. D. Bomberger: 17:03 Yes. That's the kind of statement that could only happen under the influence of war frenzy because a, he is claiming that, uh, that loyalty to your country is more valuable than love of mankind in general. And, uh, that's an idea that of course is promoted during a war, but, uh, but really is a dangerous idea in so many ways. And, and to hear a Princeton professor making a sweeping change like that, uh, is a, is disheartening to say the least. Speaker 8: 17:42 [inaudible] Shorner-Johnson: 17:44 We've been skirting around the, the idea of the National Anthem. So let's start to dig into the story of the National Anthem. Um, first of all, I want to read my favorite quote from you, from Teddy Roosevelt and then talk about Providence Rhode Island here in a second. But, but in 1915, Teddy Roosevelt stated, and I had no idea he'd stated something, uh, maybe, uh, this offensive to me and maybe in some ways, "there is no room in this country for hyphenated Americans. When I refer to hyphenated Americans, I do not refer to naturalized Americans. Some of the very best Americans I've ever known were naturalized Americans born abroad, but a hyphenated American is not an American at all." Um, so there's obviously already a lot of rhetoric about who belongs and who doesn't belong in the United States. D. Bomberger: 18:32 This is part of our country's history, from the very beginning and the idea of who really belongs in a nation that is in large part a nation of immigrants. Many people in the country are newly arrived immigrants or the descendants of immigrants. It's so much a part of the fabric of the United States. But a recurring theme in American history is the idea that descendants of older immigrants are very eager to put up barriers for new immigrants. And we see this today, we see it in the 1920s and we see it in 1917, and the, the crux of the issue was that at this time there were at least 9 million Americans in the United States who, uh, self-identified as German Americans who were either recently arrived German immigrants or the descendants of Germans. And so when the United States went to war with Germany, the question became, how do we know which of these millions of German-Americans is loyal? D. Bomberger: 19:50 How do we know which ones might be a threat to national security? And so there was an, uh, atmosphere of suspicion that arose at this time. And one of the ways in which people created a litmus test for the time period was through the Star Spangled banner. And so there arose almost overnight new traditions surrounding this Anthem. It was not yet the official National Anthem of the United States. That would not happen until 1931. But, um, what was happening at this time though was that there were unspoken expectations and one of those was that people would stand up when the National Anthem was played. And uh, so this had not been a thing before this time, but in the lead up to the war, all of a sudden people were expected to leap to their feet whenever the star Spangled banner was played. Now one of the humorous is suppose a jazz band in a cabaret plays the Star Spangled banner. Do we still have to leave to our feet? Suppose a, the star Spangled banner appears just as a melody in a, uh, in a play, for instance, uh, David Belasko's, Madame butterfly, do we still have to leap to our feet? A, some people felt very strongly that that was a way to test others loyalty. And so it became a litmus test at this time. Shorner-Johnson: 21:15 So Carl Muck is, is officially a Swiss conductor. Am I correct? Even though he is often labeled as, as German or Austrian as, as tensions escalate. And that's going to be really important. D. Bomberger: 21:28 The identity question is really a fraught in his case because he was born in Darmstadt, Germany and he was the most famous conductor of German music and had worked for a time in Berlin for the Kaiser. But on the other hand, his father and the whole family had been naturalized Swiss for most of their lives. And so he was a Swiss citizen, but he had German loyalties. So the question then became, how do we know if we can trust this guy? Is he in his concerts undermining what the United States is trying to achieve in unity and loyalty? Uh, and uh, and so he was scrutinized very heavily as perhaps the most famous conductor in the United States and the conductor of the Boston symphony orchestra. Shorner-Johnson: 22:27 So what happens in Providence, Rhode Island and why does it matter? D. Bomberger: 22:31 Yes, this is a key point and it's fascinating to me as a historian to see how sometimes accidental events can take on outsized importance. Uh, the basic story was this, uh, that, uh, the concert season for classical music typically starts in the fall and goes through the following spring. And so there had been a whole summer of vacation from May through October when the orchestras of the United States were silent. Uh, the first orchestras to start their seasons were the New York orchestras and both the New York symphony and the New York Philharmonic, uh, played the star Spangled banner on their first concerts. This was new in the fall of 1917. This would had not been a habit before this time, but they decided to try it. And the New York audiences felt it was appropriate to do. In Boston they had never played the National Anthem and apparently it never even occurred to them that it would be a good idea to do this. And so they, uh, they were not about to add a piece of popular music to, their very serious artistic concerts. So this was the situation in the fall of 1917. What happened was that the Boston Symphony had a run-out performance to Providence, Rhode Island. Uh, their home base was in symphony hall in Boston, but they had an invitation to play an hour away in Providence. Um, Providence happened to be the place where one of the most rabid spy hunters in the country was the editor of the local newspaper. And so, uh, John Ratham, who was an Australian immigrant, uh, was constantly on the lookout for possible subversion by enemy aliens. And so he, uh, instigated it now appears several local musical clubs to send a telegram to the Boston Symphony management on the afternoon of their Tuesday performance, uh, and to demand that they play the, uh, uh, to play the, uh, the National Anthem that evening. D. Bomberger: 24:47 Uh, Ratham also published the demand on the first page of the Providence paper. And, uh, but it came at the very last minute. And so, uh, the Boston Symphony management looked at this telegram didn't recognize any of the names who had signed it, and they decided to ignore it. That turned out to be a very crucial decision because what happened was when the symphony played that evening without the National Anthem, it gave the editor the opportunity to trumpet to the whole world, and that Muck was being subversive and that he was anti-American and that he was intentionally, uh, undermining American values. This story caught on like wildfire. It, uh, it went viral. And, uh, it's surprising that, uh, in the days long before the Internet, uh, this, uh, this story made it to the opposite coast. It was published on the front page of the Los Angeles Times, uh, two days later. And a really was a very, very big story. And, uh, what happened was that no matter how hard the symphony tried to tamp this down, they reminded listeners that, uh, Carl Muck had never even been asked his opinion. They reminded listeners that, that, uh, they, uh, were not trying to be unpatriotic. Uh, despite all of that, the story just kept growing and growing and growing. And so in this case, the National Anthem became a symbol of nationalism, patriotism, and a way to root out unpatriotic Americans. Speaker 8: 26:35 [inaudible]. Shorner-Johnson: 26:37 And then this leads to a really important history too, which is a history of falsehoods. And I believe I was talking to you about this before that oftentimes we maybe overestimate the degree to which we are rational human beings and forget that oftentimes falsehoods take root within ourselves and it affects our actions. And you even go on to to document some of the, some of the, some of the spy records that were recorded upon musicians as falsehoods started to seep in. Could you talk about some of the spy records, especially with like Seal Island and what, what happens there? D. Bomberger: 27:15 Yes. One of the things that is often attributed to Mark Twain is, uh, the saying that a lie can go halfway around the world before the truth can get its boots on. And, uh, it turns out that, um, there's no evidence that Mark Twain actually said that. So one more illustration of the way a falsehood can go around, but, uh, but the point is this, that when a lie becomes a, an idea in someone's mind, it's very hard to dislodge that. And so a, and so in a heightened atmosphere of war intensity, there really was no good way to tamp down rumors and false hoods. And so once they start to spread, there's no stopping them. And uh, on they go. Uh, and the, uh, the idea of rational argument, the idea of exposing lies, uh, although it seemed like a good idea, uh, was singularly ineffective in combating the intensity of the, uh, of the emotions. Now this brings us then to the issue of propaganda. One of the articles that I'm working on as a spin off to this book is having to do with a very small, obscure magazine in New York that was instrumental in spreading these falsehoods. Uh, the name of this magazine was the Chronicle. And, uh, it took me a great deal of effort to dig up copies of this journal and find out what was going on with it. But what happened was that the, uh, that both the military intelligence division and the predecessor of the FBI were investigating the editor of this journal for, uh, for illegal business practices. And so he was a shady character to start with. But what he did was to spread a lot of lies about German Americans and to promote the idea that Americans needed to be on the lookout for spies. Speaker 5: 29:20 [inaudible] D. Bomberger: 29:20 So this idea of falsehoods, it was also part of the British propaganda strategy. And a, one of the things that I've discovered in reading about this era is that the modern science of propaganda really had its beginnings at this time. And, uh, the British were the first to really capitalize on propaganda. They recognize that the German strategy of presenting lectures and pamphlets explaining the German position in rational, logical terms was not as effective as spreading a whisper campaign about their enemies. And so the British were unusually adept at making up falsehoods about, for instance, German atrocities, and then spreading them through America to make Americans believe that the Germans were even worse than they were on the battlefield. And so it became a sort of a dirty campaign to support the war. And the British were unusually effective at this. Shorner-Johnson: 30:32 And it's amazing to see how fast, um, society turns against Carl Muck as maybe some falsehoods start to start to spread. I was fascinated by this, this kind of lock him up, quote from, from Maryland governor Edwin Warfield. And he basically says, um, men like Muck who do not realize their obligation, which is their obligation to play the National Anthem and to their adopted country should be interned. Um, so it moves very quickly from... D. Bomberger: 31:03 It does. Yes. There were lots of calls to throw him into jail, basically a with or without evidence. And eventually, he was interned. He was jailed in March of 1918. Uh, and, uh, to their credit, the intelligence agencies were very methodical and careful in putting together their case. But, uh, the public outcry was so strong that many otherwise reasonable politicians, uh, said that it would be best to just throw them in jail and find the facts later. Speaker 9: 31:36 [Quick Step Music from Original Dixieland Jass Band] Speaker 7: 31:51 so let's talk about jazz now, um, 1917, is a momentous year for jazz. And I think it's important for our listeners to know that we're talking about almost the invention of the word jazz in this book. D. Bomberger: 32:06 Exactly, yes. The early history of jazz is really steeped in mystery and we know that the most important performers of early jazz came from new Orleans. We know many of the people that they played with and we know the events that they played with, but since there were no recordings of early jazz, we really can't be sure what it sounded like and when, what we now think of jazz was first played that way. Uh, what we do know though is when the term jazz first started appearing in print and it began interestingly enough as a sports term, it shows up in the baseball pages of several California newspapers in 1912 and 1913 eventually. Then it's also used as a musical term in Chicago in 1915, but the whole idea of jazz as a musical style was still extremely new at this point. And so no one really had a sense of what it was. D. Bomberger: 33:07 And, uh, it was very popular in Chicago and there was a New York, uh, agent and enterprising agent who had heard from Al Jolson that this new music was really the thing of the future. And so he wanted to get a band in New York, so he managed to, uh, entice one of the Chicago bands to come to New York. And this then is where the story really goes national when this band, first of all, has a very successful engagement at a major restaurant and then is recorded. And that record then becomes the first million selling jazz record in the spring. Speaker 9: 33:44 [Original Dixieland Jazz Band One-step] Shorner-Johnson: 34:16 And tell us about why does jazz become a national phenomenon through recording technology maybe before recording technology latches onto symphony orchestras? D. Bomberger: 34:27 Yes. Uh, this was a time period when that historians describe as the acoustic period in recording. In other words, the electronic microphone like you and I are using today, was not introduced until 1925. So at this point then the process was purely acoustical. Sound waves were collected in a large tube focused down into a stylist, which cut grooves into a revolving, a disc of, of a wax. And that then was how the records were made. So it was a very delicate operation. And to their credit, the engineers at the Victor talking machine company really put a lot of effort into making sure that the different instruments of the Original Dixieland Jazz Band were spaced out in the studio to make it sound with an optimal balance. So for instance, the piano, which didn't pick up very well was right beside the horn. The drums, which were way too loud, were across the room 25 feet away and the trumpet was 20 feet away. The trombone was 15 feet away and so on. They found the exact right distance and this created then a record that really sounded good despite the limitations of the technology Speaker 5: 35:47 [Original Dixieland Jazz Band] D. Bomberger: 35:59 But the other aspect though is that novelty of this new sound, it was not vocal music as most popular records were at the time. But instead it was purely instrumental music designed for dancing and a, what commentators said at the time was that in this period of anxiety surrounding the war, people needed an emotional release and jazz was just loopy enough. It was frantic enough, it was new and crazy enough that people latched onto it and whether it would have been this popular at another time, is hard to say, but we do know that that very first jazz instrumental record swept the country. It took the country by storm and people were dancing to this music from Iowa to Oregon to New York Speaker 5: 36:52 [Music] Shorner-Johnson: 36:57 The things that I find very interesting an ethnomusicology lens maybe is this notion of exoticism and on one hand exoticism can be a good thing because it can inspire curiosity in a new art form and there's definitely curiosity that picks up. But I'm also interested in how there's a dark side to exoticism too because exoticism can be turned into an object or a thing. You can dehumanize a group of people to say, look at these, these - this weird, this new exotic de-humanize object. And I, I definitely pick that up from the book about the way that people wrote about jazz and maybe their carelessness in deciding how they would spell jazz and how they would respect performers. Can you talk a little bit about that? D. Bomberger: 37:42 Yes, absolutely. Part of the fascination with jazz was its chaotic, dangerous quality. It was associated strongly with African American culture. For one thing, it was also music that seemed uncontrolled in comparison to the symphony music that people were used to listening to. And so it was music that had an element of danger and an element of excitement to it. Uh, so that was part of the appeal. Um, but on the other hand, as you say, there is a kind of a marginalization that happens. And so the question is how wild is too wild? How wild is just right? Uh, the original Dixieland jazz band hit the sweet spot because their music sounded exciting and bold and new, but on the other hand, they dressed in tuxedos and they were all, uh, Caucasian performers. And so it was not as dangerous as it might have been if, uh, the first recording artists had been, for instance, one of the many African American groups that were also performing at this time. So there is a sense in which exoticism was attractive but also could be a marginalizing element as well. Shorner-Johnson: 39:05 Hmm. I love some of the lies that you captured of jazz artists portraying themselves as not being able to read music when in fact they could read music. And the way that you articulated that this was another way of articulating what being American was in opposition to the refined nature of German sound and note reading. And that contrast there, D. Bomberger: 39:25 this is one of the ideas that I pushed out in the book that is a new idea and that is the idea that jazz symbolized in one regard, at least the aspects that Europeans came to love and eventually respect about Americans. And that is that they are unconventional, that they're different and that they're sometimes a little bit out of control. And so, uh, as a contrast, you could hardly ask for a greater difference than between the super refined sounds of the Boston symphony orchestra and the frenetic, chaotic sound of the original Dixieland jazz band. And that contrast to me was one of the most fascinating aspects of 1917. Shorner-Johnson: 40:26 1917 was a year of great speed, a speed to identify in-groups and out-groups as preparation for conflict. Music can be used for violence, to erect barriers and define who belongs and who does not. Music can also express that most human of human needs, attachment and belonging. As I think about the work of social emotional learning in schools, our work with anti-bullying is the work of belonging, identity, empathy and compassion. How do we sound belonging and identity while singing to universal connection? Shorner-Johnson: 41:17 This is the music and peacebuilding podcast. At Elizabethtown college, we host a master of music education with an emphasis in peacebuilding and world music drumming thinking deeply, we reclaimed space for connection and care. Join us at musicpeacebuilding.com as we work to build our community, we welcome your help in reviewing us on iTunes. If you do post a review, please go to musicpeacebuilding.com slash review to have a thank you card, laptop sticker, and classroom poster sent your way as our way of saying thank you for your support. Speaker 9: 42:03 [inaudible].

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Warren was born in Pella, Iowa. And yes, like Wyatt and Morgan, Warren was too young to take part in the American Civil War with his older brothers Newton, James, and Virgil. Warren was the youngest of the Earp brothers and was actually 18 years younger than his half-brother Newton -- who was the oldest from his father's first marriage. Warren joined his brothers in Tombstone, Arizona in 1880. Like Wyatt, warren too worked as a bartender but occasionally was a deputy for Virgil. He is said to have helped full time deputy Morgan by collecting taxes and as a periodic guard duty. Disenchanted with the dismal surrounding and lack of silver in Tombstone by 1880, Warren returned to California. Besides Virgil and Morgan in law enforcement, James and Wyatt were bartenders and ran Faro concession. As a Deputy U.S. Marshal, Virgil Earp was sent to Tombstone to put an end to the rustlers known as the "cow boys" who were implicated in ongoing livestock thefts from across the Mexican border. The so-called "cow boys" were headed by the Clantons. Almost as soon as Wyatt arrived, he wanted the County Sheriff's position there. Besides a salary and bonus for every arrest, the County Sheriff was also the tax collector and kept 10% of the taxes collected. Wyatt became involved with the Clantons after he made a political deal to step out of the race for County Sheriff. The Clantons had promised him the position of County Under-Sheriff and made him a lucrative officer to get a percentage of the county taxes that were collected. The deal fell through and Wyatt felt betrayed. Soon more conflicts arose and the Clantons threatened the Earps. This all came to a head at the now famous gunfight at the O.K. Corral. Warren was at his parents' home in Colton, California at the time of the now famous gunfight at the O.K. Corral on October 26, 1881. After the OK Corral, the cow-boys wanted revenge really no different than Wyatt would want revenge later on the cow-boys. Of course in the long run, both sides didn't win as everyone got either shot up, killed, or ended up running from the law as in Wyatt's case. Right after the OK Corral gunfight, though the Earps thought it safer to circle the wagons and live together at to the Cosmopolitan Hotel after the gunfight, the mutual support and protection of the hotel only helped so much. Because he was still city marshal, Virgil still had duties such as shaking the doors of businesses to see that they were locked for the night. Two months after the gunfight in December 1881, City Marshal Virgil Earp was seriously wounded in an assassination attempt that left him with a permanently crippled left arm. It happened at about 11:30pm on December 28th, 1881, three men hidden in the upper story of an unfinished building across Allen street from the hotel ambushed Virgil from behind as he walked from the Oriental Saloon to his room. Virgil was hit in the back and left arm by three loads of double-barreled buckshot from about 60 feet away. Believe it or not, even the Crystal Palace Saloon and the Eagle Brewery beyond Virgil were struck by nineteen shots, three passed through the window and one about a foot over the heads of some men standing by a faro-table. George Parsons wrote that he heard "four shots in quick succession." Critically wounded, Virgil staggered into the hotel. Dr. George E. Goodfellow removed 4 inches of shattered humerus bone from Virgil's left arm, leaving his arm permanently crippled. Dr. Goodfellow removed twenty buckshot from his side. And while the doctor worked on his arm and side, Virgil told his wife Allie, "Never mind, I've got one arm left to hug you with." What many might not realize is that Virgil Earp was also shot through the back above the hip. Some of the shot from his would-be assassins penetrated his body and lodged near his hip bone above his groin. After the attempt on Virgil's life, Wyatt wrote to the U.S. Marshal on December 29, 1881, stating: "Virgil Earp was shot by concealed assassins last night. His wounds are fatal. Telegraph me appointment with power to appoint deputies. Local authorities are doing nothing. The lives of other citizens are threatened. Wyatt Earp" Wyatt was immediately appointed a Deputy U.S. Marshal with the authority to arrest the perpetrators of the attempted murder of Virgil Earp. Using Morgan as his number one source of information, they searched for the perpetrators of Virgil's shooting. Many might not realize that Morgan had a great deal of experience in law enforcement. He was certainly no rookie. In 1875, Morgan left the Earp clan living in Wichita, Kansas, and became a deputy marshal under Charlie Bassett at Dodge City. In late 1877, Morgan took his common-law wife Louisa A. Houston to Montana, where they lived until March, 1880. And yes, there too he was a lawman. Months after the shootout at the OK Corral, on February 1882, Morgan's concern of the danger was at a point where he feared for the safety of his common-law wife Louisa Houstin Earp. This was so much so that he put her on a train and sent her to his parents home in Colton, California. No, she wasn't in Tombstone when he was killed. Instead of leaving with her, Morgan chose to remain in Tombstone as Virgil's deputy. Though recuperating, Virgil was still Tombstone's Chief of Police and Morgan was still his deputy. After his shooting, Virgil spent the next three months recuperating in bed. He was just starting to get back on his feet when his younger brother Morgan was ambushed and killed.. Morgan's assassination took place on Saturday, March 18th, 1882, after returning from a musical at Schieffelin Hall, Morgan wanted to play billiards at the Campbell & Hatch Billiard Parlor against owner Bob Hatch. His brother Wyatt and friends Dan Tipton and Sherman McMaster were there at 10:50 p.m. when Morgan was ambushed and shot to death. Although Warren was not there during the now famous gunfight at the O.K. Corral, he joined his brothers James and Wyatt in Tombstone after Morgan was murdered. When Warren returned to Tombstone, he was immediately deputized by Wyatt who just received his appointment as a Deputy U.S. Marshall. On March 19th, 1882, Warren joined his brothers Wyatt and James to accompany Morgan's body to Benson, where it was loaded aboard a freight train for California. Morgan was being transported to the Earp family home in Colton, California. It was neither safe nor practical because of Virgil's injuries to transport him and his wife Allie out of Tombstone at the same time as Morgan. A day later on March 20th, Wyatt, Warren and their posse guarded Virgil and Allie as they were traveled to Tucson to catch a train for California. Actually, Virgil and Allie left Tombstone under heavy guard. They were escorted by Wyatt and deputies Warren Earp, Doc Holliday, Sherman McMaster, and "Turkey Creek" Jack Johnson. Wyatt reported later that he received word in the town of Contention that Ike Clanton, Frank Stilwell, Hank Swilling, and another were watching the passenger trains in Tucson with the aim to kill Virgil. No one told Wyatt that Ike Clanton and Frank Stillwell were ordered to Tucson to appear in from of the Grand Jury there. But frankly, I think even if they did know, I don't think it would've mattered to Wyatt and the rest. They were in a killing mood. The Earp group drove two wagons to the New Mexico and Arizona Railroad terminal 25 miles away in Benson and boarded the train to Tucson. It is said that Virgil was so weak that he had to be carried up the steps of the train. Wyatt and his deputies had initially planned to travel only as far as Benson, but that changed when they learned that Frank Stilwell and others were looking for Virgil. Because of that, they remained with Virgil and Allie through to Tucson. While the posse guarding them was well armed with pistols, rifles and shotguns, it is said that so was Virgil's wife Allie who wore Virgil's pistol belt during the journey. Yes, just in case she needed it. Virgil told the San Francisco Examiner two months later that upon getting off the train in Tucson: "Almost the first men we met on the platform there were Stilwell and his friends, armed to the teeth. They fell back into the crowd as soon as they saw I had an escort, and the boys took me to the hotel to supper." Guarded by his brothers Wyatt and Warren and the likes of deputies Doc Holliday, Sherman McMaster, and "Turkey Creek" Jack Johnson, Virgil and Allie had dinner at Porter's Hotel in Tucson. Afterwards, they were helped aboard the train for California. And once they were safely seated, the posse kept a watch for any attempts on their lives. It was reported that as Virgil and Allie's train was pulling out of Tucson on its way to California, people reported that gunfire was heard. As with any crime scene, witnesses gave contradictory accounts about the number of men or the number of shots fired. And yes, that was no different as a number of armed men were seen near the tracks and a number of shots were fired. As for the men, no one could be positively identified because of the dark. As for the shots, who knows what was really heard that night. Wyatt said later that he and his deputies spotted Frank Stilwell and another man believed to be Ike Clanton armed with shotguns lying on a flatcar about to ambush Virgil and his wife. Wyatt, quoted in the Denver Republican, said: "I ran straight for Stilwell. It was he who killed my brother. What a coward he was! He couldn't shoot when I came near him. He stood there helpless and trembling for his life. As I rushed upon him he put out his hands and clutched at my shotgun. I let go both barrels, and he tumbled down dead and mangled at my feet." It is believed that when Wyatt and his men approached, the two men ran. Some believe that Stilwell may have stumbled or had been wounded which allowed for Wyatt and his posse to reach him. Wyatt later said that he shot Stilwell as Stilwell attempted to push the barrel of Earp's shotgun away. He later said that Stilwell cried "Morg!" before he was killed. There are definite inconsistencies with Wyatt's story. For one thing, Frank Stilwell's body was riddled with buckshot from two shotgun rounds, one in his leg and the second in his chest with powder burns which meant at very close range. Second, as for all of the shots heard, well Stilwell was also shot four times with a pistol because four bullet wounds were found besides just the shotgun wounds. I believe he was also shot with a rifle. Either way, the Coroner later reported that he was shot with 5 different caliber weapons. The other shady part about Wyatt and the others killing Stilwell was that they were Deputy U.S. Marshals. They had badges and warrants. So why flee the scene after they just killed a supposed outlaw like Stilwell? That's not what lawmen do. It is a fact that when the Tucson Sheriff learned who was responsible for Stilwell's death, knowing of the circumstances and the fact that they fled the scene to get away, lawmen or not, County Justice of the Peace Charles Meyer issued warrants for the arrest of Wyatt and Warren Earp, Doc Holliday, "Turkey Creek" Jack Johnson, Sherman McMaster, and Dan Tipton for the murder of one Frank Stilwell. After killing Stilwell, the Earp posse which now turned outlaws wearing badges returned to Tombstone where Cochise County Sheriff Johnny Behan found the men in the lobby of the Cosmopolitan Hotel, heavily armed, but getting ready to leave town. Supposedly John Behan told Wyatt that he wanted to see him. Wyatt supposedly replied: "Johnny, if you're not careful you'll see me once too often." On that Friday, the Tucson Grand Jury returned indictments for the murder of Frank Stillwell naming Wyatt and Warren Earp, Doc Holliday, "Turkey Creek" Jack Johnson, Sherman McMaster, and Dan Tipton, as the alleged perpetrators. While usually not talked about as part of what has become known as "Wyatt Earp's Vendetta," Warren Earp did in fact ride with his brother Wyatt to hunt down those believed responsible for killing Morgan and the attempted murder of Virgil. Following the vendetta ride, Warren left Arizona for a time. But then, supposedly he returned in 1891 where he found work as a mail stage driver on the route between Willcox and Fort Grant. And no, I haven't been able to verify that. Some speculate that he may have even worked briefly as a supposed "Range Detective" for rancher Henry Hooker in Cochise County, Arizona. But again, that's someone's speculation. And while that is speculation, it is known that after the vendetta Warren gained a reputation as a bully who was always playing off of the reputation of his older brothers Virgil and Wyatt. His brother Virgil was sure Warren's temper would get him killed. We know this from a statement that Virgil made. It was a statement that Virgil made when he was reunited in 1898 with his first wife Ellen and daughter Nellie who had been told he had been killed in the Civil War. They visited twice, and Nellie told the newspaper The Oregonian that during their visit: "My father said then, 'If Warren ever dies he will be shot. He is too hasty, quick-tempered and too ready to pick a quarrel. Besides he will not let bygones be bygones, and on that account, I expect that he will meet a violent death.'" On July 6, 1900, Warren became involved in an argument with Hooker's range boss, Johnny Boyett, inside Brown's Saloon in Willcox. And yes, there are some who question the relationship between Warren Earp and Johnny Boyett. Some say that Warren Earp and Johnny Boyett were supposedly gay-lovers and had been publicly arguing about their relationship. Others say that they argued over their affections for the same woman, who was possibly a local prostitute. The Tombstone Epitaph says that the incident began out of Warren Earp's constant bullying of Boyett. Later that night, the two men, both drunk, began arguing. Bystanders said they "never heard any man take such abuse." Warren Earp is alleged to have said "Boyett, get your gun and we'll settle this right here. I've got mine, go and get yours". With that Boyett left, and returned shortly thereafter with a brace of pistols. Supposedly he was carrying two .45 caliber Colts. And yes, that's when it got bad quick. Boyett called out for Earp, who walked in from another doorway. Immediately upon seeing Earp, Boyett fired two rounds -- but both missed. And no, unlike television and the movies, this wasn't unusual for a man to crank off a couple of rounds and not hit his intended target. Earp is said to have been relatively calm, considering someone just shot at him, and stepped slowly outside of the saloon onto the street. The whole while without producing a weapon. Boyett seeing Warren Earp stepping toward him fired two more rounds. And yes, missing again with both. It is said that Warren Earp's was not the usual hard as nails talker that he was known to be as he walked towards Boyett, opened his coat and vest, saying. "I have not got arms. You have a good deal the best of this". Earp continued walking toward Boyett, calmly talking the entire time. After Boyett warned him several times to halt, Boyett appearing slightly frightened. Then when Warren Earp did not stop, Boyett lifted a single pistol and fired a fifth round. This time the round slammed Earp in the chest, killing him almost instantly. Believe it or not, Boyett claimed that he feared for his life. He said that by allowing Warren Earp to get too close, he believed his life was in danger. Warren Earp did not have a pistol, but he did have a small opened pocket knife in his fist. No arrest was made.immediately after the shooting. In those days, a threat was enough to justify a man getting a gun and "defending himself" against a known bad man. Later, Johnny Boyett was arrested for the shooting. The coroner's inquest confirmed that he killed Earp, but frankly no one needed an inquest to know what took place. Yes, supposedly there were all sorts of witnesses to the event -- as well as what preceded it. . While some, like the person who wrote the article above in 1900 believed that Boyett killed Warren Earp as some sort of retribution on the part of the "Cowboys" of the Tombstone days, there is no evidence to support that theory. It is widely accepted that Johnny Boyett took Warren Earp's threats serious and killed him before he himself would be killed. The Tombstone Epitaph reported the following on July 9, 1900: "Warren Earp, the youngest of the four Earp brothers whose names twenty years ago were synonymous with gun fighting on the Arizona frontier, "died with his boots on" here. He was shot through, the heart in a saloon by Cowboy Johnny Boyett, and died almost Instantly. The shooting occurred early in the morning and grew out of a feud that had existed between the two men ever since the bloody fights between the Earp's and Arizona cattle rustler about Tombstone In the early eighties [1880s]. Earp had habitually bullied Boyett for months past, and the latter always tried to avoid a quarrel. A few days ago Earp cornered Boyett in a saloon, and, pressing a revolver against Boyett's stomach, made him promise that if they ever quarreled again the one should kill the other. The two men met in a restaurant and Earp began his abuse. Boyett went Into an adjoining saloon, followed by Earp. The latter said: "Boyett, go get your gun and we'll settle the matter right here. I've got my gun; go get yours." Boyett was willing and agreed to return in a few moments and fight it out. Earp also left the saloon. Boyett returned very soon and finding Earp gone warned all loungers in the saloon to clear out, emphasizing his warning by shooting into the ceiling. Earp shortly appeared through a back door. He started toward Boyett, throwing open his coat and saying: "Boyett, I am unarmed; you have the best of this," advancing as spoke. Boyett warned him not to come nearer, but Earp did not heed the words, and when within eight feet Boyett fired, shooting Earp through the heart and killing him instantly. Warren Earp was the youngest brother of the Earp family. He was well known by Uncle-Sheriff Paul of Tucson, who was Sheriff of Pima county in the eighties when trouble occurred between the Earps and the Clanton gang. Earp came to this country about the time of the beginning of the feud from Colton, Cal. He was one of the original brothers and took an active part in their fights after he arrived. Morgan Earp was killed In 1883 In Bob Hatch's saloon in Tombstone, being shot from the back as he was playing billiards. Virgil Earp later was shot in the arm and seriously wounded and the killing of Frank Stilwell occurred In Tucson not long after, when he attempted to shoot Virgil through a car window. Stilwell was shot by Wyatt Earp. Warren came here when his brothers got into trouble at Tombstone with the Clanton gang and he has remained here since. He was driving stage from Willcox to Fort Grant and had done freighting." Another newspaper reported on Jul 7, 1900: Warren Earp killed in Arizona Warren Earp, the youngest of the famous clan of gun fighting brothers, is murdered in an Arizona saloon. icholas and Virginia Earp raised a family of five sons and four daughters on a series of farms in Illinois and Iowa. Three of the Earps' sons grew up to win lasting infamy. On October 26, 1881, Wyatt, Virgil, and Morgan Earp fought a brief shoot-out with the Clantons and McLaurys in Tombstone, Arizona. The Earp brothers, along with their friend Doc Holliday, managed to kill all three of their opponents. The gun battle—which was named after a nearby livery stable called the O.K. Corral—later became a favorite topic of sensationalistic dime novel writers and moviemakers. Ever since, Wyatt, Virgil, and Morgan have been icons of the Old West. The youngest Earp brother, however, did not share in the fame of his older brothers. Warren Earp was probably in Tombstone on the day of the famous gunfight, but for reasons that remain unclear, Warren did not join in the gunfight (the eldest Earp brother, James, did not participate either). Warren, however, was involved in the bloody series of revenge killings that followed the shoot-out. Within six months of the first gunfight, Morgan Earp was assassinated and Virgil Earp was badly wounded. Wyatt presumed the Clantons and McLaurys were behind the attacks. Determined to strike back, Wyatt turned for help to his little brother, Warren. Together with Doc Holliday, the two brothers took their vengeance, killing two men suspected of having been behind Morgan's murderer. In danger now of being arrested for murder, the three men fled to Colorado. After he parted ways with Wyatt in Colorado, the record of Warren's life becomes obscure. He apparently traveled around the West for several years before finally returning to Arizona. On this day in 1900, Warren reportedly had too much to drink at the Headquarters Saloon in Willcox, Arizona. He began to abuse some of the customers, and a man named John Boyett killed him in a gunfight. Later, Boyett was tried for murder and found innocent on the grounds that he had acted in self-defense." It is said that Johnny Boyett sought protection from the local sheriff because he feared retribution from Virgil Earp. Lynn R. Baily, the daughter of rancher Henry Hooker, wrote in Henry Clay Hooker and the Sierra Bonita that: "Virgil Earp sneaked into Willcox under an assumed name, checked into the hotel near Brown's Saloon, and began interviewing witnesses. He concluded his brother's death was "cold blooded murder even if Warren was drunk and abusive at the time." Boyett returned to work on Hooker's ranch, staying out of Willcox for a long period of time. While Warren Earp has been described as "quarrelsome, especially when drunk, and sobriety was not one of his virtues," in contrast Johnny Boyett had a quiet and reserved reputation and was respected by most of those who knew him as a good honest hardworking man. Boyett was put to the test that night in 1900 when just a two days earlier all the hands from the Sierra Bonita Ranch and the Hooker's Hot Springs ranches went to Willcox for the Independence Day celebration there. He probably had no idea that his life would be etched in Old West history for killing Warren Earp in a gunfight of sorts at the Headquarters Saloon on the 6th of July. A gunfight where a knife was actually brought to a gunfight. It was later falsely reported that the Earps avenged Warren's death by killing Boyett, but that is only a myth. Fact is Johnny Boyett eventually retired and lived in Redlands, California. He died on a trip home to Texas on December 16th, 1919, at 57 years of age. His death is said to have marked the end of the infamous history of the Earps in Arizona.

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The intent of this paper is to depict the significance of educational touristry in term of formal and informal subdivision particularly in the instance of Thailand and besides indicate the formal educational touristry with three spheres theoretical account of touristry instruction. Furthermore, the paper is provided an illustration and relation of new educational touristry in Thailand after the impact of tsunami, which called “ voluntourism ” , to the educational touristry. Then, explain the impacts of educational touristry, the advantages and disadvantages to the state besides the community where has to develop more to advance another type of educational touristry in Thailand. Education plays an of import portion in touristry industries peculiarly with the chief factor that runs the full organisation, human or staff, and the individual that the concern ran for, the tourer. If their staff is uneducated, they wo n’t be able to work likely in hard circumstance or they wo n’t be able to pull off their work good. Additionally, the tourers are seeking to larn new things while they travel. Education in term of touristry is really assorted nevertheless, less of research worker examine about it which this paper measure the construct and range of educational touristry. To understand its construct, it might be necessary to divide the words “ educational touristry ” into “ Education ” and “ Tourism ” . We need to explicate how these words are related and what the effects to Thai touristry. Furthermore, clear uping the difference between ( unifying an educational plan and going go an built-in portion of a class ) and ( deriving the cognition during the traveling in a assortment of topographic points through the words of experiences ) will be illustrates as good. This paper categorizes these two words into formal and informal of instruction signifier to boot with the advantages and disadvantages. “ Educational touristry ” features was assorted and difficult to place through the universe trends which quickly change in demand and supply. Furthermore, Ritchie ( 2003 ) noted that “ the educational touristry has received small involvement from research workers and industry due to a deficiency of grasp of the size and potency of this market ” Furthermore, the word “ experience ” plays a absorbing portion in the educational touristry presents. Many attractive force activities occur for the tourers to see what they non familiar. Harmonizing to the instance of Thailand, the activities which give the new experiences to the alien are something like Thai pugilism, Thai heritage rubber-necking, diving, cookery, voluntary etc. In the last subdivision of this paper will depict about the extent of educational touristry in Thailand which usually are the activities that tourists experience most. But here in this paper, one type of Thai activity arises from the natural catastrophe, Tsunami, which happened in the southern portion. After the impact, it caused a batch of amendss to the state ; meanwhile it created the activity which is a new type of educational touristry by interchanging Thai civilization and cognition of Thai community to the voluntaries called “ voluntourism ” . Voluntourism appears to be involved wider in universe touristry and will be the chief focal point as a new extent of Thai educational touristry in this paper every bit good. “ Education ” is an act or procedure of leaving or geting a general cognition. It could be a certain grade, degree or sort of schooling or gaining experiences, either bettering or regressing. Education means to larn in every agency in order to make into a certain ends. Without instruction, life can be so difficult and thwarting in every facet. Education will assist to achieve a certain aspiration or dreams in life and to be successful. The cases of instruction can be from school, society or place, Internet, or anyplace. It does n’t necessitate a perfect physical visual aspect but it requires attending and focal point. Education develops to understand the fortunes, physiques intelligence to be improved, promotes populating criterion, and strengthens society and civilization. “ Tourism ” the definition of touristry can be defined in legion ways, depending upon the position one prefers to follow and to the fact that constructs change over clip. Some general definition is, touristry is an industry supplying services to traveler which is an experience either separately or jointly driven by a scope of motive and intents. If the travel occurs outside a individual ‘s common environment but within their state of abode, so it would be classified as a domestic touristry. However, if the travel occurs outside their usual state of abode, so it would be classified as an international touristry ( Leiper, 2004 ) . “ Educational touristry ” the educational touristry has non been comprehensively explored or researched much presents particularly in Thailand. Nevertheless, travel for acquisition and instruction is non a new construct. The footing for educational touristry is the preparation of touristry instruction policies ( TEPs ) , which are derived from the convergence of touristry and instruction at a national or provincial degree. It is comprised of several sub-types including ecotourism, heritage touristry, rural touristry, and pupil exchanges between educational establishments. Furthermore, the travel activities are one of the educational touristry types as the high spots of travel experience. The experience is non a snapshot but instead a complex procedure that involves multiple parties, evolves over clip, and retains value long into the hereafter. The growing of touristry can increase in alternate touristry experiences that appear to include a turning figure of educational and learning elements. However, educational touristry can be defined clearly into two groups ; formal and informal. The formal educational touristry or touristry instruction refers to any “ plan in which participants travel to a location as a group with the primary intent of prosecuting in a learning experience straight related to the location ” ( Bodger, 1998, p.28 ) . It can besides be seen as a series of classs that lead to graduation or enfranchisement or a grade, sheepskin, or similar terminal award. The informal educational touristry is a touristry which you can larn by experiences from go toing the activities that are something different from mundane life through the five senses of homo for illustration, cycling, rubber-necking, backpacking, charity activity ( voluntary ) , plunging etc ( Dewey ) . The formal educational touristry in Thailand In many states, touristry instruction focuses on fixing people for callings in big companies or cordial reception services. The formal instruction in footings of touristry industry concerned with raising the general rational capacity of the person and developing their ability for critical thought or gaining of accomplishments which are specific to peculiar occupations or functions in touristry industry. Education in touristry is relevant to all degrees of employment from everyday operational work to high-ranking strategic direction. However, the touristry instruction is turning quickly across the part which the touristry direction has to take it to run into the touristry industry needs for illustration, China. China is going the universe ‘s biggest tourer finish as Lu ( 2005 ) stated that “ by twelvemonth 2020, China will be the universe largest travel finish with the significance in its domestic market ” . Sing from the predictable, the demands of work force will increase which probably to the planetary tendencies that the touristry industries contribute the motion of local economic systems by making occupations and bring forthing market consciousness ( Ernst & A ; Young, 2006 ) . Therefore, instruction becomes more expandible. As the continually developing in the consumer demands and progressively in the planetary touristry industry, the instruction developer will necessitate to seek out new ways of instruction in the ability of direction accomplishments to add value to the touristry organisation. Therefore, the three spheres theoretical account, the integrating of touristry cognition to show the wider skills that will ease the pupil or scholar to run efficaciously, emerges within touristry instruction at the present clip as shows in Figure 1. Functional Tourism Degrees Tourism Information Systems The three spheres theoretical account of touristry instruction ( Dale & A ; Robinson, 2001 ) “ Generic grades: These plans offer the interdisciplinary accomplishments required for wide apprehension of the touristry industry. Functional grades: These plans offer the pupil the functional expertness in a peculiar country of touristry due to the service-oriented nature of the touristry industry. Product/market touristry: These plans focus on the nature and development of peculiar niche merchandises and markets which require specializer cognition and expertness for their effectual bringing. ” The theoretical account would ease the development of touristry as a field of survey which touristry is frequently been a topic that lacks academic credibleness in comparing peculiarly in Thailand. The touristry instruction plan in Thailand largely consists in higher instruction ; bachelor degree, maestro grade, sheepskin plan or certification plan. The abroad universities have been opening campuses in Thailand or hold made understandings with Thai universities to run double grade plans such as ; Bangkok School of Management: offers classs in Business Administration, Marketing, International Business, Small Business Management and others which are movable to colleges and universities worldwide, University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce: offers a scope of international plans, including a Bachelor of Business Administration, Master of Business Administration, Master of Arts, and a Certificate of International Business Economics, King Naresurn University: offers a Double Degree Program with Southern Cross University ( Australia ) , including a Maestro of International Tourism and Hotel Management and MBA. English class in Thailand besides grows by the demanding of people, whether short basic classs or internationally. Equally good as Thai cooking classs which become more favourite from the spices and unambiguously habit-forming gustatory sensations of Thai nutrient. The classs provided for internationally by learning all in English, and all delivered by experts such as ; Dosit Thani Hotel at Benjarong eating house where is the most sophisticated eating houses in Bangkok. The categories run 09:30-12:30 Saturday forenoons by the eating house ‘s caput chef and comprises into 12 categories. Another cooking school in Thailand which is in the top 10 hotels in the universe is “ The Thai Cooking School at the Oriental Hotel ” The school offers a four-day English-language cookery class with a “ ticker and learn ” methodological analysis, stressing presentation followed by hands-on experience of fixing a Thai dish. The class takes topographic point from 09:00 to 12:00 daily. Thai linguistic communication classs and categories in Thai massage and Thai medical specialty have been promoted to the international tourers ‘ instruction as good. For illustration, AUA Thai Program: The plan offers with 10-level with major penetrations into Thai linguistic communication ( including reading and composing ) and civilization. Wat Pho Thai Traditional Massage School: offer a General Thai Massage, Therapeutic and Healing Massage Thai Fundamental Massage Points, Foot Massage Course, Oil Massage and Aromatherapy and Infant and Child Massage. The informal educational touristry in Thailand The informal educational touristry is a touristry which you can larn by experiences from a assortment of activities. The word “ activity ” may be usage to mention to a scope of particular involvement vacations and recreational activities as following ( Roberts & A ; Hall, 2001 ) : Physical activity: normally go on outdoor such as cycling, mounting, plunging and walking. These activities are normally resulting as a tourer attractive force in the state where they promoted these sorts of services and go more popular. For illustration, cycling-Tour de France is an interesting competition which happens in France and where many bicyclers would wish to go to. Climbing- Himalayan Mountain is a topographic point to anyone who has the ability of mounting. It ‘s a really ambitious topographic point besides including in the Alps of Europe and the Rocky Mountains of the USA. Diving-the activity which becomes far more popular in recent decennaries in many more states peculiarly in Thailand. Thailand ‘s beaches and islands are some of the best in the universe, offering alien landscapes and flawless beaches where diving is possible all twelvemonth unit of ammunition. The underwater mountains, coral gardens, undersea stone formations, difficult and soft corals are the things which you can see and obtain more cognition while plunging. Avocations and practical involvements such as photography- one of the activities that tourers can better photographic accomplishments by fall ining in the photographing nine and travel to many topographic points with professional lensman, picture and trades which the tourers need to go to the category or particular classs to increase their accomplishments or to larn how to make. Nature touristry such as wildlife observation, garden circuit and ecotourism. Cultural and rational chases such as architecture, archeology and spiritual subjects. “ Experience and instruction can non be straight equated to each other. For some experiences are miss-educative. Any experience is miss-educative that has the consequence of collaring or falsifying the growing of farther experience. An experience may be such as to breed unfeelingness ; it may bring forth deficiency of sensitiveness and of reactivity. Then the possibilities of holding richer experience in the hereafter are restricted ” ( Nickerson, 2006 ) . A given experience may increase a individual ‘s automatic accomplishment in a peculiar way. The consequence is to contract the field of farther experience. An experience may be instantly gratifying and yet advance the formation of a careless attitude ; this attitude so operates to modify the quality of subsequent experiences so as to forestall a individual from acquiring out of them what they have to give. Experiences may be so disconnected from one another that, while each is agreeable or even exciting in itself, they are non linked cumulatively to one another. Thailand has many activities which are alone and really interesting for alien such as, plunging as Thailand is really well-known in high temperature, particularly in summer, and celebrated in beach activities, Sun bathing and diving. The tourers can larn or see new experiences by go toing new activities, they will have new accomplishments which make them acquire more information and educate more cognition. Not merely beach activities, but besides the local activities from the community of Thailand that tourer can comprehend a new civilization and experiences such place stay touristry or voluntary touristry ( voluntourism ) . The relation between voluntourism and educational touristry in Thailand An activity that arises in the southern portion of Thailand which becomes a new portion of educational touristry and would be a good illustration to advert about is called “ volutourism ” or “ unpaid touristry ” . It is one of the niche market and rapid turning presently. Voluntourism focuses on the selfless and self-developmental experiences that can derive during working on undertakings. Voluntourism can divide into many classs as shows in Figure 2. Figure 2. Categorizing unpaid touristry. ( Novelli, 2005 ) The voluntary touristry motivated many tourers to go abroad state including sightseeing and sing foreign civilizations and topographic points. They favored the experience because the constructs learned through the voluntary undertaking would profit their accomplishment development of future survey or work. The voluntourism related to the educational touristry by its cognition is transferred to, and between, volunteer participants form instruction establishments in the developed and developing universes, authoritiess and civil society in the state. Voluntourism, on the other manus, “ recognizes the importance of two cardinal factors: balance and reciprocality. A balanced battle jumping between voluntary service and touristry activities allows for a mutual relationship with communities. Residents who may be receivers of voluntary service are able to return that service by sharing their finish with visitants via exposure to the humanistic disciplines, civilization, geographics, history and diversion ” ( planeterra.org ) . Voluntourism benefits non merely to the single voluntary, but besides contributes to the touristry sector that is economically, socially, environmentally sustainable and competitory. In the instance of Thailand, after the impact of tsunami many industries and concern has been destroyed, and besides the harm of Thai community. Voluntourism be an of import portion to help with the recovery construct. The voluntary acquire a alone chance to acquire involved with the local people for the recovery attempts together with some escapade and relaxation. They can see untasted Thailand in local traditional activities with local people while they ‘re seeking to retrieve the community. In this instance, the voluntary learns new accomplishments from Thai local people and besides, the exchange of information happened while they interact to each other which make both sides received the new experiences, accomplishments and information. The impacts of educational touristry in Thailand Everything in the universe normally has two sides in both positives and negatives. Educational touristry besides has advantages and disadvantages. As we know that, instruction and touristry both give the benefit to everyone. The advantages of educational touristry happened both in the tourers and local community or local people. The cognition exchange will go on between local people and the tourers and besides with the economic sciences of the state by developing the community to run into the demand of tourers and to gain more benefits for that community. Therefore, the tourers can portion their cultural with local people to acquire more information about Thai local people lifestyle or Thai tradition. There are assortments of advantages in educational touristry but the chief advantages are the ability to interchange cognition or accomplishments that appeared as the most of import in both of formal and informal educational touristry. For the formal educational touristry, the chief benefit is the cognition that you can derive from the class and besides the grade or certification. Not merely degree but besides the cognition or the information that you studied can do you to be a profession in your calling life. The touristry class whether in any grade or certification, these can better your accomplishments and can educated you to be a good pedagogue, employees besides with the potency of direction accomplishments. Cycling, diving, mounting or other activities are the activities that tourers can research, larn and see new things at the same clip. By cycling, the tourers can see another side of the universe which is really different when comparing with thrust in the auto. By this experience, you can see many accomplishments from it such as learn or survey people life in rural country or a topographic point where you can non drive in, closely with the natural and see new manner of life which all could be a lesson that you could n’t happen in the schoolroom. Home stay is the other illustration for tourers who want to go near to the nature and larn the local people existent lifestyle, abandon the complicate metropolis or remain off from all nerve-racking. Those are the advantages of informal educational touristry. However, the jobs of being a popular attractive forces or activities are overcrowding. The impacts of overcrowding are typically grounds by visitants experiencing that reduced the tourers ‘ chance to see and make everything they want to. The impacts on local community can be the deficiency of installations and another possible impact may ensue from the thoughtless and antisocial behaviour of visitants. The environment besides impacts from the overcrowding by environmental deteriorate. In add-on, it will be good for the state if the tourers feel impress in any activities experiences or instruction classs because they will return to the state once more but at the same clip, the manner the state prepare or operate has to pull off efficaciously every bit good. Educational touristry in term of formal, the instruction that all pedagogues will acquire the cognition and specific accomplishments warrant by the grade or enfranchisement, and informal, the experience that experiences through activities, both give the tourers cognition and accomplishments which can better themselves by during the learning procedure. In Thailand, the educational touristry is developing. Thai touristry instruction is going popular in co-ordinate with other state to plan an international plan for Thai touristry. Additionally, Thai activities are seeking to advance wider in many attractive forces to be more well-known which volunteer touristry is one of the new activity of educational touristry that appeared late after Tsunami impact. It has to be accepted that educational touristry in Thailand supply both advantages and disadvantages to the state. The development of community, the economic addition, the changing of people lifestyle, these are all benefits but on the other manus, it causes a batch environmental impairment and money besides with the direction operation has to be really briefly.

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Chronological History of Jammu and Kashmir: From Vedic Era to 1857 Jammu region was part of Madra Kingdom during early Rigvedic period. Madra kingdom was extended from the Sutlej River to the Indus River. Many rivers like Devikā, Apagā, Chandrabhāgā, Parushni, Iravati, Tausi, Urddha and Vishvamitra flowed in this region. Devikā River was the sacred river of Jammu region. According to Vedic legends, King Vyushitashva (13400 BCE?) of Puru dynasty, a descendant of King Madra (son of Shibi [13550 BCE]) reigned over Madradesha. His wife was Bhadrā Kakshivati. He had seven sons, four Madras and three Shalvas. Seemingly, the kingdom of Vyushitashva was divided into seven parts. Traditionally, Shākala was the capital of Madras and Sialkot was the capital of Shalvas. The Shalvas were a branch of Madras. Probably, Shambaras, the Asura Kings of Hariyupiya (Harappa) controlled this region around 11500-11300 BCE. Indra (11325 BCE) uprooted Shambara and annexed his kingdom. Kuru-Panchāla Kings extended their kingdom up to Pir Panjal hills in the north. Thus, Shalva (Sialkot) and JammuKashmir region up to Neelum River became part of Kuru-Panchala kingdom. Most probably, a part of Kashmir valley was a glacial lake known as Satisar during Rigvedic period. This glacial lake was formed in Kashmir valley during the period of Meltwater Pulse 1A around 12700-11500 BCE. The closed Varahamula (Baramulla) pass was holding the melted waters of glaciers. Probably, a part of Hari Parvat of Srinagar was also under this glacial lake. According to Nilamat Purana, Pishachas (a tribe of early Rigvedic period) were living in Kashmir. Probably, they supported Asuras kings of Hariyupiya. Parvati requested Rishi Kashyapa to come to Kashmir and asked to purify the area of Pānchāla Giri (Pir Panjal region). Rishi Kashyapa came to Anantanag area of Pir Panjal hills along with his son Nila Nāga (also known as Viranāga) to support Shiva. Nila Naga or Viranaga defeated Pishachas. Rishi Kashyapa and his son Viranaga lived in Pir Panjal hills. Therefore, Pir Panjal hill range might have come to be known as Kashyapa-Meru. Thus, the name of Kashmir has been evolved. At that time, one Asura named Jalodbhava occupied the island (Hari Parvat) in the middle of Kashmir glacial lake and used boats to plunder the villages on the western side of Satisar. Shiva and Vishnu tried their best to kill Jalodbhava but he used the heights of this island and somehow survived. Around 11200 BCE, a massive earthquake might have opened up Baramulla pass and the water of Satisar had flown out of Kashmir Valley which caused the great flood in Madra, Shalva, Sindh and Gujarat areas. Thus, Hari Parvat emerged out of Satisar and Jalodbhava perished. Kashmir valley became habitable after 11200 BCE. Nila Nāga, son of Rishi Kashyapa became the first king of Kashmir. Nilamat Purana relates that Nila Nāga exiled Sadulanaga from Kashmir due to his evil behavior. Nila Naga allotted the mount Ushiraka in the land of Darva (Jammu) to Sadulanāga. Nāga Mahapadma reigned at Wular Lake. Thus, Nāgas established their reign in Jammu-Kashmir region around 11200 BCE. Gradually, Nagas gained the support of Pishachas and emerged as political rivals to Kurus and Panchalas. According to legends, Babhruvahana, son of Arjuna and Nāga Princess Chitrangada of Jaiminiya Ashvamedha era (11050 BCE) came to Jammu region and founded the city of Babhrupura (known as Babor). Kalhana of Rajatarangini refers to Babbapura. The legend of Sarpa Satra Yajna, King Parikshit was killed by Naga King Takshaka. Parikshit’s son Janamejaya performed Sarpa Satra Yajna and determined to kill Takshaka. Rishi Astika, son of Jaratkaru and Mānasā persuaded Janamejaya to set Takshaka free. Rishi Jaratkaru was a Yayavara Brahmana and married Mānasā, sister of Vasuki (son of Rishi Kahsyapa and Kadru). Thus, Rishi Astika was the junior contemporary of Kuru King Janamejaya of Asandivat. Most probably, the Sarpa satra yajna took place around 11225 BCE. Puranas mistakenly identified king Janamejaya as the son of King Parikshit of Mahabharata era. Seemingly, Nāga kings reigned over Jammu-Kashmir after 11000 BCE. We have no information of Naga kings reigned over Kashmir from 11000 BCE to 5000 BCE. We have also no information of the descendants of Babhruvahana who reigned over Jammu region from 11050 BCE to 5000 BCE. According to the traditional history of Jammu, Ayodhya king Sudarshan (4800 BCE) had two sons, Agnivarna and Agnigira. The younger brother Agnigira migrated to Shivalik hills and settled in the region of present Kathua. He defeated the local kings and reigned at Bupanagari. He built the cities of Pushpavati. Kalidasa abruptly ends the history of Raghuvamsa after the death of Agnivarna (4800-4780 BCE). Seemingly, Ayodhya kingdom became politically vulnerable due to internal conflicts for succession after the death of Agnivarna. Kalidasa states that Agnivarna’s pregnant wife ascended the throne as the regent of unborn son of Agnivarna. This may be the reason why Agnigira had to immigrate to Jammu region. Vayusharb, son of Agnigira succeeded him. Muni Uttamacharya was his contemporary who lived in a Shiva temple at Airwan. He built the city of Airavati (known as Airwan today). Probably, Airavati was the wife of Vayusharb. After Vayusharb, Parmetra, Puran Singh, Lakshman, Khat-joshan and Agnigarbha reigned over Jammu region. Agnigarbha had 18 sons. Bahu Lochan and Jambu Lochan were the sons of Agnigarbha. Bahu Lochan shifted his capital from Airwan to Dharanagari, on the banks of Tawi. He founded the city of Bahunagar. He died in a conflict with Raja of Sialkot. Jambu Lochan, youger brother of Bahu Lochan succeeded him and killed Raja of Sialkot. He founded a vast kingdom. He also built a new city named Jambupura (old Jammu town). According to Rajadarshani, the Ikshvaku kingdom was founded in Jammu region 550 years before the epoch of Kaliyuga but some traditional sources record that Jammu was founded 1999 or 900 years before the epoch of Kaliyuga. Rajadarshani also relates that there were 22 kings of Jammu line who ruled over Kashmir for 650 years. Another traditional source informs us that total 55 Jammu kings reigned over Kashmir for 1700 years. Gulabnama also records that 55 generations of Jammu rulers reigned over Kashmir. In all probability, Ikshvaku king Agnigira, brother of Agnivarna founded the rule of Ikshvakus in Jammu region 1999 years before the epoch of Kaliyuga. Therefore, we can roughly fix the date of Agnigira around 5100 BCE. A descendant of Agnigira conquered Kashmir and established the rule of Jammu kings around 4850 BCE. Total 33 kings reigned over Jammu and Kashmir from 4850 BCE to 3900 BCE. Seemingly, Jambu Lochan flourished around 3900 BCE founded the city of Jambupura. He was the contemporary of King Chandrahāsa of Madradesha. King Jambu Lochan defeated Chandrahāsa and took control over the Punjab. The Dogra tradition unambiguously indicates that Jambu Lochan flourished more than six centuries before the Mahabharata era. His son Puran Karan succeeded him. King Puran Karan had two sons, Daya Karan and Dharma Karan. Tarikh-eHasan relates that Jammu Raja Daya Karan sent a force led by his sons and conquered Kashmir. From this time onwards, Jammu rulers continued to reign over Kashmir for 653 years. Thus, King Daya Karan and his 22 descendants reigned over Kashmir for 653 years from 3850 BCE to 3190 BCE. King Somadatta was the last Jammu king of Kashmir. King Gonanda I established his supremacy over Kashmir around 3190 BCE and founded the rule of the Gonanda I Dynasty. I have presented the chronological history of Kashmir starting from King Gonanda I in my article (click here). Saran Dev, son of Bhau Dev was the distant descendant of King Daya Karan. Seemingly, Gonanda I had driven Saran Dev out of Kashmir. He came to Akhnur and founded Sahran state. Thus, Bhau Dev, the father of Saran Dev has been considered to be the progenitor of the Bhau Rajputs of Jammu. Kalhana wrote the history of Kashmir starting from King Gonanda I in his Rajatarangini. Around 3850 BCE, Daya Karan became the king of Kashmir and his younger brother Dharma Karan became the king of Jammu. Kirti karan, Agni Karan and Shakti Karan were the successors of King Dharma Karan. King Shakti Karan was a great learned man. He introduced the calendar of “Shastra Era” (Saptarshi Samvat) which begins from the bright fortnight of Vaishakha month. Probably, King Shakti Karan also known as Raja Shastri might have introduced the Shastra era around 3777 BCE. Many inscriptions of Chamba kings are found to be dated in the Shastra era. The epoch of Shastra era is found to be identical with that of Saptarshi Samvat. Interestingly, it is recorded in ancient Jammu legends that King Shakti Karan or Raja Shastri had innovated the Dogra script. The modern Dogra Script is derived from Sharada script which is in turn derived from Brahmi script. Probably, Raja Shastri had innovated the Brahmi Script. King Shiv Prakash, a descendant of King Shakti Karan was ruling over Jammu during the Mahabharata era. King Shalya of Madra kingdom, the maternal uncle of Nakula and Sahadeva invaded Jambupura and annexed it. King Shiv Prakash took shelter in inner mountains. Many generations of King Shiv Prakash lived in mountains. The Chronology of Jammu after Mahabharata Era According to Gulabnama written by Diwan Kriparam, Jyoti Prakash and Sarva Prakash (Sari Prakash or Jai Dev), the descendants of King Shiv Prakash of Mahabharata era re-conquered Jammu with the assistance of Charak clan and established their rule in the 444th year of Kaliyuga. During the reign of Brahma Prakash, Jammu was devastated by the great flood. The Chronology of the descendants of King Jyoti Prakash: King Bodh Arjun the Great (1988-1908 BCE) According to Vanshavali of Jammu, King Bodh Arjun ascended the throne after King Bali Baran. He was the greatest king of Jammu and reigned for 80 years. Probably, he became a king at very young age. He conquered up to Bengal and Kamarupa in the east, Kanyakumari and Sri Lanka in the south and Gujarat, Sindh and Multan in the west. He also married a Sri Lankan princess. His seven descendants reigned for 357 years. King Mangal Chand Katoch of Kangra-Nagarkot of Himachal Pradesh invaded Jammu and killed Raja Vallabh around 1503 BCE. Bhanu Yaksha, a cousin of Raja Vallabha revolted against Mangal Chand and killed him in a battle. Thus, Bhanu Yaksha founded the rule of his dynasty in Jammu. At that time, Yavana kings of Talshashila invaded up to Saketa and Magadha during the reign of Maurya king Shalishuka (~1503 BCE) as recorded in Yuga Purana and started expanding their kingdom. They also conquered Jammu region. Thus, Bhanu Yaksha and his descendants ruled as vassals of Takshashila. There is a reference in Jammu Vansavali that the line of kings from Adi Varaha to down Damodar Dutt, a dynasty of 8 kings ruled from Takshashila. Seemingly, Jammu kings also controlled a part of Madra country during this period. Damodar dutt might have lost his control over Madra kingdom due to the rise of Kushanas. Interestingly, Firishta mentions that Kaid Raja (Most probably, Kushana Kings Kanishka and Huvishka) reigned over Punjab for some decades. He built the fort of Jammu and appointed Durg of Ghakhar tribe (Khokhar) as governor. According to Firishta, the fort of Jammu remained under the possession of Ghakkars from the time of King Durg to the Mughal period. The Kaid Raja (Huvishka’s successor) appointed Jai Chand as his governor in Delhi. Raja Dilhu, the younger brother of Jai Chand (1040-1030 BCE) ruled over Delhi for 40 years around 1030-990 BCE. King Puru Sen of Madra country killed Raja Dilhu and annexed the region of Delhi. According to Jammu Vanshavali, King Puru Sen or Purva Sen was the king of Madra country and he was the contemporary of Jammu king Ajay Singh, the 7th descendant of Damodar Datt. King Ajay Singh married Rani Mangalan Dai, the daughter of Madra King Purva Sen. Undoubtedly, King Purva Sen or Puru Sen of Madra country was the “Poros” referred to by Greek historians. He was the contemporary of Alexander. His capital was Gotipani which was situated on the east of Behat (Probably, Islamabad or Rawalpindi). Raja Puru Sen conquered all the territories on the Sindhu River. His kingdom was extended from Indus River in the west to Jalandhar and Chamba kingdoms in the east. Seemingly, Raja Puru Sen defeated Alexander and one of his soldiers shot an arrow and injured Alexander around 984 BCE. Thus, we can roughly fix the date of Ajay Singh around 991-950 BCE and the date of Madra King Puru Sen around 1000-950 BCE. Later, Raja Ajay Singh of Jammu was killed while fighting on the side of King Puru Sen, his father-in-law. Considering King Puru Sen (Poros) and his son-in-law Jammu king Ajay Singh as the contemporaries of Alexandar (~984 BCE) and Seleucus (965-941 BCE), I have corrected the number of regnal years of the Jammu Kings from Bhanu Yaksha to Ajay Singh as indicated in the Gulabnama. Interestingly, Firishta relates that after the war between Raja Fur (King Puru Sen or Poros) and Iskandar (Alexandar), King Sansara Chandra (Chandragupta of Chandra dynasty) seized the reins of Hindustan. Tibetan monk Taranatha refers to him as Buddhapaksha. Jammu Vamshavali records that the following four kings reigned after King Vijay Singh. The Rai Dynasty (719-178 BCE) Adi Rai was the progenitor of the Rai dynasty of Jammu. He was the contemporary of Vikramaditya I who founded the epoch of the Karttikadi Vikrama era [719 BCE] (also called as Malavagana era or Krita era). Adi Rai reigned for 48 years and was succeeded by his son Dev Rai. Gandharva Rai was the son of Dev Rai. According to Baharistan and Tarikh-i-Sialkot, Jog Rai ascended the throne in Vikrama Samvat 484 (235 BCE). King Deva Rai and St. Andrews Lala Ganesh Dass mentions in his Rajadarshani that St. Andrews visited the court of Jammu King Dev Rai and presented two documents written in Assyrian language. The descendants of Dev Rai kept these documents in safe custody but got lost during the reign of Akbar. King Ranjit Dev ordered a thorough search but these documents could not be traced. There is a serious need to investigate the authenticity of this legend. King Shalivahana (660-580 BCE), the founder of the city of Sialkot The traditional legends relate that Raja Shalivahana of Malava, Ujjain and South India conquered Punjab and founded the city of Shālikot (Sialkot). He was the contemporary of Jammu kings Gandharva Rai and his son Kadamba Rai. Evidently, Sialkot city was not existed during the time of Alexandar (984 BCE). Therefore, Shākala city cannot be identified with the city of Sialkot. King Gaj and his son Shalbahan According to Yadu-Bhatti annals, Raja Gaj founded the city of Gajapura (known as Ghazni) in the 3008th year of Yudhishthira era. Considering the epoch of Mahabharata war and Yudhishthira era (3162 BCE), Raja Gaj built the city of Ghazni in 154 BCE. He invaded Kashmir and married a princess of Kashmir. He had a son named Shalbahan. Historians mistakenly assumed King Shalivahana of Ujjain and Raja Gaj’s son Shalbahan as identical. In fact, King Shalivahana lived around 660-580 BCE whereas Raja Gaj’s son Shalbahan flourished around 150-80 CE. According to Jammu legends, Shalbahan conquered Punjab and founded a city named Shalbahanpura. King Shalbahana had 15 sons. His son Raja Rasalu married princess Luna of Chamba. Raja Hodi (Kidarite King) of Peshawar was the enemy of Raja Rasalu. There is a mention of Samvat 72 with reference the foundation of Shalbahanpura. In all probability, Yadu Bhatti annals mistakenly quoted the date of Samvat 72. It was King Shalivahana of Ujjain who founded the city of Shalivahanapura (Sialkot) in Karttikadi Vikrama era 72 (647 BCE). Kashmir King Hiranya and his son Pravarasena II According to Jammu legends, when Kashmir King Hiranya was imprisoned by his brother, his wife took shelter in the house of a potter in Jammu. She gave birth to Pravarasena II. Sh. Ganesh Dass states that Dev Rai and Gandharva Rai were the kings Jammu when Pravarasena II was born and brought up in Jammu. Sh. Ganesh Dass simply followed the chronology given by Kalhana. I have established that there is an error of 300 years in the chronology given by Kalhana. King Hiranya reigned around 441-411 BCE. King Harsha Vikramaditya appointed Matrigupta as king of Kashmir around 410 BCE. After the death of Matrigupta, Pravarasena II ruled over Kashmir around 405- 345 BCE. Thus, Pravarasena II was the contemporary of Kings Khikhar Rai and Sind Rai of Jammu. The Dynasty of King Suraj Hans Suraj Hans was the son of King Jog Rai (235-148 BCE). His elder brother Malhan Hans reigned in Sialkot whereas Suraj Hans became the king of Jammu in 178 BCE. He was the contemporary of Sasanian king Anushirwan (129-81 BCE). On the request of Anushirwan, Pandit Brij Basi, a councillor of Raja Jammu facilitated the translation of Panchatantra into Persian language which is known as Kalila-o-Dimma. The chronology of King Suraj Hans and his descendants: King Mal Dev (697-737 CE) According to Gulabnama, King Maldev reigned for 40 years and died in Vikrama Samvat 1456 (737 CE). King Smail Dev and his descendants: The chronological history of Jammu needs a careful verification of facts during the time of Dhruva Dev and Ranjit Dev. Due to the chronological error of 660 years, there are some contradictory dates for the historical events. Seemingly, Jammu kingdom had suffered a lot due to invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah Durrani during the time of Dhruv Dev and Ranjit Dev. Traditional sources indicate that Dhruvadev reigned for 30 years but historians assign only 22 years for Dhruva Dev. Therefore, the Chronological history of Jammu from 1063 CE to 1782 CE needs to be reconstructed. After 1725 CE The Kings of Basholi or Balor or Vallapura The Kings of Basholi claim their descent from the Pandavas of Mahabharata era. They belong to Chandravamsha. They settled in Babhrupura or Babbor in Jammu after Mahabharata era. Later, they had to settle at Vallapura (Balor) due to the rise of Jyoti Prakash dynasty around 2658 BCE. Kalhana refers to king Kalasa of Vallapura (Balor) who was the contemporary of Kashmir King Kalasha (363-383 CE). King Bhog Pal (765 CE) was the founder of a dynasty that reigned over Bhasholi after 765 CE. We have the list of latest rulers of Bhasholi: This research paper was first published in academia.edu. Featured image courtesy: Booksfact and YouTube.

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Modernist writers, painters, and composers created some of their characteristic effects by drawing attention to the media of language, image, and tonality and then reinventing them. Joyce, Picasso, and Stravinsky not only created works of art, they made critical interventions in their histories. Their contemporaries working in films had a quite different situation: They had first to invent the medium of their art. They had to find a way to transform staged reality into a dynamic medium of narrative and expressive photography. They had to find a way to make light—like the word, the image, tonality—into an objective medium. By mid-century, Hollywood pictures especially had firmly established a code and technology of affective realism that enjoyed worldwide admiration and loyalty. Like the modernists of an earlier generation, Kubrick set about to turn this medium into a subject for dramatic and esthetic reflection and expression. For Kubrick, like other great directors, light is not only the medium of photography, it is the medium of illumination. A. R. Fulton provides a fundamental distinction between “arbitrary” and “natural” lighting. “Arbitrary” lighting schemes use light that is “not represented as originating in a natural source, such as a lamp, a fire, or the sun shining through a window, but [is] cast flatly for the purpose of obtaining a clear picture.” Arbitrary lighting is thus independent of the setting and its theme: It suggests, if only subliminally, that cinematic “reality” is likewise arbitrary, which is to say unmotivated. By contrast, “natural lighting” is motivated by its position within the frame, “originating or seeming to originate from a natural source.” Classic three-point lighting became so established by the mid-century that its reality effect became pervasive but also trite. The audience always knew, if only in a half-realized way, that it was watching events enacted in a studio or in a highly conditioned location. “Natural lighting” could not be an end in itself because any lighting regime that is consistent becomes increasingly artificial and finally “arbitrary.” In his films, Kubrick strove neither for purely arbitrary nor natural lighting: It had always to be actually observed and felt, whether it appealed to the audience’s sense of empirical reality or to its emotional appetite for beautiful, uncanny, or menacing atmospheres. When Kubrick began directing in the fifties, most American films were extremely well-lit by artificial light sources that could not be justified by the scene being photographed. It was a convention that insured an attractive and glossy look but which was often lacking in mood, atmosphere, or realism. Film noir was the exception, using as it did chiaroscuro effects derived from Rembrandt, Caravaggio, and German expressionism. Limited to the underworld of the modern city, noir lighting scheme worked mainly as a marker of the genre and the fundamentals of moral choice. Citizen Kane, which inspired some of the noir sensibility, was of course not a genre picture. And this was what Kubrick learned from Welles: Lighting, in order to be more than arbitrary or natural, has to be disassociated from genre. Citizen Kane is about a wealthy young man who takes up journalism for the fun of it, the question finally becoming, is Kane a crook who controls and deceives the masses—a fascist, a communist—or just an “American”? This thematic quandary is established in Welles’s lighting contrasts—especially the formal and thematic motif of light pouring through windows into darkened rooms. The most striking example is the scene at the Walter Thatcher Library where the reporter Mr Thompson is seated at a large table and presented with Thatcher’s memoirs. Into the darkened room, two diagonal shafts of light fall from the high window on the library table. The light appears to be solid sculpture penetrating space, suggesting both the search for the truth about Kane, and also the Gothic and Manichaean aspects of his character and story, as well as his life-long conflict with Thatcher. The windows implicitly state that knowledge comes from outside, from a source beyond the scope of the memoir—and introduces an atmospheric sense of conflict between elemental forces. The tactic seems natural in Gothic material—Dracula, Jane Eyre—but more disturbing and strange in such a contemporary setting. Starting with film noir subjects in Killer’s Kiss and The Killing, Kubrick would later adapt its lighting esthetic to a range of settings: from the Pentagon to the US Moon base at Clavius. In Kubrick’s lighting, both a kind of film verité authenticity and a destabilizing psychology are established. It is one thing to see shoot a meeting of underworld types in a chiaroscuro lighting scheme, it is quite another to put the President of the United Sates or a gathering of NASA scientists in one. The dialectic of room and window, darkness and light not only suggests age-old moral conflicts, but also fundamental conflicts between the unknowable and the supposedly known. It is a dialectic evident in photography itself between the camera (or room) and its aperture (or window) opening to the light. The window is an objectification of the play of lens and film, curtain and shutter, a reminder of the authority, but also the partiality, of light. By contrast, scenes shot with conventional studio lighting are deprived of this cognitive cue, being illumined, it seems, by the light of natural and impartial truth—“the way things are.” In order to break with the conventions of Hollywood “realism,” windows or practical lighting within the scene can be employed and amplified. In Kubrick’s four films from the fifties (Fear and Desire, Killer’s Kiss, The Killing, and Paths of Glory), one can observe a deepening of the semiotic potentials of natural window light—from atmospherics, to dramatic contrasts and political irony. Shooting the scheming, murderous Generals in Paths of Glory in the window light of a French Chateau puts their actions into an uncanny and yet appropriate setting. After exploring the possibilities of open windows as apertures for the admission of natural or artificial light into the scene, Kubrick would turn his attentions to windows that only appear to admit outside light. The conference scene in 2001 introduces this uncanny effect, which Kubrick would expand while building the set for the Overlook Hotel in The Shining: Here “windows” become lighting sources for interior photography but reveal little or nothing of the “outside” world. The claustrophobia and psychotic contagion in the films are thus illustrated in a low-key, nearly unconscious way. In order to allow these studio lights to illumine the scene, ceilings were all but nonexistent in most conventional films. A visible ceiling not only requires interior scenes to be lit naturally, it also introduces a sense of confinement and menace, even if it is unwanted. Vincent LoBrutto describes how Kubrick insisted on ceilings on all the sets of Dr. Strangelove: “I don’t want the camera to light from the top. I want to use source lighting,” Kubrick told his set designer Ken Adam. As LoBrutto explains, the sets then required low camera angles, inspiring Adam to “creat[e] dramatic architectural structures for the basis of the design.” Such structures redefine the characters. If the hero is actually confined in a room, the ceiling and practical lighting are easily assimilated in the interests of expressive realism. But Kubrick likes to work with ceilings and practical lighting in banal scenes: a job interview, a bureaucratic briefing, a married couple talking. The ceiling in such scenes indicate not only menace and confinement—things that can be escaped—but an existential realization of pervasive and insuperable human limitations. If the use of ceiling and window light sources can operate to undermine an implicit sense that appearances are to be trusted or at least to be perceived uncritically, lit floors appear to heighten anticipation and wonder. We first encounter Group Commander Lionel Mandrake in a computer room at Burpelson Air Force Base. He fumbles with the sixties-era computers as they print out information into ungainly loops of paper. Beneath man and machine, the floor is opaque white and ironically reassures the audience that technology is immaculate, clinical, and reliable. The floor of the rotating Space Station V in 2001 is even whiter, and the floor in the strange room that David Bowman finds himself—at the end of his journey through time and space—is whitest of all. Although all these lighting schemes are in one sense simply solutions to the problem of establishing illumination for photography, they inevitably establish an atmosphere of containment and radiance, a clinical, futuristic ambience where fear and hope are suggested in equal measure. In an odd way, then, the search for practical solutions to camera lighting can drive the discovery of startling settings and designs. The journey of these modulations of mood and luminosity is a long one. The light in Fear and Desire is both studied and naïve. Drawing upon the recently released Rashomon (1950) and the classic Soviet cinema of Dovzhenko and shot in the San Gabriel Mountains with a minimum of expense (Kubrick was the camera man), the film complements its archetypal temporality and its existentialist theme with the natural and the inexpensive moodiness of dappled light and lingering close-ups. The dappled light in forest and hillside illustrates the film’s concerns with dualism, doubles, and the shadowy and luminous aspect of instinct of civilization and character. Together with Gerald Fried’s musical score and the often lofty narration and dialog, the lighting emphasizes the film’s high-art aspirations and seriousness, sometimes with mixed results. As the maddened Sidney improvises a pantomime of the enemy General for the captive girl belted to a tree, the dappled light lends an arty lyricism to a grotesque scene of failed seduction, soon followed by murder. Light in Fear and Desire, despite its being natural, has an artificial expressive theatricality that stresses the same qualities in the script. The first scene in Killer’s Kiss in the original Penn Station (destroyed in 1963) is lit by natural light falling from high, distant windows into the drafty and airy space. As he begins his voice-over narrative, Davy stands tentatively in this diffuse light. The light in the station has such a softly luminous texture that it is difficult to pay attention to his narrative: The light is absorbing, his words are trite. Here the natural light suggests Davy’s innocence—and the contrast between the sinister tale he will tell: His escape with his girl Gloria from a corrupting city where men and women are reduced to the status of bodies paid to box and dance. This city is lit by Kubrick in strong contrasts by which light is surrounded and dominated by darkness. Davy and Gloria’s dimly lit apartments, subway cars, dressing rooms, offices, the boxing ring, dance club, Times Square, the night-time skyline of New York: each photographically deepens the theme of light threatened to extinction by darkness. In this labyrinth, the voracious Vince Rapallo like the Minotaur (the film was a “Minotaur Production”) threatens Gloria (Ariadne) and Davy, the Theseus of the tale. As if to reverse this lighting scheme and perhaps indicate his awareness of its elemental triteness, Kubrick presents Davy’s dream after his defeat in the ring in negative processing. To a large extent, Killer’s Kiss indicates a deeper interest in exploring the ways in which source lighting can deepen the complexity and menace of inexpensive sets. The scenes again and again present the source of light as threatened or inadequate to the immense obscurity around it. The only exception is the climactic battle between Vince and Davy in the manikin warehouse: Here the lighting on the ghostly dummies appears to be without source. They crowd out of the darkness of the warehouse into the light of the scene as if they were the unconcealment of the city Davy and Gloria hope to escape. In The Killing, there is a remarkable scene in the stable of the racetrack: A large window channels white light onto thoroughbreds trotting over the straw toward the paddocks. In these black and white scenes, apparently filmed on location by Kubrick’s friend and collaborator Alexander Singer, the window shapes light into eye-seizing forms that throw more than illumination on the scene: They recall the dialectical nature of experience—we can see only with light—and so arouse consciousness, if not knowledge, about what we cannot see. While The Killing is a film about a crime meant to elude chance through perfect organization and timing, it ends by showing explosive consequences of the slightest interventions of chance. Throughout the film, Kubrick places source lighting clearly in view, usually with lamps in dingy and confined rooms: The atmosphere is of course characteristic film noir. In these settings, Johnny Clay and his gang attempt to control chance and enforce their will upon the contingencies of existence. The opening scene in the stable has a luminosity, a portentousness, and a beauty that is more difficult to interpret. It is as if the thoroughbred horses, agents of pure energy and chance in the gambling industry, are revealed as the antithesis of all attempts to eliminate contingency. They move out of this elemental and sacral light through the darkened frame of the stable into the general daylight. In Paths of Glory, the scenes in the chateau—where the Generals chat, drink, dine, and conspire against their own men—are also naturally lit. The ornate windows in the eighteenth-century chateau provide enough light, but it is an impotent, or perhaps an ironic light that falls on their hypocritical and criminal affairs. La siècle des lumiéres and the Revolution have come to this: The soldiers of France are to be sacrificed for the promotion of General Mireau and to suit an arbitrarily planned schedule. The trenches are lit from above and always partially in darkness. The officer’s rooms are lit by hanging lights or candles. And the brig where the condemned men are confined is lit through barred cellar-windows. The sunlight pours through, brightly or dimly, in ways that recall the stables in The Killing. Although it is clear that in both instances Kubrick is indulging himself in the pure esthetic pleasure of exhibiting light as light, one can also see that both scenes have a sacral and sacrificial aspect: In each confined space, we witness the agents and victims of chance. Lolita is less mannered than these films, but it accomplishes an even more remarkable result. In the scene beneath the opening credits of Humbert painting Lolita’s toenails, the light seems to emerge from hand and foot, as if we witnessed a true epiphany or showing forth of the sacred. Light does not appear to be cast or channeled but to be released from Lolita’s flesh, as a manifestation of Humbert’s veneration or abjection before the beloved body. Something of the same effect is achieved in the scene when Humbert first beholds Lolita sunbathing: Both accomplish something like a photographic equivalent of sacred painting and witnessing—the pedophile’s vision and recovery of the lost child of his youth is granted externalization and, in a sense, a kind of cinematic reality. The epiphanic nature of this scene is retroactively heightened by the cut: It is Humbert driving through a heavy mist to Quilty’s mansion. In his last black and white film, Kubrick applied the expressionist power of his noir films to the theme of national security and nuclear holocaust. This style is so thoroughly associated with the underworld that its use in a film about the highest levels of the US government and the US Air Force achieves an immediate sense of moral disorientation. Where Anthony Mann’s Strategic Air Command (1955), celebrating the mission of Air Force and the duty of Americans to serve, is filmed in brilliant color, Kubrick’s film manages to ironize light as a force of moral clarity. He exhibits light in a condition that he would exploit in many subsequent films—as glare. The opening scenes establish this pattern of objects illuminated by glaring lights clearly in the frame: the opening scene of a B-52 on the flight-line, General Ripper sitting at his desk, the crew of the B-52, Miss Scott in a bikini sprawled out under a sunlamp, and the great round table in the “War Room.” Human beings and machines are similarly illuminated by the ironic glare of lights that do not reveal so much as they flatten out differences and identities. In a film without daylight (other than the shots of the B-52 in flight), these reiterations enforce a sense that enlightenment has been transformed into obscurity. That instrument of American nuclear might, the B-52, appears under its glare as weirdly sinister and sacral—more like a cult object than a war place. The public and the manifest become the secret and the subversive. Sterling Hayden’s General Ripper may wear the same uniform as James Stewart in Strategic Air Command but he looks like a mobster—while Stewart looks like an Eagle Scout. Meanwhile, in the war room, the table where the fate of the planet is being determined is lit like a titanic poker table—from a point of view that keeps the circular lighting above clearly in view. As in all these instances where the source lighting is in the frame, the viewer is constantly made aware of the conditions and limitations of seeing and knowing: There is no reliable “studio” light beyond the scene. Burpelson Air Force Base and Washington, DC, are benighted throughout the film: Only the sky and snowy wastes of Siberia have any share of “natural” light. In 2001, light and its spectrum are nearly the whole story. From the opening scenes of the “Dawn of Man” to “Jupiter and Beyond the Infinite,” “mankind” is translated from animal unconsciousness beneath a bright sky to an enlightened consciousness mediated by light itself. The light schemes range from the banal to the sublime. The meeting where Dr Heywood Floyd is briefed about the discovery of the monolith on the moon takes place in a low-ceilinged room with projection screens on three sides and a “U”-shaped table. After his sublime journey from the earth, to the Space Station, to the base at Clavius, Floyd finds a room that adequately expresses the limitations of his imagination. Having slept most of the way to the moon, he is now safely ensconced in the banalities of human space and language. His main job is to explain why the discovery cannot be made public and the cover story is necessary—and to insist on signed security oaths from all those in the know. In this context of conspiracy and deceit, the low ceiling expresses the repression of truth and of wonder, a human response to the limitlessness of space. Ordinary human beings are thought by the experts to be incapable of wonder, capable only of “cultural shock and social disorientation” if they learned the truth of extraterrestrial life. The light in the scene is provided by the projection screens so that the meeting can proceed and so that the cameras can film—but it is nothing like the light of truth or realization. It is an opaque glare that expresses conspiratorial dissimulation and fear that, at the same time, is being dramatized for all to see. The screens are, in other words, an inversion of the monoliths: They reveal all that they are, but that is nothing at all. This setting is recapitulated at Tycho Magnetic Anomaly 1: The monolith stands excavated, exposed, and lit by floodlights. Like the conference scene and the exhibition of the B-52 and Miss Scott, the lighting is accomplished within the scene and not outside of it. Again and again, Kubrick wants to illuminate objects and people within the terms of his film world, not within the terms of its production. The audience is integrated within the illumination of reality, becoming a participant and not merely a witness of cognition. What is distinctive about lighting in 2001 is its creation of a spectrum of reds that connects black and white. Black is the color of space, the monolith, and the mystery of existence; white is the color of the moon, space craft, satellites, space station, and technology. Kubrick’s reds are found inside of technology: the flight bays in the space station, the landing station on Clavius, the interior of the HAL 9000 computer, and his/its hypnotic, glossy, mysterious “iris.” The anthropomorphic aspects of technology are enhanced by these diluted, blood-like washes of light, visually suggesting that human interiors have been transferred to technological interiors. The diluted, blood-like washes lighting the landing bay at Clavius have a womb-like vibrancy and vulnerability. The interior of HAL’s brain, lit in a slightly darker tone, likewise balances superiority and weakness, domination and exposure. These tonalities prepare for the final manifestation of the astral fetus. With Bowman’s cosmic journey, the full spectrum of colors is revealed: His enlightenment is manifested via an immersion in light and color alien to mundane existence. More significantly, they emerge from the blackness of space, as if concealed within the lightless absence of space were another world with another light and other colors—an alien light scheme, the ultimate natural lighting. The fiat lux of Judeo-Christian mythology is reimagined here as the revelation of light within darkness. Bowman’s odyssey back to earth and rebirth is largely accomplished through the use of color negatives of the human eye and a range of deserted terrestrial locations: mountainous wastes, vacant oceans, canyons, attenuated clouds. The palette and imagery of the trip is impossible to describe simply because it does not resemble anything—other than a kind of inverted or reversed vision of the earth. The transitional image between the trip and the room where he lives out the remainder of his identity as David Bowman is his eye seen in various color negatives concluding with its natural color. The room is lit from whitened floor panels, its wall sconces remaining unlit. Like the space station and the computer room in Dr. Strangelove, the effect is indeterminate: Things are upside down, as if one were walking on the ceiling. Having cycled through life, death, and rebirth, Bowman finally appears as the astral fetus, a self-illuminating, human planetoid born of the void itself—an enlightened being. After this sublime scheme of enlightening luminosity, A Clockwork Orange looks like a sardonic, bitter rebuke to human hopes. The title and credits appear on an orange and then a blue screen: We have gone from the depths of space to the flatland of Pop Art. Light is mocked in this film, as are notions of human transcendence, since it can reveal nothing but surfaces. To this end, the lighting is nearly always evident in the scene, most often in the form of actual and stylized light bulbs. The Korova Milk Bar is so lit, as are the Alexander “Home,” Alex’s bedroom, the Cat Woman’s house, the police interrogation room, and the changing room at the prison. Kubrick supplements this satirical exhibition of light with glare—in the scene where the droogs beat the old man in an underpass near the Thames embankment and in Alex’s home, where the windows opening onto the outer world reveal little more than an opaque, banal, remote brightness. These lighting schemes, together with the theatrical settings—the abandoned rape of a girl in an old theater and the stage at the Ludovico Center where Alex’s new corrected “nature” is demonstrated to the press—suggest the barrenness and the triviality, the brightness and emptiness of this alternative future. There is no natural light to speak of—no sun, moon, or stars—in this urbanized world in which human nature can be altered through conditioning by drugs and celluloid. Nothing could be further from the rich array of luminosities to be found in Barry Lyndon: here are cloud-light and moonlight, sunlight and candlelight. But is it, one wonders, any less an empty or a vain world than that of A Clockwork Orange? Perhaps not, but one can more easily recognize what a contrast there is between the potentials of beauty to be found in nature and what human beings have made of them. It is like the contrast between candlelight and bulb-light. The first is dynamic, fluxional, and responsive to air and breath; the second is flat, immediate, and without human relation. The eighteenth was the last century to escape photographic scrutiny, representation, and banality—it is perhaps for this reason that Kubrick was attracted to it as the subject of his most expansive and complex picture. Dissatisfied with film representations of the past, Kubrick set out to discover the lost world of the eighteenth century by dispensing with film conventions. Instead of using the theatrical frame—a sound stage with lighting that illuminated the smallest thing, as if to account for the costume budget—Kubrick turned to period painting and its reliance on natural light and tried to reinvent it in natural settings, country houses and their rooms. In order to capture natural light, Kubrick used lenses developed by the Zeiss Company for the Apollo program. Such a linkage between Kubrick and NASA was a natural publicity coup but it also led to an unprecedented naturalism. Gone were the stagey looks of traditional costume dramas: Kubrick had managed to transform one of the most conservative film genres into an avant-garde exploration of the nature of light. The first scene in Barry Lyndon is the duel in which Barry’s father is killed. We watch the killing, distant in time and space, from behind a rock wall and a tree. The sky is darkly clouded above the men, but beyond the light falls above a sloping hillside. It is an extraordinarily evocative scene, and a complex one, placing the death in a narrow aperture between foreground and background. Light in this framed scene is evidently subject to rapid transformations, from obscurity to clarity, a distracting foreground and a beckoning background: between them the chancy events of a duel transpire—one of many to follow in the picture. Kubrick introduces us to the complexity of natural light’s metamorphic powers in the context of weather and its distance and intimacy with human affairs. Other outdoor scenes discover the constant dynamism of natural light in a frame of clouds, shadows, birds, building, and men. After the brittle clarities of A Clockwork Orange, this light falls as if on another world. When Kubrick moves the scene indoors, the effect is to structure and organize light, to channel and sculpt it for dramatic and atmospheric purposes. Windows allow us to see light as light, and so in this picture of eighteenth-century life, it shows us a world that is old and weathered, and clinging to political and class prerogatives soon to be demolished. In dining and club scenes, Kubrick uses windows—their panes and muntins—not only to cast light but also to throw confining shadows on interior walls, tapestries, and paintings. This optical play in the background puts action and dialog into a subliminal context of illumination and obscurity, escape and confinement. The effect is to imply optically a sense of perpetual limitations. (Weather and the passage and the play of outdoor light in Barry Lyndon cast the apparent freedom of movement in space into a similar context.) At the dinner scene when Barry challenges Quin to a duel, light pours through the window, throwing a grid of shadows on walls and tapestry: There is no freedom to be had, however. His aim is to show Nora that he is a man and deserving of her hand, but the subsequent duel has been rigged by Nora’s kin to spare the Englishman and gain his fortune for their family. Instead of winning her hand, he will begin an aimless life. And later when his stepson Lord Bullingdon comes to challenge Barry to a duel, his rich wife estranged and his fortune nearly spent, he discovers the man asleep in a chair at his club. The late afternoon light cast on the scene tells the whole story of his rise and fall. If outdoor and indoor sunlight creates an atmosphere of flux and dilemma, moonlight appears as beautiful illusion. The scene in which Barry wins Lady Lyndon shines with moonlight—whether it is simulated or not, it appears real enough. The illusory nature of his motives is as secondary—or as tertiary—as the moonlight. Candlelight, on the other hand, offers a partial and wavering kind of illumination that allows for intimacy and confession (Barry with Grogan), intimacy and deceit (Barry and Col. Potzdorf), and intimacy and adultery (Barry and Lischen). These candlelit scenes, which Kubrick and John Alcott went to such lengths to film, also include gaming and whoring. But to read these scenes, and the others, purely in terms of thematic correspondences is to miss something more intangible and striking. We are being shown a world in which light has yet to be domesticated and conserved. It is a wavering and partial light, distant indeed from the bright floors of the space station or circular lighting in the war room, far from the fictive futures of the previous three films. Given the haunted house premise of The Shining, one would expect—from any other director—a lighting scheme that emphasizes the Gothic tradition of chiaroscuro. But there is no darkness at the Overlook, no mysterious shadows, no sudden loss of power and light, and no wavering candlelight. The hotel’s abysses are concealed not by darkness but by light. Using very powerful lamps, Kubrick arranged that the hotel be illuminated via windows that nearly always are opaque (or white with glare) and with ceiling lights and room lamps. The claustrophobic, labyrinthine world of The Shining is thus lit as if for a laboratory experiment or for yet another repetition of a mythological archetype. Kubrick is trying to penetrate light and find a different, an invisible, darkness within it. Consider Jack Torrance’s interview for the caretaker’s job, which is a variation on Heywood Floyd’s briefing on Clavius. Mr Ullman sits at a desk beneath a window that lights the scene with a cloudy, formless light that is reflected on the ceiling. Across the desk, Torrance and a subordinate sit in well chairs; the walls are covered with plaques, diplomas, and a clock; the desk is cluttered. The conversation and atmosphere is both too cheerful and too casual, as if to stress suppressed thoughts – Ullman’s awareness of the hotel’s violent past and Jack’s fear that he would not get hired. When the predictable banter is concluded, Ullman carefully broaches the matter of the caretaker Delbert Grady who had murdered his family and then killed himself. It is the light source and glare on the looming ceiling that communicate an unstated malaise within the chipper banter that follows the revelation. The sadness at the heart of The Shining finds its objective correlative, not in romantic shadows and pitch darkness, but in the empty ubiquity of artificial light. Indeed, as far as one can judge, the lights never go out at the Overlook. The abyssal and labyrinthine hotel does not require darkness as a medium for the evil and the grotesque: the seventies’ décor, the yellows, oranges, and tans transform brightness and cheerfulness into the uncanny, the expression of a mind reverting to primal instincts, fears, and hopes. Thus, the bathroom in room 237, the navel of this dream-house, is coolly but thoroughly lit, immaculate, and yet frighteningly explicit, seemingly incapable of concealment. Kubrick realized that in making a film with such a title, light itself would have to be mined for its fully evident horror value—in a place that never goes dark, an eternity of pastels and tans, only occasionally refreshed by visions of deep-red blood. In Full Metal Jacket, Kubrick turns away from this palette of soulless angst toward an impassioned polarity of blues and reds. Blues and shades of blue dominate the opening panel devoted to the instruction and transformation of young men into Marines. Violent as this instruction is, it has a theoretical and verbal remoteness from what is to follow. The war scenes in Vietnam are illumined often by the reds and oranges of bursting shells, bombs, fireballs, and burning buildings. The chromatic dynamism in Full Metal Jacket is simply stated: The cool blue of violent instruction flips to its opposite on the color wheel to violent, fiery practice. The scenes of instruction dominated by Sergeant Hartman have a lyric understatedness. The light often has a sedate and withdrawn aspect, a suppleness and a fragility, especially in the barrack scenes, where the windows are the opaque source of illumination. With the fluorescent ceiling lights off, the lateral light leaves the barrack in a complex play of reflected light on the polished floors. The muntins in the windows, like the arrangement of bunk beds, emphasize the domination of particulars by laws of symmetry, the domination of men by the codes of Marine Corps instruction. The outdoor light has no particular weight or heft, leaving the barrack entirely to Hartman’s enforcement of new rules of reality. At night, illumination is provided by fluorescent ceiling lights, and they too provide no sort of opposition or alternative to Hartman’s rule. Deepening these scenes of instruction, scenes of revenge are lit with blue-filtered moonlight or outdoor lamplight. When Private Gomer Pyle is punished by his squad, the bluish light suggests a distinct kind of emotional reality, a surreal atmosphere somewhere between outdoor and indoor illumination. The same kind of light fills the head when Pyle shoots Hartman and then himself. The domination of blues establishes a psychic coldness and frustration, a violence that is contained and in effect theoretical. With the shift to Vietnam, this kind of mental anguish is transformed into a violent actuality represented and photographed by the light of fiery explosions. In a sense, the practice, as opposed to the theory of war, is liberating: The men no longer labor under the oppressive presence of authority. They practice violence, killing and being killed. In contrast to the cool lights of Parris Island, the film is now illuminated by the scattered fires of bombing and artillery. Kubrick turns to fire itself to provide an atmospheric equivalent of combat. In the final scenes of the film, as darkness falls, the dialectic of night and fire intensifies. When Joker executes the wounded female sniper, his face and those of his platoon are lit by fire, as they are when they march from Hue to the Perfume River. Concealed in the blues and shades of Hartman’s barracks, where the violence is mainly psychological, the potentials for violence are now fully realized. Although an exploration of dream, Eyes Wide Shut has no precise boundaries with waking life. Instead, it ranges in depth and strangeness between the night and daylight scenes, nighttime interiors and exteriors, the concealed and the revealed, desire and consequence. Kubrick is demonstrating once again what happens when the ends of the spectrum meet, as desire and danger do. In this regard, the dialectical chromatics in Eyes Wide Shut are a variation on the dialectic of reds and blues of Full Metal Jacket. The reds speak of desires and potential pleasures; the blues of the cold world of fact, where desires and pleasures are called to account. Thus, we see Alice in the first scene dressing for a party and then disrobing before a scarlet curtain, doubled by a mirror. Her russet hair and warm flesh, which she reveals by letting her dark gown fall to her feet, echo this light. In contrast, the blues beyond the blinds in the window imply the cold reality beyond this intimate and secure room. We see her alone in a kind of theoretical space of confident self-disclosure. In one of the last scenes, she and her husband Bill confess their erotic secrets in a room suffused with blues, her eyes wet with tears. In this polarity, there is an age-old drama at work, purely visible as light.

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Platinum Metals Rev., 2001, 45, (2), 50 The U.S. Motor Vehicle Emission Control Programme Building on Past Successes to Meet Future Challenges The United States motor vehicle emission control programme is noted for its pioneering role and success in limiting exhaust pollution, utilising the three-way catalyst, cleaner fuels, improved engine design and calibration strategies. The progressive lowering of the emission limits by technology-forcing legislation via the agencies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the California state legislature has resulted in cleaner air. Here, progress to date and future intentions for emissions from gasoline and diesel vehicles are discussed. The United States motor vehicle emission control programme has rightly earned the reputation as one of the world’s great environmental success stories. Today, emissions of harmful pollutants from new cars are a small fraction of those emitted from cars made in the 1960s, and lead, one of the most insidious pollutants, has been completely eliminated from gasoline. As a result, the ambient air in the U.S. is much cleaner than it was 30 years ago even though the U.S. resident population has increased by 33 per cent, vehicle miles travelled have increased by 140 per cent and the gross domestic product has increased by 147 per cent during the same period (1). Of equal importance, the strategies and technologies achieving these significant pollution reductions have contributed to a dramatic increase in fuel economy and have allowed automakers to continue to provide high-performance vehicles to the driving public. However, despite the enormous progress that has been made in reducing motor vehicle emissions, highway vehicles continue to be one of the primary contributors to air pollution in the U.S. Further, non-road vehicles and equipment account for an increasing contribution to both diesel particulate matter (PM) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) (2). According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), over 60 million people in the U.S. still live in areas with unhealthy air (1). To meet these air quality challenges, the U.S. EPA, over the past several years, has undertaken an unprecedented regulatory initiative to: • further reduce emissions from on-road light-and heavy-duty vehicles; • establish new control programmes for a growing variety of off-road vehicles and equipment; and • limit the allowable levels of sulfur in fuel. Catalyst-based control technology, which has played a critical role in the past successes of the U.S. programme, will play a major role in meeting these future challenges. In 1955, smog in Los Angeles was worse than it is in Mexico City today. By the late 1950s, it had become clear that motor vehicles were the primary culprits. In response, Congress passed the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 that created the U.S. motor vehicle emission control programme. This Act imposed tough, technology-forcing emission standards and a supporting programme to ensure compliance (3). Congress required over 90 per cent reduction in hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions over uncontrolled levels by the 1975 model year, and an approximately 90 per cent reduction of NOx by the 1976 model year. At that time the technology needed to meet those standards did not exist, but Congress knew that without the ‘incentive’ of statutory requirements, the automobile industry would not develop the technology needed to clean up vehicle emissions. Thus, Congress adopted performance-based, technology-forcing standards and recognised that lead in gasoline impeded the effectiveness of promising technologies, such as the catalytic converter. Thus, Congress paved the way for the introduction of unleaded gasoline. In the early 1970s, the original deadlines for the emission standards were postponed several times, less stringent interim standards were set, and the original goal for NOx control was modified. Nevertheless, emission control technologies evolved at a much faster pace than would have occurred without the ‘technology-forcing’ provisions of the 1970 law. In 1977, Congress fine tuned the law and mandated that all gasoline-powered cars must meet stringent standards by the 1983 model year (4). In 1990, Congress further tightened the standards beginning with the 1994 model year (the ‘Tier 1 standards’) and gave the EPA the authority to tighten the light-duty vehicle standards beginning in 2004 (5). In 1999, the EPA adopted the Tier 2 standards’ that require more substantial reductions in emissions from automobiles, pick-up trucks, vans and sport-utility vehicles (SUVs) to be phased-in between 2004 and 2009 (6). Table I shows the progress in establishing increasingly stringent emission standards for automobiles. |Model year||Hydrocarbons||Carbon monoxide||Nitrogen oxides| EPA-estimated pre-control figure Waived for certain models that could not economically meet this standard. They met the 7.0 standard instead . The 1977 and 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments also targeted light-duty trucks, large trucks and buses for emission control. Furthermore, the 1990 Amendments called for the first time upon the EPA to address emissions from off-road vehicles and equipment. In response to the Clean Air Act mandate, the EPA is implementing a comprehensive programme to address emissions from on-road trucks and buses and a wide variety of off-road vehicles and equipment. Over the past 25 years, the EPA has effectively designed, implemented and enforced the motor vehicle emission control programme to achieve the clean air objectives mandated by Congress. The State of California has also played a vital role in helping to shape the evolution of the U.S. motor vehicle emission control programme. Indeed, California’s motor vehicle emission control programme pre-dates the national programme and standards initially adopted by California have often become the U.S. requirements. Future U.S. Emission Standards and Fuel Quality Requirements (a) Passenger Cars, Light-Duty Trucks and Medium-Duty Passenger Vehicles On 10th February 2000, the EPA published new, more stringent standards (‘the Tier 2 standards’) for light-duty vehicles (passenger cars), light-duty trucks up to 8500 lbs gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR), and medium-duty passenger vehicles (8501–10,000 lbs GVWR) to be phased in between 2004 and 2009 (6). The phase-in schedule for the Tier 2 standards is shown in Table I and the Tier 2 standards are shown in Table II. |2001||2002||2003||2004 %||2005 %||2006 %||2007 %||2008 %||2009+later %||NOx STD, g/mi| |LOV/LLDT (Interim)||NLEV||NLEV||NLEV||75 max||50 max||25 max||0.30 avg| |LOV/LLDT (Tier 2 + evap)||early banking||25||50||75||100||100||100||0.07 avg| |HLDT (Tier 2 + evap)||early banking||50||100||0.07d avg| |HLDT (Interim)||Tier 1||Tier 1||Tier 1||25 c, e||50 e||75 e||100 e||50 max||0.20a, d avg| |MDPVs (Tier 2 + evap)||early banking||50||100||0.07d avg| 0.60 NOx cap applies to balance of LDT3s/LDT4s, respectively, during the 2004–2006 phase-in years . Alternative phase-in provisions allow manufacturers to deviate from the 25/50/75% 2004–2006 and 50% 2008 phase-in requirements and provide credit for phasing in some vehicles during one or more of these model years . Required only for manufacturers electing to use optional NMOG values for LDT2s or LDT4s and MDPV flexibilities during the applicable interim programme and for vehicles whose model year commences on or after the fourth anniversary date of the signature of this rule. See discussion in text . The Agency also established a requirement for all gasoline fuel sold in the U.S. to have a 30 ppm average (avg) sulfur level on an annual basis beginning in 2005 and a 80 ppm sulfur cap beginning in 2006 (6). The Tier 2 standards require all gasoline and diesel passenger cars, light-duty trucks and medium-duty passenger vehicles to meet the same stringent standards by 2009. The cornerstone of the Tier 2 programme is that manufacturers may choose to comply by certifying the mix of vehicles to different sets of standards or bins, as long as the corporate average meets the applicable interim or final NOx standard. Vehicle manufacturers are required to meet a corporate average 120,000 mile 0.07 NOx standard. Heavier light-duty trucks (called LDT3s and LDT4s) are given more time to meet the corporate average (avg) 0.07 grams per mile (g/mi) NOx standard (100 per cent by 2009) compared to passenger cars and light-duty trucks (LDT1s and LDT2s) (100 per cent by 2007). EPA has also included medium-duty passenger vehicles (< 10,000 lbs GVWR) in the programme. Under the Tier 2 programme, there are eight emission standard bins (Bins 1–8) for the Tier 2 standards, see Table III. Two additional bins (Bins 9–10) are available only during the interim period and will be eliminated before the final phase-in of the Tier 2 programme. An eleventh bin, shown in Table IV, is available only for MDPVs and expires in 2008. Bin deleted at end of 2006 model year (2008 for HLDTs) . (b) On-Highway Heavy-Duty Engines The EPA has two separate rulemakings affecting highway HDEs: Phase 1 directed at 2004 to 2006 HDEs and Phase 2 directed at 2007 and later model year HDEs. On 6th October 2000, EPA published its final rule covering the technological feasibility finding for the previously adopted diesel HDE 2004 standards and new standards for gasoline-powered HDVs (7). The final rule: • Reaffirms that the 2004 model year NMHC+NOx and PM standards (2.5 g/bhp-hr NOx+NMHC and 0.1 g/bhp-hr PM), originally adopted in 1997, are technologically feasible and can be met with currently available diesel fuel; • Sets new, more stringent standards for all heavy-duty Otto-cycle (for example gasoline-fuelled) engines and vehicles which will result in an approximate 75 per cent reduction in HC and NOx emissions from this category of vehicles; • Requires OBD systems for all heavy-duty vehicles and engines at or below 14,000 lbs GVWR and revises the OBD requirements for diesel light-duty vehicles and trucks; and • Implements additional certification test procedures and associated standards for heavy-duty engines and vehicles to address the issue of off-cycle emissions beginning in 2007. The standards which will apply to gasoline-powered heavy-duty engines and vehicles are shown in Table V. The current NOx standard for both diesel and gasoline vehicles is 4.0 g/bhp-hr. The current HC standard for diesel is 1.3 g/bhp-hr and for gasoline is 1.1g/bhp-hr. On 21st December 2000, the EPA adopted emission standards for 2007 and later model year highway heavy-duty engines and vehicles and established limits on the allowable levels of sulfur in diesel fuel (8). The regulations call for a 90 per cent reduction in PM and a 95 per cent reduction in NOx emissions from heavy-duty diesel engines compared to the standards currently applicable; tighter standards for gasoline-powered vehicles and a 97 per cent reduction in the allowable levels of sulfur in diesel fuel. The EPA noted that these regulations are equivalent to removing 13 million of today’s trucks off the road. The emission standards for HDEs are shown in Table VI below. The rule will result in NOx and PM exhaust control technology being installed on every on-road HDE. |Standard (g/bhp-hr)||Phase-In by model year| The final rule has several key elements: • A sulfur cap of 15 ppm beginning 1st June 2006 for diesel fuel sold for use in highway vehicles (2006–2009: 80 per cent and beginning in 2010: 100 per cent); • A PM standard of 0.01 g/bhp-hr which would take effect with the 2007 model year; • A NOx standard of 0.2 g/bhp-hr and a NMHC standard of 0.14 g/bhp-hr, to be phased in beginning with the 2007 model year with 100 per cent compliance by 2010; • Formaldehyde emission standards and new requirements for crankcase emissions on turbo-charged diesel engines; • Tighter standards for heavy-duty vehicles certified as complete vehicles; • Standards requiring reductions in evaporative emissions. The emission standards for complete heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) would be implemented on the same schedule as for engine standards and are shown in Table VII. (c) Off-Road Vehicles and Equipment Off-road vehicles and equipment cover a wide range of spark-ignition (SI) and compressionignition (CI) applications including construction equipment, locomotives, industrial handling equipment, marine vessels and lawn, and garden equipment. Until the mid-1990s, these applications went largely unregulated. But in the late 1990s, the EPA adopted regulations to control emissions from recreation marine engines, locomotives, construction and similar off-road heavy-duty engines, and lawn and garden equipment. For the most part, these standards can be met without the use of exhaust emission control technology, such as the catalytic converter. However as the relative contribution to ambient pollution from these off-road mobile sources continues to grow, EPA plans to require further reductions. Two examples are discussed below. (i) Heaty-Duty Off-Road Diesel Engines In 2001, EPA is expected to propose new PM standards (referred to as the Tier 3 PM standards) for off-road diesel engines to take effect in the 2006–2008 timeframe which would be comparable to the 2004 on-road HDE PM standard (0.1 g/bhp-hr). EPA is also expected to propose eventually that off-road engines meet emission standards comparable to the on-highway HDEs Phase 2 standards. These later standards (referred to as the Tier 4 standards) would require the use of both NOx and PM exhaust emission control technology. An important component of the EPA’s planned clean-up of off-road HDEs is to reduce the sulfur content in diesel fuel used in off-road applications (currently averaging ∼ 3000 ppm). EPA may employ a two-phase requirement, first calling for a 500 ppm sulfur limit in 2006 and then a further reduction to a 15 ppm cap to be timed with implementation of the Tier 4 standards, which is anticipated in the 2010 timeframe. (ii) Off-Road Spark-Ignition Engines > 25 hp California’s Continuing Lead in U.S. Motor Vehicle Emission Control As part of the 1970 Clean Air Act Amendments, Congress gave the State of California the unique authority to implement its own motor vehicle emission control programme. Other states may adopt elements of the California programme, but they may not adopt their own programme. The California programme, originally established in the 1960s, has, over the past 30 years, served as the nation’s laboratory’ for proving out new regulatory programmes and concepts as well as new technologies. For example, the tighter standards for NOx set in California in the 1970s resulted in the first introduction of the three-way catalyst and sophisticated engine controls, which allowed simultaneous control of the three gaseous pollutants emitted in automotive exhaust. More recently, California’s light-duty emission control programme, ‘Low Emission Vehicle programme (LEV and LEV 2), served as the model for the EPA’s Tier 2 standards. California also adopted regulations for a variety of off-road SI engines which have served as a model for standards later adopted by the EPA. Looking to the future, California is expected to continue its leadership role. For example, in September 2000, California approved a comprehensive plan to reduce the total PM emissions from diesel-fuelled engines by 75 per cent in 2010 and by 85 per cent in 2020 (9). The California Air Resources Board (ARB) plan identifies diesel particulate filters as the principal technology expected to be used to reduce PM emissions from both existing and new diesel engines. Other strategies identified by ARB include fuel cells, electrification, alternative fuels, alternative diesel fuel formulations and additives, and engine modifications. The ARB plan calls for cutting emissions by at least 85 per cent from up to 90 per cent of the existing on-road, off-road, and stationary engines, and by at least 90 per cent from new engines. The ARB plan recognises that control retrofit might not be technically possible and cost-effective in every engine application and has committed to work with interested parties to insure a fair, cost-effective, and technically sound programme. Over the next two to three years, the ARB staff will be developing 14 new control measures including four measures that will require the cooperation and action of the U.S. EPA. The 14 control measures are summarised in Table VIII. The control requirements will be phased in between 2006 and 2010. Future Emission Standards in the U.S. Meeting Tier 2 by Passenger Cars, Light-Duty Trucks, and Medium-Duty Passenger Vehicles As noted above, the technological solution to meeting the Tier 2 standards adopted by the EPA will be a systems approach, employing advances in engine technology, advanced catalyst technology and low sulfur fuel. EPA, in its final rule, stated that the type of control strategies likely to be employed included ongoing improvements in computer software, engine air/fuel controls, advances in catalyst designs and catalyst/system integration, increases in noble metal loading and other exhaust system/catalyst system improvements. Table IX lists the types of engine/exhaust/catalyst technology improvements and advancements that will likely be employed to meet the Tier 2 standards. For diesel-fuelled vehicles, EPA stated that exhaust control technology would probably be needed. For NOx emissions, EPA listed lean NOx catalysts, NOx adsorbers and selective catalytic reduction (SCR) as potential technologies. For PM control, EPA identified oxidation catalysts and PM filter technology. EPA stressed the importance of low sulfur fuel in enabling catalyst-based emission control technology to be optimised for maximised emission reductions. Meeting Phase 1 and Phase 2 Standards by On-Road Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine Engine manufacturers are expected to use a combination of engine modifications and EGR to meet the Phase 1 2004 standards. In some instances, an oxidation catalyst may be employed to control any increases in PM emissions resulting from the use of EGR to ensure that the engine meets the 0.1 g/bhp-hr standard. To meet the expected Phase 2 heavy-duty engine standards, a systems approach will be required, which combines advanced engine technology and both NOx and PM exhaust control technologies. To enable the use and complete optimisation of the existing and emerging NOx and PM exhaust emission control technologies, very low sulfur diesel fuel will be needed. Diesel particulate filters or ‘traps’ will likely be used to meet the very stringent Phase 2 PM standards. NOx adsorber and SCR appear to be the leading strategies to help meet the tough Phase 2 NOx standards. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is in the process of establishing very stringent emission standards for virtually every category of motor vehicle. These standards, which will take effect in the 2004–2010 timeframe, will require substantial emission reductions over the levels currently required. Meeting these stringent standards present significant engineering challenges. The solution will be an engineered systems approach combining advanced engine designs, advanced catalyst-based control technologies, and low sulfur fuel. Engine, vehicle, and emission control manufacturers are working together to develop and optimise the needed technological solutions. The prospects for meeting these very stringent emissions levels, as reviewed here, appear to be excellent. Definitions and Terms Used Adjusted loaded vehicle weight – the numerical average of vehicle curb weight and GVWR Gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) – the value specified by the manufacturer as the maximum design loaded weight of a single vehicle Heavy-duty vehicle (HDV) – any motor vehicle rated at more than 8500 lbs GVWR or that has a vehicle curb weight of more than 6000 pounds or that has a basic vehicle frontal area in excess of 45 square feet Heavy light-duty truck (HLDT) – any light-duty truck rated greater than 6000 lbs GVWR Light-duty truck (LDT) – any motor vehicle rated at 8500 lbs GVWR or less which has a vehicle curb weight of 6,000 lbs or less and which has a basic vehicle frontal area of 45 square feet or less, which is: (a) designed primarily for purposes of transportation of property or is a derivation of such a vehicle; or (b) designed primarily for transportation of persons and has a capacity of more than 12 persons; or (c) available with special features enabling off-street or off-highway operation and use Light-duty truck 1 (LDT1) – any light light-duty truck up through 3750 lbs loaded vehicle weight Light-duty truck 2 (LDT2) – any light light-duty truck greater than 3750 lbs loaded vehicle weight Light-duty truck 3 (LDT3) – any heavy light-duty truck up through 5750 lbs adjusted loaded vehicle weight Light-duty truck 4 (LDT4) – any heavy light-duty truck greater than 5750 lbs adjusted loaded vehicle weight Light-duty vehicle (LDV) – a passenger car or passenger car derivative capable of seating 12 passengers or less Light light-duty truck (LLDT) – light light-duty truck means any light-duty truck rated up through 6000 lbs GVWR Loaded vehicle weight (LVW) – the vehicle curb weight plus 300 lbs Medium-duty passenger vehicle (MDPV) – any heavy-duty vehicle with a GVWR of less than 10,000 lbs that is designed primarily for the transportation of persons. The MDPV definition does not include any vehicle which: (a) has a seating capacity of more than 12 persons; or (b) is designed for more than 9 persons in seating rearward of the driver’s seat; or (c) equipped with an open cargo area of 72.0 inches in interior length or more Vehicle curb weight (VCW) – the actual or the manufacturer’s estimated weight of the vehicle in operational status with all standard equipment, and weight of fuel at nominal tank capacity, and the weight of optional equipment computer in accordance with 40 CFR 86.082–24 |Acronyms and Abbreviations| California Air Resources Board continuously variable transmission exhaust gas recirculation grams per brake horsepower-hour gross vehicle weight rating heavy light-duty truck light-duty truck 1 light-duty truck 2 light-duty truck 3 light-duty truck 4 low emission vehicle light light-duty truck medium-duty passenger vehicle National Low Emission Vehicle non-methane organic gas parts per million selective catalytic reduction - 1 U.S. EPA, Latest Findings on National Air Quality : 1999 Status and Trends, August 2000 - 2 U.S. EPA, National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 900–1998, March 2000 - 3 “ Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 ” (PL 91–604, 1970 ) - 4 “ Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 ” (PL 95–95, 1977 ) - 5 “ Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 ” (PL 101–549, 1990 ) - 6 U.S. EPA, “ Control of Air Pollution from New Motor Vehicles: Tier 2 Motor Vehicle Emission Standards and Gasoline Sulfur Control Requirements ”, 40 CFR Parts 80, 85, and 86, 65 FR 6698 (Feb. 10, 2000 ) - 7 U.S. EPA, “ Control of Emissions of Air Pollution from 2004 and Later Model Year Heavy-Duty Highway Engines and Vehicles; Revision of Light-Duty On-Board Diagnostics Requirements ”, 40 CFR Parts 85 and 86, 65 FR 59896 (Oct. 6, 2000 ) - 8 U.S. EPA, “ Control of Air Pollution from New Motor Vehicles: Heavy-Duty Engine and Vehicle Standards and Highway Diesel Sulfur Control Requirements ”, 40 CFR Parts 69, 80, and 86 Dec. 21, 2000 ) - 9 California Air Resources Board, Risk Reduction Plan to Reduce Particulate Matter Emissions from Diesel-Fueled Engines and Vehicles, Sacramento, CA, Oct. 2000 Bruce Bertelsen is the Executive Director of the Manufacturers of Emission Controls Association in Washington, DC, U.S.A.

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Human rights in Jordan This article needs to be updated.March 2010)( |This article is part of a series on the| politics and government of Human rights in Jordan are among the best and most respected in the Middle East. Although recently there have been far-reaching reforms of the laws and regulations in the country, abuses against basic rights such as freedom of expression persisted. According to Freedom House, Jordan is ranked as the fourth-freest Arab country, and as "partly free" in the Freedom in the World 2017 report. However, Jordan is considered an "authoritarian regime" according to a 2017 Democracy Index. - 1 History - 2 Democracy - 3 Freedoms - 4 Human trafficking and migrant workers - 5 Unrestrained violence, torture, and honor killings - 6 Death penalty - 7 Arrest, detention, fair and speedy trials, and prison conditions - 8 Women's rights - 9 Child labor and forced labor - 10 Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) rights - 11 National human rights institution - 12 Treaties - 13 See also - 14 References - 15 External links The 2011 Jordanian protests began in the wake of unrest in Tunisia and Egypt. Starting in January 2011, several thousand Jordanians staged weekly demonstrations and marches in Amman (the capital) and other cities to protest government corruption, rising prices, poverty, and high unemployment. In response, King Abdullah II replaced his prime minister and formed a National Dialogue Commission with a mandate to carry out reforms. The king told the new prime minister to "take quick, concrete, and practical steps to launch a genuine political reform process," "to strengthen democracy," and to provide Jordanians with the "dignified life they deserve." He called for an "immediate revision" of laws governing politics and public freedoms. Since then, reports have shown good initial results but much work remaining to be done. The 2010 Arab Democracy Index from the Arab Reform Initiative ranked Jordan first in the state of democratic reforms out of fifteen Arab countries. Jordan has a bicameral legislature, the National Assembly, consisting of an upper house, the Assembly of Senators, appointed by the king and an elected lower house, the Chamber of Deputies. The members of both houses hold office for four-year terms. There are 60 seats in the Senate and 120 in the Chamber of Deputies. In the Chamber of Deputies 12 seats are reserved for women, 9 seats for Christian candidates, 9 for Bedouin candidates, and 3 for Jordanians of Chechen or Circassian descent. The Assembly of Senators is responsible to the Chamber of Deputies and can be dismissed by "a vote of no confidence". The king may dissolve the National Assembly, forcing new elections. King Abdullah did that on 24 November 2009, and the government ruled by decree through most of 2010, until new elections were held in November. Parliamentary elections have been deemed credible by international observers. The king signs and executes all laws, but his veto power can be overridden by two-thirds vote of the National Assembly. The judicial branch is completely independent. Security forces report to civilian authorities. The law does not provide citizens the right to change their monarch or government. The king appoints and dismisses the prime minister, cabinet, the Assembly of Senators, and judges, may dissolve parliament, commands the military, and directs major public policy initiatives. The cabinet, based on the prime minister's recommendation, appoints the mayors of Amman, Wadi Musa (Petra), and Aqaba, a special economic zone. The mayors of the other 93 municipalities are elected. Opposition movements are legal in Jordan and are involved in Jordan's political life. The government licenses political parties and other associations and prohibits membership in unlicensed political parties. There are over 50 licensed political parties, but only a few have a substantial impact at the national level. Jordan ranked sixth among the 19 countries in the Middle East and North Africa region, and 50th out of 178 countries worldwide in the 2010 Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) issued by Transparency International, where 1st is the least corrupt. Jordan's 2010 CPI score was 4.7 on a scale from 0 (highly corrupt) to 10 (very clean). Jordan ratified the United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) in February 2005 and has been a regional leader in spearheading efforts to promote the UNCAC and its implementation. The Jordanian constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press; however, the government does not fully respect these rights in practice. In its 2009 annual report the Amman-based National Center for Defending the Freedom of Journalists (CDFJ) concluded that media freedoms deteriorated in 2009. In the 2010 Press Freedom Index maintained by Reporters Without Borders, Jordan ranked 120th out of 178 countries listed, 5th out of the 20 countries in the Middle East and North Africa region. Jordan's score was 37 on a scale from 0 (most free) to 105 (least free). The law provides for up to three years' imprisonment for insulting the king, slandering the government or foreign leaders, offending religious beliefs, or stirring sectarian strife and sedition. In practice citizens are generally able to criticize the government, although they reportedly exercise caution in regard to the king, the royal family, the General Intelligence Directorate (GID), and other sensitive topics such as religion. The government continues to enforce bans on the publication of selected books for religious, moral, and political reasons, some foreign films are edited prior to release, and the media is directly and indirectly censored. Authorities monitor and censor printing presses and edit articles deemed offensive before they can be printed. Journalists claim the government uses informants in newsrooms and that GID officials monitor reporting. Editors reportedly receive telephone calls from security officials instructing them how to cover events or to refrain from covering certain topics or events. Government officials also reportedly bribe journalists to influence their reporting. Media observers note that when covering controversial subjects, government-owned Jordan Radio and Television and Jordan News Agency reported only the government's position. Journalists report that the threat of detention and imprisonment under the penal code for a variety of offenses, and stringent fines of as much as 20,000 dinars ($28,000) under the press and publications law for defamation leads to self-censorship. According to a 2009 Center for Defending the Freedom of Journalists survey, 95 percent of journalists polled exercised self-censorship. The survey also reported that 70 percent of journalists thought the government used "soft containment", such as financial support, scholarships for relatives, and special invitations, to control the media at a medium to high degree. Ninety-four percent said they avoid writing about or broadcasting military matters, and 83 percent said they avoid discussing religious topics. There were several cases in which the government prohibited journalists from reporting on high-profile court cases. For example, a State Security Court attorney general prohibited the press from reporting or commenting on the case of the Jordan Petroleum Refinery Company expansion project without his personal approval, purportedly to allow the judicial authorities to work "calmly" on the case. The clash between Jordanian media and the Lower House has been a chronic struggle for decades. The state of press freedom in Jordan is very fickle, at one point Jordan had one of the most vocal media in the Arab World, but a series of laws passed by Parliament greatly restricted press freedom. The Jordanian media has been very vocal expressing its opposition towards Parliament often leading to clashes. One Jordanian journalist wrote a fiery article called "For God Sake, Abdullah", in which he called on King Abdullah to dissolve the corrupt Lower House. He was prosecuted by the Lower House, but was later acquitted by the judiciary. In October 2001, the government amended the Penal Code and introduced a restrictive Press Law that effectively revokes the relative freedom of the press guaranteed by the 1993 Press Law and punishes any act that can be deemed critical of the Jordanian government. Anyone who "slanders" the King or other members of the royal family can be sentenced to three years imprisonment. The introduction of these new laws has led to the detention and imprisonment of several journalists and leaders of peaceful associations. In May 2006, two journalists involved in reprinting three of the 12 Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons were issued a two-month prison sentence. Jordan was the only Muslim country to reprint the Danish cartoons depicting the Prophet Muhammed in one of its newspapers. The two Jordanian editors responsible were sacked and pressured to issue a public apology. In the beginning of 2009, King Abdullah II issued a royal decree forbidding jailing of journalists in Jordan, an act praised by human rights groups in Jordan and around the world. According to Human Rights Watch, Jordanian authorities has used counterterrorism laws to prosecute activists, dissidents, journalists and Islamic preachers for speech offenses, the authorities depends largely on counterterrorism law that extended the definition of terrorism to include acts such as disturbing Jordan's relations with a foreign state. In February, a senior Muslim Brotherhood figure, Zaki Bani Irsheid, was sentenced to 18 months in prison after a post on Facebook criticizing the United Arab Emirates. In June, Eyad Qunaibi, an Islamic preacher, was arrested after posting Facebook comments criticizing the liberal lifestyle of a segment of the Jordanian society. Jordan is listed as engaged in selective internet filtering in the political area and as showing no evidence of filtering in the social, conflict/security, and Internet tools areas by the OpenNet Initiative (ONI) in August 2009. Internet censorship in Jordan is relatively light, with filtering selectively applied to only a small number of sites. However, media laws and regulations encourage some measure of self-censorship in cyberspace, and citizens have reportedly been questioned and arrested for Web content they have authored. Internet censorship in Jordan is mainly focused on political issues that might be seen as a threat to national security due to the nation's close proximity to regional hotspots of Israel, Iraq, Lebanon, and the Palestinian territories. In 2013, however, the Press and Publications Department initiated a ban on Jordanian news websites which had not registered and been licensed by government agency. The order issued to Telecommunication Regulatory Commission contained a list of over 300 websites to be blocked. The mandatory registration of websites was a part of amendments made to the Press and Publications Law in September 2012. The amendments included articles that would hold online news sites accountable for the comments left by their readers, prohibiting them from publishing comments that are deemed "irrelevant" or "unrelated" to the article. The restriction caused several prominent sites to turn off their comments sections. Online news sites are required to archive all comments for at least six months. Freedom of religion According to US Department of State's Human Rights Reports in 2015 legal and societal discrimination and harassment remained a problem for religious minorities, and religious converts. The Jordanian Constitution provides for the freedom to practice one's religion in accordance with the customs in the Kingdom, unless they violate public order or morality. Jordan's state religion is Islam. The Government bans conversion from Islam and efforts to proselytize Muslims. While proselytizing to Christians may not be banned, it is equally not favored and very hampered with bureaucratic red tape that renders it near impossible to legalize. The US State Department's International Religious Freedom Report of 2009 indicated that there were "no reports that the practice of any faith was prohibited" in Jordan. In fact, Jordan has been highlighted as a model of interfaith dialogue. The study also concluded that in the last year there were "no reports of misuse or neglect" of the Kingdom's diverse religious sites, as well as no reports of "harassment, discrimination, or restrictions" to worshippers. Christians are well integrated into the Kingdom's political and economic landscapes. At least one Christian holds a ministerial post in every government, nine seats in the 120-seat Parliament are reserved for Christians, and a similar number is appointed to the Upper House by the King. In addition, Christians have traditionally prospered in the kingdom to the extent that Jordanian Christians are believed to own or run about a third of the Jordanian economy despite making up only 6% of the total population. They serve in the military, many have high positions in the army, and they have established good relations with the royal family. The Pope has been to Jordan, where he was welcomed by the royal family. Human trafficking and migrant workers Jordan is a destination for women and men subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically conditions of forced labor and, to a lesser extent, forced prostitution. Jordan is possibly a source and transit country for women and men subjected to conditions of forced labor and forced commercial sexual exploitation. There are also reports of Jordanian child laborers experiencing conditions of forced labor. Moroccan and Tunisian women are reportedly subjected to forced prostitution after migrating to Jordan to work in restaurants and night clubs. In addition, a few Chinese, Bangladeshi, Indian, Sri Lankan, and Vietnamese men and women encountered conditions indicative of forced labor in a few factories in the garment sector, including factories in Jordan's Qualifying Industrial Zones, such as the unlawful withholding of passports, delayed payment of wages, and, in a few cases, verbal and physical abuse. Instances of forced labor reportedly continued to decline due to enhanced labor inspections and other recent measures undertaken by the government within the garment sector. NGOs and the media also report the forced labor of Egyptian workers in the construction, agriculture, and tourism sectors. Jordan's airports may be transit points for South- and Southeast-Asian men and women en route to employment opportunities in other Middle Eastern countries, where they experience labor exploitation after arrival. Some Jordanian children employed within the country as street vendors, carpenters, painters, mechanics, domestics, restaurant staff, or agricultural laborers may be exploited in situations of forced labor. In 2009, an Anti-Human Trafficking Law was endorsed by the government that severely restricts human trafficking in the Kingdom and creates a committee to promote public awareness on the issue. Jordan in cooperation with the Filipino Government worked out an agreement which gave a wide range of rights to domestic workers and access to legal protection, the first Arab country to do so. New regulations to regulate the working conditions of all domestic workers prescribe maximum working hours, rights to holiday and sick leave, and domestic workers' entitlement to regular contact with their own families. According to Amnesty International, despite addressing important issues, the regulations are loosely worded and open to interpretation in certain respects, fail to specify mechanisms for determining wages, or to resolve long-standing problems related to nonpayment of wages or low wages. They also fail to provide effective safeguards against physical violence and sexual abuse by employers of domestic workers, the great majority of whom are women, and appear to place women at risk by requiring domestic workers to obtain their employer's permission before leaving their house. While there has been some improvement in combating human trafficking, Jordan remains a Tier 2 country (countries whose governments do not fully comply with the U.S. Trafficking Victims Protection Act's minimum standards, but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with those standards) in the U.S. State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report 2010 because victim assistance, public awareness raising, punishment of traffickers, and active cooperation with source country embassies remain limited. Unrestrained violence, torture, and honor killings Torture is illegal in Jordan, however it remains widespread. According to a report by Amnesty International, intelligence agents in Jordan frequently use torture to extract confessions from terror suspects. Common tactics include, "beating, sleep deprivation, extended solitary confinement, and physical suspension." Palestinians and suspected Islamists are treated especially harshly. Though Jordan has improved many procedures including a prison reform campaign in partnership with EU in this respect, agents at the General Intelligence Department remain largely immune to punishment. In May 2010, the UN Committee against Torture reiterated long-standing concerns at Jordan's failure to investigate and prosecute allegations of torture, to provide adequate protection against torture, and to prosecute perpetrators in accordance with the seriousness of the crime. It noted the "numerous, consistent and credible allegations of a widespread and routine practice of torture and ill-treatment" including in General Intelligence Department (GID) and Criminal Investigations Department detention. The government did not respond to the Committee's recommendations. According to Rana Husseini of The Jordan Times, there were 12 recorded "honor killings" in Jordan from January to November 2010. These so-called "honor killings", the killing of female relatives suspected of illicit relationships, are often lightly punished by police and the courts. There have been several attempts to introduce harsh penalties on honor crimes, but, even with the strong backing of the royal family, these attempts have been rejected by Jordan's Lower House. In May 2010, the government decreed amendments to the penal code to ensure that "honor" crimes receive the full penalty of the law. After a moratorium since 2006 there were eleven executions on 21 December 2014, all detainees were men convicted of murder. Amendments to the penal code have reduced the number of capital offenses. State security, smuggling, arson resulting in death, and inciting armed riot cases are no longer capital crimes. In March 2010, the Justice Minister announced that the crime of rape may cease to be a capital offense. In the future it is possible that the death penalty will be limited to cases of murder. At the end of 2010 the government reports that 46 people were under sentence of death and six new death sentences were imposed during the year. Amnesty International reports nine new death sentences in 2010. Fifteen executions were carried on dawn of 4 March 2017; ten convicted with terrorism and the remaining 5 with murder and rape of minors. Those convicted with terrorism were part of a terror attack in Irbid, an attack on intelligence officers and the attack on Jordanian writer Nahed Hattar. Arrest, detention, fair and speedy trials, and prison conditions Citizens and NGOs allege that the government continues to detain individuals, including political opposition members, for political reasons, and that governors continued to use administrative detentions for what appeared to be political reasons. In a few cases, the media and human rights organizations reported that authorities kept detainees in solitary confinement and denied them access to lawyers. Human rights observers claimed that police make arrests before obtaining warrants and prosecutors fail to file charges or seek extensions in a timely manner. Prosecutors routinely request and are granted extensions that increase the period to file formal charges to as long as six months for a felony and two months for a misdemeanor. This practice can lengthen pretrial detention for protracted periods. Some detainees report not being allowed timely access to a lawyer, but authorities generally permit visits by family members. In facilities operated by the General Intelligence Directorate (GID) there are allegations of long periods of incommunicado detention, lengthy pretrial detention without being informed of charges, and not allowing defendants to meet with their lawyers or permitting meetings only shortly before trial. Under the Crime Prevention Law, provincial governors may detain individuals suspected of planning to commit a crime or those who allegedly shelter thieves, habitually steal, or constitute a danger to the public, and in practice they used this provision widely. Those accused are subject to imprisonment or house arrest as "administrative detention" without formal charges. A detention order may be for as long as one year, but governors can impose new orders to prolong detentions. International and national NGOs noted that governors routinely abused the law, imprisoning individuals when there was not enough evidence to convict them and prolonging detentions of prisoners whose sentences had expired. The law was also widely used to incarcerate women at risk of being honor crime victims. The law presumes that all defendants are innocent until proven guilty. Juries are not used. Most trials in civilian courts are open and procedurally sound, but the State Security Court (SSC) may close its proceedings to the public. Defendants are entitled to legal counsel, provided at public expense for the indigent in cases involving the death penalty or potential life imprisonment. In many cases defendants have no legal representation. Defendants can present witnesses on their behalf and question witnesses against them. Defense attorneys were generally granted access to government-held evidence relevant to their clients' cases. Defendants can appeal verdicts and appeals are automatic for cases involving the death penalty. There are significant problems with the conditions in prisons, including poor legal services, under staffing, inadequate food and health care, poor sanitation standards, poor ventilation, extreme temperatures, inadequate access to potable water, ineffective pre-release and post-release programs, and insufficient basic and emergency medical care. Some detainees report abuse and mistreatment by guards. Hunger strikes remain common, but prison riots and allegations of mistreatment have decreased. The construction of four new prisons reduced overcrowding somewhat. Freedom House rates women's rights in five categories, each scored from one (lowest level of freedom) to five (highest level): |Non-discrimination & access to justice||2.4||2.7| |Autonomy, security & freedom of person||2.4||2.7| |Economic rights & equal opportunity||2.8||2.9| |Political rights & civic voice||2.8||2.9| |Social & cultural rights||2.5||3.0| In 2009 of 18 Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries surveyed, Jordan ranked in the upper third for each category (between 4th and 7th). Limited economic opportunity is one of the main reasons for poor scores in many of the above categories. It is not just discrimination that accounts for high rates of unemployment, but also genuine economic difficulties and shortages of jobs. "The shrinking of the public sector disproportionately affects women, the location of jobs matters more for women than for men, and discrimination in the private sector remains". In 2005 Freedom House criticized Jordan for its poor women's rights record, but also acknowledged that the "status of women in Jordan is currently undergoing a historic transition, with women achieving a number of positive gains and new rights." Educated women were granted suffrage in 1955, but it was not until 1974 that all women received the right to vote and run as candidates in parliamentary elections. In 1993, the first female candidate was elected to the lower house of parliament and the first woman was appointed to the upper house. Women have assumed high-level governmental positions in greater numbers, gaining appointments as ministers and lawmakers with increasing frequency. An average of three ministerial portfolios has been assigned to women in each cabinet since 2004, and a gender-based quota system, first introduced for the lower house of parliament in 2003, was expanded to municipal councils in 2007. From 2004 until the end of 2009, the women's movement made a number of important gains, including the publication of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in the official gazette, which gave it the force of law. Additionally, the government has taken steps to address the problem of domestic abuse, including the February 2007 opening of the country's first major women's shelter, the Family Reconciliation House, and the March 2008 promulgation of the Family Protection Law, designed to regulate the handling of domestic abuse cases by medical workers and law enforcement bodies. Today, Jordanian women largely enjoy legal equality in freedom of movement, health care, education, political participation, and employment. And, while the attitudes of police officers, judges, and prosecutors regarding the treatment of victims of domestic violence and honor crimes have undergone a positive shift in recent years, gender-based violence remains a serious concern. There remains gender-based discrimination in family laws, in the provision of pensions and social security benefits, and on the societal level due to deeply entrenched patriarchal norms that restrict female employment and property ownership. And women do not have the same status as men with respect to nationality. A Jordanian man may marry a foreigner and pass on his nationality to his children; women cannot. Nor can women pass on their nationality to their husbands. Women are no longer required to seek permission from their male guardians or husbands before obtaining or renewing their passports, but fathers may still prevent their children from traveling regardless of the mother's wishes. Muslim women are prohibited from marrying men of other religions unless the spouse agrees to convert to Islam, while Muslim men are permitted to wed Christian and Jewish wives. Child labor and forced labor In 2013, the U.S. Department of Labor's Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor reported that Jordan has "made a moderate advancement in efforts to eliminate the worst forms of child labor" but that a percentage as low as 0.8% of children aged 5 to 14 continue to engage in child labor, mostly in the agricultural sector and in domestic service. In December 2014, the Department issued a List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor where Jordan figures among 74 other countries that resort to such labor practices. Jordan was reported to make use of forced labor in the garment industry. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) rights Legal and societal discrimination and harassment remained a problem for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex (LGBTI) persons in Jordan. Jordan is one of the few countries in the Middle East where homosexuality is legal, provided that it occurs in private, does not involve prostitution, and only involves consenting adults. However, sexual orientation and gender identity issues remain taboo within the traditional culture and the government does not recognize same-sex civil unions or marriages. Transgender Jordanians may be allowed to change their legal Sex, however Sex Reassignment Surgery is required. National human rights institution Jordan was one of the first countries in the Middle East to establish a national human rights institution (NHRI). The National Centre for Human Rights (NCHR) in 2006 secured 'A-status' accreditation from the peer review process of the International Coordinating Committee of NHRIs, giving it enhanced access to the United Nations human rights bodies. That status was subjected to special review twice by the ICC in 2007, and reaffirmed; it was again accorded A status under the ordinary review procedure in 2010. In the ICC annual meeting in March 2012, the Jordanian institution was elected as chair of the network of 99 institutions. The Commissioner General of the NCHR is Dr Mousa Burayzat. Jordan is a party to many human rights agreements, including: - International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights - International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination - Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women - Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery - Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment - Convention on the Rights of the Child - Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict - Convention concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour - Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention - Convention concerning Forced or Compulsory Labour - Equal Remuneration Convention - Abolition of Forced Labour Convention - Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention - Employment Policy Convention - Convention against Discrimination in Education Jordan was the only country in the Middle East and North Africa that is a member of the International Criminal Court (ICC), which prosecutes those who commit crimes against humanity, war crimes, aggression, and genocide, until Tunisia became a member in 2011. Palestine became a member of ICCC in 2015. - "Jordan: Reforms, But Abuses Persist". HRW. 1 January 2018. Retrieved 10 March 2018. - "Jordan country report". Freedom House. 1 February 2017. Retrieved 1 February 2017. - "World Factbook: Jordan", U.S. Central Intelligence Agency - Derhally, Massoud A (1 February 2011). "Jordan's King Abdullah Replaces Prime Minister". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 1 February 2011. - "Jordan's king fires Cabinet amid protests". Apnews.myway.com. Retrieved 1 February 2011. - "Jordan: A Measure of Reform", Christoph Wilcke, Jordan Times, 8 March 2011 - "Report Card on Democratic Reforms in Arab World Issued". Voice of America (VOANews.com). 29 March 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010. - "Section 2(a) Freedom of Speech and Press, 2010 Human Rights Report: Jordan", Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, 8 April 2011 - "Corruption Perceptions Index 2010 Results", Transparency International - "Signatories to the United Nations Convention against Corruption", United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 1 May 2011 - "Security & Political Stability". Jordaninvestment.com. Archived from the original on 25 July 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010. - "Center for Defending the Freedom of Journalists", website - Press Freedom Index 2010 Archived 21 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Reporters Without Borders, 20 October 2010 - "Jordan's news websites running for legal cover", Oula Farawati, Menassat, 11 March 2009 - "First prison sentences announced for reprinting Mohammed cartoons"[permanent dead link], Reporters Without Borders, 31 May 2006, accessed 13 September 2012 - "Jordan". 11 January 2016. Retrieved 22 August 2016. - "ONI Country Profile: Jordan", OpenNet Initiative, 6 August 2009 - "Internet Blocking Begins In Jordan". 2 June 2013. Retrieved 2 June 2013. - "JORDAN 2015 HUMAN RIGHTS REPORT" (PDF). US Department of State. US Department of State. Retrieved 8 March 2017. - "Country report for Jordan", International Religious Freedom Report 2010, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, 17 November 2010 - Taylor Luck (28 October 2009). "Jordan's religious freedom record lauded". The Jordan Times. Retrieved 10 November 2010. - "Born Again Problems". Jordan Business. Retrieved 15 June 2010. - "Jordan Country Narrative", Trafficking in Persons Report 2010, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State - "Jordan 'not protecting' rights of women migrant workers", Agence France Presse (AFP) in the Daily Star, 7 November 2008 - "Jordan to include migrant workers in its labor laws", GMA News Online, 28 October 2008 - "Migrants' rights – domestic workers", on page 2 of Annual Report: Jordan 2010, Amnesty International, 28 May 2010 - "Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000, Div. A of Pub. L. No. 106-386, § 108, as amended", Trafficking in Persons Report 2010, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State - Amnesty International, 24 July 2006, "Systematic Torture of Political Suspects Entrenched in Jordan", Retrieved 12 August 2006 - Amnesty International, 23 July 2006, Jordan: "Your confessions are ready for you to sign": Detention and torture of political suspects - "Committee Against Torture Concludes Forty-fourth Session" Archived 19 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, United Nations, 14 May 2010 - "Annual Report 2011: Jordan", Amnesty International - "Human Rights Watch: Jordan", Human Rights Watch, accessed 23 May 2011 - Amnesty International: Human Rights Concerns for Jordan Archived 23 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 10 August 2006 - "'Honour killings' law blocked". BBC News. 8 September 2003. Retrieved 12 August 2006. - "Jordan hangs 11 after lifting execution ban". Al Jazeera. 21 December 2014. Retrieved 21 December 2014. - Death Sentences and Executions in 2010, Amnesty International, 2011, pp. 26 and 31 - "Jordan executes 15 prisoners, 10 convicted of terror charges". BBC. 4 March 2017. Retrieved 4 March 2017. - "Jordan: End Administrative Detention", Human Rights Watch, 26 May 2009 - "Jordan Country Ratings" Archived 23 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Women's Rights in the Middle East and North Africa 2010, Rana Husseini, Freedom House - "Jordan: Prison Reform Promises Broken", Human Rights Watch, 21 August 2009 - "Employment and Unemployment in Jordan: The Importance of the Gender System"[permanent dead link], Rebecca Miles, Florida State University, Tallahassee, USA, World Development, Vol.30, No.3 (2002), pp.413–427 - "Jordan Country Report" Archived 23 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Women's Rights in the Middle East and North Africa 2005, Reem M. Abu Hassan and Widad Adas, Freedom House, 2005 - Women in Islam: The Western Experience, Anne Sofie Roald, Routledge, London, April 2001, 360 pp., ISBN 978-0-415-24896-9 - Jordan, 2013 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor - Sexuality and Eroticism Among Males in Moslem Societies Archived 28 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Arno Schmitt and Jehoeda Sofer (eds), Harrington Park Press, Binghamton, 1992, ISBN 0-918393-91-4, pp.137–138. - "Gay and Muslim in Jordan". Star Observer. 11 February 2009. Retrieved 20 January 2011. - "2010 Human Rights Report: Jordan", 2010 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. State Department, 8 April 2011 - Chart of accreditation status of NHRIs - ICC press release on Jordanian chair, March 2012[permanent dead link] - Ratification of International Human Rights Treaties – Jordan, Human Rights Library, University of Minnesota, accessed 10 August 2006 - "The Status of Democracy and Human rights in the Middle East: Does regime type make a difference?", B. Todd Spinks, Emile Sahliyeh, and Brian Calfano, Democratization, 1743-890X, Volume 15, Issue 2 (2008), pp. 321–341, Accessed 26 January 2009. - Tunisia joins international war crimes court, The National - [Palestine formally joins International Criminal Court http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/04/palestine-formally-joins-international-criminal-court-150401073619618.html], Al Jazeera

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Is Hanukkah still a relevant holiday? Is it relevant to non-Jewish people? Is it more than giving out gifts and eating fattening foods? YES. Hanukka is about King Antiochus Epiphanes, a real person, who about 2,183 years ago decided that the best way to control the Hebrew people was to uproot their religion, disconnect them from their core values and replace them with hedonistic Hellenistic values. Many Hebrews embraced this change. but a small band of Religious "Fundamentalists" opposed them and started guerilla warfare. They were fighting for traditional values, for their traditional way of life and for independence. Today many have forgotten the true roots of the holidays, it is not about gifts, it is about values, it is about standing up for what you believe, it is about being willing to fight for your religious freedoms. So Mattathias the Cohen, the priest, cried out "Whoever is for G-d come join with me!" His five sons and many brave followers joined. Led by Judah the Maccabee, Judah "The Hammer", they hammered away at the enemy until victory was achieved. May it be as we say, "In those days, at this time". The struggle continues. Happy Hanukkah everyone. ..from among them descended a wicked individual, Antiochus Ephiphanes, the son of King Antiochus....In those days days there arose out of Israel a group of bad people, who misled many of thier people. "Let us enter into a treaty with the pagens around us", ...many joined. They build a stadium in Jerusalem, in the pagan style. They removed the marks of thier circumcision, and rejected the holy Covenant. They intermarried with the pagens, and turned to evil ways. ..after conquering Egypt, Antiochus turned back and marched against Israel and Jerusalem with a strong force. In his arrogance he entered into the Trmple, and carried off the golden alter, and the lamp for light and all the holy equipment...he massacred many people and gloated over all he had done. Great was the sadness throughout Israel. Rulers and elders groaned, girls and young men were depressed. the beauty of women faded away. and the whole house of Jacob was clothed in shame. Antiochus attacked Jerusalem by tricking the people. he suddenly attacked the city, He dealt it a powerful blow, and killed many people of Israel. He plundered the city, setting it ablaze. and they took the women and children captive, and seized the cattle. Israel's Temple became desolate, her festivals turned to mourning, her Sabbaths to shame, her honor to contempt. Then the King issued a decree throughout the land that they should all become one people and abandon their own laws and religions...and many in Israel agreed, sacrificing to idols and profaning the Sabbath. ....In those days Mattathias, son of Johanan, son of Shimon of the family of Joarib, moved from Jerusalem and settled in Modin. He had five sons; Yohanan, called Gaddi, Shimon called Thassis (the zealous one), Judah, called the Maccabee, (the Hammer, for his heroic hammering of the enemy), Eleazar, called Auran, (the piercer)and Yonatan, called Apphus (the cunning one). Mattathias the elder spoke, and said "Though all the nations in the king's dominions obey him and forsake each of them the religion of his ancestors, and have chosen to follow his commands, yet I and my sons and brothers walk in the covenant of our fathers. We shall not abandon our laws and our Torah. We will not obey the decree of the king by departing from our ways, either to the left or to the right." Mattathias said in a loud voice that he and his sons would not obey the new pagan laws. When he ceased speaking these words, a Jew stepped forward, in full view of all, to sacrifice upon the pagan altar in Modiin, in keeping with the king's decree. When Mattathias saw him, he was roused to indignation; his soul was stirred. With righteous anger he rushed forward and slew him on the altar. At the same time he killed the officer sent by the king to enforce the sacrifice, and pulled the altar down. Thus Mattathias showed his zeal for the Torah, as did Phineas long ago by killing Zimri ben Salu. Mattathias shouted, "Follow me, every one of you who is zealous for the Torah, and wishes to maintain the covenant." He and his sons fled to the mountains, and left all that they possessed in the town. Thus began the Revolt of the Jews against the Romans, and thus begins the story of Hanuka. So dear friends, know what you are celebrating, the victory of good over evil, of faith over convenience. At that time many who wanted to uphold their faith and righteousness went down to the wilderness to settle there, with their sons, their wives and their cattle, because misfortunes had fallen hard on them. And it was reported to the king's officers and the troops in Jerusalem, the city of David, that men who had disobeyed the king's order had gone down to the hiding places in the wilderness. A large force pursued them, overtook them, and occupied positions opposite them. They prepared to attack them on the Sabbath day. "It will be enough," they shouted to them, "If you will come out and do as the king commands; your lives will be spared." But the Israelites answered, "We will not come forth, nor will we obey the king's commands to desecrate the Sabbath day." Then the kings troops attacked them. The Israelites did not defend themselves; they neither threw a stone against them, nor did they barricade their hiding places, for they said, "Let us all die with a clear conscience. We call heaven and earth to testify that you destroy us unlawfully." So, they attacked them on the Sabbath, and they were massacred, they, their wives, their children and their cattle, a thousand people. When Mattathias and his friends heard the news, they mourned bitterly over them. They said to one another, "If we all do as our brothers have done, and do not fight against the pagans for our lives and for our laws, they will soon destroy us from the face of the earth." On that day they decided, "If anyone attack us in battle on the Sabbath day, let us fight against him, rather than all die, as our brothers did in their hiding places." (This decision has held as Jewish law from that day onward, to this very day). It was then that Mattathias and his sons were joined by a company of Hasidim, strong Israelite loyalists, each one willingly offering himself in the cause of the Torah. And all who fled from harsh treatment joined them, and added to their strength. They organized an army and struck down sinners in their anger, and in their wrath those who violated the Law. And Mattathias and his friends went about the country and tore down pagan alters, and circumcised by force as many of the uncircumcised children as they found in Israel's borders. So they rescued the Torah from the hands of hte pagans and their kings, and would not let the sinners triumph. When the time drew near for Mattathias to die, he said to his sons; "arrogance and reproach have grown strong. This is a time for destruction and anger. My children, be zealous for the Torah, and give your lives for the covenant of our fathers. Remember the deeds they did in ther generations, and great glory and everlasting fame shall by yours. Was not Abraham faithful in time of trial, and so gained credit righteousness? Joseph in his time of distress kept hte commandments, and became Lord of Egypt. Phineas, our ancestor, for his zeal received the promise of eternal priesthood. Joshua kept the Law and became a judge in Israel. Caleb for bearing witness in the congregation gained inheritance of land as his reward. David for being merciful inherited the throne of an everlasting kingdom. Elijah, because of his love for the Torah, was taken up to heaven. none who trust in Him lack strength. And so not fear a wicked man's words, because his glory will end in filth and worms. Today he may be in high honor, but tomorrow he will be nowhere found, because h will have returned to the dust, and the memory of him will have vanished. But you, my children, be strong and courageous for the Torah. Judah Maccabee has been strong and brave from his youth; he shall be your captain. ..repay the pagans for what they have done... Then Mattathias blessed them and gathered to his fathers. and his sons buried him in the tomb of his fathers in Modiin. Then his son Judah, who was called Maccabee, 'The Hammer', took his father's place. He had the support of his brothers, as well as all his father's followers, and they fought Israel's wars with spirit. ..he was a like a lion in his actions, like a lion's cub roaring for its prey. ...he went among the towns of Judea, he destroyed the godless there, and turned away the anger from Israel. Now Apollonius gathered together a large pagan army from Samaria, to fight against Israel. When Judah heard of this, he marched out to meet him and he defeated and killed him. Many fell wounded, and the rest made their escape. Then they took their weapons, from among which Judah took the sword of Apollonius, and fought with it for the rest of his life. When Seron, the commander of the Syrian army, heard that Judah had gathered a force of faithful men about him, many of them experienced in warfare, he said, "I will make a great name for myself and achieve a reputation in the empire by making war on Juda and those that rebel against the king's command." And with him marched a strong expedition of godless men, to help him take vengeance on the Israelites. When he reached the pass of Beth-Horon, Judah moved forward to meet him with a small company of men. When his followers saw the army coming against them, they said to Judah. "How can so few of us in number fight against so many? Besides, we are weak, for we have had nothing to eat today." Judah replied: "Many can be overpowered by a few. It makes no difference to Heaven to save by many or by few. Victory in battle does not depend on the size of the army, but rather on strength that comes from Heaven. They are coming against us, full of violence and lawlessness, to destroy us, our wives, and our children. They come to plunder us. But we are fighting for our lives and our religion. He Himself will crush them before us. You have no need to fear them." When he finished speaking, Judah launched a sudden attack, and Seron and his army were crushed before him. They pursued them from the pass of Beth-Horon to the plain, and about eight hundred men were slain; the rest made their escape into the land of the Philistines. It was then that he fear and dread of Judah and his brothers began to spread among the pagans around them. His face reached the attention of the king, and the story of his battles was told among all the peoples. When King Antiochus heard these reports, he was enraged, and he gathered together all the forces of his empire, a very powerful expedition. He opened his treasury, gave his forces a year's pay, and ordered them to be prepared for any duty. He handed over to Lysias half of his armed forces, and the elephants. He gave him orders about everything he wanted done, especially about he inhabitants of Judea and Jerusalem. Against these Lysias was ordered to send an army to root out and destroy the strength of Israel and the remnant of Jerusalem, to erase their memory from that place. He was to settle foreigners in all their borders, and to distribute their land among them. Then the king took the remaining half of his armed forces and set out from Antioch, his royal city, in the year 147 (165 B.C.E.) He crossed the Euphrates River, and marched through the upper provinces. Meanwhile Lysias chose Ptolemy, son of Dorymenes, with Nicanor and Gorgias, mighty men of the Friends of the King, and sent with them forty thousand infantry and seven thousand cavalry, to go to Judah and to destroy it as the king had commanded. They set out their forces and encamped near Emaus in the plain country. An army from Syria and Philistia joined Lysias, too. When Judah and his brothers saw that their plight had become critical, and that armies were camping on their borders, they knew too, of the orders which the king had issued for the complete destruction of the nation. So they said to one another, "Let us repair the evil fortune which has come upon our people; let us fight for our nation and for the Temple." They gathered together in full assembly to be ready for war, and to pray and to seek divine mercy. They gathered together at Mitzpeh, opposite Jerusalem, for in earlier times Israel had a place of prayer in Mitzpeh. That day they fasted, put on sack-cloth, put ashes on their heads, and tore their garments. They unrolled the scroll of the Torah, upon which the pagans had drawn likeness of their idols. They brought out the priestly garments and the first fruits and the tithes; they gathered the Nazirites who had completed their vows, and they cried to Heaven, "What shall we do with these Nazirites, and where shall we take them? Your Temple is trodden down and defiled, and Your priests are grieved and humiliated. See how the pagans have gathered against us to destroy us. You know what they design against us. How shall we be able to stand our ground before them, unless You help us?" Then they sounded the trumpets and shouted with a loud voice. After this, Judah appointed officers over the people, leaders of thousands, and hundreds and fifties and teens. But he ordered those who were building their houses, or were newlywed, or planting vineyards, or were fait-hearted, every one of them to return home, as the Torah commands. Then the army moved and encamped to the south of Emmaus. Judah instructed them, "Prepare yourselves for action and show yourselves to be brave men. Be ready at dawn to fight against the pagans who are gathered together against us, to destroy us and our Holy Place. Better to die fighting than to witness the ruin of our nation and our Sanctuary. As may be the will of Heaven, so shall He do." Then Gorgias took five thousand men and a thousand picked cavalry, and his army marched out by night. So as to fall upon the encampment of Judah and attack them unawares. When Judah heard of this, he and his valiant men moved to attack the king's army in Emmaus. Gorgias came into the camp of Judah during the night but found no one there. He hunted for them in the mountains, thinking 'they are hiding from us'. At day break, Judah appeared in the plain with three thousand men, though they did not have all the armor or the swords they wanted. They saw the camp of the pagans strongly fortified, with mounted guards, experienced troops, patrolling it. Judah said to his men, "Do not fear their numbers or panic when they charge. Remember how our fathers were saved at the Red Sea, when Pharaoh and his army pursued them. Let us now cry to heaven to have His mercy upon us, to remember the covenant made with our forefathers, and crush this army before us today. Then all the pagans will know that there is One who liberates and saves Israel." Then the foreign troops raised their eyes and saw them marching forward and they came out of the camp to give battle. Judah's men sounded the trumpet and attacked. The pagans broke and fled to the plain; those who were in the rear fell by the sword. They pursued them as Gazara and the plain of Idumea and Ashdod and Yabne; about three thousand of the enemy were killed. Judah and his army then returned from pursuing them, and he said to his men, "Do not be greedy for plunder, for there is another battle before us. Gorgias and his army are in the nearby mountain. Stand firm now against our enemy and fight!" Before Judah had finished speaking, a detachment of them emerged from the mountain. They saw that their army had been routed and that they were burning the camp. The sight of the smoke showed them what had happened. They were greatly alarmed, as they took in the scene. And when they saw the army of Judah on the plain, ready for attack, they all fled to the land of the Philistines. Then Judah turned back to plunder the camp, and they took much gold and silver, blue and purple cloth, and great riches. On their return they sang a song of thanksgiving and blessed Heaven. "for He is good, for His mercy endures forever." And Israel had a great deliverance that day. Those of the enemy who escaped with their lives came and reported to Lysias all that happened. When he heard it, he was overcome with discouragement, because Israel had not suffered the disaster he had wished for, nor had it turned out as the king had ordered. In the following year he gathered together sixty thousand elite infantry and five thousand cavalry to make war on the Jews. They marched into Idumea, and encamped at Beth-Zur, Where Judah met them with ten thousand men. When he saw the strength of the enemy expedition, he prayed and said, "Blessed are You, Savior of Israel, Who stopped the charge of the mighty giant by Your servant David. You did deliver the camp of the Philistines into the hands of Jonathan son of Saul, and of his armor-hearer. In like manner put this camp into the hand of Your people Israel. Let them be ashamed of their army and their cavalry. Make them cowardly and melt the boldness of their strength. Let them tremble at their destruction. Strike them down with the sword of those that love You, and let all who know Your name praise You with songs of thanksgiving." Then they joined battle, and Lysias lost about five thousand men in the close struggle. When Lysias saw that his army was routed, and that Judah had grown bold, and was ready either to live or to die nobly, he departed for Antioch. There he collected mercenary troops, in order to return to Judea with an even larger army than before. But Judah and his brothers said, "Now that our enemies are crushed, let us go up to Jerusalem to purify the Holy Temple and rededicate it." So the whole army gathered together, and they went up to Mount Zion. There they found the Temple laid waste, the alter profaned, the gates burned down, the courts overgrown like a forest or a wooded mountain, and the priests' quarters torn down. They tore their garments, uttered great lamentations, covered their heads with ashes, and fell on their faces to the ground. Then they sounded the ceremonial trumpets, and cried to Heaven. Then Judah appointed special troops to fight the garrison in the citadel, until he could cleanse the Temple. He selected priests (Cohanim) without blemish, devoted to the Torah, and they purified the Temple, removing to an unclean place the stones which defiled it. On kindle, Amazon, or directly from IKI. Understand the history of Israel as a fighting nation. From the first Hebrew, Abraham, to our own times and the Israeli Defense Forces. Airport security, the history of Krav Maga, the Biblical fighters, post Biblical fighting, the Jewish partisans, American Jewish soldiers, Soviet Jewish soldiers and much more. Required reading for IKI instructors. Kindle version $9.99 Israel, A Nation of Warriors

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Lethal injection involves injecting a person with a fatal dose of drugs to cause death. The main applications of lethal injections are euthanasia and capital punishment. As a method for capital punishment, lethal injection gained popularity in the twentieth century as a form of execution meant to supplant methods – such as electrocution, hanging, firing squad, gas chamber, or decapitation – that were considered to be less humane. It is now the most common form of execution in the United States; in 2005, every American execution was conducted by lethal injection. However, the humaneness of lethal injection as a process of execution has been debated, with opponents citing reports of prolonged, apparently painful deaths. While proponents agree that a peaceful, painless death is the desired outcome, no satisfactory alternative has been proposed and adopted. Those who regard the death penalty per se as problematic argue that there is no acceptable way to kill another human being, and thus no acceptable method can be developed. Clearly, the most ideal situation is one in which the death penalty is not needed as all people live with respect for the lives of others and so do not commit capital crimes. Lethal injection has also been used in euthanasia to facilitate death in patients with terminal or chronically painful conditions. In this case, the argument involves not so much whether the death is quick and painless, since the patients have already experienced prolonged suffering, but rather the ethical and legal issues involved in assisting the suicide of another. To date, lethal injection has been chosen as the most reliable method to accomplish such "mercy killings." The concept of lethal injection was first proposed in 1888 by Julius Mount Bleyer, a New York doctor who praised it as being cheaper and more humane than hanging. Bleyer's idea, however, was never used. The British Royal Commission on Capital Punishment (1949–1953) also considered lethal injection, but eventually rejected it after pressure from the British Medical Association (BMA). In 1977, Jay Chapman, Oklahoma's state medical examiner, proposed a new, 'more humane' method of execution, known as Chapman's Protocol. He proposed that An intravenous saline drip shall be started in the prisoner's arm, into which shall be introduced a lethal injection consisting of an ultra-short-acting barbiturate in combination with a chemical paralytic. After being approved by anesthesiologist Stanley Deutsch, the method was adopted by Oklahoma under Title 22, Section 1014A. Since then, 37 of the 38 states using capital punishment have introduced lethal injection statutes. The sole exception is Nebraska, which continues to electrocute the condemned. On December 7, 1982, Texas became the first state to use lethal injection as a capital punishment for the execution of Charles Brooks, Jr. It is now the most common form of execution in the United States; in 2005, every American execution was conducted by lethal injection. Execution by lethal injection follows a strict procedure, as do all occasions in which the death penalty is carried out. The condemned is fastened on the execution table, and two intravenous cannulae or "drips" are inserted into each of the prisoner’s arms. Though only one is used for the execution, the other is reserved as a backup in case the primary line fails. The intravenous injection is usually a sequence of compounds, designed to induce rapid unconsciousness followed by death through paralysis of respiratory muscles and/or by inducing cardiac arrest through the depolarization of cardiac muscle cells. The execution of the condemned in most states involves three separate injections. The first injection, sodium thiopental, is done to render the offender unconscious. The next injection consists of pancuronium or Tubocurarine to stop all muscle movement except the heart. This causes muscle paralysis, collapse of the diaphragm, and would eventually cause death by asphyxiation. The final injection of Potassium chloride is used to stop the heart from beating, and thus cause death through cardiac arrest. The drugs are not mixed externally as that can cause them to precipitate. The intravenous tubing leads to a room next to the execution chamber, usually separated from the subject by a curtain or wall. Typically a technician trained in venipuncture inserts the cannulae, while a second technician, who is usually a member of the prison staff, orders, prepares, and loads the drugs into an infusion pump. After the curtain is opened to allow the witnesses to see inside the chamber, the condemned person will then be permitted to make a final statement. Following this, the warden will signal for the execution to commence, and the executioners, either prison staff or private citizens depending on the jurisdiction, will then activate the infusion pump which mechanically delivers the three drugs in sequence. During the execution, the subject's cardiac rhythm is monitored. Death is pronounced after cardiac activity stops. Death usually occurs within seven minutes, although the whole procedure can take up to two hours. According to state law, if participation in the execution is prohibited for physicians, the death ruling is made by the state's Medical Examiner's Office. After confirmation that death has occurred, a coroner signs the executed individual’s death certificate. The following drugs are a representation of a typical lethal injection as practiced in the United States for capital punishment. Sodium thiopental, or sodium pentothal, is an ultra-short acting barbiturate, often used for anesthesia induction and for medically induced comas. The typical anesthesia induction dose is 3-5 mg/kg; a person weighing 200 pounds, or 91 kilograms, would receive a dose of about 300 mg. Loss of consciousness is induced within 30-45 seconds at the typical dose, while a lethal injection dosage of 5 grams - 14 times the normal dose - is likely to induce unconsciousness within 10 seconds. Thiopental reaches the brain within seconds and attains a peak brain concentration of about 60 percent of the total dose in about 30 seconds. At this level, the subject is unconscious. The half-life of this drug is about 11.5 hours, and the concentration in the brain remains at around 5-10 percent of the total dose during that time. In euthanasia protocols, the typical dose of thiopental is 20 mg/kg; a 91 kilogram man would receive 1.82 grams. The lethal injection dose used in capital punishment is therefore about three times more than the dose used in euthanasia. Pancuronium bromide, or pavulon, is a non-depolarizing muscle relaxant or paralytic agent that blocks the action of acetylcholine at the motor end-plate of the neuromuscular junction. With the lethal injection dosage for pancuronium bromide of 100 milligrams, the onset of paralysis occurs in around 15 to 30 seconds, and the duration of paralysis is around 4 to 8 hours. Paralysis of respiratory muscles will lead to death in a considerably shorter time. Typically, doctors give patients potassium when there is insufficient potassium, called hypokalemia, in the blood. When used in lethal injection, at a dosage of 100 mEq, bolus potassium injection affects the electrical conduction of the heart muscle. Elevated potassium, or hyperkalemia, causes the resting electrical activity of the heart muscle to be higher than normal. The lethal dosage causes the heart to malfunction and stop, resulting in death. Euthanasia can be accomplished either through oral, intravenous, or intramuscular administration of drugs. In individuals who are incapable of swallowing lethal doses of medication, an intravenous route is preferred. The following is a Dutch protocol for intravenous administration to obtain euthanasia. First a coma is induced by intravenous administration of 1 g thiopental sodium, if necessary, 1.5-2 g of the product in case of strong tolerance to barbiturates. 45 mg of alcuronium chloride or 18 mg of pancuronium bromide is then injected. In severe hepatitis or cirrhosis of the liver, alcuronium is the agent of first choice. Opponents of lethal injection believe that the practice is not actually humane as performed in the United States. They argue that the thiopental is an ultra-short acting barbiturate that may wear off creating an anesthesia awareness which may lead to consciousness and an excruciatingly painful death wherein the inmate is unable to express their pain because they have been rendered paralyzed by the paralytic agent. Opponents point to the fact that sodium thiopental is typically used as an induction agent and not used in the maintenance phase of surgery because of its short acting nature. They also argue that the agent pancuronium bromide, which follows the injection of thiopental, not only dilutes the thiopental, but may also prevent the inmate from expressing pain. Additionally, opponents argue that the method of administration is also flawed. Many believe that since the personnel administering the lethal injection lack expertise in anesthesia, the risk of failing to induce unconsciousness is greatly increased. Also, they argue that the dose of sodium thiopental must be customized to each individual patient, not restricted to a set protocol. Finally, the remote administration results in an increased risk that insufficient amounts of the lethal injection drugs may enter the bloodstream. In total, opponents argue that the effect of dilution or improper administration of thiopental is that the inmate dies an agonizing death through suffocation due to the paralytic effects of pancuronium bromide and the intense burning sensation caused by potassium chloride. Opponents of lethal injection as currently practiced argue that the procedure employed is entirely unnecessary and is aimed more towards creating the appearance of serenity and a humane death than an actually humane death. More specifically, opponents object to the use of Pancuronium bromide. They argue that its use in lethal injection serves no purpose, since there is no need to keep the prisoner completely immobilized since they are physically restrained. In 2005, University of Miami researchers, in cooperation with an attorney representing death row inmates, published a peer-reviewed research letter in the medical journal The Lancet. The article presented protocol information from Texas and Virginia which showed that executioners had no anaesthesia training, drugs were administered remotely with no monitoring for anaesthesia, data were not recorded, and no peer-review was done. Their analysis of toxicology reports from Arizona, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina showed that post-mortem concentrations of thiopental in the blood were lower than that required for surgery in 43 of 49 executed inmates, or 88 percent, and 21 inmates, or 43 percent, had concentrations consistent with awareness. This led the authors to conclude that there was a substantial probability that some of the inmates were aware and suffered extreme pain and distress during execution. The authors attributed the risk of consciousness among inmates to the lack of training and monitoring in the process, but carefully make no recommendations on how to alter the protocol or how to improve the process. Indeed, the authors concluded, "because participation of doctors in protocol design or execution is ethically prohibited, adequate anaesthesia cannot be certain. Therefore, to prevent unnecessary cruelty and suffering, cessation and public review of lethal injections is warranted." Paid expert consultants on both sides of the lethal injection debate have found opportunity to criticize the Lancet article. Subsequent to the initial publication in the Lancet, three letters to the editor and a response from the authors extended the analysis. The issue of contention is whether thiopental, like many lipid-soluble drugs, may be redistributed from blood into tissues after death, effectively lowering thiopental concentrations over time, or whether thiopental may distribute from tissues into the blood, effectively increasing post-mortem blood concentrations over time. Given the near-absence of scientific, peer-reviewed data on the topic of thiopental post-mortem pharmacokinetics, the controversy continues in the lethal injection community and in consequence, many legal challenges to lethal injection have not used the Lancet article. On occasion, there have also been difficulties inserting the intravenous needles, sometimes taking over half an hour to find a suitable vein. Typically, the difficulty is found in patients with a history of intravenous drug abuse. Opponents argue that the insertion of intravenous lines that take excessive amounts of time are tantamount to be cruel and unusual punishment. In addition, opponents point to instances where the intravenous line has failed, or where there have been adverse reactions to drugs, or unnecessary delays during the process of execution. On December 13, 2006, Angel Nieves Diaz was unsuccessfully executed in Florida using a standard lethal injection dose. Diaz was 55 years old, and had been sentenced to death for murder. Diaz did not succumb to the lethal dose even after 35 minutes, but did after receiving a second dose of drugs. At first a prison spokesperson denied Diaz had suffered pain and claimed the second dose was needed because Diaz had some sort of liver disease. After performing an autopsy, the Medical Examiner, William Hamilton, stated that Diaz’s liver appeared normal, but that the needle had been pierced through Diaz’s vein into his flesh. The deadly chemicals had subsequently been injected into soft tissue, rather than into the vein. Two days after the execution, Governor Jeb Bush suspended all executions in the state and appointed a commission “to consider the humanity and constitutionality of lethal injections.” A study published in 2007 in the peer-reviewed journal PLoS Medicine suggested that "the conventional view of lethal injection leading to an invariably peaceful and painless death is questionable." Many opponents claim that because death can be painlessly accomplished, without risk of consciousness, by the injection of a single large dosage of barbiturate, the use of any other chemicals is entirely superfluous and only serves to unnecessarily increase the risk of torture during the execution. Another possibility would be the use of a fast-acting narcotic, such as fentanyl, which is widely used for inducing anesthesia for the entire duration of a short operation. To prevent the "patient" waking up too soon, the injection could be repeated before the blood-level falls. Supporters of the death penalty cite that the combination of a barbiturate induction agent and a nondepolarizing paralytic agent is used in thousands of anaesthetics every day. Many argue that unless anesthesiologists have been wrong for the last 40 years, the use of pentothal and pancuronium is safe and effective. The agent potassium is even given in heart bypass surgery to induce cardioplegia. Therefore, the combination of these three drugs to create a lethal injection is still in use today. Supporters of the death penalty speculate that the designers of the lethal injection protocols intentionally used the same drugs as used in every day surgery to avoid controversy. The only modification is that a massive coma-inducing dose of barbiturates is given. In addition, similar protocols have been used in countries that support euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide. Thiopental is a rapid and effective drug for inducing unconsciousness, since it causes loss of consciousness upon one circulation through the brain due to its high lipophilicity. Only a few other drugs, such as methohexital, etomidate, propofol, or fentanyl have the capability to induce anesthesia so rapidly. Supporters argue that since the thiopental is given at a much higher dose than for medically-induced coma protocols, it is effectively impossible for a patient to wake up. The average time to death once a lethal injection protocol has been started is about 5-18 minutes. Since it only takes about 30 seconds for the thiopental to induce anesthesia, 30-45 seconds for the pancuronium to cause paralysis, and about 30 seconds for the potassium to stop the heart, death can theoretically be attained in as little as 90 seconds. Given that it takes time to administer the drugs through an IV, time for the line to be flushed, time to change the drug being administered, and time to ensure that death has occurred, the whole procedure takes about 7-11 minutes. Procedural aspects in pronouncing death also contribute to delay and, therefore, the condemned is usually pronounced dead within 10 to 20 minutes of starting the drugs. Supporters of the death penalty say that a huge dose of thiopental, which is between 14-20 times the anesthetic induction dose and which has the potential to induce a medical coma lasting 60 hours, could never wear off in only 10 to 20 minutes. Death penalty supporters also refute the claim that the dose of pancuronium dilutes the pentothal dose. Instead, supporters argue that pancuronium and thiopental are commonly used together in surgery every day and if there were a dilution effect, it would be a known drug interaction. Supporters of the death penalty argue that even if the 100 mg of pancuronium directly prevented 500 mg of thiopental from working, there would be sufficient thiopental to induce coma for 50 hours. In addition, if this interaction did occur, then the pancuronium would be incapable of causing paralysis. Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, the Death Penalty Information Center, and other anti-death penalty groups, have not proposed a lethal injection protocol which they believe is more humane. Supporters of the death penalty argue that the lack of an alternative proposed protocol is testament to the fact that the humaneness of the lethal injection protocol is not the issue. Regardless of an alternative protocol, some death penalty opponents have claimed that execution can be more humane by the administration of a single lethal dose of barbiturate. Many supporters of the death penalty, however, state that the single drug theory is a flawed concept. Terminally ill patients in Oregon who have requested physician-assisted suicide have received lethal doses of barbiturates. The protocol has been highly effective in producing a humane death, but the time to cause death can be prolonged. Some patients have taken days to die, and a few patients have actually survived the process and have regained consciousness up to three days after taking the lethal dose. In a Californian legal proceeding addressing the issue of the lethal injection cocktail being "cruel and unusual," state authorities said that the time to death following a single injection of barbiturate is approximately 45 minutes. The position of death penalty supporters is that death should be obtained in a reasonable amount of time. In Hill v. Crosby, decided June 12, 2006, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that death-row inmates in the United States may challenge protocols used in the lethal injection process as potentially violating the Eighth Amendment's "cruel and unusual" punishment clause outside of a petition for a writ of habeas corpus. Clarence Hill had already exhausted all of his legal appeals through habeas corpus and filed a lawsuit claiming that lethal injection was a civil rights issue. The Supreme Court, in this ruling, did not decide whether lethal injection as currently practiced in the United States constitutes cruel and unusual punishment. The American Medical Association believes that a physician's opinion on capital punishment is a personal decision. Since the AMA is founded on preserving life, they argue that a doctor "should not be a participant" in executions in any form with the exception of "certifying death, provided that the condemned has been declared dead by another person." Amnesty International argues that the AMA's position effectively "prohibits doctors from participating in executions." The AMA, though, does not have the authority to prohibit doctors from participation in lethal injection, nor does it have the authority to revoke medical licenses, since this is the responsibility of the individual states. Typically, most states do not require that physicians administer the drugs for lethal injection, but many states do require that physicians be present to pronounce or certify death. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

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This article needs additional citations for verification . (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Sir Thomas Tobin (22 March 1807 – 9 January 1881) was a British merchant. He moved to Ballincollig in 1863 to become managing director of Ballincollig Royal Gunpowder Mills. He played an active part in the social and industrial life of Ballincollig and Cork until his death in 1881. Ballincollig is a satellite town to Cork city and the largest town in County Cork, Ireland. It is located approximately 9 km west of Cork city, beside the River Lee on the R608 regional road. In 2016 the population of the Ballincollig Electoral Division was 18,621. The nearest towns include Ballinora, Carrigrohane, Kilnaglory, Ovens, Killumney, Inniscarra, Blarney, and Tower. It is located beyond the green belt from the Cork city suburbs of Bishopstown and Wilton. Many people from Ballincollig commute to the city for work. It is a mainly residential town. Ballincollig Royal Gunpowder Mills was one of three Royal gunpowder mills that manufactured gunpowder for the British Government. Located in Ballincollig near Cork city in Ireland, the powder mills were originally opened in 1794 as a private enterprise, before being taken over by the British Government during the Napoleonic Wars. Cork is a city in south-west Ireland, in the province of Munster, which had a population of 125,657 in 2016. The Tobins were an important merchant family in Liverpool at a time when the city was rapidly expanding at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries. Thomas's grandfather, Patrick, was a native of Ireland and lived on the Isle of Man. Two of Patrick's sons, John and Thomas, became apprentice seamen and later master mariners. They both built their prosperity on the slave trade later branching into palm oil and ivory. They had estates in Africa which employed many black people. Liverpool is a city in North West England, with an estimated population of 491,500 in 2017. Its metropolitan area is the fifth-largest in the UK, with a population of 2.24 million in 2011. The local authority is Liverpool City Council, the most populous local government district in the metropolitan county of Merseyside and the largest in the Liverpool City Region. The Isle of Man, sometimes referred to simply as Mann, is a self-governing British Crown dependency in the Irish Sea between Great Britain and Ireland. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who holds the title of Lord of Mann and is represented by a lieutenant governor. Defence is the responsibility of the United Kingdom. Triangular trade or triangle trade is a historical term indicating trade among three ports or regions. Triangular trade usually evolves when a region has export commodities that are not required in the region from which its major imports come. Triangular trade thus provides a method for rectifying trade imbalances between the above regions. After the emancipation many of these slaves came to England, and it was not uncommon to see coloured people in Liverpool who bore a mark identifying them as having once been on the servitude of the Tobins. John became Mayor of Liverpool in 1819 and was knighted on the ascension of George IV to the throne. On 19 July 1821, George IV's Coronation Day, Prince's Dock was opened, and the Tobins ship, May, was the first ship which entered and in honour of the occasion she was exempted from paying Town or Dock Dues. George IV was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and King of Hanover following the death of his father, King George III, on 29 January 1820, until his own death ten years later. From 1811 until his accession, he served as Prince Regent during his father's final mental illness. On 6 June 1806, John's brother, Thomas, married Esther Watson, daughter of Richard Watson of Preston in Preston Church. They took up residence in Bold Street in Liverpool. At that time Bold Street had not become a shopping street but consisted of dwelling houses of well-to-do merchants, many of whom had their counting houses at the back. About halfway up the street Thomas Tobin, senior, lived in a fine house with a counting house behind. Thomas Tobin, senior, had a large family-six boys and six girls. The eldest of these were also called Thomas after his father and he was born on 22 March 1807, and was baptised in St. Peter's Church, Church Street, on 26 June 1807. Very little is known about the young Thomas upbringing, except, as the oldest son, he naturally became involved in his fathers business. Preston is a city and the administrative centre of Lancashire, England, on the north bank of the River Ribble. A counting house, or computing house is the building, room, office or suite in which a business firm carries on operations, particularly accounting. By a synecdoche, it has come to mean the accounting operations of a firm, however housed. The term is British in origin and is primarily used in the context of the 19th century or earlier periods. In 1833–34, Tobin and company of Liverpool purchased the dilapidated powder mills in Ballincollig from the British Board of Ordnance. Thomas junior was involved in inspecting the buildings before the purchase was concluded for £15,00. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The Board of Ordnance was a British government body. Established in the Tudor period, it had its headquarters in the Tower of London. Its primary responsibilities were 'to act as custodian of the lands, depots and forts required for the defence of the realm and its overseas possessions, and as the supplier of munitions and equipment to both the Army and the Navy'. The Board also maintained and directed the Artillery and Engineer corps, which it founded in the 18th century. By the 19th century, the Board of Ordnance was second in size only to HM Treasury among government departments. The Board lasted until 1855, at which point it was disbanded. With the renovation and the opening of the mills, Thomas junior was sent to Ballincollig by his father to become managing director of the mills. It seems unusual that Thomas, as the oldest son, was not kept in Liverpool to inherit the family in the business. But in the mid-1830s Thomas was the only son available to go to Ballincollig. One son had died at six months, a second was in the Army, a third was not yet twenty, while the fourth, James Aspinall, who later took over to Liverpool business, was only seventeen. It is clear Thomas took an active interest in the running of the mills, which grew rapidly. He is credited with making Ballincollig "almost a model village". In March 1806, on his retirement from his position as managing director, he was presented with "'a magnificent piece of plate' by the supervisors and workmen, a small token of their deep regret…. And of their gratitude for the kindness and humanity with which he always exercised his authority". Shortly after taking up his position as managing director in 1835, Thomas married Catherine Ellis, daughter of Lister Ellis of Crofthead, Cumberland, on 12 September 1835. They had one child, a son, Arthur Lionel, who was born in Ballincollig on 7 August 1837. Arthur became a lieutenant in the 23rd Royal Welch Fusiliers with whom he served in the Crimean War and in the Indian Mutiny. He was wounded in the thigh while fighting at the capture of Kaiserbogh, Lucknow (16 March 1858) and died on 12 October 1858. He was buried near Lucknow. Saddened by the death of their only son and child at 21 years of age, Tobin presented a stained glass window to St. Peter's Church, Carrigohane, to commemorate his son. He also presented a memorial to the Royal Welsh Fusiliers and endowed a boat in his son's name with the Royal National Lifeboat Institution of which Tobin himself was the local representative. Cumberland is a historic county of North West England that had an administrative function from the 12th century until 1974. It was bordered by Northumberland to the east, County Durham to the southeast, Westmorland and Lancashire to the south, and the Scottish counties of Dumfriesshire and Roxburghshire to the north. It formed an administrative county from 1889 to 1974 and now forms part of Cumbria. The Crimean War was a military conflict fought from October 1853 to February 1856 in which the Russian Empire lost to an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, Britain and Sardinia. The immediate cause involved the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land, which was a part of the Ottoman Empire. The French promoted the rights of Roman Catholics, while Russia promoted those of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the unwillingness of Britain and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense. It has widely been noted that the causes, in one case involving an argument over a key, have never revealed a "greater confusion of purpose", yet led to a war noted for its "notoriously incompetent international butchery". Lucknow is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, and is also the administrative headquarters of the eponymous district and division. It is the eleventh most populous city and the twelfth most populous urban agglomeration of India. Lucknow has always been known as a multicultural city that flourished as a North Indian cultural and artistic hub, and the seat of power of Nawabs in the 18th and 19th centuries. It continues to be an important centre of governance, administration, education, commerce, aerospace, finance, pharmaceuticals, technology, design, culture, tourism, music and poetry. Thomas and Catherine lived in Oriel House, Ballincollig, from 1835. But in the early 1850s he rented the castle in Ballincollig and intended to have it 'repaired and protected from further decay'. He also intended to have the grounds around it "tastefully planted". Instead, in the mid-1850s he seemed to live for a while in Bridepark, Ovens. However, after that he lived in the Oriel House until his death in 1881. Thomas and Catherine had a common interest in travel and in the antiquities of the middle and Near East. Thomas was elected member of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries, Copenhagen (1849), a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London (1853), and a member of the Royal Irish Academy (1869). Thomas and Catherine travelled to North Africa, the Levant and Palestine. In February 1856, he lectured in the Athenium (Opera House) on 'Egypt, Past and Present', an account of a visit Cairo and a journey along the Nile. He concluded that the Turkish empire was doomed and speculated on Egypt's future. George Kelleher has suggested, however, that while Thomas Tobin was an 'antiquarian and curio collector in the spirit of the Victorian age', his wife Catherine, 'was a far more considerable cultural figure'. Her interest in antiquaries led her to write two books, "Shadows of the East" (Longmans, 1855) and "The Land of Inheritance" (Quaritch, London, 1863), and to translate a third "Illustration of Discovries at Ninevth" (Longmans, 1859) by Paul-Émile Botta. Thomas was very involved in many aspects of the social and commercial life of the Cork area. He was patron of Carrigrohane Church of Ireland Primary School. He was also a Justice of the Peace as well as being Deputy Lieutenant of the county of the City of Cork. Like his father, who was a member of the Dock Committee in Liverpool, Thomas was a member of Cork Harbour Board. He had greatest influence during the 1850s when he was "one of the most active members" of the Executive Committee which organised the Cork Exhibition of 1852. He was also Secretary of the Police Committee, which organised security for the Exhibition. His carriage was one of the fifty which rode in the parade at the opening of the Exhibition Knighthood. The profits of the Cork Exhibition were used to build the Atheneum (Opera House). Thomas was President of the Atheneum and at its opening on 22 May 1855, he was knighted by the Lord Lieutenant. His Excellency, the Earl of Carlisle, said "In recognition of the services he has rendered for the institution, of the great esteem in which he was held by the citizens of Cork but particularly in reference for the vast goods and great benefits he has dispensed to the public in the conduct of the large manufactory at Ballincollig and especially for his kindness and humanity to the numerous workers over whom he has charge." Hospitals Thomas took an active interest in the management of a number of the city hospitals. Two of these were the Erinville Hospital and the Eglinton District Lunatic Asylum along the Lee Road. In 1874, he presided over a public meeting, which was called to organise a new hospital for Cork. This was "The County and City of Cork Hospital for Women and Children" which later became the Victoria Hospital. Thomas was elected to the permanent Committee of Management in 1877. He was appointed Honorary Treasurer and Secretary in 1878 and served in this capacity until his death in 1881. His wife, Lady Catherine, was a patroness of the Hospital for many years. Tobin's collection of Irish Bronze Age antiquities, that was mostly found in the area around Cork, was purchased by the British Museum in 1871. Thomas died on 9 January 1881. He had been sick for ten weeks with a gastric ulcer and his brother, James Aspinall, was present at his death. He was buried at Inniscarra Cemetery on 11 January. The Cork Examiner said on his death: "Much regret was felt at the announcement of the death of the courteous and popular gentleman, Sir Thomas Tobin. He was not a native of this city but for a long time had identified himself with it. By political conviction he was a Conservative but his opinions were always maintained in the courteous and least obtrusive manner and they detracted nothing from the esteem which his urbane manners and general kindness of disposition had won for him." (In his will he left effects in Ireland valued at £5,305.7s.2d.) After his death his wife, Lady Catherine, moved back to England, first to London and then to Eastham in Cheshire where James Aspinall lived. She died there on 23 April 1903, and was buried in Eastham. The memory of Sir Thomas Tobin is largely forgotten in Ballincollig today. Yet he played a very important part in the development of the town in the middle of the last century. He was for many years the managing director of one of the largest manufactories in the south of Ireland. He also played a very important part in the cultural life of Cork City at that time. His grave lies at the end of Inniscarra Graveyard. William Vesey-FitzGerald, 2nd Baron FitzGerald and Vesey was an Irish statesman. The River Lee is a river in Ireland. It rises in the Shehy Mountains on the western border of County Cork and flows eastwards through Cork, where it splits in two for a short distance, creating an island on which Cork's city centre is built, and empties into the Celtic Sea at Cork Harbour on the south coast, one of the largest natural harbours in the world. The catchment area of the River Lee is 1,253 km2. The long-term average flow rate of the River Lee is 40.4 Cubic Metres per second (m3/s) John Sobieski Stuart and Charles Edward Stuart were names used by John Carter Allen and Charles Manning Allen, two 19th-century brothers who are best known for their role in Scottish cultural history. As authors of a dubious book on Scottish tartans and clan dress, the Vestiarium Scoticum, they are the source of some current tartan traditions. James Gilhooly (1847–1916) was an Irish nationalist politician and MP. in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland as member of the Irish Parliamentary Party, from 1910 the All-for Ireland Party, who represented his constituency from 1885 for 30 years until his death, retaining his seat in eight elections. Ballincollig Castle is a Norman castle to the south of the town of Ballincollig, County Cork, Ireland built after the Norman invasion of Ireland. In its prime, the castle was inhabited by the Barrett family, who had control of the local area. The castle still stands today, albeit largely in ruin. The original keep still remains, as does most of the curtain wall and two towers. Oriel House is a hotel in the west end of the town of Ballincollig, County Cork, Ireland. It was built early in the 19th century to house administrating officers of the Ballincollig Gunpowder Mills site. Major General Liam Tobin was an officer in the Irish Army and the instigator of an Irish Army Mutiny in March 1924. During the Irish War of Independence, he served as an IRA intelligence officer for Michael Collins' Squad. Dripsey is a village in County Cork on the R618 regional road around 20 km west of Cork City. It is situated on a tributary of the River Lee, the Dripsey River. It is in the Catholic parish of Inniscarra. The Dripsey area hosts a Cork County Council water treatment plant, the Cork offices of the Environmental Protection Agency, and an award-winning garden center. The village has two pubs, and one shop - which also doubles as the post office. Dripsey has one primary school and one pre-school. Ephraim McDowel Cosgrave was an eminent Irish physician, antiquary and writer. David Richard Pigot PC, KC was one of the leading Irish judges of his time. His children included John Edward Pigot, a founder of the National Gallery of Ireland. John Milner Barry (1768–1822), was an Irish doctor. The Diocese of Cloyne is a Roman Catholic diocese in Ireland. It is one of six suffragan dioceses in the ecclesiastical province of Cashel. Following the resignation of bishop John Magee, the diocese was administered by its metropolitan, Dermot Clifford, until the installation of William Crean on 27 January 2013. The cathedral church of the diocese is St Colman’s Cathedral. Carrigrohane is a village and civil parish situated on the south bank of the River Lee to the west of the city of Cork in Ireland. It is connected by the Carrigrohane Straight, 4 miles (6.4 km) west of Cork and is also in the northeastern part of Ballincollig. It contains St Peter's Church of the Resurrection. In 1837, it had a population of 1921 inhabitants. Hannah Greg was an English woman significant in the early Industrial Revolution. While her husband Samuel Greg pioneered new ways of running a cloth mill, she supervised the housing and conditions of the employees, including the education of the child workers. The Gregs were considered enlightened employers for the time, and though in the 1830s the apprentice system was questioned, Quarry Bank Mill maintained it until her death. Sir Alfred Aspinall Tobin was a British lawyer and judge, who served as the Conservative Member of Parliament for Preston between 1910 and 1915. Catherine Tobin was a Victorian era author and artist who travelled with her husband and wrote books around the experiences as well as translator for a book on the area. Butler House is an 18th-century Georgian Dower house located in Kilkenny, Ireland. It is currently working as a 4-star hotel and conference centre. The 2010 Cork Premier Intermediate Hurling Championship was the seventh staging of the Cork Premier Intermediate Hurling Championship since its establishment by the Cork County Board in 2004. The championship began on 4 June 2010 and ended on 10 October 2010.

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Part 4 of 4 The Battle to the Death for Pure Honor Tomislav Sunic writes: In the eyes of the New Right, unlike continental Europeans, Anglo-Saxon peoples fail to perceive the importance of organic community and the primacy of political over economic factors. The excessive individualism of Anglo-Saxon society and a unique political theology of ‘secularised’ Protestantism resulted over a period of time in the subordination of traditional politics to unbridled economic expansion. (p. 57) The European New Right (ENR) condemns Western individualism, which it sometimes identifies with private market activity, and calls this individualism excessive, but in the end what the ENR rejects is Western individualism as such, which it traces ultimately to Christianity. It contrasts this individualism to the “organic” culture of traditional non-Western societies and to the pagan Greek and Roman worlds. But the individualism of the West is an incredibly difficult subject to understand, and not only because there are many definitions. The difficulty lies in the many forms of individualism manifested in Western history, both in different nations and in the course of time. There is a sense in which the individualism of the West increases over time, and that in ancient times, contrary to the ENR, it existed, though in a restricted way alongside strong collective norms. Western countries, in varying degrees, have retained certain collective norms through modern times despite the growth of individualism, and so the issue cannot be Western individualism versus Traditional collectivism, but what is the nature of the collective norms and the individualism we find in the West through time, which is a huge question still calling for study. Another difficulty is that individualism has taken on many intricate forms and degrees of intensity depending on the cultural sphere within which it has found expression, whether in heroic poetry, in the highly distinctive philosophical authors of ancient Greece, in the Roman legal persona, or in the 12th-century preoccupation with self-discovery, individual autobiography, evaluation and personal criticism, friendship and courtly love. Thinking in terms of “Western individualism versus Traditional collectivism” misses the immense richness of Western history and the extremely complex relationship between Western individualism and Western collectivism. In some ways, the Anglo world, and the Nordic world generally, have been more individualistic than other cultures within Western civilization, but only in some ways, particularly in the greater emphasis these cultures placed on individuals and their families making a living on their own in their separate farms or in religious and urban professions, rather than relying and living within more extended family networks, which were common in southern and eastern Europe. The Protestant religion, as Max Weber argued, both reflected and accentuated this Anglo-Nordic individualism, extending it further into the religious sphere, by breaking up many of the collective/authoritative beliefs and institutional practices of Catholicism and emphasizing the inner conscience of the individual. When the ENR condemns Western individualism, it has in mind particularly the Anglo capitalistic-Protestant version, which it traces ultimately to Christianity’s belief that all humans, regardless of race, sex, or culture, are of the same God, equally able to become Christians and obtain the blessings and forgiveness of Christ. But before Christianity there was the heroic individualism of Indo-Europeans and Homeric Greeks, and this was only the beginning of multiple, ever deepening forms of individualism in Western history. Individualism is an intrinsic characteristic of the West traceable to the horse-riding, heroic culture of pre-historic Indo-Europeans some five to six thousand years ago in the Pontic Steppes. This individualism finds its first literary expression in the heroic poetry of Homer, and in many poems, in Beowulf, Song of Roland, and the Sagas of Icelanders, Germans, Irish stories, written during the medieval era. There is a dynamic inherent to this individualism. Once it makes its appearance in the “first society” created by Europeans, the aristocratic culture of Indo-Europeans, it finds expression in multiple modes beyond the pursuit of personal honor in warfare. The material origins of this individualism are to be found in the unique lifestyle of Indo-Europeans, the riding of horses, the invention of wheeled vehicles in the fourth millennium BC, together with the efficient exploitation of the “secondary products” of domestic animals (dairy products, textiles, harnessing of animals), large-scale herding, and in the emphasis and opportunity of men to pursue recognition as singular warriors. But this material lifestyle per se could not have produced the state of being required for humans to become aware of themselves as beings capable of self-consciousness and the unique particularity of the I. This I only makes its appearance in history in an encounter with another I in which there is a struggle to the death for pure recognition. This struggle is the key to the understanding of the origins of Western individualism and the first society in Western history, a society which can be identified as the “Western state of nature.” Hegel was right, however, to argue against the notion that there was an actual “original state of nature” in which man was in possession of individual rights. Men had to acquire, to demonstrate their capacity for freedom and particularity, which is not something that is given to men naturally outside society, but can only be demonstrated, in the first instance, in a social “battle to the death for pure prestige” within a particular historical society. While Hegel rejected the notion of a state of nature, he did write about a first society in history in which men had the opportunity to fight to the death for pure prestige, and, in-through this opportunity, express themselves as humans self-conscious of themselves as individuals. He envisioned this society as the first human society. All interpreters of Hegel have followed him in this regard, believing that Hegel was speaking of humans generally, but when we realize that Hegel was familiar mostly with European history, and when we think carefully about what he says, and what we know today about the earliest Europeans, we can retroactively infer that the image Hegel had in mind of a “fight to the death for pure prestige” could only have been conceived in relation to the aristocratic society of Indo-Europeans, about which he read through his reading of Homer and other heroic stories from the Middle Ages. When we look carefully at what he says about this first society, it becomes clear that what Hegel had in mind was a society of aristocratic men in which the highest expression of one’s humanity came through the pursuit of great deeds, courageous acts, for the defense of one’s group, and for personal recognition. True recognition can only come from one’s peers and only in an aristocratic society do we find other men who are equally interested in honor and have the opportunity and the daring to strive for it, since they are not subservient to any one man but pride themselves on their aristocratic sense of free status. The first men of the West were aristocratic warriors living in bands in which the leader was first among equals and in which the highest deeds came through the performance of heroic acts. Heroism can only come in a struggle for recognition among aristocratic warriors who are equally willing to demonstrate their capacity to be free, which is the singularly defining trait of the aristocratic persona. What Hegel called a “struggle to the death for pure prestige” over and against the most powerful biological drives humans have for self-preservation and comfort, can only make historical sense in relation to the only society in history in which some men inhabited a lifestyle where such a struggle was seen as the most valued form of human affirmation. The master is the warrior who masters his fear of death and the slave is the human who gives in to this fear for the sake of preservation. It is in the risking of one’s life for the sake of recognition by another consciousness that humans first reach an awareness of themselves as beings who can self-determine their actions by struggling for an immaterial object, recognition by another consciousness. It is through this cultural practice that humans pried themselves loose from any external determination, becoming aware that they are conscious beings different from all external determinations, by choosing to act for an immaterial goal of their own choosing. This struggle with another aristocratic consciousness, contrary to Hegel’s emphasis on the master-slave dialectic, is the important dialectic, the master-master struggle to the death for honor; only the recognition that comes from another master can satisfy the master both in the struggle with another master, and in the recognition obtained from his peers. Man shows himself capable of being free and able to determine himself by acting according to his immaterial goals, and it is only thus that man distinguishes himself from his naturalistic self and becomes aware of himself as an individual. It is at this point that the I first makes its appearance, though in an undeveloped, capricious, and high strung way. Only when humans achieve self-consciousness of this I, do we witness the first personalities in history. A sense of one’s individuality, an awareness that one can reflect about what is accepted, what the body demands, and separate oneself from such determinations, is the basis of all true knowledge, the source of creativity. Humans do not have a naturally given capacity for individualism. To this day all non-Western peoples lack self-awareness of themselves as humans with individuality, which explains the lack of creativity in the Oriental and African realm. The individuality that appears in prehistorical times with Indo-Europeans and Homeric heroes is characterized by caprice, insatiable willfulness; it is berserker-like, barbaric, not rational. Tracing the development of this individualism in the history of the West is extremely difficult and requires alongside it a history of the collectivism surrounding or co-existing with these forms of individualism. So, for example, if one were to write about the unique presence of a middling class of farmers in ancient Greece and Rome, and in many regions of medieval Europe, of individually-owned family farms, in contrast to the collective forms of ownership of the East, one would be amiss if one were to ignore the collective ties of kinship, collective beliefs, social and agricultural activities that were performed in common. Ancient Greek Lyricists It should be stated, for the sake of argument and illustration, regarding the dynamic impetus underlying Western individualism, that once self-consciousness appeared among Indo-European aristocrats, however undeveloped the sense of I was still among the Homeric Greeks, there was an inherent dynamic for new forms of individualism to emerge beyond the sphere of heroic warfare. As early as the seventh century BC, ones sees a new form of personal expression with the rise of lyrical poetry. Bruno Snell writes that, in this lyrical poetry, we see “the rise of the individual,” but already in Homer one can discern an individualist ethos and a sense of the I in contradistinction to the non-I . Still, Snell can be employed to show that in this lyrical poetry we witness the rise of a new form of individualism, beginning with the poet Archilochus, who not only broke with the dominance of the hexameter in Homer and Hesiod, but with the demands of heroic honor, admitting (in a still very warlike culture) that he had thrown away his shield in a flight — “I can get another just as good.” Men can have different goals in life other than the pursuit of glory in violent warfare. The lyricist Simonides soon followed with a new hedonistic poetry that vindicated the individual’s right to sensual happiness, lamented the shortness of human life, and challenged the ideal of a short heroic life. Sappho (born sometime between 630 and 612 BC), for her part, emphasized the internal, inner feelings of the soul over and against such external and popular sights as parades of horsemen, soldiers, and ships. Some say an army of horsemen is the fairest thing on the black earth, others an army of footsoldiers, and others a navy of ships — but I say the fairest thing is one I love. She wrote of her beloved Kleis, “I would not exchange her for all the Lydian lands.” With these lyricists, Snell says, the “emergence of the poet as individuals” is evident. Greek lyricists “announce their own names; speak about themselves and become recognizable as personalities” (44). Again, we can disagree with Snell that these lyrical poets were the first to become “conscious of their individuality,” but we can agree that they were the first to express a lyrical form of individuality. Now, Snell does not pretend that these lyricists were free floating individuals producing art out of their isolated selves. Their poetry was dependent on collective “pre-literary forms which have existed in all cultures at all times, such as dancing songs, cult hymns, working songs and the like.” What matters is that in contrast to the Orient and all other traditional cultures, these lyricists were recognizable as individuals even as they drew from a strong collective background. Nordic Individualism and Collectivism, and WASP Ethnic Collectivism In fairness to the ENR, this school emphasizes the commercialized Anglo variant of individualism, and identifies the West with it, because the Anglo side has been the most expansive in the modern era, spreading into the United States and the territories we now call Canada and Australia. With the Cold War, there is no question the United States took on the role of the protector of this form of Western freedom, which it identified with the West itself, even if most of the time Americans supported authoritarian governments to fight Communism. Nevertheless, notwithstanding the Protestantism of Nordic countries, these countries have combined since ancient times a strong collectivist identity with a strong sense of individualism . This individualism in ancient/medieval times was quite aristocratic in its heroic ethos, and yet Nordic societies were simultaneously quite democratic and collectivist. Historians have thus written about the “dual aspect” of early Icelandic Viking society. The two contradictions of Viking culture, passion for power and ability to organize against excessive domination (individualism and craving for equality), shaped the masterpiece that was the ancient social organization and community of Icelandic aristocratic democracy . This Nordic individualism, therefore, cannot be counter-posed to the egalitarian spirit that was also present throughout the Scandinavian world in ancient and medieval times. Scholars have indeed traced the roots of the contemporary “Nordic model” of capitalism and socialism to this “dual aspect” of ancient Scandinavian times. This Nordic model, before the contemporary imposition of diversity, can be very broadly defined as involving a set of economic and social policies that include a universal welfare state, common to Denmark, Finland, Norway, Iceland, and Sweden, though there are important variations, combined with a strong emphasis on free market capitalism, individual family orientation, as well as collective bargaining, and a corporatist form of government. The collectivism of these countries has also been characterized (mind you, again, until the recent imposition of mass immigration devoid of open democratic consent), by a strong sense of ethnic identity . Individualism, egalitarianism, and a strong sense of ethnic identity, are not incompatible but quite unique not only to the Nordic world, but to the West generally. The breakdown of the collective identity were are witnessing today is best identified as a product of recent ideological developments, which can be quickly identified under the headings of Leftist multiculturalism and American neoconservatism. But even in the case of the “unbridled” economic individualism of American Protestant culture it would be a stretch to attribute current trends, the disintegration of the European character of America, to the excessive individualist ethos of WASP Americans as such. The inability of the ENR’s conceptual framework to explain what has transpired in America in recent decades goes back to the point I made in Part One: this school is dated in having developed intellectually in reaction to the Cold War; it is now making a major mistake in its continued opposition to Western modernity and its excessive admiration for traditionalism. As a counterpoise to the ENR’s animosity for American individualism, I recommend Kevin MacDonald’s assessment of the relationship between the ideals of the Enlightenment, offered in his review essay entitled “Eric P. Kaufmann’s The Rise and Fall of Anglo-America .” MacDonald criticizes Kaufmann’s argument that Anglo-Americans simply took the “ideals of the Enlightenment to their logical conclusion” in giving up their ethnic hegemony and sense of collective identification with America, opening the United States to Third World immigration after 1965 and celebrating diversity. MacDonald effectively shows that American WASP culture long combined a strong sense of ethnic identification with a tendency, in his words, “toward individualism and all of its implications: individual rights against the state, representative government, moral universalism, and science.” He well recognizes “the strong strands of American culture that have facilitated” mass immigration, and how Anglo-American individualism, with its “relative lack of ethnocentrism,” facilitated more radical notions of individualism in the 1960s that were completely opposed to any notion of America as an Anglo-European nation. But he does not thereby condemn the individualism of America’s original WASP culture, not even its universalism and rationalism, aware that these cultural currents have been the driving forces behind America’s economic and scientific dynamic. Equally important, he carefully shows that Americans, for all their individualism, were quite explicit in their ethnic attachments through their history until radically novel notions about the meaning of individualism and universalism began to spread in the 1960s. We know about the sociological analysis MacDonald has offered about the spread of this radical, one might even say, non-Western, cultural Marxist notion of individualism and universalism, which are in fact destroying the real sense of individualism and universal rationalism Europeans have lived by for thousands of years in diversifying ways across the many national cultures of Europe. We need more careful sociological analyses about the corruption of Western individualism and rationalism by certain hostile forces that grew in power and influence throughout the West after WWII. Focusing on cultural Marxism rather than Western Civilization allows one a better understanding of these hostile forces. Cultural Marxism should not be restricted narrowly to the works of the Frankfurt School, but should be defined to include almost the entire intellectual experience of the West after WWII, as expressed in multiple ways, sometimes imperceptibly or indirectly, and many times overtly and militantly, in a variety of schools, texts, thinkers, and philosophies, such as Structuralism , Phenomenological Social Science , Feminism, Foucauldian Discourse Analysis , Deconstruction , Ethnomethodology , Dependency Theory , World Systems Theory , History from Below , Theory of Communicative Action , Critical Race Theory , and Liberalism. All of these schools have a common underlying motivation to “liberate” Western societies, to look at the Western past as a history of oppression and exclusions, in need of improvement, to develop a new way of communication free from the coercive speech acts of the past, to integrate different races within one culture and promote the value of other cultures, to provincialize the place of Western civilization, devaluate its achievements, make the West multicultural, engage in constant criticism of any perceived discrimination against minorities, overcome the gap between rich and poor nations, value the voice of marginalized groups, deconstruct the logocentric voice of white privileged males. While there are lines of continuation between these currents and the intellectual history of the West, which may be traced as far back as ancient Greek philosophy and certainly back to Christianity, and to the Enlightenment, it would be quite a stretch to pretend that these currents of thought sprang automatically, were already implicit, and did not require intense intellectual effort, multiple intellectual novelties, voluminous writings, many thinkers, vast amounts of research and institutional support, to reach the point where they are now.

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Evolutionists assure us all life, just as we know it today, EVOLVED, ever so GRADUALLY. But IF it did, HOW did it? Here is a baffling creature for evolutionists to gasp over — the ugly LUNGfish. He's a FISH, and yet he breathes air into a set of perfect LUNGS, and more than that, he ESTIVATES. Read how this strange-breathing creature fogs up evolutionists' glasses! ALONE AFRICAN probed intently in the dry, cracked mud of the empty lake bed. Stopping suddenly, he grinned hugely, showing white, gleaming teeth. He began digging carefully, removing surrounding mud from a lumpy clod of earth. He placed it in the hide bag at his side, and, whistling cheerfully, began the long walk back to the village, and his hut. He would eat well tonight, he thought, as he felt the weight of the four blobs of drying, caked mud in his bag. Whaaaaat? An African native eating MUD? No. Lungfish. These strange creatures look somewhat like an eel, and spend their Eves in the lakes and mud Rats of South America and Africa. They have the remarkable ability to ESTIVATE — that is, to lie dormant for months and even years, at a time in dry mud, waiting for the next rainy season to again fill their shallow lake with water. They are sought by natives, dug from their muddy cocoons, and eaten as a great delicacy. There is also one species of lungfish in Australia, but it cannot estivate. But HOW could these other five species of lungfish "gradually acquire" such a fantastic ability? How could ESTIVATION be acquired gradually? How did a fish ever contrive to grow a pair of LUNGS? The questions this strange creature evokes breathe a few shadows of doubt over the theories of evolutionists. The Air-breathing Fish ir-breathing fish are not very common. But there are five living species of fish that do it. They're the lungfish of South America and Africa, ranging In size from one recorded giant of six feet in length, and weighing one hundred pounds, to others with maximum sizes of about 2 1/2 feet. They're strange-appearing creatures, with strange habits. The strangest of all is that they "estivate," which is a long, dormant sort of "hibernation," except different and more extreme. The pictures accompanying this article show the fish emerging in caked, muddy profile as he is chipped out of his muddy, dry-season habitat. It is claimed by evolutionists these fish GRADUALLY grew a set of lungs, and gradually acquired the ability to lie dormant in DRY GROUND, for MONTHS at a time. Notice! "Lungfishes belong to the ancient order of the dipnoans — fishes with both gills and lungs. They date back... to the middle of the Devonian, when ponds and streams began to dry up and many fishes died. "The lungfishes were not only able to breathe air, but to travel from mud puddle to mud puddle on paddle-like fins. EVENTUALLY they acquired the ability to lie dormant in the mud, where they waited for the seasonal rains" (The Fishes, F. D. Ommanney and the Editors of LIFE, p. 77, emphasis mine throughout). But HOW do such remarkable abilities — such intricate designs — just "evolve" gradually? Again I ask, IF our minds are the end PRODUCT of what evolution insists is a logical process, then shouldn't our LOGICAL MINDS be able to understand, quite easily, the process by which they came into being? Let's ask a few logical questions, then, about the lungfish. What's Simple About Breathing? ver study into lungs' Most people never have. Most don't know much about their own breathing process — and very few try to develop better lungs, and breathing habits. But we take breathing for g ranted. Until we're deprived of air! Almost daily, we might exclaim, "I'm SMOTHERING in here — son, open the window!" or, "This room is stifling, and I can hardly breathe, let's get some AIR in here!" But most of the time we take breathing pretty much for granted. Witness the millions who daily pollute their lungs with tars, nicotine, bits of burnt paper, and other waste material — all for the sensual pleasure of satisfying a bodily craving for a drag. But don't ask the smoker to run that mile for his favorite cigarette — he may fall down in racking, sobbing fits of coughing — or simply drop dead from a heart attack! There's nothing SIMPLE about lungs, and breathing. First, breathing is a combination of voluntary action, and INvoluntary action. MOST of the time, you're not really "conscious" of the fact you're breathing. But, whenever you must, as in swimming, Or other activity — you can hold your breath — sometimes even up to a minute or more. But much longer than that, and, unless you're a trained pearl diver, you will DIE! How could such a marvelous mechanism as the LUNG, with its millions of tiny globules of thin membrane, or "air sacs" with the labyrinth of air tubes, sensory nerves, interlocking arteries and blood vessels, bronchial tubes, esophagus, and the like, develop GRADUALLY? Are there any HALF-LUNGS or HALF-gills around today? Are there any PARTLY functional lungs, and PARTLY functional gills? Let's dwell on that just a moment. Evolutionists enjoy asserting their processes cannot be OBSERVED in action, because they require such INFINITE LENGTHS OF TIME. They speculate various human organs, such as the appendix, or tonsils, are "carryovers" from some remote time, and are ever so subtly and gradually on their way out today. They use prodigious amounts of TIME to dodge behind when asked why we can't SEE evolution IN ACTION. But let's use some of the logic that appeals to our minds. No Intermediate Species Remember, there are no such things as IMPERFECT, or only HALF-efficient lungs today! No lungfish has a PART lung or part gill. No fish has a PART gill, or one that is functioning imperfectly. Every creature, whether breathing through lungs, wherever located, and however shaped or arranged; whether "absorbing" through skin, or producing through gills, must exist on OXYGEN. Somehow, by whatever means, they MUST "BREATHE." There is NO SUCH THING as an imperfect, partly developed, halfway method of receiving that oxygen supply. Each creature, in order to survive, EVEN MOMENTS, OR MINUTES, OR HOURS, must continually recharge his supply of life-giving oxygen! If evolution COULD POSSIBLY be true, then where are the MILLIONS upon MILLIONS of transitional creatures, all of which would be, at various steps in the imaginary evolutionary "trees." only PART this, or PART that? Where is there such a thing as a PART feather, part scale? Where is a PART gill? Or a part lung? There is no such thing as an IMPERFECT, or partly formed, or inadequate, gill. Either it produces air for the fish, and the fish SURVIVES, or it does not. If it does NOT, then the fish never existed. If it does, then the fish existed, and SURVIVED, whatever the span of time that survival took. And, supposing (which is not true) there WAS such a thing as an imperfect breathing apparatus — and the fish could only live for a certain number of hours or days — which would be EASIER? To develop BETTER GILLS? To develop LUNGS? Still better, why not "gradually" develop a much shorter life cycle, mate, spawn, and die all within a few hours and Jet the eggs become entrapped in the mud, and hatch when the rains begin once again, But none of these occur. Yet, in each case, if evolution could possibly be true anyone of these would be far easier than the guesswork evolution advances about the lung fish. Ridiculous! Any such development (which is impossible) would have to OCCUR IMMEDIATELY — on the SPLIT SECOND — on the INSTANT, or the fish perished. But if it perished instantly, then where did it come from? What were its ancestors like? How DID THEY SURVIVE? But they DID, you say? BUT HOW? Did they have GOOD gills? If so, then they were surviving, And if they were surviving, and passing along the same characteristics for survival to their offspring, then their offspring would look just like they did, and would be surviving in the same way, and there was NO NEED TO CHANGE. Confusing, isn't it? There are no such creatures living today — nor is there a shred of proof in the prodigious evidence from fossil life that any such creatures EVER lived! But think further. If evolution has a GASP of a chance to be true, there would HAVE to be far more of those halfway creatures than the "more advanced" ones! As I have mentioned from time to time on The WORLD TOMORROW program, IF there were such a thing as evolution, then we should have to observe, somewhere in the world today, an august body of men whose duty it was to "decide" who may belong to the HUMAN family, and who must remain in trees! There would be thousands of creatures who would be PART this, and part that. They would be even more bizarre, weird, and ugly, in most cases, than some of the creatures that DO exist today. And who would FORM such a group? And what if all nations did not subscribe to it? And what if some of these strange "half-and-half" creatures decided to REBEL, and try to TAKE OVER the governments of this earth? Let the science fiction writers ponder that one. But no such creatures exist. Nor did they, ever. Again, remember — if the "intermediate" species (which are MISSING in the fossil record) are MISSING because they were not so well "equipped to survive" then it would naturally follow there would be FAR MORE of such creatures in the fossils than the "equipped" or "fully developed" ones. Why? Why, simply because if they were not equipped to survive, they all died. And if they all died, there would be billions and billions of them, because there had to be enormously more intermediate stages than the "final" or "well-developed" ones. Therefore, the fossil record would be reversed! Instead of perfectly formed fossils, looking, in most cases, EXACTLY like life on earth today, and NO INTERMEDIATE SPECIES — the fossils would ABOUND with "intermediate" species; half this and half that, and would be almost VACANT of the "developed species." As as a matter of fact, scientists would be bedazzled, confused, and bewildered in trying to CATEGORIZE such creatures, and would NOT KNOW which would be the "terminal" or "complex" and which would be the "simple." Remember, to LIVE AT ALL, is to SURVIVE! Whether a tiny insect, surviving for only moments or hours along a stream or lake, and then falling into the water, its brief life cycle finished, or a slithery lizard, lazing in the sun for nearly a millennium, living — for whatever brief or longer span of time — IS SURVIVING! One of the most obvious, simple, and shockingly damaging evidences against evolutionary thought is the total ABSENCE of intermediate species living or dead. But let's go back to the lungfish, and the quote you read from an author concerning his remarkable ability. If He Did — HOW DID HE? Remember, we read, "The lungfishes were not only able to breathe air, but to travel from mud puddle to mud puddle on paddle-like fins. EVENTUALLY they acquired the ability to lie dormant in the mud, where they waited for the seasonal rains." But how did the ancestors of lungfish FIRST BECOME ABLE to "breathe air?" Evolutionists tell us they simply began to "gulp air." The air they swallowed — WE are expected to swallow — passed through the intestinal tract and was regurgitated. Or the air may have simply been gulped so that oxygen would be absorbed through the moist skin in the mouth and throat. Later, these prelungfish developed this new breathing idea into "lungs." But that isn't the end of this fishy story. Some of these fish with lungs, we are told, were the ancestors of birds and mammals — by way of the amphibians and reptiles. And for those that decided to remain in water, this "lung" became an air float by which fishes improved their swimming. One author, realizing the fanciful ring to these notions, apologetically exclaimed, "Even if we could have been on the scene when the fishes developed lungs, we could scarcely have predicted the ultimate significance of the invention" (The Fishes! Uri Lanham, page 32). Proof for this? None, of course. But we are assured, lungfishes were "able to breathe air." That's remarkable. So am I. As a matter of fact, I was born with a perfect set of lungs, and, though I don't remember it, began breathing from birth. I've been doing it ever since. I hope to continue for a long time — so long as oxygen is my life's source! But, when you read quickly a sketchy account of how this or that is supposed to have "occurred" in the evolutionary scheme of things, you just sort of pass over quickly some MIGHTY IMPORT ANT POINTS. In scholarly "words" it all sounds almost appealing. But when you really focus on the problem, and ask a few logical questions, it's a different matter. To be ABLE TO BREATHE is a miraculous, fantastic, incredible, intricate, perfectly designed, thought-out, planned, CREATED process. It is a MARVEL! To simply toss aside in One brief thought that a fish was "able to breathe" is entirely too simple for the truly marvelous process of breathing. There is no explanation of HOW the lungfish came to possess his breathing capacity. Nor could there ever be, in evolution. But this is only the beginning of the problem. We are assured this strange creature was able to TRAVEL — OVERLAND, from mud puddle to mud puddle on paddlelike fins. All right, HOW was he? How did he LOCATE the next puddle' Did he have some built-in navigational equipment? Did he have super SMELL? How was he able to tell the next puddle was going to be DEEPER than the one he left, and therefore would LAST LONGER? And why travel, anyway? If he is able to ESTIVATE, which he is, then when his own puddle began going dry, he would simply ESTIVATE, and not bother dragging his tail a mile or two over sticks, rocks, moss, dirt, leaves, snakes, and all other objects, to the next puddle, would he? And why expose himself to every sort of predator? Here he is, dragging himself along over dry land — in search of another puddle. But, to really create the story, let's try to IMAGINE the trip of the VERY FIRST LUNGFISH in all history. Remember, if lungfish EVOLVED, then somewhere, sometime, there had to be that VERY FIRST excursion from puddle to puddle — that very FIRST breathing spell. That very FIRST attempt at estivation. Introducing "Gaspy, the Hitchalong, Dragalong, Whatchamadoodle" So again, let's go back — WAY, way, way back in time, to the saga of the first puddle-hopping trip of the "gasping, hitchalong, dragalong watchamadoodle." Here he is — breathing in racking sobs. He's a slithery, long, muddy, air-breathing fish, wriggling feebly in a gooey, slimy mud bog. He knows his skin will soon dry out (please don't keep asking embarrassing questions through this story, like, "But how did he first begin breathing?" or, "But why not just ESTIVATE where he was?!! or, "Why not just DRY OUT, AND STAY ON LAND?" Because you'll only confuse the story!) So Gaspy, the you-know-what, rears his head a full inch and a half, and begins his wearisome journey. He's headed for a deeper puddle. So he paddles, struggles, wriggles to the thickest mud, and begins slowly clawing, er, finning, his way across the cracking edge of the mud bog, onto the dry ground, and across the forbidding terrain. Have you ever seen what a dry, desert-like environment looks like from about one half inch above it? Even a small twig can be a forbidding obstacle! One to take even a big lungfish's breath! But he crawls along. How far to go? Which direct ion to head? How does he know there will be greener pastures, wetter water, ahead somewhere? WHY does he get the urge to go in the first place' Please! No more questions! Overhead, a few hours later, an evil shape swirls down, down, In ever narrowing spirals. How about that! There, stretched out on the sand, miles from nowhere — having departed the only dependable mud bog in twenty miles, lies Gaspy — stone cold, er, hot, dead! The buzzard lands — and begins his meal. So none of the original lungfishes survive. Out of their bog, crawling along on land, some are eaten by predators. Others get lost, and struggle along into the desert, finally drying out completely, and dying of extreme exposure and dehydration. Others return to the bog they left — only to find it dried out, and too hard to burrow into, and, too late to estivate, they die on the bog shore. Still others decide NOT to go looking for wetter water — but to stay where they are! But, FORSOOTH (or GASP, maybe?), they haven't yet EVOLVED the remarkable ability to estivate! And when the water is all gone, they DIE! So, exit Gaspy, the hitchalong, dragalong, whatchamadoodle — who never existed anyway. You see, the creatures COULD NOT HAVE KNOWN THERE WOULD EVER BE another rainy season, anyway! Because if they FIRST EXISTED in such a climate — when YEARLY patterns were pretty much like they are now, then they had to be doing exactly as they're doing now — or didn't survive! But if they lived in an extremely WET area, without seasonal drying, and seasonal monsoons, then they would have to have developed the ability to ESTIVATE, or to SURVIVE the dry seasons when the VERY FIRST one came along. That means, in a matter of days or weeks! DID they? Evolution answers this would be impossible' Then did some weird MUTATION occur? Did some ancient lungfish just happen to give birth to a little one that LOVED THE MUD? Did he PASS THIS ON to his descendants? Then why didn't they just GO ASHORE, and STAY there? Why didn't they just evolve into a snake, or a — lizard — and live under a rock? No — the word, "eventually" will not fit, when it comes to "acquiring the ability" to lie dormant in the mud, and wait for another rainy season] But this is really only a part of the many problems evolutionists have with Gaspy! Perfectly Equipped to Do What He's Doing You see, the lungfish is PERFECTLY designed for his specific job in his own environment. Let's take one of the African lungfish species for example. When the dry seasons come to the Congo Basin, or the Gambia River, or the equatorial rivers of East Africa, the fish squirms into the ooze nose-first, and then turns back upward, so his nose can be just below the surface, and close enough to breathe, now and then. But the lake gradually sinks in level, the fish keeps squirming further down into the thickening mud, until his repeated surfacing for a breath creates a sort of cavity, or little air bubble in the mud, which, as it hardens, is kept open on top by the fish's wriggling and breathing. As the water dries up completely, the fish can continue to breathe through a little blow hole at the top of the bulblike cavity, without moving. Meanwhile, it has curled in such a way as to cover its delicate eyes with its slimy tail, with only its nose peeking out. Its body has been specially equipped with a slimy, gooey secretion, like mucous. As the muddy cocoon dries, this slime hardens into a parchment-like, WATERPROOF cocoon that completely encases the body, so that the only opening remaining is a short little funnel where the fish is breathing. But the lungfish, though he breathes, and estivates in remarkable fashion, is NOT an ordinary "air-breathing mammal." If unwrapped from his parchment-like covering and his muddy cocoon, he will die within only hours] During his estivation period, the fish lives off his own fat] His whole body metabolism slows down to a near standstill, with his breathing rate becoming slower and slower. Believe it or not, he may take only one breath EVERY FEW HOURS in the deepest part of his estivation period. His little heart slows down to three beats a minute! Now, in an arid, dry, cracked lake bed, this strange creature is able to remain safely ensconced in his parchment wrapping for up to SEVEN LONG YEARS! Eventually, the rains come. And, with the rains, the lake bed fills with water. As the water first drains into the blowhole, and fills the bulbous air pocket, the fish is unable to breathe. The sudden cutting off of his oxygen supply causes him to awaken, and make convulsive efforts to free himself. The tail uncurls from the head, and the fish struggles upward. As the water immediately softens the top of his delicate blowhole, and the fish is now smaller than the size of his original cavity after the long fast, he immediately swims to the surface for air, and then goes about his search for tiny plant and insect life in his lake once again. And all this EVOLVED? Ridiculous! Impossible! No, like ANY creature you could study, from tiny gnat to huge sperm whale, the lungfish is PERFECTLY designed to do exactly as he is doing — designed for a specific environment, a particular place in the delicate balance in what man likes to call "nature." This strange creature is only one more example among MILLIONS of the fantastic THOUGHT, the painstaking DESIGN, the incredible INTRICACY, and Interdependability that goes into every living creature! There exists a Great DESIGNER! A Great LIFEGIVER! A GREAT CREATOR! He is GOD — YOUR GOD And He says: "Because that which may be known of God is manifest in them; for God hath shewed it unto them. For the invisible things of him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and Godhead; so that they are without excuse"! (Romans 1:19-20.) That means, by LOOKING AT WHAT HAS BEEN CREATED, what has been DESIGNED, what LIVES all around you! God holds out SOLID EVIDENCE of His existence! He says you can PROVE He exists — not only by the breathtaking marvel! all around you in this complex world, but by the fulfilled PROPHECIES of His word! It's time you saw the awesome mind and power of YOUR GOD! It's time you began to TALK to that God, and FIND Him in this world of political assassination, sickness, poverty, riot and war! It's time you got on your knees, and worshipped, in awe and love, your own Designer, Life-giver and Creator!

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Few today acknowledge the role of religion in the development of modern science and technology. But scholars have shown that religion has actively contributed to the rise of modern science. Joseph Satish sat down to discuss this and other matters with the award-winning historian and philosopher of science, Job Kozhamthadam. Kozhamthadam is one of a unique breed of scholars who specialize in the history and philosophy of science – unique, because he also happens to be a Catholic Jesuit priest. His journey from a young boy in a nondescript town in South India to being acclaimed as a pioneer in the history of science and religion in India is interesting and inspiring. Kozhamthadam is a Professor of Science and Cosmology at Jnana Deepa Vidyapeeth, Pune, India. He was previously a Visiting Professor in the History and Philosophy of Science at Loyola University, Chicago. He completed his PhD in the History and Philosophy of Science at the University of Maryland, College Park, USA. His first book, The Discovery of Kepler’s Laws: The Interaction of Science, Philosophy, and Religion (University of Notre Dame Press, 1994) was named Outstanding Academic Book of the Year 1994 by Choice Magazine. His other books include East-West Interface Of Reality: A Scientific And Intuitive Inquiry Into The Nature Of Reality (2003), Science, Technology And Values: Science-Religion Dialogue In A Multi-Religious World (2003) and Science, Mysticism And East-West Dialogue (2016). He founded the Indian Institute of Science and Religion (IISR) in 1999. –Joseph Satish (University of Hyderabad, India) JOSEPH SATISH: When did you first encounter the Jesuits in your life? JOB KOZHAMTHADAM: My first encounter with Jesuit priests began around 1960 when I joined an apostolic school in Allepey (a town in the south Indian state of Kerala). This school was run by the Jesuits and I took a liking to them very quickly – they seemed very different from the Diocesan priests I knew previously. I think I liked them because of their depth of knowledge and breadth of information. SATISH: When did you decide to become a Jesuit yourself? KOZHAMTHADAM: I am inclined to say that many of the important decisions and events in my life came as surprises, which I believe were guided by the Holy Spirit. In the Syro-Malabar tradition of the Catholic Church in Kerala, it was very common for the first son in the family to become a priest. However, my family did not tell me to become one. In primary school, I was good at my studies and one of my teachers in the fourth standard took a special interest in me. She used to call me after class and suggest to me that I become a priest because she felt that I had something within me which I could use to contribute to society. Incidentally, the teacher happened to be a niece of Blessed Kunjachen (a priest who worked for the welfare of oppressed Dalits in Kerala and who was beatified by the Pope in 2006). When I was about to complete high school and had to decide about continuing my Jesuit training for the priesthood, I chose to remain with the Jesuits and joined the novitiate. I was instructed to join the Patna province in the north Indian state of Bihar to be trained by the American Jesuits who had come to India as missionaries from Missouri, Chicago and Detroit. SATISH: When and how did you get interested in studying the history and philosophy of science? KOZHAMTHADAM: The American Jesuits in Patna were strict alright, but they were open minded and liberal. They also helped me discover some of my talents. I was surprised to find I had leadership qualities when I was made the beadle (leader) of the novices, even though I was the youngest among them. I also became more curious; whenever I saw something that I could not explain, I tried to understand and explain it. I think I always liked physics because I thought it helped to unlock the mysteries of nature. So I opted for Physics in my undergraduate degree and stood first in the University of Ranchi in 1969. My superiors decided to send me for my Master’s in Physics, even before I did my training in philosophy. After finishing my Master’s and then philosophy training in Pune, I realized that I had an aptitude for physics – astronomy, in particular. Later, I went to Delhi for my training in theology and began exploring possibilities for pursuing doctoral studies in physics. One of the priests who knew me well, and knew of my performance as a student of philosophy and of science, asked me if I had thought of blending the two. He suggested that merging these two could be a novel way to make a contribution as a priest. I did have an interest in exploring the interface between science and religion, but his suggestion got me thinking about whether I could pursue this. So I decided against pursuing a PhD in Physics. In the meantime, the seminary in Pune was looking for someone to teach the philosophy of science and cosmology. So even as a scholastic, I began teaching basic science and the philosophy of science to my younger scholastic-companions in the seminary. Soon after I was ordained as a Jesuit priest, I was sent by my superiors to the United States to pursue a PhD in the history and philosophy of science in 1978. SATISH: How was your experience of studying in the US? KOZHAMTHADAM: I first did my Master’s in History and Philosophy of Science at the University of Notre Dame in the US. It was the 1980s and I encountered three main schools in the history and philosophy of science – logical positivism, historicism and historical realism – each with its own group of opponents and proponents. I was keen to pursue my PhD in a university department where the staff also had a background in physics like me. Given this criterion, my first choice was University of Maryland, College Park. I was selected and offered a generous scholarship. Those days, only a handful of universities offered a doctoral program in the history and philosophy of science and I was delighted to get in there. The university facilities and the department faculty helped me to do well in my studies, and also to maintain my interest in the interface between science and religion. Studying in the Washington, DC area was also a great learning experience. SATISH: What led you to pursue your doctoral research on Johannes Kepler? (Johannes Kepler [1571-1630] was a German mathematician and astronomer best known for his laws of planetary motion, which were one of the foundations for Isaac Newton’s [1642-1727] theory of universal gravitation. KOZHAMTHADAM: I was intrigued by Kepler and his discoveries. In one sense, Kepler’s laws were the first scientific laws to be discovered in the era of “modern science”. Besides being a pioneer of empirical science, he also had strong philosophical and religious interests. Around the time I was in Maryland, I read some brief papers which suggested that Kepler had to use all three – empirical data, philosophical ideas and religious inputs – to make his discoveries. This got me thinking and I began reading the many volumes of archived material about and by Kepler. As I was reading and reflecting on this, sure enough I realized that I had a good case to establish: that Kepler’s process of discovery was a result not just of his scientific abilities – he was a mathematical genius and had the most accurate observational data of the pre-telescopic observational genius Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) – but also his philosophical and religious ideas. SATISH: How was your dissertation received? KOZHAMTHADAM: In my research, I was able to identify all three elements (empirical, philosophical and religious) in Kepler’s process of discovery, and I divided these into a sequence of different steps. At each step, I was able to show the interplay between Kepler’s science, his philosophical and religious ideas, and that each step was crucial for him to proceed towards the climax of his discovery. Of course, I supported my thesis with quotes from Kepler and other archival evidence. Logical positivists were still very strong in the eighties, and it was a great source of encouragement for me when my examiners approved the thesis and recommended it for publication. After the book was published, the book was named one of the Outstanding Academic Books of the Year 1994 by Choice Magazine (published by the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL), a division of the American Library Association). The book was reviewed favourably by many historians of science, including Richard Westfall. More than anything, this positive reception to my book confirmed that a commitment to science-religion dialogue was a mission worth pursuing. SATISH: In your book, you refer to Kepler wanting to read the “mind of God”. How do you think scientists engage with this idea today? KOZHAMTHADAM: Reading the mind of God is a metaphorical way of referring to the special role of science in revealing the hidden laws and facts of nature – and it can be understood in many different ways. Even the late Stephen Hawking, who did not believe in the existence of God, talks about the role of the scientist as one of “knowing the mind of God” in his book, A Brief History of Time. The idea of a personal God continues to be controversial in science and for scientists today. But they understand their scientific work as a kind of mission to discover the secrets of nature. They may not want to talk about it as “reading the mind of God” in the way Kepler understood it, but many scientists seem to have faith in the idea of God as an ultimate cause of this universe. The scientists who believe in a personal God understand nature as a manifestation of God’s mind or God’s wisdom – of course, this comes through religious faith, which not all scientists may have. SATISH: As a religious priest and a historian and philosopher of science, have you encountered any dilemmas whilst unravelling facts of history, particularly with regards to the history of the Catholic Church? KOZHAMTHADAM: I would say yes and no to this difficult and personal query. As a Catholic priest, I have found things in the course of my academic work that have upset me – but they did not unsettle me. Even when I began my studies in the US, I was warned by several senior priests of the cases of gifted Jesuit scholars who began their pursuit in the history and philosophy of science, but ended, unfortunately, as agnostics or atheists. I think some priests, particularly, in the Anglo-American world found this interdisciplinary approach difficult because they followed a two-valued logic: true/false, black/white. On the other hand, coming from an Indian philosophical and cultural background, I went by the logic of ‘Yes, but’ without looking for strict, logical compartments about matters of faith. Coming from a Syro-Malabar Catholic family background, a very observant bent of mind and deep faith-experience, all helped me to keep a balance between what the human can understand and what it has to concede as mysterious but real. Yet, as I said, I did find many contradictions in the past history of the Church and in some current happenings but these did not unsettle me to the point of weakening my faith. I do believe that the Church is divine, but it is also made of a strong human element. I am committed to God and to Christ in my work as a historian and philosopher of science, and my mission keeps me convinced and committed to a healthy complementary relationship between the Catholic Church and modern science. While writing academically, particularly on inter-religious relations or science-religion dialogue, some of my ideas may be considered unorthodox by certain groups of people. But I write mostly as a scholar in the field of the history and philosophy of science, not as an official theologian. And like the Jesuit geologist and paleontologist Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955), some of my ideas may also be considered ahead of our time. That is why I feel so very happy and encouraged by some of the views of the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965), particularly those related to modern science. In fact, I consider Pope John XXIII, the Second Vatican Council and Pope Francis taken together, as divine providence asserting itself and enlightening the official thinking of the Catholic Church! Observations of this kind give me the strength – without in any way undervaluing the importance of other religions, to believe that of all the religious traditions in the world today the Catholic Church is best equipped to engage in a creative and constructive dialogue between modern science and genuine religion. SATISH: Considering that you are trained in the history and philosophy of science in the Western tradition, how did you prepare yourself to explore Eastern traditions in science and religion? KOZHAMTHADAM: I had my training to some extent in the history of science and religion in the Western tradition. And the West has engaged rather seriously with the interface between science and religion over the past few decades. Practically every month has seen a new book being published and bringing forth something new. While this is good and a wonderful contribution to the dialogue, I think it has remained too academic. For me personally, science-religion dialogue is not just an intellectual exercise, it should touch and transform the life of a person. The dialogue could take an academic form alright, but that is only one aspect of it. One of my ambitions is to develop a methodology for an integrated version of science and religion dialogue – one that will touch and transform the person, and make a real difference in his/her life and interaction with fellow humans, not just strengthen one’s intellectual abilities. No doubt, this is a little too ambitious, even idealistic, but I am convinced, like the prophetic view of Alfred North Whitehead, that this will in a significant way determine the future of humanity and the cosmos. To this end, I think that the Eastern traditions of science and religion need to be explored further. The Eastern wing of this dialogue has to be developed similar to the Western wing. In Indian Hindu philosophy, Aham Brahmasmi (“I am God”) refers to the unity of the self with God – that is a blending of the spiritual with the material. I think such traditional insights point the way towards a harmonious blending of the latest findings of science and the deepest insights of religion, towards building a more humane world. SATISH: Given your focus on bridging science and religion, and being a Jesuit priest, would you differentiate between a “secular” and a Jesuit historian of science? KOZHAMTHADAM: History is basically a reconstruction of past human heritage with the intention of benefiting from the wisdom of past experience to build up a better tomorrow. A “secular” historian would be focused with developing that reconstruction. In addition to doing that, I as a Jesuit, would also aspire to see what may be called the invisible hand of the divine in this. This is part of the “Jesuitness” in me because St. Ignatius, the founder of the Society of Jesus, intended that Jesuits should try to “see God in all things”. This has become a part of me and I think that this distinguishes the Jesuit historian from other historians. A Jesuit historian would try to discover the divine while reconstructing the past. SATISH: What inspired you to establish the Indian Institute for Science and Religion? KOZHAMTHADAM: When Teilhard de Chardin introduced ideas that bridged science and theology, he was discouraged from doing so. Pursuing academic research on topics related to this science-religion dialogue remained unpopular when I was in the US (1970s-80s). But things started changing gradually when some historians began to explore the broader and deeper dimensions of science. I also participated in some initiatives that were being launched in the US to explore the possibility of a constructive confluence of science and religion. To mention a few: the Centre for Theology and Natural Sciences (CTNS) in Berkeley, the Institute for Theological Encounter with Science and Technology (ITEST) in Missouri, and the Annual Cosmos and Creation Conferences in Maryland. When I returned to India to teach Basic Science, Cosmology and Philosophy of Science to the seminarians at Jnana Deepa Vidyapeeth (JDV) in Pune, I developed a course on science and religion. The course was well received by students and received an award from the Templeton Foundation in 1997. With the collaboration of another Jesuit, Prof. Kuruvilla Pandikattu, I started the Association for Science, Society and Religion (ASSR) in JDV. ASSR succeeded in its mission of promoting an interest in science and religion among the seminarians, but it was restricted to JDV and to Pune. In 1999, I received another award which helped to launch the Indian Institute of Science and Religion (ISSR) with a broader national agenda: To blend harmoniously and creatively the latest findings of modern science and the deepest insights of religions to build up a better humanity and a better cosmos, and for us Indians, a better India in the multi-religious, multicultural and multiracial fabric of India. IISR now has a nationwide network with regional centres, each with varying levels of success. SATISH: Can you tell us something about your current project? KOZHAMTHADAM: I am currently working on an ambitious multi-volume project on Jesuit contributions to modern science. Many books have been written on what has come to be known as “Jesuit science”, but so far a critical insider’s view is largely missing. For example, why did the Jesuits take up science in a spontaneous and widespread way so much so that William Ashworth calls it the “scientific order of the Catholic Church”? Why did Jesuit scientists continue to subscribe to the geo-centrism of Aristotle, though there is good evidence to suggest that many Jesuit scientists saw the merit and superiority of the helio-centrism of Copernicus? Again, it has been observed that in general, originality and creativity were relatively low in Jesuit science, although in several other fields the Jesuits were noted for their creativity. I hope to clarify these and related issues in the proposed book. Finally, it is also my personal tribute to my Jesuit brothers because many of them have done wonderful work in the field of science but never spoke about themselves or their work. It is long overdue that the selfless, pioneering works of these men be made public. They will be a permanent source of inspiration to others, particularly younger Jesuits. SATISH: As a pioneer of science-religion dialogue in India, what skills would you expect from a student exploring the history of science and religion? KOZHAMTHADAM: Students in the history of science should first learn that there is no “pure” history. The logical positivist understanding of science, as a mere accumulation of facts and figures, is no longer tenable. Today, history is written with a perspective, and hence identifying it and responding to it appropriately is the distinguishing mark of a good scholar. Secondly, students need to develop a perspective of their own – a perspective that is developed in a responsible, well-informed and balanced way. Without such a perspective, students will find it difficult to connect a mass of scattered data from their research. One should also ensure that this perspective is as objective and as unbiased as possible. I say, ‘as much as’ because some personal bias will indeed come in. But being critical of one’s own work will help maintain balance. Thirdly, a good historian should be open-minded when it comes to the sources. The Upanishads (part of the Hindu philosophy) instruct that one should be open to the truth wherever it comes from, as long as it is truth. Such an openness also demands flexibility towards one’s own ideas. As science continues to reveal more details about our world, the scientist cannot afford to be rigid about what may be known tomorrow. In other words, I may be convinced of an idea today and subscribe to it, but tomorrow a new idea may come along. It is a sign of the richness of reality and the limitedness of humans to fathom it fully. It is important (for the historian of science) to note that this is not a sign of weakness, but of a readiness to be at the service of discovering the truth.

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- Christianity in the 7th century Christianity in the 7th century, the Western (Latin) and Eastern (Greek) areas of Christianity began to take on distinctive shapes. Whereas in the East the Church maintained its structure and character and evolved more slowly, in the West the Bishops of Rome (i.e., the Popes) were forced to adapt more quickly and flexibly to drastically changing circumstances. In particular whereas the bishops of the East maintained clear allegiance to the Eastern Roman Emperor, the Bishop of Rome, while maintaining nominal allegiance to the Eastern Emperor, was forced to negotiate delicate balances with the "barbarian rulers" of the former Western provinces. Although the greater number of Christians remained in the East, the developments in the West would set the stage for major developments in the Christian world during the later Middle Ages. During the 7th century an Arabian religious leader named Muhammad ibn ‘Abdullāh began to spread the message of the Qur'an (Koran) which includes some tradition similar to those of the Christian and Jewish faith. This new faith, called submission or الإسلام (al-’islām) in Arabic, proclaimed the worship and obedience of a purely monotheist God or Allah in arabic as the purpose of life and Islam would ultimately prove to be the greatest challenge that the Christian Church whould face during the Middle Ages. By the 630s Muhammad had united the entire Arabian peninsula under Islam including the formerly Christian kingdom of Yemen. Following Muhammad's death a Muslim empire, or caliphate, emerged which began efforts to expand beyond Arabia. Shortly before Mohammad's death the Roman Empire and Sassanid Persian Empire had concluded decades of war leaving both empires crippled. - 1 Ecumenical Councils - 2 Western theology - 3 Tensions between East and West - 4 Monasticism - 5 Spread of Christianity - 6 Byzantine and Muslim conflict - 7 References - 8 Further reading - 9 External links - 10 See also Third Council of Constantinople The Sixth Ecumenical Council is the third of Constantinople in 681; it declared that Christ has two wills of his two natures, human and divine, contrary to the teachings of the Monothelites. Quinisext Council (= Fifth and Sixth) or Council in Trullo (692) has not been accepted by the Roman Catholic Church. Since it was mostly an administrative council for raising some local canons to ecumenical status, establishing principles of clerical discipline, addressing the Biblical canon, and establishing the Pentarchy, without determining matters of doctrine, the Eastern Orthodox Church does not consider it to be a full-fledged council in its own right, instead it is considered to be an extension of the fifth and sixth councils. Second Council of Nicaea Second Council of Nicaea (787). In 753, Emperor Constantine V convened the Synod of Hieria, which declared that images of Jesus misrepresented him and that images of Mary and the saints were idols. The Second Council of Nicaea restored the veneration of icons and ended the first iconoclasm. Eastern theology after Chalcedon - Maximus the Confessor (c.580-682) When the Western Roman Empire fragmented under the impact of various 'barbarian' invasions, the Empire-wide intellectual culture that had underpinned late Patristic theology had its interconnections cut. Theology tended to become more localised, more diverse, more fragmented. The classically-clothed Christianity preserved in Italy by men like Boethius and Cassiodorus was different from the vigorous Frankish Christianity documented by Gregory of Tours which was different again from the Christianity that flourished in Ireland and Northumbria in the 7th and 8th centuries. Throughout this period, theology tended to be a more monastic affair, flourishing in monastic havens where the conditions and resources for theological learning could be maintained. Important writers include: Tensions between East and West As the Great Schism between East and West grew, conflict arose over misunderstandings about Hesychasm. Saint Gregory Palamas, bishop of Thessalonica, an experienced Athonite monk, defended Orthodox spirituality against the attacks of Barlaam of Calabria, and left numerous important works on the spiritual life. The events leading to schism were not exclusively theological in nature. Cultural, political, and linguistic differences were often mixed with the theological. Any narrative of the schism which emphasizes one at the expense of the other will be fragmentary. Unlike the Coptics or Armenians who broke from the Church in the 5th century and established ethnic churches at the cost of their universality and catholicity, the eastern and western parts of the Church remained loyal to the faith and authority of the seven ecumenical councils. They were united, by virtue of their common faith and tradition, in one Church. Nonetheless, the transfer of the Roman capital to Constantinople inevitably brought mistrust, rivalry, and even jealousy to the relations of the two great sees, Rome and Constantinople. It was easy for Rome to be jealous of Constantinople at a time when it was rapidly losing its political prominence. In fact, Rome refused to recognize the conciliar legislation which promoted Constantinople to second rank. But the estrangement was also helped along by the German invasions in the West, which effectively weakened contacts. The rise of Islam with its conquest of most of the Mediterranean coastline (not to mention the arrival of the pagan Slavs in the Balkans at the same time) further intensified this separation by driving a physical wedge between the two worlds. The once homogeneous unified world of the Mediterranean was fast vanishing. Communication between the Greek East and Latin West by the 7th century had become dangerous and practically ceased. This activity brought considerable wealth and power. Wealthy lords and nobles would give the monasteries estates in exchange for the conduction of masses for the soul of a deceased loved one. Though this was likely not the original intent of Benedict, the efficiency of his cenobitic Rule in addition to the stability of the monasteries made such estates very productive; the general monk was then raised to a level of nobility, for the serfs of the estate would tend to the labor, while the monk was free to study. The monasteries thus attracted many of the best people in society, and during this period the monasteries were the central storehouses and producers of knowledge. The system broke down in the 11th and 12th centuries as religion began to change. Of great importance to the development of monasticism is the Monastery of Saint Catherine on Mount Sinai. Here the Ladder of Divine Ascent was written by Saint John Climacus (c.600), a work of such importance that many Orthodox monasteries to this day read it publicly either during the Divine Services or in Trapeza during Great Lent. At the height of the East Roman Empire, numerous great monasteries were established by the emperors, including the twenty "sovereign monasteries" on the Holy Mountain, an actual "monastic republic" wherein the entire country is devoted to bringing souls closer to God. In this milieu, the Philokalia was compiled. Spread of Christianity Christianization of Anglo-Saxon England began around AD 600, influenced by the Gregorian mission from the south-east and the Hiberno-Scottish mission from the north-west. The first Archbishop of Canterbury, Augustine took office in 597. The last pagan Anglo-Saxon king, Arwald, was killed in 686. Saints Colombanus, Boniface, Willibrord, Ansgar and many others took Christianity into northern Europe and spread Catholicism among the Germanic, and Slavic peoples, and reached the Vikings and other Scandinavians in later centuries. The Synod of Whitby of 664, though not as decisive as sometimes claimed, was an important moment in the reintegration of the Celtic Church of the British Isles into the Roman hierarchy, after having been effectively cut off from contact with Rome by the pagan invaders. With this act, the Frankish Kingdom became Christian, although it would take until the 7th century for the population to abandon some of their pagan customs. This was typical of the Christianization of Europe. Christian and pagan practices would effectively exist in parallel. Christian Missionaries to the Anglo-Saxons (see Anglo-Saxon Christianity) - Augustine of Canterbury (597-604) - Chad of Mercia (7th century) - Saint Honorius (7th century) - Aidan of Lindisfarne (7th century) - Saint Trudpert (Irish, 7th century) - Saint Rumbold The Introduction of the "Luminous Religion" to China When Christianity was first introduced to China three major religious systems, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, were already popular there, woven into the ancient traditions and customs of the people. The average Chinese did not regard himself as an exclusive adherent of any one of the three, but rather as a follower of a general Chinese religion made up of both animistic and polytheistic elements which represented a syncretistic conglomeration of ideas. Thus the Church of the East encountered grave difficulties as it sought to introduce the "Luminous Religion" to China. Only in the periods of the Tang (618-906) and Yuan (1206–1368) dynasties did the gospel enterprise have any considerable degree of success. It is difficult to determine the exact time when the Christian gospel first reached China. the ancient Breviary of the Syrian church of Malabar (India) states that "By the means of St. Thomas the Chinese...were converted to the truth...By means of St. Thomas the kingdom of heaven flew and entered into China...The Chinese in commemoration of St. Thomas do offer their adoration unto Thy most Holy Name, O God." Some authors have claimed to have found in a very ancient Taoist writing evidence of a spiritual awakening in China in the latter part of the 1st century. Active trade for centuries between China and the West could have brought Christian missionaries at an early date. But aside from one rather obscure reference in the Adversus Gentes by Arnobius (303) to "the Chinese as among those united in the faith of Christ, "there is little or no evidence of Christians in China before the 7th century. But from then on the evidence of Christianity in China during the T'ang Era (618-906) are numerous, including references in Chinese writings, imperial edicts, and in particular the famous inscriptions on the so-called "Nestorian Monument". During the Táng period conditions were favorable for the introduction of foreign faiths: the lines of international communication were wide open; foreign trade flourished; the government was tolerant toward all faiths; all foreigners were welcome in various capacities. It was in this T'ang Era that the Christianity of the Church of the East first came to be known as the "Luminous Religion" (Jǐng Jiào, 景教). The earlier part of the inscription is in Chinese, with certain Buddhist terms used to express Christian ideas, probably indicating that a distinctly Christian vocabulary had not yet developed in China. The doctrinal statement mentions the triune of God, the Creator of all things, the fall of mankind, the incarnation and virgin birth, the holy life and ascension of Christ, the rite of Baptism, and certain scriptures, but no mention is made of Christ's redemptive death for sin. Following this is an account of how Alopen of Dà-chín (the Near East, especially Syria or Persia) arrived in Ch'angan in 635 bearing the Scriptures. He was welcomed by the emperor T'ai Tsung, the founder of the Tang Dynasty and one of the most famous of Chinese rulers. The emperor, having examined the sacred writings, ordered their translation and the preaching of their message. He also directed the building of a Christian monastery in his capital. According to the inscription, his successor, the emperor Kao Tsung, also encouraged Christianity and ordered the building of a monastery in each province of his domain. The second part of the monument was written in Syriac and listed some sixty-seven names: one bishop, twenty-eight presbyters, and thirty-eight monks. Some of these have been verified from Assyrian church records. The inscription displays considerable grace of literary style, and the allusions and phraseology reveal competence in both Chinese and Syriac and familiarity with both Buddhism and Taoism. Ancient Christian manuscripts were also discovered at Dunhuang from about the same period and are written in the literary style of the Monument. These include a "Hymn to the Trinity" and refer to at least thirty Christian books, indicating that considerable Christian literature was in circulation. The 250-year span of the Christian movement in the T'ang period was characterized by vicissitudes of imperial favor and prosperity, persecution and decline. Christianity fared badly during the reign of the infamous Dowager Wu (689-699), who was an ardent Buddhist. However, several succeeding emperors were favorable, and the missionary forces were reinforced from time to time. The trade routes of the 'Silk Road' are also known to have reached Korea, Japan, and what is today eastern Russia by this time, contributing to these exchanges. Against this background it is from China, in particular from Chang-an during the Tang Dynasty, that Christianity also first came to Korea and Japan. In the case of Korea, where Christianity seems to have been present, evidence has been found in the Korean Chronicles Sanguk Yusa and Sanguksa, for the presence of 'Nestorian' Christianity during the united Silla Dynasty (661-935). This is not unexpected in the light of the known presence of Koreans at the tang capital, Chang-an, in the 7th seventh to 9th centuries. The later inclusion of present-day Korea within the Mongol Empire (from 1236) opened the peninsula to Nestorian missionaries who enjoyed full acceptance from the early khans, throughout their territories. In the 14th century, when the Koryo state remained under Mongol control, Koryo crown princes were held hostage in Khanbaliq and often forced to marry Mongol princesses. Some of these were Nestorian Christians. Middle Eastern situation The Muslim presence in the Holy Land began with the initial Arab conquest of Palestine in the 7th century. The Muslim armies' successes put increasing pressure on the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire. Conditioning Factors of Missionary Expansion Early Muslim conquest of these lands in the seventh and 8th centuries did not introduce direct persecution. However, Muslim apostasy was curbed by threat of death, and many nominal Christians began to gradually defect to Islam to avoid discrimination and heavy taxation. This type of subtle oppression stifled Christian growth, backed the church into ghetto communities, and discouraged evangelism. Muslim governments eventually gained control of the great trade routes, and the Islamic world became virtually closed to the proclamation of the gospel. In 644, Abdisho, the metropolitan, had succeeded in drawing a large number of Turks, beyond the Oxus River, into the Church of the East. Colleges were established in Merv and a further monastery was founded there in the 8th century. In fact, so successful were the missionary efforts that it appeared that Christianity might become the dominant faith in the whole region between the Caspian Sea and Xinjiang in Northwest China. The largely animistic and polytheistic religions there offered little or no effective resistance to the higher faith. Moreover, Islam at first made little headway in that area, and the dualistic faith of Manichaeism also had scant appeal. Christian Turks visiting Ctesiphon in connection with the election of a new metropolitan about this time were described as people of clean habits and orthodox beliefs and as readers of the Scriptures in both Syriac and their own language. Though there was a mass conversion of Turks to Islam in the 9th century, the Moslems did not dominate the area until the thirteenth and 14th centuries. Byzantine and Muslim conflict The Roman-Persian Wars Lasting from 92BC to 627AD the conflict between the Persian and Roman Empires was a protracted struggle which was arguably a continuation of the Greco-Persian Wars. The Roman-Persian Wars led to weakening of the neighboring Arab states to the South and East of the Eastern Roman Empire. The conflict so drained both the Persian and Byzantine empires that once the conquests of Muhammad started, neither could mount an effective defense against the onslaught. Persia fell to the Muslims (see conquests). Following the death of Muhammad in 632, there was a vigorous push by the Arab Muslims to conquer Arab tribes of the East such as the mostly Christian Ghassanids. The Byzantine-Muslim Wars were a series of wars between the Arab Muslims Caliphates and the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire. These started during the initial Muslim conquests under the Rashidun and Umayyad caliphs and continued in the form of an enduring border tussle until the beginning of the Crusades. As a result the Byzantines saw an extensive loss of territory. The initial conflict lasted from 629-717, ending with the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople that halted the rapid expansion of the Arab Muslim Empire or Umayyad dynasty into Asia Minor. Conflicts with the Caliphate however continued between the 9th century and 1169. The Muslim victories resulted in the Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus request for military aid from Pope Urban II at the Council of Piacenza in 1095; one of the events often attributed as a precursor to the First Crusade. After the Arab conquest of North Africa in the 7th century the Eastern Orthodox Church of Egypt in Alexandria were a minority even among Christians, and remained small for centuries. According to the traditionalist view, the Qur'an began with revelations on Muhammad's divine revelations in AD 610. The verses of the Qur'an were written down and memorized during his life. Mecca was conquered by the Muslims in the year AD 630. In 628 the Meccan tribe of Quraish and the Muslim community in Medina had signed a truce called the Treaty of Hudaybiyya beginning a ten-year period of peace, which was broken when the Quraish and their allies, the tribe of Bakr, attacked the tribe of Khuza'ah, who were allies of the Muslims. Muhammad died in June 632. The Battle of Yamama was fought in December of the same year, between the forces of Rashidun Caliph Abu Bakr and Musailima. Early Caliphate: The Rightly-Guided Khalifahs After Muhammad died, a series of Caliphs governed the Islamic State: Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddique, Hazrat Umar, Hazrat Uthman, Hazrat Ali and Hazrat Hasan. These first Caliphs are popularly known as the "Rashidun" or "rightly-guided" Caliphs in Sunni Islam. After the Rashidun, a series of Caliphates were established. Each caliphate developed its own unique laws based on the sharia. There were at times competing claims to the Sunni caliphate, and the Imams of Ismaili Shi'a Islam, descended from Ali and Muhammad through his daughter Hazrat Fatimah, set up their own caliphate which ruled the Fatimid Empire. Following Muhammad's death, a series of four Caliphs lead the Islamic Empire during this period. Starting with Abu Bakr, Omar, Uthman, and ending with Ali. - ^ "Iconoclastic Controversy." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 - ^ The Great Schism: The Estrangement of Eastern and Western Christendom Orthodox Information Center - ^ Both Mount Sinai and Mount Athos are referred to as "the Holy Mountain" in Orthodox literature, - ^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), pp. 84–6 - ^ Grave goods, which of course are not a Christian practice, have been found until that time; see: Padberg, Lutz v. (1998), p.59 - ^ http://www.roperld.com/RoperLord.htm - ^ a b c http://ecole.evansville.edu/timeline/index.html - ^ Anderson, p. 16 - ^ Neill, 81 - ^ Anderson, p. 8 - ^ http://www.scaruffi.com/politics/christia.html - ^ Barrett, p. 24 - ^ Gaelic Society of Inverness. Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness, The Society, 1985, p. 161 - ^ Herbermann, p. 639 - ^ Kane, p. 41 - ^ Gailey, p. 43 - Lawrence, C. H. Medieval Monasticism. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2001. ISBN 0-582-40427-4 - Fletcher, Richard, The Conversion of Europe. From Paganism to Christianity 371-1386 AD. London 1997. - Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, book 1, chp.19 - Socrates, Ecclesiastical History, book 3, chp. 1 Parthia and Persia: - Ibid, book 1, chp. 13, book.2, chp 1. - The Ante-Nicene Fathers Down to A.D. 325. - Mingana, The Early Spread of Christianity in Central Asia and the Far East, pp. 300. The Great Persecution: - Theodoret, Ecclesiastical History 1 - Eusebius, Life of Constantine 4:56 - Aphrahat, Demonstrations 5 - Sozomen, Ecclesiastical History 2, 9-10 - A.C. Moule, Christians in China Before The year 1550, pp. 19–26 - Arthur Lloyd, The Creed of Half Japan, pp. 76–84 - Catholic Encyclopedia, 3:667 - A.C. Moule, pp. 27–52 - P.Y. Saeki, The Nestorian Documents and Relics in China and The Nestorian Monument in China, pp. 27–52 - History of Christianity - History of the Roman Catholic Church - History of the Eastern Orthodox Church - History of Christian theology - History of Oriental Orthodoxy - Church Fathers - List of Church Fathers - Christian monasticism - Development of the New Testament canon - History of Calvinist-Arminian debate - Timeline of Christianity#Era of the Seven Ecumenical Councils - Timeline of Christian missions#Era of the Seven Ecumenical Councils - Timeline of the Roman Catholic Church#477–799 - Chronological list of saints in the 7th century - 7th century - Timeline of 7th century Muslim history History of Christianity: The Middle Ages Preceded by: the 6th century the 8th century BC 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 21st History of Christianity Jesus and the Apostolic Age Ante-Nicene Period Christian Empire Eastern Christianity Middle Ages Protestant Protestantism · Erasmus · Five solas · Eucharist · Calvinist v. Arminian · Arminianism · Dort · Wars Lutheranism · Martin Luther · 95 Theses · Diet of Worms · Melanchthon · Orthodoxy · Eucharist · Book of Concord Reformed · Zwingli · Calvin · Calvinism history · Scotland · Knox · TULIP · Dort · Westminster Anglicanism · Timeline · Henry VIII · Cranmer · Settlement · 39 Articles · Common Prayer · Puritans · Civil War Anabaptism · Radical Reformation · Grebel · Swiss Brethren · Müntzer · Martyrs' Synod · Menno Simons · Smyth Catholicism Modern Christianity Industrial Age Age of Ideologies Wikimedia Foundation. 2010. Look at other dictionaries: Christianity in the 6th century — Spread of Christianity to AD 325 … Wikipedia Christianity in the 8th century — Age of the Caliphs Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632/A.H. 1 11 … Wikipedia Christianity in the 10th century — Main article: Medieval history of Christianity See also: Christianity in the 9th century and Christianity in the 11th century Contents 1 Pre scholastic Theology … Wikipedia Christianity in the 17th century — The first page of Genesis from the 1611 first edition of the Authorized King James Version. The KJV is an Early Modern English translation of the Bible by the Church of England that was begun in 1604 and completed in 1611. See also … Wikipedia Christianity in the 5th century — Spread of Christianity to AD 325 … Wikipedia Christianity in the 2nd century — Ignatius of Antioch, one of the Apostolic Fathers and the third Bishop of Antioch, was considered a student of John the Apostle. En route to his martyrdom in Rome (c. 108), Ignatius wrote a series of preserved letters which are examples of late… … Wikipedia Christianity in the 4th century — See also: Christianity in the 3rd century and Christianity in the 5th century Christianity in the 4th century was dominated by Constantine the Great, and the First Council of Nicea of 325, which was the beginning of the period of the First… … Wikipedia Christianity in the 19th century — Part of a series on Christianity … Wikipedia Christianity in the 1st century — Christians believe that Jesus is the mediator of the New Covenant. Depicted by 19th century Danish painter Carl Heinrich Bloch is his Sermon on the Mount (c. 30) in which he Expounds on the Law. Some scholars consider this to be … Wikipedia Christianity in the 20th century — Part of a series on Christianity … Wikipedia

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This article needs additional citations for verification. (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The term specifically refers to the charge of crypto-Judaism, whereas the term converso was used for the wider population of Jewish converts to Catholicism, whether or not they secretly still practised Jewish rites. Converts from either Judaism or Islam were referred to by the broader term of "New Christians". The term "marrano" came into later use in 1492 with the Castilian Alhambra Decree, ordered by Inquisitor Torquemada, himself from a Converso family. Espina, confessor of Queen Isabel, had been a rabbi. It prohibited the practice of Judaism in Spain and required all remaining Jews to convert or leave, under the premise that, "If they are not good Christians, their descendants will be". By then, the great majority of Jews in Spain had converted to Catholicism, perhaps under the pressure from 1391 massacres, and Conversos numbered hundreds of thousands. They were monitored by the Spanish Inquisition and subject to suspicions by Catholics of the secret practice of Judaism, also known as "Marranism". In modern use "marrano" is sometimes, but not always, considered offensive; and "crypto-Jew" is occasionally preferred in scholarly works. The origin of the term marrano as applied to crypto-Jews is debatable, since there are at least three possible etymologies for the word. One source of the term derives from Arabic مُحَرّمٌ muḥarram; meaning "forbidden, anathematized". Marrano in this context means "swine" or "pig", from the ritual prohibition against eating pork, practiced by both Jews and Muslims. However, as applied to crypto-Jews, the term marrano may also derive from the Spanish verb "marrar" (of Germanic rather than Arabic origin) meaning "to deviate" or "to err", in the sense that they deviated from their newly adopted faith by secretly continuing to practice Judaism. A third origin has been cited from Galician-Portuguese, where marrar means "to force" and marrano means "forced one", indicating the compulsory nature of the religious conversions. According to José Meir Estrugo Hazán, in his book: 'Los Sefardíes' -The Sephardim-, ISBN 84-8472-034-9, 'marrano' is the term the Spanish Hebrews prefer. Under state pressure in the late 14th and early 15th century, over half of Jews in the Iberian Peninsula converted to Christianity, thus avoiding the Decree of Expulsion which affected Spain's remaining openly Jewish population in 1492. The numbers who converted and the effects of various migrations in and out of the area have been the subject of historical debate. A phylogeographic study in 2008 of 1,150 volunteer Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups appeared to support the idea that the number of forced conversions has been significantly underestimated, as 20% of the tested Iberian population had haplogroups consistent with Sephardi ancestry. This percentage was suggested as representing the proportion of Sephardi in the population at the time of mass conversions in the 14th and 15th centuries. However, the authors concede that other historical population movements from the Near East such as Syrians and Phoenicians may also account for these results. Some Portuguese conversos or cristãos-novos continued to practice as crypto-Jews. In the early 20th century, historian Samuel Schwartz wrote about crypto-Jewish communities discovered in northeastern Portugal (namely, Belmonte, Bragança, Miranda, and Chaves). He claimed that members had managed to survive more than four centuries without being fully assimilated into the Old Christian population. The last remaining crypto-Jewish community in Belmonte officially returned to Judaism in the 1970s and opened a synagogue in 1996. In 2003, the American Sephardi Federation founded the Belmonte Project to raise funds to acquire Judaic educational material and services for the Belmonte community, who then numbered 160–180. Two documentary films are known to have been made in north-eastern Portugal where present day descendants of marranos were interviewed about their lives. In 1974 for The Marranos of Portugal, the Israel Broadcasting Authority (IBA) sent reporter Ron Ben-Yishai to carry out interviews with families about their religious practice. After being asked to prove he knew Hebrew before they would talk, he found people still reluctant to talk openly but did eventually gain a remarkable insight into their version of Jewish customs, prayers and songs. The film was commended at the 1976 Jerusalem Jewish Film and TV Festival. Another documentary, The Last Marranos, was made by the New York Jewish Media Fund in 1997. After the expulsion of Jews and Muslims from Spain (1492) and the Forced Conversion by Portugal's King Manuel I in Portugal (1497), conversos continued to be suspect in times of social strain. In Lisbon in 1506, a months-long plague caused people to look for scapegoats. Some became suspicious that conversos might be practicing Judaism and therefore be at fault. On April 17, 1506, several conversos were discovered who had in their possession "some lambs and poultry prepared according to Jewish custom; also unleavened bread and bitter herbs according to the regulations for the Passover, which festival they celebrated far into the night". Officials seized several, but released them after a few days. On the same day on which the conversos were freed, the Dominicans displayed a crucifix and a reliquary in glass from which a peculiar light issued in a side-chapel of their church, where several New Christians were present. A New Christian who tried to explain the miracle as due to natural causes was dragged from the church and killed by an infuriated woman. A Dominican roused the populace still more. Friar João Mocho and the Aragonese friar Bernardo, crucifix in hand, were said to have gone through the streets of the city, crying "Heresy!" and calling upon the people to destroy the conversos. Attracted by the outcry, sailors from Holland, Zeeland and others from ships in the port of Lisbon, joined the Dominicans and formed a mob with local men to pursue the conversos. The mob dragged converso victims from their houses and killed some. Old Christians who were in any way associated with New Christians were also attacked. The mob attacked the tax-farmer João Rodrigo Mascarenhas, a New Christian; although a wealthy and distinguished man, his work also made him resented by many. They demolished his house. Within 48 hours, many "conversos" were killed; by the third day all who could have escaped, often with the help of other Portuguese. The killing spree lasted from 19 to 21 April, in what came to be known as the Lisbon massacre. King Manuel severely punished those who took part in the killings. The ringleaders and the Dominicans who encouraged the riot were also executed. Local people convicted of murder or pillage suffered corporal punishment and their property was confiscated. The king granted religious freedom for 20 years to all conversos in an attempt at compensation. Lisbon lost Foral privileges. The foreigners who had taken part generally escaped punishment, leaving with their ships. New Christians were attacked in Gouvea, Alentejo, Olivença, Santarém, and other places. In the Azores and the island of Madeira, mobs massacred former Jews. Because of these excesses, the king began to believe that a Portuguese Inquisition might help control such outbreaks. The Portuguese conversos worked to forestall such actions, and spent immense sums to win over the Curia and most influential cardinals. Spanish and Portuguese conversos made financial sacrifices. Alfonso Gutierrez, Garcia Alvarez "el Rico" (the rich), and the Zapatas, conversos from Toledo, offered 80,000 gold crowns to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, if he would mitigate the harshness of the Inquisition (Revue des Etudes Juives, xxxvii, p. 270 et seq.). the Portuguese Marranos The Mendes of Lisbon and Flanders also tried to help. None were successful in preventing the Inquisition Papal Bull Meditatio Cordis of July 16, 1547, Inquisition in Portugal. This Bull Meditatio Cordis still did not have the "Power of Confiscation". Portuguese Marranos continued, with many bribes of the Popes in Rome, and with prolonged negotiation against this "Power of Confiscation" succeeded to delay it 32 years, but finally conceded this "deadly weapon" in 1579. The Portuguese Inquisition now had been endowed, 101 years after the Spanish Inquisition of November 1, 1478, with the same extremities of rigor as the Spanish prototype. The conversos suffered immensely both from mob violence and interrogation and testing by the Inquisition. Attacks and murders were recorded at Trancoso, Lamego, Miranda, Viseu, Guarda, and Braga. At Covilhã, there were rumors that the people planned to massacre all the New Christians on one day. In 1562, prelates petitioned the Cortes to require conversos to wear special badges, and to order Jewish descendants to live in ghettos (judiarias) in cities and villages as their ancestors had before the conversions. In 1641 Joao IV of Portugal ennobled the Curiel family, a Marrano family who served as Agents to the Crown of Spain and Portugal. They held diplomatic positions across Europe until the late 18th century. According to historian Cecil Roth, Spanish political intrigues had earlier promoted the anti-Jewish policies which culminated in 1391, when Regent Queen Leonora of Castile gave the Archdeacon of Écija, Ferrand Martinez, considerable power in her realm. Martinez gave speeches that led to violence against the Jews, and this influence culminated in the sack of the Jewish quarter of Seville on June 4, 1391. Throughout Spain during this year, the cities of Ecija, Carmona, Córdoba, Toledo, Barcelona and many others saw their Jewish quarters destroyed and inhabitants massacred. It is estimated that 200,000 Jews saved their lives by converting to Christianity in the wake of these persecutions. Other Jews left the country altogether and around 100,000 openly practicing Jews remained. In 1449, feelings rose against conversos, breaking out in a riot at Toledo. Instigated by two canons, Juan Alfonso and Pedro Lopez Galvez, the mob plundered and burned the houses of Alonso Cota, a wealthy converso and tax-farmer. They also attacked the residences of wealthy New Christians in the quarter of la Magdelena. Under Juan de la Cibdad, the conversos opposed the mob, but were repulsed. They were executed with their leader. As a result, several prominent converso men were deposed from office, in obedience to a new statute. Nearly 20 years later in July 1467, another riot occurred where a mob attacked conversos in Toledo. The chief magistrate (alcalde mayor) of the city was Alvar Gomez de Cibdad Real, who had been private secretary to King Henry IV of Castile. He was a protector of the conversos. Together with prominent conversos Fernando and Alvaro de la Torre, Alvar wished to take revenge for an insult by the counts de Fuensalida, leaders of the Old Christians. His intention was to seize control of the city, but fierce conflict erupted. Opponents set fire to houses of New Christians near the cathedral. The conflagration spread so rapidly that 1,600 houses were consumed. Both Old Christians and conversos perished. The brothers De la Torre were captured and hanged. Tensions arose in Córdoba between Old Christians and conversos, where they formed two hostile parties. On March 14, 1473, during a dedication procession, a girl accidentally threw dirty water from the window of the house of one of the wealthiest conversos (the customary way to dispose of it.) The water splashed on an image of the Virgin being carried in procession in honor of a new society (from which conversos had been excluded by Bishop D. Pedro.) A local blacksmith started arousing a rabble against the Jews, who he blamed for the insult, which immediately joined in a fierce shout for revenge.[dubious ] The mob went after conversos, denouncing them as heretics, killing them, and burning their houses. To stop the excesses, the highly respected D. Alonso Fernandez de Aguilar, whose wife was a member of the converso family of Pacheco, together with his brother D. Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba ("El Gran Capitán"), and a troop of soldiers, hastened to protect the New Christians. D. Alonso called upon the mob to retire. Its leader insulted the count, who immediately felled him with his lance. Aroused, the people considered him a martyr. Incited by Alonso de Aguilar's enemy, they again attacked the conversos. The rioting lasted three days. Those who escaped sought refuge in the castle, where their protectors also took shelter. The government decreed that Jews and Conversos should remain in their neighborhood or leave the city. In 1473, attacks on conversos arose in numerous other cities: Montoro, Bujalance, Adamuz, La Rambla, Santaella, and elsewhere. Mobs attacked conversos in Andújar, Úbeda, Baeza, and Almodóvar del Campo also. In Valladolid, groups looted the belongings of the New Christians. At Segovia, there was a massacre (May 16, 1474). D. Juan Pacheco, a converso, led the attacks. Without the intervention of the alcalde, Andres de Cabrera, all New Christians might have died. At Carmona, it was reported that not one converso was left alive. Tens of thousands of Jews were baptised in the three months before the deadline for expulsion, some 40,000 if one accepts the totals given by Kamen: most of these undoubtedly to avoid expulsion, rather than as a sincere change of faith. These conversos were the principal concern of the Inquisition; being suspected of continuing to practice Judaism put them at risk of denunciation and trial. During 1492, about 12,000 conversos entered Navarre from Aragon's repression, where they were allowed to remain. Tudela in Navarre turned into a converso haven. The Tudelans had already proclaimed in 1486 that "if any inquisitor enters their city, he will be thrown into the Ebro river." Later the resistance to the inquisitors was so strong that its aldermen ordered commissioners and attorneys to ask the Catholic Monarchs to limit the power of the Inquisition in 1510. The most intense period of persecution of conversos lasted until 1530. From 1531 to 1560, however, the percentage of conversos among the Inquisition trials dropped to 3% of the total. There was a rebound of persecutions when a group of crypto-Jews was discovered in Quintanar de la Orden in 1588; and there was a rise in denunciations of conversos in the last decade of the sixteenth century. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, some conversos who had fled to Portugal began to return to Spain, fleeing the persecution of the Portuguese Inquisition, founded in 1536. This led to a rapid increase in the trials of crypto-Jews, among them a number of important financiers. In 1691, during a number of autos-da-fé in Majorca, 37 chuetas, or conversos of Majorca, were burned. During the eighteenth century the number of conversos accused by the Inquisition decreased significantly. Manuel Santiago Vivar, tried in Córdoba in 1818, was the last person tried for being a crypto-Jew. The conversos of Seville and other cities of Castile, and especially of Aragon, bitterly opposed the Spanish Inquisition established in 1478. They rendered considerable service to the king, and held high legal, financial, and military positions. The government issued an edict directing traditional Jews to live within a ghetto and be separated from conversos. Despite the law, however, the Jews remained in communication with their New Christian brethren. "They sought ways and means to win them from Catholicism and bring them back to Judaism. They instructed the Marranos in the tenets and ceremonies of the Jewish religion; held meetings in which they taught them what they must believe and observe according to the Mosaic law; and enabled them to circumcise themselves and their children. They furnished them with prayer-books; explained the fast-days; read with them the history of their people and their Law; announced to them the coming of the Passover; procured unleavened bread for them for that festival, as well as kosher meat throughout the year; encouraged them to live in conformity with the law of Moses, and persuaded them that there was no law and no truth except the Jewish religion." These were the charges brought by the government of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile against the Jews. They constituted the grounds for their expulsion and banishment in 1492, so they could not subvert conversos. Jews who did not want to leave Spain had to accept baptism as a sign of conversion. The historian Henry Kamen's Inquisition and Society in Spain in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries questions whether there were such strong links between conversos and Jewish communities. Whilst historians such as Yitzhak Baer state, "the conversos and Jews were one people", Kamen claims, "Yet if the conversos were hated by the Christians, the Jews liked them no better." He documented that "Jews testified falsely against them [the conversos] when the Inquisition was finally founded." This issue is being debated by historians. Conversos in Italy Although the vast majority of Spain's 250,000 conversos had abandoned Judaism and been assimilated into Spain's dominant Catholic culture, many of those continuing to secretly practice their former religion felt threatened and persecuted by the Inquisition which continued to actively persecute heresy. Some of these chose to leave Spain, in bands or as individual refugees. Many migrated to Italy, attracted by the climate, which resembled that of the Iberian Peninsula, and by the kindred language. When they settled at Ferrara, Duke Ercole I d'Este granted them privileges. His son Alfonso confirmed the privileges to twenty-one Spanish conversos: physicians, merchants, and others (ib. xv. 113 et seq.). A thoroughly researched history of these migrations is also contained in the book about one of their leaders called, "The Woman Who Defied Kings", by the historian and journalist Andree Aelion Brooks. Spanish and Portuguese conversos also settled at Florence and contributed to make Livorno a leading seaport. They received privileges at Venice, where they were protected from the persecutions of the Inquisition. In Milan they materially advanced the interests of the city with their industry and commerce. At Bologna, Pisa, Naples and numerous other Italian cities, they freely exercised the Jewish religion again. They were soon so numerous that Fernando de Goes Loureiro, an abbot from Oporto, filled an entire book with the names of conversos who had drawn large sums from Portugal and had openly avowed Judaism in Italy. In Piedmont, Duke Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy welcomed conversos from Coímbra and granted them commercial and industrial privileges, as well as the free exercise of their religion. Rome was full of conversos. Pope Paul III received them at Ancona for commercial reasons. He granted complete liberty "to all persons from Portugal and Algarve, even if belonging to the class of New Christians." By 1553 three thousand Portuguese Jews and conversos were living at Ancona. Two years later, Pope Paul IV issued orders to have all the conversos in Italy be thrown into the prisons of the Inquisition which he had instituted. Sixty of them, who acknowledged the Catholic faith as penitents, were transported to the island of Malta; twenty-four, who adhered to Judaism, were publicly burned (May 1556). Those who escaped the Inquisition were received at Pesaro by Guidobaldo II della Rovere, Duke of Urbino. Guidobaldo had hoped to have the Jews and conversos of Turkey select Pesaro as a commercial center; when that did not happen, he expelled the New Christians from Pesaro and other districts in 1558 (ib. xvi. 61 et seq.). During the 16th and 17th centuries, some conversos migrated to the Americas, often the Castilian territories of the Viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru. Legal emigration to the New World was strictly controlled and required proof of three generations of Christian ascendance. Nevertheless, many Conversos managed to evade these restrictions and managed to obtain encomiendas in the New World. According to Isidore Loeb, in a special study of the subject in the Revue des Études Juives (xiv. 162–183), about 3,000 Jews came to Provence after the Alhambra Decree expelled Jews from Spain in 1492. From 1484, one town after another had called for expulsion, but the calls were rejected by Charles VIII. However, Louis XII, in one of his first acts as king in 1498, issued a general expulsion order of the Jews of Provence. Though not enforced at the time, the order was renewed in 1500 and again in 1501. On this occasion, it was definitively implemented. The Jews of Provence were given the option of conversion to Christianity and a number chose that option. However, after a short while – if only to compensate partially for the loss of revenues caused by the departure of the Jews – the king imposed a special tax, referred to as "the tax of the neophytes." These converts and their descendants soon became the objects of social discrimination and slanders. This section does not cite any sources. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) There was no significant wave of emigration of conversos from Spain, the majority of Sephardic communities, such as that of Salonika having been formed as a result of the Alhambra Decree in 1492. However, there was a steady trickle of crypto-Jewish marranos who wished to practice their faith freely to more liberal environments. One of their leaders who helped them get there was the Lisbon-born international banker, Gracia Mendes Nasi. They also migrated to Flanders, where they were attracted by its flourishing cities, such as Antwerp and Brussels. Conversos from Flanders, and others direct from the Iberian Peninsula, went under the guise of Catholics to Hamburg and Altona about 1580, where they established a community and held commercial relations with their former homes. Some migrated as far as Scotland. Christian IV of Denmark invited some New Christian families to settle at Glückstadt about 1626, granting certain privileges to them and to conversos who came to Emden about 1649. The vast majority of Spain's conversos, however, remained in Spain and Portugal and were suspected of "Marranism" by the Spanish Inquisition. Although the wealthier among them could easily bypass discriminatory Limpieza de sangre laws, they constituted a significant portion of the over three thousand people executed for heresy by the Spanish Inquisition. The New Christians of Portugal breathed more freely when Philip III of Spain came to the throne. By the law of April 4, 1601, he granted them the privilege of unrestricted sale of their real estate as well as free departure from the country for themselves, their families, and their property. Many, availing themselves of this permission, followed their coreligionists to North Africa and Turkey. After a few years, however, the privilege was revoked, and the Inquisition resumed its activity. Some migrated to London, whence their families spread to Brazil (where conversos had settled at an early date) and other colonies in the Americas. Migrations to Constantinople and Thessaloniki, where Jewish refugees had settled after the expulsion from Spain, as well as to Italy, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Vienna, and Timișoara, continued into the middle of the 18th century. Late 20th century political and social changes in Spain caused reappraisal of Jewish and Muslim contributions to its culture. There has been much new scholarship on Sephardic Jews, Moors and the consequences of conversion and expulsion. In addition, there have been official governmental efforts to welcome tourists of both ancestries to Spain. Towns and regions have worked to preserve elements of Jewish and Moorish pasts. In Spanish Civil Code Art. 22.1 the government created concessions to nationals of several countries and Sephardi Jews historically linked with Spain allowing them to seek citizenship after five years rather than the customary ten required for residence in Spain. Later it was dropped to two years. In November 2012, the residency requirement was eliminated completely. In October 2006, the Parliament of Andalusia asked the three parliamentary groups that form the majority to support an amendment that would similarly ease the way for nationals of Morisco descent to gain Spanish citizenship. The proposal was originally made by IULV-CA, the Andalusian branch of the United Left. In 2004, Shlomo Moshe Amar traveled to Portugal to celebrate the centennial anniversary of the Lisbon synagogue Shaare Tikvah. During his stay, Shlomo Moshe Amar met descendants of Jewish families persecuted by the Inquisition who still practice Judaism (Bnei Anusim) at the house of rabbi Boaz Pash. This was an historical meeting that had not happened between a Chief Rabbi and Portuguese marranos (Bnei Anusim) in centuries. Rabbi Shlomo Moshe Amar promised to create a committee to evaluate the Halachic situation of the community. The delay of the Chief Rabbi to create the committee and help the descendants of Sephardi Jews in Portugal forced the creation of a second Jewish community in Lisbon, Comunidade Judaica Masorti Beit Israel, to ensure the recognition of the Bnei Anussim as Jews. - Cohen, Martin A. "Antonio Díaz De Cáceres: Marrano Adventurer in Colonial Mexico." American Jewish Historical Quarterly, vol. 60, no. 2, 1970, pp. 169–184., JSTOR 23877946. - Cohen, Martin A. "Toward a New Comprehension of the Marranos." In Hispania Judaica: Studies on the History, Language, and Literature of the Jews in the Hispanic World. Vol. I: History, edited by Josep M. Solà-Solé, Samuel G. Armistead, and Joseph H. Silverman, 23–35. Barcelona: Puvil-Editor, 1980. - Escobar Quevedo, Ricardo. Inquisición y judaizantes en América española (siglos XVI-XVII). Bogota: Editorial Universidad de Rosario, 2008. - Netanyahu, Benzion. The Marranos of Spain: From the Late 14th to the Early 16th Century, According to Contemporary Hebrew Sources , 3rd ed. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999. - Poliakov, Leon. The History of Anti-Semitism, vol. 2: From Mohammed to the Marranos. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003. - Révah, I.S. "Les marranes." Revue des études juives 118 (1959–60): 29–77. - Roth, Cecil. "The Religion of the Marranos," The Jewish Quarterly Review 22 (1931): 1–33. doi:10.2307/1451908. JSTOR 1451908 - Rowland, Robert. "New Christian, Marrano, Jew." In The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450–1800, edited by Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering, 125–148. New York: Berghahn Books, 2001. - Saraiva, António José. The Marrano Factory: The Portuguese Inquisition and Its New Christians, 1536–1765 , trans. H.P. Salomon and I.S.D. Sassoon. Leiden: Brill, 2001. - Simms, Norman. Masks in the Mirror: Marranism in the Jewish Experience. New York: Peter Lang, 2006. - Wachtel, Nathan. The Faith of Remembrance: Marrano Labyrinths , trans. Nikki Halpern. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013. - Yerushalmi, Yosef Hayim. From Spanish Court to Italian Ghetto. Isaac Cardoso: A Study in Seventeenth-Century Marranism and Jewish Apologetics. New York: Columbia University Press, 1971. - Yovel, Yirmiyahu. The Other Within: The Marranos: Split Identity and Emerging Modernity. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009. - Yovel, Yirmiyahu. Spinoza and Other Heretics, vol. 1: The Marrano of Reason. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989. - Karen Primack, "That Word 'Marrano'". Chapter 8 (pp. 55-58) in Karen Primack (ed.) Jews in Places You Never Thought Of, KTAV Publishing House, Inc. (1998), ISBN 0881256080 - Adams, Susan M.; Bosch, Elena; Balaresque, Patricia L.; et al. (2008), "The Genetic Legacy of Religious Diversity and Intolerance: Paternal Lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula", American Journal of Human Genetics, 83 (6): 725–736, doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.11.007, PMC 2668061, PMID 19061982. - Adams, Bosch, et al. (2008): "Despite alternative possible sources for lineages ascribed a Sephardic Jewish origin, these proportions attest to a high level of religious conversion" - "La cifra de los sefardíes puede estar sobreestimada, ya que en estos genes hay mucha diversidad y quizá absorbieron otros genes de Oriente Medio" ("The Sephardic result may be overestimated, since there is much diversity in those genes and maybe absorbed other genes from the Middle East"). ¿Pone en duda Calafell la validez de los tests de ancestros? "Están bien para los americanos, nosotros ya sabemos de dónde venimos" (Does Calafell doubt the validity of ancestry tests? "They can be good for the Americans, we already know from where we come from.") "Tres culturas en el ADN". Público.es. Archived from the original on 2009-02-09. Retrieved 2009-04-13. - Saey, Tina Hesman (4 December 2008). "Spanish Inquisition couldn't quash Moorish, Jewish genes". Science News: "We think it might be an overestimate" "The genetic makeup of Sephardic Jews is probably common to other Middle Eastern populations, such as the Phoenicians, that also settled the Iberian Peninsula, Calafell says. "In our study, that would have all fallen under the Jewish label." - "El doctor Calafell matiza que (...) los marcadores genéticos usados para distinguir a la población con ancestros sefardíes pueden producir distorsiones". "ese 20% de españoles que el estudio señala como descendientes de sefardíes podrían haber heredado ese rasgo de movimiento más antiguos, como el de los fenicios o, incluso, primeros pobladores neolíticos hace miles de años." "Dr. Calafell clarifies that (...) the genetic markers used to distinguish the population with Sephardim ancestry may produce distortions. The 20% of Spaniards that are identified as having Sephardim ancestry in the study could have inherited that same marker from older movements like the Phoenicians, or even the first Neolithic settlers thousands of years ago" Elmundo.es - Callaway, Ewen (December 4, 2008), "Spanish Inquisition left genetic legacy in Iberia", New Scientist. - Zalloua, Pierre A.; Platt, Daniel E.; El Sibai, Mirvat; et al. (2008), "Identifying Genetic Traces of Historical Expansions: Phoenician Footprints in the Mediterranean", American Journal of Human Genetics, 83 (5): 633–642, doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.10.012, PMC 2668035, PMID 18976729. - Ruth Almog, "Cryptic, these crypto Jews", nda, last update 02/12/2005, haaretz.com, in English; review of Hebrew translation of Schwarz's 1925 Hanotzrim Hakhadashim Beportugal Be'meah Ha'esrim (New Christians in Portugal in the 20th Century) - "Curiel | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2019-10-02. - Gedaliah b. Jachia the Spaniard, Sefer Shalshelet HaKabbalah, p. 268, Jerusalem 1962, while citing Sefer HaYuchasin. - Cf. Salcedo Izu, Joaquín, Gran Enciclopedia Navarra, Caja de Ahorros de Navarra, Pamplona 1990, Tomo VI, voz Inquisición, pp. 131–134. - González Echeverría, Francisco Javier The love for truth. Life and work of Michael Servetus (El amor a la verdad. Vida y obra de Miguel Servet), printed by Navarro y Navarro, Zaragoza, collaboration with the Government of Navarre, Department of Institutional Relations and Education of the Government of Navarre, pp. 445-450 - Michael Servetus Research Website with historical and graphical study on the conversos in Navarre, specifically the converso Michael de Villanueva ("Servetus"). - Kamen (2014), p. 369 - Kamen (2014), p. 370 - Kamen, Henry (1985), Inquisition and Society in Spain in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, p. 27, ISBN 0-253-22775-5. - Jewish Virtual Library – Provence - Henry Kamen: The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision. 1999 - Código Civil (in Spanish) - Propuesta de IU sobre derecho preferente de moriscos a la nacionalidad Archived 2008-12-11 at the Wayback Machine (in Spanish) - Damião de Góis (1567), in Chronica do Felicissimo Rey D. Emanuel da Gloriosa Memória - Roth, Cecil; Roth, Irene (1974), A history of the Marranos (4th ed.), New York: Sepher-Hermon Press, ISBN 0-87203-040-7. - Roth, Cecil (1961), A history of the Jews, New York: Schocken Books. - Diesendruck, Arnold (2002), Os Marranos em Portugal, São Paulo: Editora & Livraria Sêfer, ISBN 85-85583-36-3. - Richard Zimler, The Last Kabbalist of Lisbon, The Overlook Press, ISBN 9781585670222 - Richard Zimler, Hunting Midnight, Delacorte, ISBN 9780385336444 - Richard Zimler, Guardian of the Dawn, Constable & Robinson, ISBN 9781845290917 - Antonio Munoz Molina,Sepharad, Harvest Books, ISBN 9780156034746 - David Liss, The Coffee Trader, Abacus, ISBN 978-0349115009 - Corresponding article in the Jewish Encyclopedia. Further relevant material can be found in their article on South and Central America. - Dona Gracia Project - The Jewish Story – Marranos - Resources > Medieval Jewish History > "Expulsion from Spain and The Anusim", The Jewish History Resource Center, Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem - Kathleen Telch, "Belmonte Project", Newsletter, Spring 2003, p. 9, American Sephardi Federation - Society For Crypto Judaic Studies - Michael Freund, "Miracle in Orlando", originally published in The Jerusalem Post, Jewish Society - Return to Sinai, in Half-Jewish.org, Website covering topics relevant to descendants of assimilation and intermarriage - Descendants of Marranos arrive in Israel - Jewish by candlelight – from Spanish converso to modern mixed marriage By Miriam Shaviv, The Forward - Shavei Israel – a group that helps our lost brethren return - Alhambra Decree: 521 Years Later, a blog post on the Law Library of Congress's In Custodia Legis - |3=New Christians and Old Christians in Portugal, written by António Nunes Ribeiro Sanches, in 1748, [in Portuguese][permanent dead link] - A history of the Marranos, by Cecil Roth - Dramatic episodes of the Portuguese Inquisition, volume 1, by Antonio Baião [in Portuguese] - Dramatic episodes of the Portuguese Inquisition, volume 2, by Antonio Baião [in Portuguese] - Trial of Gabriel de Granada by the Inquisition in Mexico, 1642–1645. According to Cecil Roth, "it gives a remarkably graphic impression of a typical Inquisitional case"

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Glaucoma is a leading cause of loss of sight, affecting more than 70 million people worldwide [1 ]. The pathogenesis of glaucoma is not fully established, although intraocular pressure (IOP) is the most critical and treatable risk factor. Glaucoma develops even within a normal IOP range and can progress, even with a substantial decrease in IOP. Excitotoxicity, unstable blood flow and oxidative stress can also affect the development and progression of glaucoma [3 A family history of glaucoma is one of the risk factors for primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) [4 ]. Family members have a high probability of having common genetic susceptibility or similar lifestyles, such as diet. Given those findings, different genes or environmental factors may be linked to the development of glaucoma. To date, identified gene mutations are responsible for <10% of POAG in the general population [5 ]. An active interest in environmental or lifestyle factors, such as diet patterns, and their association with glaucoma may be needed to understand the pathogenesis of glaucoma. The most common type of open-angle glaucoma in Asian countries is normal tension glaucoma (NTG), whereas high tension glaucoma is more common in the United States and Europe [6 ]. Staple foods and dietary habits are distinctly different between Asian and Caucasian individuals, even though the prevalence of a Westernized diet has increased in Asian countries. The proportion of NTG in a Japanese American population was 80.4% of all POAG cases, which was lower than 92.3% in the Tajimi Study conducted in Japan. One of the reasons for the lower rate of NTG in the Japanese American population may be differences in environmental factors such as nutrition [7 Accumulating clinical evidence suggests a possible association between nutrition or diet composition and POAG [9 ], although a few studies did not find this correlation [14 ]. Lower ingestion of retinol equivalents, vitamins B2 and C, a higher ratio of n -3 to n -6 polyunsaturated fats, and a lower ingestion of certain fruits or vegetables have been found to be related to the risk for POAG [9 ]. Among nutrients, vitamins with anti-oxidant activity are of interest, as they may relieve oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of glaucoma [16 To date, no study has addressed the relationship between diverse dietary nutrients and glaucoma in Asian countries. In this study, we investigated the potential impact of dietary nutrients on glaucoma using the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES), a large population-based study. Determination of modifiable risk factors, aside from IOP, can provide other options for treating glaucoma patients showing progression of the disease, despite a relatively low IOP range. The KNHANES is an ongoing nationwide epidemiological study conducted by the Division of Chronic Disease Control and Prevention, Ministry of Health and Welfare, with the approval of its Institutional Review Board. The survey follows the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki for biomedical research involving humans. Written informed consent was provided by all participants. The KNHANES uses a stratified, multistage, probability cluster survey with a rolling survey model. All participants are randomly chosen from randomly assigned districts of cities and provinces in South Korea. Among the 37,982 participants in the KNHANES 2008–2012 IV–V, those who were younger than 40 years old or who did not complete an ophthalmic examination were excluded. Other exclusion criteria were as follows: participants with a narrow angle using the Van Herick method (peripheral anterior chamber depth ≤4/1 of peripheral corneal thickness); those whose fundus photograph displayed geographic atrophy or signs of wet age-related macular degeneration, such as retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) detachment, serous detachment of the sensory retina, sub-retinal or sub-RPE hemorrhage, or sub-retinal fibrous scars; those who had not completed the nutritional survey; and those with missing data. Data on anthropometrics and demographic characteristics, including socioeconomic status and levels of education and physical activity, were collected. Participants were divided into nondrinkers, mild drinkers (≤one time per month), moderate drinkers (>one time and ≤four times per month) and heavy drinkers (>four times per month). Smoking status was classified into nonsmokers, former smokers, and current smokers. Physical activity (PA) scores were categorized based on the International PA Questionnaire guidelines. Moderate physical activity was defined as the performance of moderate-intensity physical activity for ≥20 min 3–4 times/week. The definition of moderate intensity was exercise that induced a mild elevation in breathing or heart rate for at least 10 min. Data on medical comorbidities, such as diabetes mellitus and hypertension, were also collected as potential confounding variables. Diabetes was defined as a fasting blood glucose level higher than 126 mg/dL or the current use of a systemic antidiabetic treatment. Systemic hypertension was defined as a systolic blood pressure (BP) > 160 mmHg, diastolic BP > 90 mmHg, or the current use of a systemic antihypertensive medication. 2.1. Ophthalmologic Measurements Participants underwent ophthalmological examinations, including slit-lamp examinations and fundus photography. Ophthalmologists measured IOP using a Goldmann applanation tonometer (Haag-streit, Inc., Bern, Switzerland). Participants with elevated IOP (≥22 mmHg) or a glaucomatous optic disc were examined using frequency-doubling technology (Humphrey Matrix; Carl Zeiss Meditec, Inc., Jena, Germany) using the N-30-1 program. A glaucomatous optic disc refers to any of the following: a horizontal or vertical cup-to-disc ratio (vCDR) of ≥0.5, the appearance of optic disc hemorrhage, the presence of a retinal nerve fiber layer defect (RNFL), or a violation of the ISNT rule (neuroretinal rim thickness in the order of inferior > superior > nasal > temporal). Subjects underwent the test again when fixation errors or false-positive errors were >33%. A glaucoma diagnosis was made using modified ISGEO criteria [18 ]: when both fixation errors and false-positive errors were 33% or less, category 1 requires a glaucomatous visual field defect with a CDR of ≥0.7, asymmetry of a vCDR of ≥0.2, or the presence of an RNFL defect [18 ]. When the visual field was not available or was unsatisfactory, subjects were included in category 2 if their vCDR was ≥0.9, the vCDR asymmetry was ≥0.3 or if they had an RNFL loss with a violation of the ISNT rule [19 ]. If examinations of the optic disc and visual field tests were not possible, category 3 required a visual acuity of <3/60 and IOP exceeding 21 mmHg [18 ]. Subgroup analysis was done within subjects with NTG; NTG was defined as an IOP was ≤21 mmHg. 2.2. Assessment of Nutrient Intake Dietary intake was determined using the 24 h recall method by trained staff. All subjects were instructed to continue their ordinary diets before the dietary evaluation. The information gained on holidays or weekends was not excluded. Nutrient intake was calculated on the basis of the nutrient concentrations in foods using the Korean Food Composition Table, which was devised by the Korean National Rural Resources Development Institute [20 ]. Fiber (g/day), ash (g/day), calcium (mg/day), phosphorus (mg/day), iron (mg/day), sodium (mg/day), potassium (mg/day), β-Carotene (μg/day), retinol (μg/day), thiamine (mg/day), riboflavin (mg/day), niacin (mg/day), and Vitamin C (mg/day) were included in nutrient intake data. vitamin A (μg Retinol Equivalents (RE)/day) was calculated by summing retinol (μg/day) and β-Carotene/6 (μg/day). The individuals were divided into quartiles of total intake per day for each nutrient (Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4). If individuals had taken any kind of supplements consecutively more than 2 weeks over the past year or more than one time per week over the past month, they were regarded as taking supplements. 2.3. Statistical Analyses SAS Software (version 9.2; SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC, USA) was used for statistical analyses to reflect sampling weights and to offer nationally representative prevalence estimates. Demographic factors between subjects with and without glaucoma were compared using Student’s t-tests for continuous parameters and χ2 tests for categorical variables. Continuous and categorical parameters are described as the mean ± standard error and percentage, respectively. Multivariate adjusted logistic analysis was performed to investigate factors associated with glaucoma. We analyzed the subset of data after excluding subjects taking supplements. Factors with a difference of p < 0.1 between the two groups, IOP, and total energy were entered into a multivariate analysis. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals were calculated. A p value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant. Among 37,982 participants in the KNHANES 2008–2012 IV–V, those younger than 40 years old were excluded (n = 17,563). Subjects who did not receive an ophthalmic examination were also excluded (n = 95). Participants with a narrow angle using the Van Herick method (peripheral anterior chamber depth ≤4/1 of peripheral corneal thickness; n = 350), those whose fundus photograph displayed geographic atrophy or signs of wet age-related macular degeneration, such as retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) detachment, serous detachment of the sensory retina, sub-retinal or sub-RPE hemorrhage, or sub-retinal fibrous scars (n = 123), those who had not completed the nutritional survey (n = 2030), and those with missing data (n = 757) were excluded. A total 16,770 participants (6902 men, 9868 women) were included in this study (Figure 1 The demographics are shown in Table 1 . Seven hundred and seventy-five participants were diagnosed with glaucoma (overall prevalence, 4.11%). The proportion of individuals with glaucoma diagnosis made in the absence of visual field defects and/or abnormal optic disc parameters was 47.4%. The average age of participants with glaucoma was 60.7 ± 0.6 years old. Subjects with glaucoma were older and less educated, exercised less regularly, were more likely to smoke, have no occupation, and have diabetes or hypertension than those without glaucoma (all p < 0.05). IOP was higher in subjects with glaucoma (14.7 ± 0.2 mmHg) than in those without glaucoma (14.0 ± 0.1 mmHg, p Quartile categories of each nutrient intake are displayed in Table 2 With regard to nutrients, intake of crude fiber, ash, calcium, phosphorus, iron, sodium, potassium, vitamin A, β-Carotene, retinol, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin C was associated with glaucoma (all p < 0.05; Table 3 Multivariate analyses (model 1) adjusted for age, gender, income status, education level, smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activity, diabetes, hypertension, IOP, and total energy, showed intake of niacin was correlated with glaucoma (p = 0.013; Table 4 ). In a partially adjusted model (all covariates in model 1 but IOP), overall results were similar to those in model 1 multivariate analyses. IOP distributions by nutrient quartiles are displayed in Table 5 . The mean IOP did not differ according to nutrient quartiles. Subgroup analyses showed that for subjects with IOP ≤ 21 mmHg (n = 767, 98.9% of total glaucoma patients), only lower niacin intake was associated with a higher odds ratio for glaucoma (p = 0.022; Table 6 After the exclusion of individuals taking supplements, higher intake of riboflavin (p = 0.009) and niacin (p = 0.035) were related to a lower risk of glaucoma (Table 7 ). Among subjects without glaucoma, 4100 subjects (25.6%) were taking supplements. Among individuals with glaucoma, 193 individuals (24.9%) were taking supplements. We demonstrated that dietary intake of niacin was associated with glaucoma, independent of IOP. Mean IOP was similar by quartiles of all examined nutrients. Individuals with NTG showed lower intake of niacin among nutrients. After the exclusion of individuals taking supplements, higher intake of riboflavin and niacin were related to a lower risk of glaucoma. Overall, lower intake of niacin remained significantly associated with glaucoma also in the subgroup analysis. Previously, some reports found that low intake of vitamins was associated with augmented risk for glaucoma [11 ]. The Rotterdam study, a prospective population-based study, reported that a low intake of retinol equivalents and vitamin B1 appeared to increase the risk for POAG [11 ]. Wang et al. suggested that supplementary ingestion of vitamin C was associated with reduced glaucoma risk [13 ]. The Nurses’ Health Study and Health Professionals Follow-up Study did not detect a correlation between nutrients with anti-oxidant properties and open-angle glaucoma [14 ]. However, the diagnosis of glaucoma was based on self-report, even though a strength of that study was that it was a large prospective study [14 ]. This could result in a selection bias because over half of individuals with glaucoma are not aware of their condition [21 IOP is the most critical risk factor for glaucoma, even though glaucoma can develop in cases with a normal range of IOP. We analyzed IOP distribution by quartiles of dietary nutrients and found no significant differences in mean IOP according to dietary nutrients. The relationship between nutrients and glaucoma was analyzed adjusting for IOP to remove the influence of dietary nutrient intake on IOP. There was an association between dietary intake of niacin with glaucoma, independent of IOP. With regard to NTG, only one Japanese study observed that lower serum vitamin C levels were correlated with increased risk of NTG [23 ]. The authors speculated that glutamate-stimulated release of vitamin C might decrease oxidative stress induced by glutamate excitotoxicity and reduce the degeneration of retinal ganglion cells [23 ]. The difference between that study and this study is that only vitamin A, B9, C, E and uric acid were investigated using serum samples, and niacin was not included in that study [23 In this study, only dietary niacin intake was lower in subjects with NTG. In addition, niacin remained as the factor associated with glaucoma after the exclusion of subjects taking supplements. Recently, Williams et al. found that oral administration of vitamin B3 protected retinal ganglion cells in aged mouse with chronic ocular hypertension, modulating mitochondrial vulnerability [24 ]. In a stroke animal model, niacin (nicotinic acid) treatment promoted synaptic plasticity and axon growth [25 ]. That study suggested that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)/tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrKB) pathways seemed to be involved in niacin-induced neuroprotective effects after a stroke [25 ]. Disrupted axonal transport of neurotrophic factors is one of main mechanisms of glaucoma [3 ]. Therefore, upregulated BDNF by niacin treatment might decrease the risk of glaucoma. Kaplon et al. reported that niacin intake was positively correlated with better vascular endothelial function associated with decreased vascular oxidative stress [26 ]. The vascular hypothesis for glaucoma pathogenesis states insufficient or unstable blood supply is a key contributing factor for glaucoma development or progression [27 ]. A collaborative normal tension glaucoma study showed vascular factors, such as disc hemorrhage and migraine, were risk factors for the progression of glaucoma [28 ]. Compromised vascular endothelial cell function has been reported in subjects with NTG [29 ]. Therefore, it appears that improved vascular endothelial cell function induced by niacin could lower the risk for open-angle glaucoma. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to reveal the relationship between niacin and glaucoma in human. However, the study was simply descriptive and inconclusive on disease mechanisms. Measurement of serum or intravitreal level of niacin in glaucoma patients would be helpful to understand the mechanism of how low niacin influences glaucoma. The strength of this population-based study is that study participants were representative of subjects with glaucoma in the general population. We present the first study analyzing the relationship between dietary nutrients and glaucoma (especially NTG) in an Asian country. One limitation of this study is that we could not determine cause and effect for the relationship between dietary nutrients and glaucoma. Prospective randomized controlled trial or epidemiological cohort studies are needed to ensure the usefulness of niacin in glaucoma. Another limitation is that the nutritional survey was conducted just once, although all subjects were educated to continue their ordinary diets before the dietary evaluation. There might be a confounding effect of seasonal foods because all participants did not take part in the nutritional survey at the same time of year. The proportion of participants taking dietary reference intakes for Koreans (KDRIs) was relatively lower for calcium (67.0 ± 0.8%) and potassium (61.9 ± 0.6%), according to data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2012). Therefore, the association of glaucoma with the intake of these nutrients might be underestimated. Nutrient intake was calculated on the basis of the nutrient concentrations in foods using the Korean Food Composition Table. Potential errors can exist in the tables that describe foods. The errors may result in inaccurate measurement of nutrient intake at the individual level, though probably less so at the group level. The Korean Food Composition Tables cover nearly 3000 food items in 19 groups, being almost complete for nutritional evaluation of daily foods. Kim et al. reported the accuracy of conventional food composition table-based estimation of intakes of protein, lipid and carbohydrate, in comparison with chemical analysis [31 ]. Their result supports that the Korean Food Composition Tables are sufficiently accurate, even though that study did not evaluate the accuracy of niacin. Analysis from dietary nutrients has limitations because the bioavailability of nutrients may vary in each individual. Further, serum analysis of nutrients may be needed to investigate the direct association of glaucoma and nutrients.

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Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), the most common type of leukemia in adults, is a cancer of B-cell lymphocytes, which originate in the bone marrow, develop in the lymph nodes, and normally fight infection by producing an immune response.1,2 In CLL, excess B-cells accumulate in the bone marrow and blood, where they crowd out healthy blood cells.2 The Leukemia & Lymphoma Society has estimated that more than 15,500 Americans were diagnosed with CLL in 2013.3 The incidence of CLL increases significantly among people aged ≥50 years; only a small fraction of adults are diagnosed in their 30s or 40s.3 The majority of patients who are diagnosed with CLL are asymptomatic, and the diagnosis is made as a result of a routine blood test that shows a high white blood cell count.4 As it advances, CLL can cause swollen lymph nodes, an enlarged spleen, anemia, and infections.2 The prognosis for patients with CLL varies significantly based on their disease subtype and risk status, with survival duration ranging from approximately 1 year to more than 20 years.5 According to the American Society of Clinical Oncology, the 5-year overall survival rate for patients with CLL of all stages is approximately 79%.5 Early-stage CLL is typically not treated, whereas patients with symptomatic intermediate- or high-risk CLL are usually receiving chemotherapy combined with a targeted monoclonal antibody drug, either rituximab or another CD-20 targeted agent.6 Studies comparing treatment with chemotherapy, such as fludarabine or the combination of fludarabine and cyclophosphamide, with chemoimmunotherapy (fludarabine and rituximab) have shown that rituximab-containing combinations significantly improve complete response rates, remission duration, and overall survival of previously untreated patients with CLL.7 In November 2013, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved obinutuzumab (Gazyva) in combination with chlorambucil for the treatment of patients with previously untreated CLL.8 Obinutuzumab is a humanized monoclonal antibody that targets CD20 on the surface of CLL cells.9 There is no consensus regarding the management of patients with relapsed and refractory CLL. Treatment decisions are based on several factors, including the timing of relapse, the patient’s age, disease extent, overall health status, and previous therapies.10 Agents that are frequently used (either alone or in combination) in the relapsed and/or refractory CLL setting include alemtuzumab, bendamustine, chlorambucil, fludarabine, ofatumumab, and rituximab.11 As a chronic illness, the cost burden associated with CLL is significant. A recent published cost analysis was conducted in Germany using both the direct and indirect costs of CLL.12 European investigators found that the total per-patient cost for patients with CLL was €9753 (approximately $13,500) annually compared with €4807 (approximately $6600) annually for individuals in the control group with the same age and sex. In this study, the economic burden associated with CLL was primarily driven by inpatient and pharmaceutical costs. From a societal perspective, productivity loss was the highest cost driver associated with a diagnosis of CLL.12 Ibrutinib Receives New Indications for Previously Treated Patients with CLL and for CLL with del 17p On February 12, 2014, the FDA accelerated the approval of an expanded indication for ibrutinib (Imbruvica; Pharmacyclics) for patients with CLL who have received at least 1 previous therapy.13 A few months earlier (in November 2013), the FDA accelerated its approval of ibrutinib for the treatment of patients with mantle-cell lymphoma who had received at least 1 previous therapy.13 Ibrutinib is the first FDA-approved drug designed to target Bruton’s tyrosine kinase (BTK), a protein necessary for the growth and survival of B-cells.14 On July 28, 2014, the FDA approved an expanded indication for ibrutinib for the treatment of patients with CLL who have a deletion in chromosome 17 (del 17p), a genetic mutation associated with poor response to standard therapy. The approval of ibrutinib for patients with CLL and del 17p was based on results of a clinical trial with 391 previously treated patients, 127 of whom had CLL with del 17p. Results of an interim analysis showed a 78% reduction of progression-free survival in patients with CLL and del 17p who received ibrutinib. John C. Byrd, MD, Director of the Division of Hematology at the Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center in Columbus, and a principal investigator in the ibrutinib CLL trial, stated, “Rarely does a drug come along with so much potential to help CLL patients….I have been impressed with the promising and durable response rates we have seen in patients.”16 In January 2015, ibrutinib received yet another new FDA indication. See page 69. Mechanism of Action Ibrutinib is a small-molecule inhibitor of BTK, a signaling molecule of the B-cell antigen receptor and cytokine receptor pathways.15 As an irreversible covalent inhibitor, ibrutinib continues to inhibit BTK even after the drug is metabolized.17 Preclinical studies have demonstrated that ibrutinib prevents the activation of downstream pathways affected by BTK, promotes cancer-cell apoptosis, and inhibits cell proliferation.18 Dosing and Administration In patients with CLL who have received at least 1 previous therapy, the recommended dose and schedule for ibrutinib is 420 mg orally once daily. Ibrutinib should be administered at the same time each day, and should be swallowed whole with water. The capsules should not be opened, broken, or chewed.15 Table 1 summarizes ibrutinib dose modification guidelines for patients with any grade ≥3 nonhematologic toxicity, grade ≥3 neutropenia with infection or fever, or grade 4 hematologic toxicities. Ibrutinib may be reinitiated at the starting dose after symptoms of toxicity have resolved to grade 1 or to baseline.15 Because ibrutinib is primarily metabolized by the cytochrome (CY) P450 enzyme 3A, it should not be coadministered with strong or moderate CYP3A inhibitors. The concomitant use of strong CYP3A inhibitors that are taken on a long-term basis (eg, ritonavir, indinavir, nelfinavir, saquinavir, boceprevir, telaprevir, nefazodone) is not recommended.15 Increased drug exposure is also expected in patients with hepatic impairment; however, there are insufficient data to recommend a dose of ibrutinib in patients with baseline hepatic impairment.15 Less than 1% of the ibrutinib dose is excreted renally.15 Exposure to ibrutinib is not altered in patients with creatinine clearance (CrCl) of >25 mL/min. No data exist for patients with severe renal impairment (CrCl <25 mL/min) or for patients on dialysis.15 Pivotal Phase 2 Study The safety and efficacy of ibrutinib for the treatment of patients with CLL were demonstrated in a phase 1b/2 open-label, multicenter trial. This trial included 48 patients with CLL who had previously received multiple therapies.15 In this study, ibrutinib was given orally, 420 mg daily, in continuous 28-day cycles until disease progression.15 The primary end point of this phase 2 study was overall response rate, which was defined as partial response and complete response. Tumor response was evaluated by an Independent Review Committee using a modified version of the International Workshop on CLL criteria.15 The median age of the 48 patients with CLL evaluated for this trial was 67 years (range, 37-82 years).15 Most patients were male (71%) and Caucasian (94%). All of the patients had an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status of 0 or 1. The patients’ median time since the diagnosis of CLL exceeded 6 years (80 months). These patients had received 1 to 12 (median, 4) previous therapies for CLL.15 In this phase 2 study of ibrutinib in patients with relapsed CLL, the overall response rate was 58.3% (95% confidence interval, 43.2%-72.4%).15 All were partial responses. The duration of response for these patients with CLL ranged from 5.6 months to 24.2+ months. The median duration of response was not reached at the time of the FDA’s approval of the drug for CLL.15 An increase in lymphocyte counts, defined as a ≥50% increase from baseline and above absolute lymphocyte count of 5000/mcL, was observed in 77% of patients with CLL who received ibrutinib in this phase 2 study. Isolated lymphocytosis occurred during the first 4 weeks of ibrutinib therapy and resolved after a median of 23 weeks (range, 1-104+ weeks).15 RESONATE: Phase 3 Study As a condition for the accelerated approval of ibrutinib for patients with CLL, the FDA instructed the drug manufacturer to submit the results of phase 3 randomized clinical trials to the FDA. In January 2014, the manufacturer of the drug notified the FDA that based on the favorable results of a planned interim analysis, the phase 3 RESONATE clinical trial that compared ibrutinib and ofatumumab for patients with CLL was ended early.16,19 This phase 3 clinical trial randomized patients with previously treated CLL or with small lymphocytic lymphoma who were not considered candidates for treatment with purine analog-based treatments to receive either ibrutinib or the anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody ofatumumab.19 The results of this interim analysis showed significant improvements in progression-free survival and overall survival with ibrutinib compared with ofatumumab for patients with previously treated CLL in this phase 3 trial.16,19 The 48 previously treated CLL patients who received ibrutinib in the phase 2 clinical trial received 420 mg daily for a median of 15.6 months.15 Adverse reactions that occurred at a frequency of ≥20% included thrombocytopenia (71%, all grades), diarrhea (63%), bruising (54%), neutropenia (54%), upper respiratory tract infection (48%), anemia (44%), fatigue (31%), musculoskeletal pain (27%), rash (27%), pyrexia (25%), constipation (23%), peripheral edema (23%), arthralgia (23%), nausea (21%), stomatitis (21%), sinusitis (21%), and dizziness (21%).15 The most common grade 3 or grade 4 nonhematologic adverse reactions were pneumonia (8%), hypertension (8%), atrial fibrillation (6%), sinusitis (6%), skin infection (6%), dehydration (6%), and musculoskeletal pain (6%; Table 2).15,16 Of the 48 patients with CLL, 5 discontinued ibrutinib as a result of adverse reactions in the phase 2 trial: 3 patients with infections and 2 patients with subdural hematomas.15 Of the patients with CLL who received ibrutinib, 13% experienced adverse reactions that led to dose reduction. In 38% of patients, uric acid levels shifted from normal to elevated during the study, including 4% of patients with values >10 mg/dL.15 Ibrutinib has no contraindications.15 Warnings and Precautions Hemorrhage. Bleeding events, including bruising of any grade, were observed in 63% of patients with CLL who received 420 mg of ibrutinib daily.15 Of the patients with CLL, 6% had grade ≥3 bleeding events, including subdural hematoma, gastrointestinal bleeding, and hematuria. Clinicians should consider the benefit-risk of ibrutinib in patients who require antiplatelet or anticoagulant therapies, and the benefit-risk of withholding ibrutinib for at least 3 to 7 days before and after surgery depending on the procedure and the risk of bleeding.15 Infections. Fatal and nonfatal infections occurred in the clinical trial of ibrutinib in patients with CLL.15 At least 35% of patients with CLL had grade ≥3 infections. Clinicians should regularly monitor patients who are receiving ibrutinib for signs of fever and infections and should evaluate the patients promptly.15 Myelosuppression. Grade 3 or 4 cytopenias, including neutropenia (27%) and thrombocytopenia (10%; Table 2), were reported in the patients with CLL receiving ibrutinib.15 Patients should undergo monthly complete blood cell counts while taking ibrutinib.15 Renal toxicity. Serious and even fatal cases of renal failure have occurred with ibrutinib.15 Increases in creatinine levels up to 1.5 times the upper limit of normal (ULN) occurred in 23% of patients with CLL receiving ibrutinib and from 1.5 to 3 times the ULN in 4% of patients with CLL. Patients receiving ibrutinib should undergo periodic creatinine level monitoring and should maintain hydration.15 Secondary primary malignancies. Other malignancies, including skin cancers (8%) and other types of carcinomas (2%), have been observed in patients with CLL who have received ibrutinib.15 Embryo-fetal toxicity. Based on animal studies, ibrutinib can cause fetal harm when administered during pregnancy. Women should be advised to avoid becoming pregnant while taking ibrutinib.15 Pregnant women. Ibrutinib has been assigned Pregnancy Category D. Based on animal data, ibrutinib can cause fetal harm when administered to a pregnant woman.15 Nursing mothers. Ibrutinib has not been studied in nursing mothers. It is not known whether this agent is excreted in human breast milk. Because many drugs are excreted in human milk and because of the potential for serious adverse events with ibrutinib, a decision should be made to discontinue nursing or to discontinue taking ibrutinib, with the importance of the drug to the mother kept in mind.15 Pediatric patients. The safety and efficacy of ibrutinib in pediatric patients have not been established. Older patients. In the clinical trial of ibrutinib for the treatment of patients with CLL, 52% of patients were aged ≥65 years. When older and younger patients were compared, no overall differences in efficacy were observed. However, a higher number of adverse events were reported in older patients (aged ≥65 years). Specifically, grade ≥3 adverse events occurred more often among older patients compared with among younger patients (80% vs 61%, respectively).15 Imbruvica Receives New FDA Indication in 2015 for Waldenström’s Macroglobulinemia On January 29, 2015, the FDA approved a new indication for ibrutinib for the treatment of patients with Waldenström’s macroglobulinemia, a rare, indolent type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Ibrutinib received a breakthrough therapy designation by the FDA for this use, as well as an orphan drug designation for the treatment of this rare disease. Waldenström’s macroglobulinemia progresses slowly, often with no symptoms, resulting in overproduction of B lymphocytes (B-cells) within the bone marrow, lymph nodes, liver, and spleen. These B-cells also overproduce immunoglobulin M that may lead to bleeding, excessive fatigue, as well as vision and central nervous system problems. Ibrutinib works by inhibiting the abnormal activity of the B-cells. This new FDA indication for Waldenström’s macroglobulinemia was based on a clinical study of 63 previously treated patients with Waldenström’s macroglobulinemia. Ibrutinib led to a 62% overall response rate, with a response duration lasting between 2.8 and approximately 18.8 months.20 Ibrutinib, the first FDA-approved BTK inhibitor, offers clinicians and previously treated patients with CLL an effective and safe treatment option. This once-daily oral agent has demonstrated a high response rate, as well as a favorable toxicity profile, in patients with relapsed CLL. Because ibrutinib has a favorable therapeutic index, its use in combination with other agents for the treatment of patients with CLL and other hematologic malignancies is currently being explored.16,21 Examples include an ongoing study combining ibrutinib with bendamustine and rituximab for patients with relapsed or refractory CLL and a study combining ibrutinib with rituximab for patients with relapsed or refractory mantle-cell lymphoma.22 The new indication approved by the FDA for ibrutinib for the treatment of patients with Waldenström’s macroglobulinemia adds a new treatment options for patients with this rare disease and few treatment options. 1. Leukemia & Lymphoma Society. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia. www.lls.org/#/diseaseinformation/leukemia/chroniclymphocyticleukemia/. Accessed March 3, 2014. 2. Leukemia & Lymphoma Society. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia: causes and risk factors. www.lls.org/diseaseinformation/leukemia/chroniclymphocyticleukemia/causes riskfactors/. Accessed March 3, 2014. 3. Leukemia & Lymphoma Society. Incidence: how common is CLL? www.lls.org/#/diseaseinformation/leukemia/chroniclymphocyticleukemia/incidence/. Accessed March 3, 2014. 4. Leukemia & Lymphoma Society. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia: signs and symptoms. www.lls.org/diseaseinformation/leukemia/chroniclymphocyticleukemia/signs symptoms/. Accessed March 3, 2014. 5. Cancer.net. Leukemia–chronic lymphocytic–CLL: statistics. Updated February 18, 2014. www.cancer.net/cancer-types/leukemia-chronic-lymphocytic-cll/statistics. Accessed March 4, 2014. 6. Cancer.net. Leukemia–chronic lymphocytic–CLL: treatment options. www.cancer. net/cancer-types/leukemia-chronic-lymphocytic-cll/treatment-options. Accessed March 4, 2014. 7. Leukemia & Lymphoma Society. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia: clinical trials. www.lls.org/diseaseinformation/leukemia/chroniclymphocyticleukemia/clinicaltrials/. Accessed March 3, 2014. 8. US Food and Drug Administration. FDA approves Gazyva for chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Press release. November 1, 2013. www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm373209.htm. Accessed November 29, 2013. 9. Gazyva (obinutuzumab) injection [prescribing information]. South San Francisco, CA: Genentech, Inc; November 2013. 10. Leukemia & Lymphoma Society. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia: before treatment. www.lls.org/#/diseaseinformation/leukemia/chroniclymphocyticleukemia/before treatment/. Accessed March 3, 2014. 11. Leukemia & Lymphoma Society. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia: chemotherapy and drug therapy. www.lls.org/#/diseaseinformation/leukemia/chroniclymphocyticleukemia/ treatment/chemotherapydrugtherapy/. Accessed March 3, 2014. 12. Blankart CR, Koch T, Linder R, et al. Cost of illness and economic burden of chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2013;8:32. 13. US Food and Drug Administration. FDA approves Imbruvica to treat chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Press release. February 12, 2014. www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm385764.htm. Accessed March 14, 2014. 14. Lymphoma Research Foundation. Breakthrough therapy ibrutinib effective in CLL and MCL lymphomas. August 2013. www.lymphoma.org/site/pp.asp?c=bkLTKa OQLmK8E&b=8756085. Accessed March 11, 2014. 15. Imbruvica (ibrutinib) capsules [prescribing information]. Sunnyvale, CA: Pharmacyclics; February 2014. 16. Inman S. FDA approves ibrutinib for chronic lymphocytic leukemia. OncLive. February 12, 2014. www.onclive.com/web-exclusives/FDA-Approves-Ibrutinib-for- CLL#sthash.bNUKV3Wo.dpuf. Accessed March 11, 2014. 17. Woyach J. BTK inhibition and the mechanism of action of ibrutinib. Targeted Oncology. August 20, 2013. www.targetedonc.com/targeted-communications/Dr-Woyach-on-BTK-Inhibition-and-the-Mechanism-of-Action-of-Ibrutinib. Accessed December 16, 2013. 18. Akinleye A, Chen Y, Mukhi N, et al. Ibrutinib and novel BTK inhibitors in clinical development. J Hematol Oncol. 2013;6:59. 19. US Food and Drug Administration. Ibrutinib (Imbruvica). Updated February 13, 2014. www.fda.gov/Drugs/InformationOnDrugs/ApprovedDrugs/ucm385878.htm. Accessed March 11, 2014. 20. US Food and Drug Administration. FDA expands approved use of Imbruvica for rare form of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Press release. January 29, 2015. www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm432123.htm. Accessed February 28, 2015. 21. Byrd JC, Furman RR, Coutre SE, et al. Targeting BTK with ibrutinib in relapsed chronic lymphocytic leukemia. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:32-42. 22. ClinicalTrials.gov. Ibrutinib combination. Search results. http://clinicaltrials.gov/ ct2/results?term= ibrutinib+combination+&Search=Search. Accessed March 11, 2014.

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Throughout the democratic world, people have lamented the absence of peace in the Middle East. To date, the conflict between Arabs and Israelis has killed 85,000 Arabs and 24,000 Israelis. Whatever the reasons — some of them are pretty unsavoury — most of the blame has been placed on the Israelis for “illegally” occupying Palestinian territory, building settlements there, constructing a wall to separate Jewish and Palestinian communities, and “over-reacting” to terrorist “incidents”. Some opprobrium has been directed at the Palestinians, but never for long, despite these “incidents” having killed over 1600 Israelis just since the Oslo Peace Accords of 1993. In 2014 alone, Palestinians killed 83 Israelis and wounded 882. Discussion of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict tends to assume that there is an “international consensus” about how to resolve the conflict, that a “two-solution” provides the answer, and that nothing should be done to obstruct the “peace process” to that end. None of these are true, and continuing to believe in them is not a formula for peace but perpetual strife. If Western leaders really want the killing to end, they have to be prepared to answer honestly the following three questions: - What is this “international consensus” you are so keen to uphold? - What two-state solution do you believe the parties could agree to? - What “peace process” do you think you are protecting? Cheap dapoxetine uk, Dapoxetine buy online canada The term “international consensus” has a ring of authority to it which discourages dissenting opinion, often intentionally so. But the truth is that there is no consensus anywhere, whether on the part of the “international community” or the parties to the conflict, on what a final settlement should look like — and there never has been. Over the years, there have been numerous proposals made for how the two sides could co-exist in peace, but not one of them has enjoyed anything remotely like a consensus. Some of the more notable: - A “National Home for Jews in Palestine” with “full, just recognition of the rights of the Arabs … as well as a reverent respect for the Christian and Mohammedan Holy Paces” (Balfour, 1917) - Jerusalem divided into a West Jerusalem borough and an Old City borough, each with its own municipal council for local services and a United Municipal Council for wider interests (Arlosoroff, 1932) - Palestine partitioned into two separate, independent states, with Jerusalem and a corridor to the sea excluded from both (Peel Commission, 1937) - Jerusalem divided into two self-governing boroughs, each with six wards. Each borough would send four representatives to the city’s Administrative Council which would include two British-nominated members, with the Administrative Council having exclusive control over the Old City and the Holy Places (Fitzgerald, 1945) - Palestine partitioned into two sovereign states, both required to be democratic and to safeguard the rights of minorities, joined together by an economic union; Jerusalem to be a demilitarized and neutralized city under international trusteeship with a governor appointed by the United Nations (UN Special Committee on Palestine, 1947). - Jerusalem to be part of Transjordan (now Jordan) with municipal autonomy in Jerusalem for Jews and “special arrangements” for protecting the Holy Places (Bernadotte, 1948) - Jerusalem to be a separate entity under UN control, divided into two zones each with considerable local autonomy and linked respectively with Israel and Jordan, with a UN Commissioner to protect the Holy Places (UN Palestine Conciliation Commission, 1949) - Internationalization of the Old City (Israeli government, 1949) - Joint sovereignty with Jerusalem to be the capital of both Israel and a future Palestinian state, with its own laws agreed by the parliaments of the two states and daily operation of the city by a joint municipal council (Prof. Avishai Margalit, Hebrew University, 1991) - Palestinian self-government in the West Bank and Gaza, with the issues of Jerusalem, Jewish settlements and Palestinian refugees to be dealt with during negotiations on the “permanent status” of the Palestinian areas (Oslo Declaration of Principles, 1993) - Jerusalem to be the capital of both Israel and the Palestinians (King Hussein of Jordan, Strasbourg, Sep 25, 1995) - Palestinians to receive 97% of the West Bank and full control of Gaza, with a land link between the two; the Arab neighbourhoods of East Jerusalem to become the capital of the Palestinian state; Palestinians to maintain control over the Muslim Holy Places; Palestinians to have the right to return to the Palestinian state with $30 billion in compensation (Clinton/Barak/Arafat discussion, Washington, Dec 2000) The closest any of these amounted to an “international consensus” was the UN vote on the partition resolution of November 29, 1947 — but it wasn’t much of a consensus: 33 in favour and 13 opposed including six Arab and four non-Arab Muslim states, with 10 abstentions among whom were Britain, the mandatory power. What this means is that the only consensus which will matter is the one worked out between the parties themselves, Israelis and Palestinians, and they don’t have one yet. 2. What “two-state” solution? In announcing that the United States would recognize Jerusalem as the capital of Israel, President Trump stipulated that the United States was “not taking a position on any final state issues, including the specific boundaries of the Israeli sovereignty in Jerusalem or the resolution of contested borders”. The United States, the President said, “would support a two-state solution if agreed to by both sides”. So what might the two sides agree to? Israelis have been pragmatic about what they would accept. When they were weak, the Israelis settled for any kind of state they could get. Under the UN Partition Plan, Israel was accorded chunks of territory in the northeast, along the Mediterranean coast, and the Negev desert, with no territorial link to Jerusalem. Jerusalem itself was not to belong to Arabs or Jews but placed under UN administration. But when Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq launched their first war of annihilation against Israel the day after it declared independence, the Israelis’ military successes allowed them to open a road to Jerusalem and secure control over the Western part of the city. In that war, however, Jordan’s Arab Legion seized the Old City and razed the Jewish Quarter. For the next 20 years, Jews were denied access to their Holy Places — the first time this had happened in 2000 years. When their Arab neighbours precipitated another war in 1967, the Israelis took the opportunity to substantially improve the security of their state by driving the Arab Legion out of East Jerusalem and the West Bank, Syria off the Golan Heights, and Egypt out of Gaza and Sinai. These gains provided Israel the strategic depth it had lacked to defend itself effectively, and the additional territories proved their value in 1973 when Arab states made a final attempt to destroy the Jewish state. Continued control of conquered territory is the reason the state of Israel no longer faces an existential threat from its neighbours. That is the present and the future, and no amount of diplomatic suasion or UN lawfare or boycotting and divesting will change that. Israelis, not all of them, have worried about the moral and material costs of administering large numbers of Muslims and Christians and have advocated trading land for peace — when peace could be counted on. Hence the Begin government’s agreement to return control of Sinai to Egypt on conditions: a signed peace agreement, restrictions on Egyptian military activity on the peninsula, and an internationally-supervised (not UN) border regime. And the later calamity of the Sharon government’s unilaterally transferring control of Gaza to the Palestinians without conditions in the vain hope that peace would follow. It is possible future Israeli governments might agree to territorial concessions so long as these enhance the state’s security, but the imperative of keeping threats at arms length will preclude Israel according the Palestinians full sovereignty over any territory until at least a generation of peaceful coexistence has passed and the Palestinians have demonstrated they can fulfil the obligations of statehood. As for Jerusalem, the Jewish people have considered the City of David their national and religious capital since the Israelite King David captured it from the Jebusites around 1000 BC. For two millennia, at Passover and Yom Kippur, Jews in the Diaspora prayed for an end to their exile and a return to the Land of Israel: “Next year in Jerusalem”. Now that that has come to pass, is it conceivable that Israelis would ever give up control over any part of Jerusalem from which Jews were once excluded, that they would ever agree to the city being divided with the near certainty that their access to their Holy Places would one day again be at risk, or that they would countenance the city so dearly won being placed under the “trusteeship” of other states or (worse) governed by an historically hostile United Nations? Being a democracy, opinions abound in Israel on what a future settlement should look like, but to the degree there is an Israeli consensus it likely comprises the following: - a territorially united Jerusalem which is the capital of Israel, - a regime of special protections for all religions in all the Holy Places, - self-government in the West Bank and Gaza with local police services but no military forces, - swaps of territory to reduce the potential for friction between Jewish and Palestinian communities, - the possibility that Jerusalem could also serve as the capital of a future Palestinian state, under arrangements which would not compromise Israeli sovereignty and control over the entire city and could perhaps also finally resolve issues of access to the Temple Mount/Haram a-Sharif. Since the beginning, Palestinians have been opposed to the existence of a Jewish state in their midst. It remains to be demonstrated that they have had a change of heart. Over the years, Palestinians have rejected every British, United Nations, European, American, Saudi or Israeli proposal which provided for the existence of Israel. In contrast to the leaders of neighbouring Arab states, no Palestinian leader has ever publicly acknowledged Israel’s right to exist. Many have even refused to pronounce its name, preferring to call it the “Zionist entity”. Fatah and Hamas party constitutions and platforms purposely equivocate. Against this background, an obvious question ought to be how Palestinians could refuse to recognize the state of Israel and also be genuinely interested in a solution which provided for peaceful coexistence with that state, i.e. a two-state solution. Now and then, Palestinian leaders have used language which suggests the possibility of accommodation, but their public record is overwhelmingly opposed. A few surely do wish for such an outcome, but most have been intimidated into silence. To be cast as an “accommodationist” can be a death sentence. The only time a Palestinian leader ever came close to accepting a two-state solution happened in 2000, after the Camp David summit failed in June of that year, negotiations were resumed in Washington in December, and President Clinton said Yasir Arafat had agreed verbally to a deal which Clinton had read to him and to Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak. There was no signed document, however, and Arafat denied agreeing to anything once he returned home. It’s not inconceivable he feared what Palestinian radicals would make of the concession at the heart of the deal, recognition of the state of Israel. What the record does show is supposedly moderate Palestinian leaders such as Mahmoud Abbas, President of the Palestinian Authority in the West Bank, not challenging the extremist position of Palestinian radicals such as the Hamas leaders in Gaza, Ismail Haniyeh and Khaled Mashal, who insist on a single Palestine stretching “from the river to the sea” — from the Jordan to the Mediterranean. Just how supportive Abbas himself is of a two-state solution can be judged by his response to Trump’s Jerusalem announcement. While it was widely reported that Abbas had said Palestine would no longer “recognize the United States as a neutral mediator”, Western media outlets largely overlooked the fact he also appealed to “the world’s nations to reconsider their recognition of Israel” and to officially recognize Palestine. That sounds more like a one-state solution than two. What clearly worries Abbas and others is that their dream of a one-state solution vanishes once major powers set up embassies in Jerusalem and thereby effectively accept the permanency of an Israel whose capital is Jerusalem. It is comforting for some to point out that the Palestinian leaders may not faithfully represent the views of the Palestinian population at large. Certainly their right to speak for all Palestinians can be questioned. As one American columnist recently observed, Abbas is in the 13th year of the four-year presidency to which he was elected in 2005. Haniyeh has been a de facto “prime minister” in Gaza since 2006. Mashal has never been publicly elected to anything. Former US Secretary of State John Kerry was one of the hopefuls. He blamed the failure of his peace efforts on the “misguided policies of leaders” and left his job asserting that “polls of Israelis and Palestinians show there is still strong support for the two-state solution in theory. They just don’t believe it can happen.” Pure fiction, unfortunately. An encyclopedic study of some 400 polls carried out by five separate Palestinian research centres as well as leading international polling firms tell a different story. The Palestinian public does not, in fact, favour a two-state solution. Instead, by large and consistent majorities, Palestinians support the maximalist solution of a Palestinian state “from the river to the sea.” What Palestinian leaders have done is to allow others to claim on their behalf that they would accept a “two-state” solution. This keeps the fiction alive for fellow travellers, while they themselves continue to pursue their elusive goal of one day “expelling the Jews from Palestine”. All it takes is one look at a picture of modern-day Tel Aviv to appreciate just how numbingly absurd it is for any Palestinian to hold on to such a dream — and how ridiculous it is for the “international community” not to insist that the Palestinians accept Israel’s permanence and legitimacy as the predicate for peace. No “peace process” can hope to succeed otherwise. 3. What peace process? If you look into the history of the Arab/Israeli conflict, you may notice that most of the focus used to be on devising “a just and lasting peace” which the parties could agree to. Over the last two decades, however, the talk has largely shifted to advancing “the peace process”, or not compromising “the peace process”, or restarting “the peace process”, i.e. not the what but the how. A good recent example was the US decision to recognize Jerusalem as the capital of Israel. Little attention was focused on the rationale for the decision, almost all of it on how the decision might affect the peace process. Certainly, it wouldn’t go down well with the Palestinians. But what peace process? As matters stand today, there is no peace process and there hasn’t been one which deserves the name for a long time. The “international community” in various guises has offered “road maps”, held summits, sent envoys, shuttled diplomats, and tried “two-track” diplomacy; but Israelis and Palestinians have not held serious discussions on a final settlement since Washington in 2000. In 2001, there were six days of “talks” in Taba on the “Clinton parameters”, but these went nowhere. Clinton was leaving office in a matter of weeks (George W. Bush had been elected president), Barak was heading for electoral defeat, and Arafat mostly just asked for “maps, details and clarifications” — before launching the first intifada. From late 2006 to mid 2008, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert met several times with Abbas to propose various territorial configurations for a Palestinian state, but Abbas too sought “clarifications”. Meanwhile, the Palestinian Authority was splintering between Abbas (Fatah) and Haniyeh (Hamas), and Hamas in Gaza precipitated a six-month long war of rocket attacks and guerrilla raids against southern Israeli towns. Apart from one meeting with Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu in 2010, Abbas refused direct talks for virtually the entire period of the Obama administration, conditioning these on the release of Palestinian prisoners in Israel and a freeze on West Bank settlements and new construction in East Jerusalem. Haniyeh’s own “meetings” with Israelis have been problematic. He served three terms in Israeli prisons, once for three years, and narrowly missed assassination in an air strike. The insidious thing about a “peace process” which makes no progress is that it has been hugely advantageous to the Palestinians, indeed has allowed them to make gains without the requirement of reciprocal concessions. In the four decades since the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) was recognized (by Arab states) as the “sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people” and was granted observer status at the United Nations in 1974, an entity called Palestine has evolved from being a mere territory in dispute to a nation-state on the threshold of being legitimized through full membership in the UN — without ever having to make any accommodation to the security interests of its Israeli neighbour with whom it has been at war for generations. It is this progression of events which has sapped the energy out of the old peace process, not Israeli practices in the “occupied territories”. By doing just enough to convince the world they want to negotiate — decrying the absence of negotiations, declaring they are “ready” for talks, occasionally participating in them but without result — the Palestinians have kept the fiction alive that they want a deal — when what they want is cover for the continued erosion of the democracies’ support for Israel. The advent of an independent Palestine absent a peace agreement with security provisions is not a formula for peace but a prelude to war. A Palestine with an aura of legitimacy through UN membership, enjoying the support of enablers in governments and chancelleries around the world, armed by Iran, and presenting Israel anew with a threat to its existence can only lead to violence of a kind not seen since 1948-49. Of course Israel would win, but the human toll would be immense — and the democracies by their actions today would bear a large share of the responsibility. Some advice to democratic leaders based on realpolitik diplomatic experience: 1. Recognize Jerusalem as the capital of Israel and be done with the nonsense that there could ever be a “just and lasting peace” in the Middle East without Jerusalem being the capital of Israel. 2. Butt out of the kind of mediation which just encourages Palestinian radicals to believe they can continue to string out “negotiations” and not have to make concessions to their negotiating partner. Force them to talk d’égal à égal with the Israelis. 3. Restrict Western aid to genuine humanitarian relief, and leave it to the parties themselves to devise whatever economic relationship works for both. 4. Block any further progress at the UN towards Palestinian membership, and condition membership on: (a) the Palestinians cleaning up their act, e.g. using the full force of their existing institutions, and cooperating with Israel and Egypt, to wipe out terrorist groups in their midst; ending the anti-Israeli and anti-Jewish indoctrination of the Palestinian population including children; and practising some semblance of democracy. (b) a signed peace agreement. As Albert Einstein observed: “Peace is not merely the absence of war but the presence of justice, of law, of order — in short, of government”. Feature image: Tel Aviv (commons.wikipedia.org)

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General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B |F-111B, BuNo 151974, approaching USS Coral Sea in July 1968.| |National origin||United States| |Manufacturer||General Dynamics and Grumman| |First flight||18 May 1965| |Primary user||United States Navy| |Developed from||General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark| The F-111B was developed in the 1960s by General Dynamics in conjunction with Grumman for the U.S. Navy as part of the joint Tactical Fighter Experimental (TFX) with the United States Air Force (USAF) to produce a common fighter for the services that could perform a variety of missions. It incorporated innovations such as variable-geometry wings, afterburning turbofan engines, and a long-range radar and missile weapons system. Designed in parallel with the F-111 "Aardvark", which was adopted by the Air Force as a strike aircraft, the F-111B suffered development issues and changing Navy requirements for an aircraft with maneuverability for dogfighting. The F-111B was not ordered into production and the F-111B prototypes were used for testing before being retired. The F-111B would be replaced by the smaller and lighter Grumman F-14 Tomcat, which carried over the engines, AWG-9/Phoenix weapons system, and similar swing-wing configuration. The F-111B was part of the 1960s TFX program. The USAF's Tactical Air Command (TAC) was largely concerned with the fighter-bomber and deep strike/interdiction roles; their version of the aircraft would be a follow-on to the F-105 Thunderchief fighter-bomber. In June 1960, the USAF issued a specification for a long-range interdiction and strike aircraft able to penetrate Soviet air defenses at very low altitudes and very high speeds to deliver tactical nuclear weapons against crucial targets. Meanwhile, the U.S. Navy sought a long-range, high-endurance interceptor to defend its aircraft carrier battle groups against long-range anti-ship missiles launched from Soviet jet bombers, such as the Tupolev Tu-16, Tupolev Tu-22, and Tupolev Tu-22M, along with submarines. The Navy needed a Fleet Air Defense (FAD) aircraft with a more powerful radar, and longer range missiles than the F-4 Phantom II to intercept both enemy bombers and missiles. Tactical Fighter Experimental (TFX)Edit The Air Force and Navy requirements appeared to be different. However, on 14 February 1961, the new U.S. Secretary of Defense, Robert McNamara, formally directed that the services study the development of a single aircraft that would satisfy both requirements. Early studies indicated the best option was to base the Tactical Fighter Experimental (TFX) on the Air Force requirement and a modified version for the Navy. In June 1961, Secretary McNamara ordered the go ahead on TFX despite Air Force and the Navy efforts to keep their programs separate. The USAF and the Navy could only agree on swing-wing, two seat, twin engine design features. The USAF wanted a tandem seat aircraft for low level penetration, while the Navy wanted a shorter, high altitude interceptor with side by side seating. Also, the USAF wanted the aircraft designed for 7.33 g with Mach 2.5 speed at altitude and Mach 1.2 speed at low level with a length of approximately 70 ft (21 m). The Navy had less strenuous requirements of 6 g with Mach 2 speed at altitude and high subsonic speed (approx. Mach 0.9) at low level with a length of 56 ft (17.1 m). The Navy also wanted a 48-inch (120 cm) radar dish for long range and a maximum takeoff weight of 50,000 pounds (23,000 kg). So McNamara developed a basic set of requirements for TFX based largely on the Air Force's requirements. He changed to a 36-inch (91 cm) dish for compatibility and increased the maximum weight to approximately 60,000 lb (27,200 kg) for the Air Force version and 55,000 lb (24,900 kg) for the Navy version. Then on 1 September 1961 he ordered the USAF to develop it. A request for proposal (RFP) for the TFX was provided to industry in October 1961. In December of that year Boeing, General Dynamics, Lockheed, McDonnell, North American and Republic submitted their proposals. The proposal evaluation group found all the proposals lacking, but the best should be improved with study contracts. Boeing and General Dynamics were selected to enhance their designs. Three rounds of updates to the proposals were conducted with Boeing being picked by the selection board. Instead Secretary McNamara selected General Dynamics' proposal in November 1962 due to its greater commonality between Air Force and Navy TFX versions. The Boeing aircraft versions shared less than half of the major structural components. General Dynamics signed the TFX contract in December 1962. A Congressional investigation followed, but did not change the selection. The Air Force F-111A and Navy F-111B variants used the same airframe structural components and TF30-P-1 turbofan engines. They featured side by side crew seating in an escape capsule as required by the Navy, versus individual ejection seats. The F-111B's nose was 8.5 feet (2.59 m) shorter due to its need to fit on existing carrier elevator decks, and had 3.5 feet (1.07 m) longer wingspan to improve on-station endurance time. The Navy version would carry an AN/AWG-9 Pulse-Doppler radar and six AIM-54 Phoenix missiles. The Air Force version would carry the AN/APQ-113 attack radar and the AN/APQ-110 terrain-following radar and air-to-ground ordnance. Lacking experience with carrier-based fighters, General Dynamics teamed with Grumman for assembly and test of the F-111B aircraft. In addition, Grumman would also build the F-111A's aft fuselage and the landing gear. The first test F-111A was powered by YTF30-P-1 turbofans and used a set of ejector seats, since the escape capsule was not yet available. It first flew on 21 December 1964. The first F-111B was also equipped with ejector seats and first flew on 18 May 1965. To address stall issues in certain parts of the flight regime, the F-111's engine inlet design was modified in 1965–66, ending with the "Triple Plow I" and "Triple Plow II" designs. The F-111A achieved a speed of Mach 1.3 in February 1965 with an interim intake design. The weight goals for both F-111 versions proved to be overly optimistic. Excessive weight plagued the F-111B throughout its development. The prototypes were far over the requirement weight. Design efforts reduced airframe weight but were offset by the addition of the escape capsule. The additional weight made the aircraft underpowered. Lift was improved by changes to the wing control surfaces. A higher thrust version of the engine was planned. During the congressional hearings for the aircraft, Vice Admiral Thomas F. Connolly, then Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Air Warfare, responded to a question from Senator John C. Stennis as to whether a more powerful engine would cure the aircraft's woes, saying, "There isn't enough power in all Christendom to make that airplane what we want!" With the F-111B program in distress, Grumman began studying improvements and alternatives. In 1966, the Navy awarded Grumman a contract to begin studying advanced fighter designs. Grumman narrowed down these designs to its Model 303 design. With this the F-111B's end appeared near by mid-1967. By May 1968 both Armed Services committees of Congress voted not to fund production and in July 1968 the DoD ordered work stopped on F-111B. A total of seven F-111Bs were delivered by February 1969. The F-111B's replacement, the Grumman F-14 Tomcat, which derived from Grumman's initial Model 303 design, reused the TF30 engines from the F-111B, though the Navy planned on replacing them with an improved engine later. Although lighter than the F-111B, it was still the largest and heaviest U.S. fighter to takeoff and land from an aircraft carrier. Its size was a consequence of the requirement to carry the large AWG-9 radar and AIM-54 Phoenix missiles, both from the F-111B, while exceeding the F-4's maneuverability. While the F-111B was armed only for the interceptor role, the Tomcat incorporated an internal M61 Vulcan cannon, provisions for Sidewinder and Sparrow air-to air missiles, and provisions for bombs. While the F-111B did not reach service, land-based F-111 variants were in service with the U.S. Air Force for many years and with the Royal Australian Air Force until 2010. The F-111B was an all-weather interceptor aircraft intended to defend U.S. Navy carrier battle groups against bombers and anti-ship missiles. The F-111 features variable geometry wings, an internal weapons bay and a cockpit with side by side seating. The cockpit is part of an escape crew capsule. The wing sweep varies between 16 degrees and 72.5 degrees (full forward to full sweep). The airframe consisted mostly of aluminum alloys with steel, titanium and other materials also used. The fuselage is a semi-monocoque structure with stiffened panels and honeycomb sandwich panels for skin. The F-111B was powered by two Pratt & Whitney TF30 afterburning turbofan engines and included the AN/AWG-9 radar system for controlling the AIM-54 Phoenix air-to-air missiles. Poor visibility over the nose made the aircraft more difficult to handle for carrier operations. The F-111 offered a platform with the range, payload, and Mach-2 performance to intercept targets quickly, but with swing wings and turbofan engines, it could also loiter on station for long periods. The F-111B would carry six AIM-54 Phoenix missiles, its main armament. Four of the Phoenix missiles mounted on wing pylons and two in the weapons bay. The missile pylons added significant drag when used. Flight tests on the F-111B continued at NAS Point Mugu, California and NAWS China Lake, California even after the program had been terminated. In July 1968, the pre-production F-111B Bureau Number 151974, was used for carrier trials aboard USS Coral Sea. The evaluation was completed without issue. Hughes continued Phoenix missile system development with four F-111Bs. In all, two F-111Bs were lost in crashes and a third seriously damaged. The F-111B's last flight was with 151792 from California to New Jersey in mid-1971. The seven F-111Bs flew 1,748 hours over 1,173 flights. F-111B numbers 1 to 3 were initial prototypes; and No. 4 and 5 were prototypes with lightened airframes. No. 6 and 7 had lightened airframes and improved TF30-P-12 engines and were built to near production standard. These were also approximately 2 feet (0.6 metres) longer due to an added section between the cockpit and radome. The first five aircraft included Triple Plow I intakes. The last two had Triple Plow II intakes. The first three B-models were fitted with ejection seats and the remainder included the escape crew capsule. |Number||Serial number||Description||Location or fate| |1||151970||Prototype with heavy airframe, TF30-P-3 engines||After flight test use was scrapped in December 1969.| |2||151971||Prototype with heavy airframe, TF30-P-3 engines||Used for Hughes missile testing. Lost in a crash on 11 September 1968.| |3||151972||Prototype with heavy airframe, TF30-P-3 engines||Was damaged and retired. Was used for jet blast testing at NATF, NAES Lakehurst, NJ and was probably scrapped there.| |4||151973||Prototype with lightened airframe, TF30-P-3 engines||Destroyed in double engine failure crash on 21 April 1967.| |5||151974||Prototype with lightened airframe, TF30-P-3 engines||Crash landed at NAS Point Mugu, CA in October 1968. Was dismantled at NAS Moffett Field, CA in 1970.| |6||152714||Pre-production version, TF30-P-12 engines||Used for Hughes missile tests. Retired in 1969. Removed from inventory in 1971 and used for parts. Was photographed in 2008 in a Mojave, California scrapyard.| |7||152715||Pre-production version, TF30-P-12 engines||Retired and stored at NAWS China Lake, CA (awaiting restoration).| Specifications (F-111B pre-production)Edit For pre-production aircraft #6 & #7: - Crew: 2 (pilot and weapons system operator) - Length: 68 ft 10 in (20.98 m) - Spread: 70 ft (21.3 m) - Swept: 33 ft 11 in (10.34 m) - Height: 15 ft 9 in (4.80 m) - Wing area: - Spread: 655.5 ft2 (60.9 m2) - Swept: 550 ft2 (51.1 m2) - Airfoil: NACA 64-210.68 root, NACA 64-209.80 tip - Empty weight: 46,100 lb (20,910 kg) - Loaded weight: 79,000 lb (35,800 kg) - Max. takeoff weight: 88,000 lb (39,900 kg) - Powerplant: 2 × Pratt & Whitney TF30-P-3 turbofans - Maximum speed: Mach 2.2 (1,450 mph, 2,330 km/h) - Range: 2,100 mi (1,830 nmi, 3,390 km) ; with 6 AIM-54 missiles and 23,000 lb fuel internal - Ferry range: 3,200 mi (2,780 nmi, 5,150 km) ; with 2 x 450 gal external tanks - Service ceiling: 65,000 ft (19,800 m) - Rate of climb: 21,300 ft/min (108 m/s) - Wing loading: - Spread: 120 lb/ft2 (586 kg/m2) - Swept: 144 lb/ft2 (703 kg/m2) - Thrust/weight: 0.47 - Guns: 1× M61 Vulcan 20 mm (0.787 in) Gatling cannon (seldom fitted) - Hardpoints: 6 underwing pylons for ordnance and external fuel tanks - Missiles: 6 x AIM-54 Phoenix long range air-air missiles (four under wings, two in weapons bay) |Wikimedia Commons has media related to General Dynamics F-111B.| - General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark - General Dynamics EF-111A Raven - General Dynamics F-111C - General Dynamics F-111K Aircraft of comparable role, configuration and era - Dassault Mirage G - Grumman F-14 Tomcat - Lavochkin La-250 - North American NR-349 - Operational Requirement F.155 (UK) - "Aircraft: Takeoff for the F-111". Time, 19 May 1967. - Gunston 1978, pp. 12–13. - Thomason 1998, pp. 3–5. - Gunston 1978, pp. 8, 10–15. - Eden 2004, pp. 196–197. - Miller 1982, pp. 11–15. - Gunston 1978, pp. 16–17. - Gunston 1978, pp. 18–20. - Baugher, Joe. "General Dynamics F-111A." General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark, 23 December 1999. - Eden 2004, p. 197. - Baugher, Joe. "General Dynamics/Grumman F-111B" General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark, 7 November 2004. - Gunston 1978, pp. 25–27. - Miller 1982, p. 52. - Thomason 1998, p. 43. - "Tests & Testimony." Time magazine, 22 March 1968. - Spick 2000, pp. 71–72. - Miller 1982, p. 54. - Gunston 1978, p. 35. - Logan 1998, pp. 254–255. - Spick 2000, pp. 72–74, 112. - Gunston and Spick 1983, p. 112. - Thomason 1998, p. 54. - "F-14 Tomcat." GlobalAircraft.org. Retrieved: 15 November 2010. - Colucci, Frank. "Building the Bombcat." "hobbyfanatics.com, 31 July 2003. Retrieved: 15 November 2010. - Thomason 1998, pp. 15–16. - Eden 2004, pp. 196–201. - Miller 1982, p. 80. - Logan 1998, pp. 17–18. - Logan 1998, pp. 254–257. - Ciminera, Mike. "F-14 Design Evolution". Youtube - Peninsula Srs Videos. Youtube. Retrieved 30 October 2016. - Thomason 1998, p. 53. - Miller 1982, pp. 52–55. - Logan 1998, pp. 254–256. - Logan 1998, p. 254. - Thomason 1998, p. 16. - Thomason 1998, pp. 20–26, 33, 42, 44, 46. - Logan 1998, pp. 258–260. - Photograph of a F-111B in a scrapyard near Mojave port. - U.S. Naval Museum of Armament & Technology - Thomason 1998, pp. 55–56. - Miller 1982, pp. 66, 80. - Logan 1998, pp. 302–303. - Eden, Paul, ed. (2004). "General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark/EF-111 Raven". Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London: Amber Books. ISBN 1-904687-84-9. - Gunston, Bill (1978). F-111. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 0-684-15753-5. - Logan, Don (1998). General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Military History. ISBN 0-7643-0587-5. - Miller, Jay (1982). General Dynamics F-111 "Aardvark". Aero Series. Fallbrook, CA: Aero Publishers. ISBN 0-8168-0606-3. - Neubeck, Ken (2009). F-111 Aardvark. Walk Around. 57. Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signal. ISBN 978-0-89747-581-5. - Thomason, Tommy (1998). Grumman Navy F-111B Swing Wing. Naval Fighters. 41. Simi Valley, CA: Ginter Books. ISBN 978-0-9426-1241-7. - Thornborough, Anthony M. (1989). F-111 Aardvark. Warbirds Fotofax. London: Arms and Armour Press. ISBN 0-85368-935-0. - Thornborough, Anthony M.; Peter E. Davies (1989). F-111: Success in Action. London: Arms and Armour Press. ISBN 0-85368-988-1. - Wilson, Stewart (2000). Combat Aircraft since 1945. Fyshwick, Australia: Aerospace Publications. ISBN 1-875671-50-1. - Winchester, Jim (2006). Military Aircraft of the Cold War. The Aviation Factfile. London: Grange Books. ISBN 1-84013-929-3.

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