Native American, also called American Indian, Amerindian, Amerind, Indian, aboriginal American, or First Nation person, member of any of the aboriginal peoples of the Western Hemisphere, although the term often connotes only those groups whose original territories were in present-day Canada and the United States.
Pre-Columbian Americans used technology and material culture that included fire and the fire drill; the domesticated dog; stone implements of many kinds; the spear-thrower (atlatl), harpoon, and bow and arrow; and cordage, netting, basketry, and, in some places, pottery. Many indigenous American groups were hunting-and-gathering cultures, while others were agricultural peoples. American Indians domesticated a variety of plants and animals, including corn (maize), beans, squash, potatoes and other tubers, turkeys, llamas, and alpacas, as well as a variety of semidomesticated species of nut- and seed-bearing plants. These and other resources were used to support communities ranging from small hamlets to cities such as Cahokia, with an estimated population of 10,000 to 20,000 individuals, and Teotihuacán, with some 125,000 to 200,000 residents.
At the dawn of the 16th century ce, as the European conquest of the Americas began, indigenous peoples resided throughout the Western Hemisphere. They were soon decimated by the effects of epidemic disease, military conquest, and enslavement, and, as with other colonized peoples, they were subject to discriminatory political and legal policies well into the 20th, and even the 21st, century. Nonetheless, they have been among the most active and successful native peoples in effecting political change and regaining their autonomy in areas such as education, land ownership, religious freedom, the law, and the revitalization of traditional culture.
Culturally, the indigenous peoples of the Americas are usually recognized as constituting two broad groupings, American Indians and Arctic peoples. American Indians are often further grouped by area of residence: Northern America (present-day United States and Canada), Middle America (present-day Mexico and Central America; sometimes called Mesoamerica), and South America. This article is a survey of the culture areas, prehistories, histories, and recent developments of the indigenous peoples and cultures of the United States and Canada. Some of the terminology used in reference to indigenous Americans is explained in Sidebar: Tribal Nomenclature: American Indian, Native American, and First Nation; Sidebar: The Difference Between a Tribe and a Band; and Sidebar: Native American Self-Names. An overview of all the indigenous peoples of the Americas is presented in American Indian; discussions of various aspects of indigenous American cultures may also be found in the articles pre-Columbian civilizations; Middle American Indian; South American Indian; Arctic: The people; American Indian languages; Native American religions; and Native American arts.
Native Americans form an ethnic group only in a very general sense. In the East, centuries of coexistence with whites has led to some degree of intermarriage and assimilation and to various patterns of stable adjustment. In the West the hasty expansion of…
Native American culture areas
Comparative studies are an essential component of all scholarly analyses, whether the topic under study is human society, fine art, paleontology, or chemistry; the similarities and differences found in the entities under consideration help to organize and direct research programs and exegeses. The comparative study of cultures falls largely in the domain of anthropology, which often uses a typology known as the culture area approach to organize comparisons across cultures.
The culture area approach was delineated at the turn of the 20th century and continued to frame discussions of peoples and cultures into the 21st century. A culture area is a geographic region where certain cultural traits have generally co-occurred; for instance, in North America between the 16th and 19th centuries, the Northwest Coast culture area was characterized by traits such as salmon fishing, woodworking, large villages or towns, and hierarchical social organization.
The specific number of culture areas delineated for Native America has been somewhat variable because regions are sometimes subdivided or conjoined. The 10 culture areas discussed below are among the most commonly used—the Arctic, the Subarctic, the Northeast, the Southeast, the Plains, the Southwest, the Great Basin, California, the Northwest Coast, and the Plateau. Notably, some scholars prefer to combine the Northeast and Southeast into one Eastern Woodlands culture area or the Plateau and Great Basin into a single Intermontane culture area. Each section below considers the location, climate, environment, languages, tribes, and common cultural characteristics of the area before it was heavily colonized. Prehistoric and post-Columbian Native American cultures are discussed in subsequent sections of this article. A discussion of the indigenous peoples of the Americas as a whole is found in American Indian.
This region lies near and above the Arctic Circle and includes the northernmost parts of present-day Alaska and Canada. The topography is relatively flat, and the climate is characterized by very cold temperatures for most of the year. The region’s extreme northerly location alters the diurnal cycle; on winter days the sun may peek above the horizon for only an hour or two, while the proportion of night to day is reversed during the summer months (see midnight sun).
The indigenous peoples of the North American Arctic include the Eskimo (Inuit and Yupik/Yupiit) and Aleut; their traditional languages are in the Eskimo-Aleut family. Many Alaskan groups prefer to be called Native Alaskans rather than Native Americans; Canada’s Arctic peoples generally prefer the referent Inuit.
The Arctic peoples of North America relied upon hunting and gathering. Winters were harsh, but the long hours of summer sunlight supported an explosion of vegetation that in turn drew large herds of caribou and other animals to the inland North. On the coasts, sea mammals and fish formed the bulk of the diet. Small mobile bands were the predominant form of social organization; band membership was generally based on kinship and marriage (see also Sidebar: The Difference Between a Tribe and a Band). Dome-shaped houses were common; they were sometimes made of snow and other times of timber covered with earth. Fur clothing, dog sleds, and vivid folklore, mythology, and storytelling traditions were also important aspects of Arctic cultures. See also Arctic: The people.
This region lies south of the Arctic and encompasses most of present-day Alaska and most of Canada, excluding the Maritime Provinces (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island), which are part of the Northeast culture area. The topography is relatively flat, the climate is cool, and the ecosystem is characterized by a swampy and coniferous boreal forest (taiga) ecosystem.
Prominent tribes include the Innu (Montagnais and Naskapi), Cree, Ojibwa, Chipewyan, Beaver, Slave, Carrier, Gwich’in, Tanaina, and Deg Xinag (Ingalik). Their traditional languages are in the Athabaskan and Algonquian families.
Small kin-based bands were the predominant form of social organization, although seasonal gatherings of larger groups occurred at favoured fishing locales. Moose, caribou, beavers, waterfowl, and fish were taken, and plant foods such as berries, roots, and sap were gathered. In winter people generally resided in snug semisubterranean houses built to withstand extreme weather; summer allowed for more mobility and the use of tents or lean-tos. Snowshoes, toboggans, and fur clothing were other common forms of material culture. See also American Subarctic peoples.
This culture area reaches from the present-day Canadian provinces of Quebec, Ontario, and the Maritimes (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island) south to the Ohio River valley (inland) and to North Carolina (on the Atlantic Coast). The topography is generally rolling, although the Appalachian Mountains include some relatively steep slopes. The climate is temperate, precipitation is moderate, and the predominant ecosystem is the deciduous forest. There is also extensive coastline and an abundance of rivers and lakes.
Prominent tribes include the Algonquin, Iroquois, Huron, Wampanoag, Mohican, Mohegan, Ojibwa, Ho-chunk (Winnebago), Sauk, Fox, and Illinois. The traditional languages of the Northeast are largely of the Iroquoian and Algonquian language families.
Most Northeastern peoples engaged in agriculture, and for them the village of a few dozen to a few hundred persons was the most important social and economic unit in daily life. Groups that had access to reliably plentiful wild foods such as wild rice, salmon, or shellfish generally preferred to live in dispersed hamlets of extended families. Several villages or hamlets formed a tribe, and groups of tribes sometimes organized into powerful confederacies. These alliances were often very complex political organizations and generally took their name from the most powerful member tribe, as with the Iroquois Confederacy.
Cultivated corn (maize), beans, squash, and weedy seed-bearing plants such as Chenopodium formed the economic base for farming groups. All northeastern peoples took animals including deer, elk, moose, waterfowl, turkeys, and fish. Houses were wickiups (wigwams) or longhouses; both house types were constructed of a sapling framework that was covered with rush matting or sheets of bark. Other common aspects of culture included dugouts made of the trunks of whole trees, birchbark canoes, clothing made of pelts and deerskins, and a variety of medicine societies. See also Northeast Indian.
This region reaches from the southern edge of the Northeast culture area to the Gulf of Mexico; from east to west it stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to somewhat west of the Mississippi valley. The climate is warm temperate in the north and grades to subtropical in the south. The topography includes coastal plains, rolling uplands known as the Piedmont, and a portion of the Appalachian Mountains; of these, the Piedmont was most densely populated. The predominant ecosystems were coastal scrub, wetlands, and deciduous forests.
Perhaps the best-known indigenous peoples originally from this region are the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole, sometimes referred to as the Five Civilized Tribes. Other prominent tribes included the Natchez, Caddo, Apalachee, Timucua, and Guale. Traditionally, most tribes in the Southeast spoke Muskogean languages; there were also some Siouan language speakers and one Iroquoian-speaking group, the Cherokee.
The region’s economy was primarily agricultural and often supported social stratification; as chiefdoms, most cultures were structured around hereditary classes of elites and commoners, although some groups used hierarchical systems that had additional status levels. Most people were commoners and lived in hamlets located along waterways. Each hamlet was home to an extended family and typically included a few houses and auxiliary structures such as granaries and summer kitchens; these were surrounded by agricultural plots or fields. Hamlets were usually associated with a town that served as the area’s ceremonial and market centre. Towns often included large earthen mounds on which religious structures and the homes of the ruling classes or families were placed. Together, each town and its associated hamlets constituted an autonomous political entity. In times of need these could unite into confederacies, such as those of the Creek and Choctaw.
People grew corn, beans, squash, tobacco, and other crops; they also gathered wild plant foods and shellfish, hunted deer and other animals, and fished. House forms varied extensively across the region, including wickiups (wigwams), earth-berm dwellings, and, in the 19th century, chickees (thatched roofs with open walls). The Southeast was also known for its religious iconography, which often included bird themes, and for the use of the “black drink,” an emetic used in ritual contexts. See also Southeast Indian.
The Plains lie in the centre of the continent, spanning the area between the western mountains and the Mississippi River valley and from the southern edge of the Subarctic to the Rio Grande in present-day Texas. The climate is of the continental type, with warm summers and cold winters. Relatively flat short-grass prairies with little precipitation are found west of the Missouri River and rolling tallgrass prairies with more moisture are found to its east. Tree-lined river valleys form a series of linear oases throughout the region.
The indigenous peoples of the Plains include speakers of Siouan, Algonquian, Uto-Aztecan, Caddoan, Athabaskan, Kiowa-Tanoan, and Michif languages. Plains peoples also invented a sign language to represent common objects or concepts such as “buffalo” or “exchange.”
Earth-lodge villages were the only settlements on the Plains until the late 16th century; they were found along major waterways that provided fertile soil for growing corn, beans, squash, sunflowers, and tobacco. The groups who built these communities divided their time between village-based crop production and hunting expeditions, which often lasted for several weeks and involved travel over a considerable area. Plains villagers include the Mandan, Hidatsa, Omaha, Pawnee, and Arikara.
By 1750 horses from the Spanish colonies in present-day New Mexico had become common in the Plains and had revolutionized the hunting of bison. This new economic opportunity caused some local villagers to become dedicated nomads, as with the Crow (who retained close ties with their Hidatsa kin), and also drew agricultural tribes from surrounding areas into a nomadic lifestyle, including the Sioux, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Comanche, Arapaho, and Kiowa.
Groups throughout the region had in common several forms of material culture, including the tepee, tailored leather clothing, a variety of battle regalia (such as feathered headdresses), and large drums used in ritual contexts. The Sun Dance, a ritual that demanded a high degree of piety and self-sacrifice from its participants, was also found throughout most of the Plains.
The Plains is perhaps the culture area in which tribal and band classifications were most conflated. Depictions of indigenous Americans in popular culture have often been loosely based on Plains peoples, encouraging many to view them as the “typical” American Indians. See also Plains Indian.
This culture area lies between the Rocky Mountains and the Mexican Sierra Madre, mostly in present-day Arizona and New Mexico. The topography includes plateaus, basins, and ranges. The climate on the Colorado Plateau is temperate, while it is semitropical in most of the basin and range systems; there is little precipitation and the major ecosystem is desert. The landscape includes several major river systems, notably those of the Colorado and the Rio Grande, that create linear oases in the region.
The Southwest is home to speakers of Hokan, Uto-Aztecan, Tanoan, Keresan, Kiowa-Tanoan, Penutian, and Athabaskan languages. The region was the home of both agricultural and hunting and gathering peoples, although the most common lifeway combined these two economic strategies. Best known among the agriculturists are the Pueblo Indians, including the Zuni and Hopi. The Yumans, Pima, and Tohono O’odham (Papago) engaged in both farming and foraging, relying on each to the extent the environment would allow. The Navajo and the many Apache groups usually engaged in some combination of agriculture, foraging, and the raiding of other groups.
The major agricultural products were corn, beans, squash, and cotton. Wild plant foods, deer, other game, and fish (for those groups living near rivers) were the primary foraged foods. The Pueblo peoples built architecturally remarkable apartment houses of adobe and stone masonry (see pueblo architecture) and were known for their complex kinship structures, kachina (katsina) dances and dolls, and fine pottery, textiles, and kiva and sand paintings. The Navajo built round houses (“hogans”) and were known for their complex clan system, healing rituals, and fine textiles and jewelry. The Apaches, Yumans, Pima, and Tohono O’odham generally built thatched houses or brush shelters and focused their expressive culture on oral traditions. Stone channels and check dams (low walls that slowed the runoff from the sporadic but heavy rains) were common throughout the Southwest, as were basketry and digging sticks. See also Southwest Indian.
The Great Basin
The Great Basin culture area is centred in the intermontane deserts of present-day Nevada and includes adjacent areas in California, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and Arizona. It is so named because the surrounding mountains create a bowl-like landscape that prevented water from flowing out of the region. The most common topographic features are basin and range systems; these gradually transition to high intermontane plateaus in the north. The climate is temperate in the north and becomes subtropical to the south. Higher elevations tend to receive ample moisture but other areas average as little as 2 inches (50 mm) per year. Much of the region’s surface water, such as the Great Salt Lake, is brackish. The predominant ecosystem is desert.
The Great Basin is home to the Washoe, speakers of a Hokan language, and a number of tribes speaking Numic languages (a division of the Uto-Aztecan language family). These include the Mono, Paiute, Bannock, Shoshone, Ute, and Gosiute.
The peoples of this region were hunters and gatherers and generally organized themselves in mobile, kin-based bands. Seeds, piñon nuts, and small game formed the bulk of the diet for most groups, although those occupying northern and eastern locales readily adopted horses and equestrian bison hunting after Spanish mounts became available. Some of these latter groups also replaced wickiups and brush shelters, the common house forms until that time, with Plains-style tepees; peoples in the west and south, however, continued to use traditional house forms well into the 19th century. Other common forms of material culture included digging sticks, nets, basketry, grinding stones for processing seeds, and rock art. See also Great Basin Indian.
This culture area approximates the present states of California (U.S.) and northern Baja (Mexico). Other than the Pacific coast, the region’s dominant topographic features are the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada; these north-south ranges are interspersed with high plateaus and basins. An extraordinary diversity of local conditions created microenvironments such as coasts, tidewaters, coastal redwood forests, grasslands, wetlands, high deserts, and mountains.
California includes representatives of some 20 language families, including Uto-Aztecan, Penutian, Yokutsan, and Athabaskan; American linguist Edward Sapir described California’s languages as being more diverse than those found in all of Europe. Prominent tribes, many with a language named for them, include the Hupa, Yurok, Pomo, Yuki, Wintun, Maidu, and Yana.
Many California peoples eschewed centralized political structures and instead organized themselves into tribelets, groups of a few hundred to a few thousand people that recognized cultural ties with others but maintained their political independence. Some tribelets comprised just one village and others included several villages; in the latter cases, one village was usually recognized as more important than the others. The relatively few groups that lived in areas with sparse natural resources preferred to live in small mobile bands.
Agriculture was practiced only along the Colorado River; elsewhere hunting and gathering provided a relatively easy living. Acorns were the most important of the wild food sources; California peoples devised a method of leaching the toxins from acorn pulp and converting it into flour, thus ensuring abundant and constant food. Fishing, hunting, and gathering shellfish and other wild foods were also highly productive. Housing varied from wood-framed single-family dwellings to communal apartment-style buildings; ceremonial structures were very important and could often hold several hundred people. The California peoples were also known for their fine basketry, ritualized trade fairs, and the Kuksu and Toloache religions. See also California Indian.
The Northwest Coast
This culture area is bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the east by the Coast Range, the Sierra Nevada, and the Rocky Mountains; it reaches from the area around Yakutat Bay in the north to the Klamath River area in the south. It includes the coasts of present-day Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, much of southern Alaska, and a small area of northern California. The topography is steep and in many places the coastal hills or mountains fall abruptly to a beach or riverbank. There is an abundance of precipitation—in many areas more than 160 inches (406 cm) annually, but rarely less than 30 inches (76 cm). The predominant ecosystems are temperate rainforests, intertidal zones, and the ocean.
This culture area is home to peoples speaking Athabaskan, Tshimshianic, Salishan, and other languages. Prominent tribes include the Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Kwakiutl, Bella Coola, Nuu-chah-nulth (Nootka), Coast Salish, and Chinook.
The peoples of the Northwest Coast had abundant and reliable supplies of salmon and other fish, sea mammals, shellfish, birds, and a variety of wild food plants. The resource base was so rich that they are unique among nonagricultural peoples in having created highly stratified societies of hereditary elites, commoners, and slaves. Tribes often organized themselves into corporate “houses”—groups of a few dozen to 100 or more related people that held in common the rights to particular resources. As with the house societies of medieval Japan and Europe, social stratification operated at every level of many Northwest Coast societies; villages, houses, and house members each had their designated rank, which was reflected in nearly every social interaction.
Most groups built villages near waterways or the coast; each village also had rights to an upland territory from which the residents could obtain terrestrial foods. Dwellings were rectilinear structures built of timbers or planks and were usually quite large, as the members of a corporate “house” typically lived together in one building. Northwest Coast cultures are known for their fine wood and stone carvings, large and seaworthy watercraft, memorial or totem poles, and basketry. The potlatch, a feast associated with the bestowal of lavish gifts, was also characteristic of this culture area. See also Northwest Coast Indian.
Lying at the crossroads of five culture areas (the Subarctic, Plains, Great Basin, California, and Northwest Coast), the Plateau is surrounded by mountains and drained by two great river systems, the Fraser and the Columbia. It is located in present-day Montana, Idaho, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. Topographically, the area is characterized by rolling hills, high flatlands, gorges, and mountain slopes. The climate is temperate, although milder than the adjacent Plains because the surrounding mountain systems provide protection from continental air masses. The mountains also create a substantial rain shadow; most precipitation in this region falls at higher elevations, leaving other areas rather dry. The predominant ecosystems are grassland and high desert, although substantial forested areas are found at altitude.
Most of the languages spoken in this culture area belong to the Salishan, Sahaptin, Kutenai, and Modoc and Klamath families. Tribes include the Salish, Flathead, Nez Percé, Yakama, Kutenai, Modoc and Klamath, Spokan, Kalispel, Pend d’Oreille, Coeur d’Alene, Walla Walla, and Umatilla. “Flathead” is incorrectly used in some early works to denote all Salishan-speaking peoples, only some of whom molded infants’ heads so as to achieve a uniform slope from brow to crown; notably, the people presently referred to as the Flathead did not engage in this practice (see head flattening).
The primary political unit was the village; among some groups a sense of larger tribal and cultural unity led to the creation of representative governments, tribal chieftainships, and confederations of tribes. This was possible in part because the Columbia and Fraser rivers provided enough salmon and other fish to support a relatively dense population; however, this region was never as heavily populated or as rigidly stratified as the Northwest Coast.
Efficient hunters and gatherers, Plateau groups supplemented fish with terrestrial animals and wild plant foods, especially certain varieties of camas (Camassia). Most groups resided in permanent riverside villages and traveled to upland locales during fair-weather foraging excursions; however, horses were readily adopted once available and some groups subsequently shifted to nomadic buffalo hunting. These groups quickly adopted tepees and many other Plains cultural forms; they became particularly respected for their equine breeding programs and fine herds (see Appaloosa). Plateau fishing villages were characterized by their multifamily A-frame dwellings, while smaller conical structures were used in the uplands; both house forms were covered with grass, although canvas became a popular covering once available. In terms of portable culture, the Plateau peoples were most characterized by the wide variety of substances and technologies they used; continuously exposed to new items and ideas through trade with surrounding culture areas, they excelled at material innovation and at adapting others’ technologies to their own purposes. See also Plateau Indian.


The Impact of Digital Tools on Student Writing and How Writing is Taught in Schools
Part V: Teaching Writing in the Digital Age
Given the myriad ways teachers see digital tools shaping how students approach writing, it is critical to understand how the digital ecosystem is shaping how writing is taught in schools today. On the whole, AP and NWP teachers in the study say that digital tools make teaching writing easier, particularly collaborative online platforms that allow them to work alongside students in the editing process and observe their students’ thinking and work in progress. In focus groups, these middle and high school teachers shared countless examples of the unique ways they use digital tools—ranging from whiteboards to GoogleDocs to wikis—to teach key writing skills. Such lessons are used to address all aspects of writing, including grammar, organization, voice, tone, critical thinking, and persuasion.
AP and NWP teachers surveyed use a wide range of digital tools to teach writing
It was evident in focus groups that in addition to the many impacts of digital technologies on student writing, these tools also have a considerable and largely positive impact on AP and NWP teachers’ perceptions of their own ability to teach writing effectively. Many of these teachers say interactive technologies are currently part of their learning environments, including using interactive whiteboards (52%), having students develop, share or post their work on a website, wiki or blog (40%), and having students edit their own work (36%) or others’ work (29%) using collaborative web-based tools such as GoogleDocs and Moodle.
The use of e-readers and cell phones as a learning tool varies by the subject matter being taught. It is not surprising that English and language arts teachers are the most likely to report e-readers being part of the learning environment. Math teachers, in contrast, are particularly unlikely to say that they or their students use cell phones in the learning process.
Likewise, some groups of AP and NWP teachers are more likely than others to employ more collaborative online tools. For instance, the youngest teachers in this group (those under age 35) are the most likely to have students develop or share work on a website, wiki or blog (45% v. 34% of teachers age 55 and older). They are also more likely than the oldest teachers to have students participate in online discussions (45% v. 32% of teachers age 55 and older) and use collaborative web-based tools such as GoogleDocs to edit work (41% v. 34% of teachers age 55 and older). Middle school teachers (those teaching grades 6-8) are the most likely to have students develop and share work on wikis, webpages or blogs. Just under half of middle school teachers (47%) have their students use these collaborative tools, compared with 41% of 9th-10th grade teachers and 35% of 11th-12th grade teachers.
One could argue that some subjects lend themselves more easily to these types of online collaborative tools, and survey results reflect this. English teachers are the most likely to say they have students use these types of tools, often by a wide margin over teachers of other subjects. Conversely, math teachers are least likely to make use of these tools.
Overall, teachers say digital tools have made teaching writing easier
In both the survey and the focus groups, AP and NWP teachers described the impact of utilizing digital tools in the teaching process in largely positive terms. Overall, half of the teachers who completed the survey said that today’s digital technologies make it EASIER to shape or improve student writing, while just 18% said they make it MORE DIFFICULT.
More experienced teachers are no more or less likely than their younger colleagues to say that digital tools make it easier for them to shape student writing. The only striking difference among teachers is again in comparing teachers of different subject matters. Among these AP and NWP teacher, English/language arts teachers (64%) are much more likely than teachers of math (32%), science (38%) and history/social studies (45%) to say digital tools make teaching writing easier.
This positive sentiment about the impact of digital technologies on teaching writing was also reflected in many focus groups comments. In general, teachers noted how these technologies generally enabled them to “see their students thinking,” and move from talking about writing with their students to actually manipulating student writing in an interactive way. They also lauded these technologies for giving students a “hands on” experience in editing their own and others’ writing.
Asked to describe how they teach writing, focus group participants said that the basics of writing are taught in English classes, and then skills are honed in other classes through practice. Teachers try to provide students with examples of good and poor writing, and will assign essays, papers, and free response questions throughout the year to give students the opportunity to work on their writing skills. Many noted the value of digital tools to provide students with writing examples, both good and bad; tools most commonly noted for this purpose were smart boards and teaching platforms such as Elmo and WebAssign.
Thus, beyond simply providing students more opportunities to practice their writing skills, teachers noted that digital tools can be critically important in providing specific feedback to students on where and how their writing can improve. Many felt this interactive feedback helps make students more receptive to improving their writing. As students implement suggested changes in their writing, they (students) begin to see improvements and start to gain confidence. Moreover, by working on both their own and others’ work, they learn to identify and appreciate good writing. This is where teachers in the study see digital tools having the biggest impact.
EXAMPLES of how AP and NWP teachers use digital tools to teach writing…
I utilize Turn It In with my AP students primarily to prevent plagiarism. It’s a good resource, though, because the kids can also use it to check grammar, to peer edit, and to view previous students’ essays. I use it with my Smart Board to bring up essays to evaluate, critique, etc. I also use the Smart Board to study other types of writing as well as other forms of media (on line sources, photos, etc). These help with thinking, which indirectly helps with writing. It also helps kids see different forms of persuasion with also helps with their writing. I will occasionally use the Smart Board for grammar-type exercises to help with issues that creep up in their writing.
Participation in scheduled, threaded-interactions at Twitter have helped some of my students to be in the same place and time as authors of the books they are invited to read. One instance of this was when I hosted a threaded discussion, which looked at two books that came out last fall, Laurel Snyder’s BIGGER THAN A BREADBOX and Anne Ursu’s BREAD CRUMBS. In my experience, so many of our students have underestimated the power of social media for making larger connections than those they currently realize by simply walking down the hallways of their own schools.
My senior AP students are reading Dead Man Walking as a model of persuasive writing. I’ve taught this book for a number of years now, and one of the things I try to impress upon them is how many rhetorical strategies the author uses to try to justify her position. In the past I would have my students keep track of those strategies that they noticed (and that I pointed out) in a spiral notebook. But I had this feeling that they weren’t getting enough out of this activity. This year I had the class create a wiki to pool their resources. One of the things I wanted them to learn was the idea that there’s a progression from weaker to stronger pieces of evidence as an argument progresses. So after they entered their piece of evidence in the wiki, I had the class do an online activity with a GoogleDoc/Form where they ranked the evidence on those pages. This at least helped them look at all the examples of analogy, for instance, and then think about which ones were stronger than others. I suppose I could have done this with butcher paper and markers, but I only have so much wall space.
GoogleDocs is wonderful for collaborative composing as well as quick feedback that students can see in real time. Last year, my students collaborated to compose Declarations of Education. This was the first time for them to use GoogleDocs. They were amazed by how easy it was, but also how quickly their writing could be seen and receive feedback. Knowing that their writing was being viewed motivated them to produce. Knowing that they were collaborating and their group could see what they were contributing amazed them. When they saw a comment, I heard things like, “Wait! Who is that? Let me respond!”
Social media and the Internet provide students with mentors and mentor texts from whom and which they learn genres of writing and characteristics of effective communication. For example, I use social media to make appointments with a filmmaking mentor for a student; the student has learned editing/ composition techniques, as well as script-writing conventions from the web-app ScriptBuddy thanks to interactions with the mentor.
Ning is used as a digital classroom portfolio to display students working projects: articles, photography, writing reflections, video production, class projects, digital storytelling,…There is a great video on called “Problems have Solutions,” where the students use technology to learn how to solve the Rubik’s cube, then construct a machine that solves the Rubik’s cube using logarithms. It is a place where we as a learning community can post and place our “working projects.” We believe it is better to have an imperfect something, than a perfect nothing.
EXAMPLES of how AP and NWP teachers use digital tools to teach writing…
GoogleDocs and SmartBoard combo also allows us to unpack the revision process, which back in my pre-Internet classroom days was pretty much a black box. Students used to print up a copy, do some peer editing, take some of feedback home, and return with a revision. A week ago, for instance, I had students take a stand on a controversial issue. The next day in class I had them find evidence to support their position in three ways: 1. where they normally find information (pretty much a basic Google search for most of them), 2. EBSCO database, and 3. Opposing Viewpoints. Yesterday they wrote a draft in class as per these instructions. Since they had shared their drafts with me, I was looking in on their com posing process as they wrote. This worked in a couple of ways. Obviously, I was able to supervise the kiddies and keep them on task. But more importantly, I was able to see the students thinking. At times I would comment on a student’s composing habits, other times students could ask a question and I could view the draft with them (with or without projecting it for the whole class to see). If I saw an interesting strategy or stylistic device a student was using, I could point that out to the group. Also, to see how struggling writers worked through a draft was instructive. I probably popped into their drafts most often.
One of my favorite parts of utilizing these tools is the added level of collaboration students can have with their writing. I find it funny that for so many things we let students work in partners to collaborate and share ideas, but often when it comes to writing we make them do it independently. For some time I have thought that writing can be just as collaborative as any other activity we do with our students. One year, my students decided that we needed to improve our school’s Wikipedia page. We started thinking about all of the different things that would be needed to add to our Wikipedia page so we created our own Wikispace where we began to dump all sorts of information that we would need. Then, students broke up into groups to start composing the text that would be included on the page. It was so neat to look on the history tab of each page and see how different students had gone back and forth editing and revising the work to compose a more cohesive paragraph.
Another thing I like to do with students is have them use something like Today’s Meet to brainstorm ideas when they are beginning a writing assignment. This is so helpful for all students because they are able to take, change, and add to ideas being shared by the whole class in order to further develop their own thoughts about a piece. I have found that many students like to talk out their writing ideas before they ever put something officially down on paper, and there are so many digital technologies that can assist students in this way.
GoogleDocs has afforded students the opportunity to work with peers on research papers, to seek & receive feedback on a piece of writing, on a specific trait. They are able to read each others’ responses or writing and gain perspectives other than their own. Students begin to recognize a well written piece of writing by their ability to identify the specific traits of the piece, juxtapose a piece of writing that has not been edited. Software such as Word and Pages offer a safe place to become a better writer by providing a private platform to express themselves free from the conventions police. Conventions matter, but some of the students have expressed they will forgo attempting to express anything that is not “safe” and free from convention correction when writing for someone else or a specific person. They have expressed that it is deflating to only receive feedback on conventions, and little to none on sentence structure, voice, word choice…again, conventions matter! Digital technologies are tools and resources that have personally improved my students’ ability to express their ideas, aid in their sentence structure/flow, increase their lexicon, encourages them to develop their voice, and make conventions relevant.
I was just reading a paper in Google Docs, commenting, etc. and was joined by my student in that document. She must have received an email that I commented, went to check out the document while I was grading it, and sat and watched as I read and commented. There’s something to that.
I use the Mastering Biology site that comes with the Campbell Biology program. I also use the CPS “clickers” in class for review and during lecture notes. We also use a lot of technology in lab for both AP Biology and APES. This technology does not directly teach writing skills, but I can use the information and data collected with this technology to help students learn how to assemble the information into coherent written communication.
EXAMPLES of how AP and NWP teachers use digital tools to teach writing…
I utilize Turnitin with my AP students primarily to prevent plagiarism. It’s a good resource, though, because the kids can also use it to check grammar, to peer edit, and to view previous students’ essays. I use it with my Smart Board to bring up essays to evaluate, critique, etc. I also use the SmartBoard to study other types of writing as well as other forms of media (on line sources, photos, etc). These help with thinking, which indirectly helps with writing. It also helps kids see different forms of persuasion with also helps with their writing. I will occasionally use the Smart Board for grammar-type exercises to help with issues that creep up in their writing.
Technology allows students to get faster feedback on their writing and allows the teacher to give that feedback flexibly and conveniently. We don’t have to wait for class to go over student work.
I’m thinking about technology that’s actually really helped me to improve their writing. I’m thinking specifically about GoogleDocs, emailing, some other systems kind of like iBooks or the Amazon Kindle app where it’s allowed me to say, “Here, this right here is what you’re not understanding.” I’ve had three or four lines going back and forth on GoogleDocs on one sentence because that sentence just happens to be on a thesis and I’m not getting the thesis. I can do that with every student in my class in a reasonable amount of time because of that technological tool. Whereas if I was using paper the way that people used to do it, it’s much more difficult to say, “Here,” and then have a conversation going back and forth. I mean I would think it’s almost impossible to hand it back and then have another student hand back another piece of paper.
All the classrooms in our school are equipped with Smartboards. This technology has allowed our students to move to another level in writing. They are more engaged with classmates’ writings and also able to analyze other works of art as a class. The more our students are able to engage with the writings of exemplary authors, the better writers they become themselves. It is one thing to just talk about the writing, but another to be able to manipulate it.
At the same time they use digital tools to teach writing, 94% of AP and NWP teachers surveyed encourage their students to do at least some of their writing by hand
In conjunction with the extensive use of digital tools in many classrooms, almost all of the AP and NWP teachers in the sample say they encourage their students to do at least some of their writing by hand. Their reasons vary, but in focus groups many teachers noted that because students are required to write by hand on standardized tests, it continues to be a critical skill for them to have. This is particularly true for AP teachers, who must prepare students to take AP exams with pencil and paper.
In focus groups, others expressed the belief that students do more active thinking, synthesizing, and editing when writing by hand. Because of the temptation online to copy and paste others’ work into their own, some teachers said they feel the only way to ensure their students are original thinkers is to have them complete writing assignments entirely without the aid of the internet and digital tools.
Still others say they have found that not all of their students are comfortable writing digitally. A common assumption about the current generation of middle and high school students—popularly referred to as “digital natives”—is that they all enjoy and are comfortable with using digital tools. Yet some AP and NWP teachers pointed out this is not the case, and that some of their students are more effective or more comfortable writers when writing by hand with pencil or paper.
Finally, there was a small group of teachers in the study who do not see enough added value in digital tools to incorporate them into the teaching process. Where teaching writing is concerned, these AP and NWP teachers feel that tried and true methods continue to be the most effective.
Why AP and NWP teachers have students do some writing by hand…
I don’t incorporate technology at this time to help students learn writing skills. We use good old fashioned paper and pencil format. I am open to incorporating technology, but only if it truly enhances learning and I am not aware of any technology piece that would do it better than what I am currently doing.
[In Spanish class] for oral work we use tons of technology. However, for writing, it is pencil/pen and paper. They have to write on paper for the AP Exam. They need to practice penmanship, and I do not want them using spellcheck on the computer. I also keep writing assignments as in-class assignments, and they don’t get to use dictionaries. If it is a research paper, then the system is different, but usually any research projects are done for oral presentation. Since the essay on the AP Exam is about writing a comparative essay based on the articles and listening material, that is what I also use to develop their skills.
I do not incorporate technology at all to help students with writing skills. I require students to write in class using a pen and paper. I feel that this allows me to see their thoughts, not what they can find online.
I like old-fashioned pen or pencil and paper. Technology is fine, and I am a blogger myself, but I like to see learning on pen and paper.
I truly believe that since they must write for 3 hours on the actual [AP] exam it is important they hand write all essays for me. For learning writing skills, Word has spell check and grammar check (which although very good I think, it has hurt the student knowledge, they rely on the computer to correct it all).
I make extensive use of technology for writing, but much less in AP because a major component of the exam, the essays, have to be handwritten. I recognize that there are many obstacles to computers being allowed to all students writing essays — issues of access, availability of the internet, and much more — but I really hope [we find] ways to overcome this in the near future.
Recently I was having a conversation with a colleague who is concerned about how little writing students are willing to do for him in class. I have the same students. We use GoogleDocs and social media and they are on their cell phones and in on their Facebook pages or Tumblr blogs all day. I suggested to this colleague that when he asks them to write using pen and paper he is adding an unfamiliar element to their work. It’s most natural for them to compose on a screen. Quickly, I added that there are a few students who still prefer to write on paper first, but not many. This conversation came to mind when I saw your question because — as this example shows — I’ve begun to ask the question in reverse: What impact does it have on students’ writing when they don’t have the tools they normally use to communicate?
Our 8th grade students are fairly well versed in their GoogleDocs Skills. We have been incorporating these tools for about the past four years, and at this point, the usage has become automatic and a deeply ingrained part of our learning process. It has been a goal of mine for about the past two years to build class in a way that these skills are just “the way we do things” so that they are as second nature as paper and pencil. However, because our high stakes state assessments are still paper based (for a few more years at least) we still do have writing and assessment on demand that is paper and pen based. Recently, we asked students to record their scores on various skill components…both digitally and with paper and pen. I assumed that the work composed on the computer would be much more “clean and refined”, but this was not always the case. We actually found that about 50% of the students scored better in mechanics and development when using paper and vice versa. We spent some time talking about this and really worked to help students to define what medium worked best for them. The plan is that if students know that they tend to compose better with paper and pen, then they (and we) will know to be more careful when composing digitally– and the reverse as well. This was a really interesting conversation. Especially, since we always hear about the “digital natives” of today, and it came through clearly that roughly half of students are upset that they may be required to do all testing digitally in the relatively near future. Curious…
Additional challenges faced teaching writing in today’s digital environment
While half of the teachers surveyed report that digital tools make teaching writing EASIER, 18% report that they make the task more difficult. The survey asked teachers to tell us the biggest challenge they face teaching writing today, and several core themes emerged:
- disparate access to digital tools and widely varying skill levels among students
- a “digital tools as toy” mentality among students
- a lack of critical thinking skills in their middle and high school students
- a limited definition among students of what constitutes “writing”
The first theme, disparate access to digital tools across schools and among students, pervaded survey findings, with teachers of low income students reporting very different attitudes toward and impacts of the use of digital tools among their students. The topic of persisting digital divides in the educational arena was covered in depth in the second report in this series13, which discussed how teachers of the lowest income students not only worry that their students do not have the access to digital tools they need at home or at school, but that teachers at those schools are not receiving adequate support and training in how to use these tools effectively in the classroom. Together, many teachers say, these disparities are creating a wider gap between more advantaged and less advantaged schools and school districts.
However, in addition to disparate access to digital tools, AP and NWP teachers point to widely varying tech skill levels students bring with them to the classroom. While some students have advanced tech skills and are very comfortable working with digital tools, others lack exposure or do not share the same comfort level. The assumption that all children who make up the generation widely referred to as “digital natives” are equally comfortable with and skilled in the use of the latest digital tools can be very damaging, these AP and NWP teachers noted. They often must remind themselves this is the case as they create assignments and decide which tools to use in their classes, and often devote class time covering what many would consider basic tech skills in order to ensure all students are on a level playing field.
Students’ disparate access to, and skills using, digital tools…
One challenge emerges with some things like GoogleDocs, blogs and others, and that comes for students who are working at a remedial level. When they haven’t had much previous exposure to things like sharing documents or, for some, even fully navigating email, then they’re not only behind in terms of meeting content standards, but they also tend to struggle in getting up on navigating some of the digital basics. I see it especially with some students who are not only struggling readers and writers, but also extremely slow on a keyboard, and since often they’re from lower income households, they don’t have the familiarity with things like texting and using a keyboard extensively. So, at times, there winds up the need for a balancing act: helping students improve their literacy skills, but also helping them master the basic digital tools so that they can improve their literacy skills.
What we’ve created with technology is a piece of paper and pencil which can appear anywhere around the Earth in a nanosecond. That is pretty amazing. And, for better or for worse, that is where the world is heading. We are establishing that those with digital abilities to read and write will have the access to the information. Access to information is power.
Our class has a Wiki…again, they don’t naturally take to knowing how to manage it physically. Basic digital skills (what I consider basic) such as setting up a link back to an essay on GoogleDocs is something I have to constantly review with them . 8th graders are so apt to click first and ask questions later…no matter how often and precisely cued.
Coming from a very rural poverty area, most of my students do not have computer access at home. The only place they experience technology is at school. This is very unfortunate for my kiddos, because the department of education and our school have very rigid filters in place. This allows for no interaction between the students on social networks, Wikis, or blogs. We do have a computer lab in our school that is used as a language and math lab, but the students are not really taught computer skills or allowed to work in GoogleDocs. The lack of computer knowledge and proficiency is a scary thing, because very soon our students will be expected to take high stakes tests on computers.
I believe today’s digital technologies have the potential to provide students more ways to tap into their creativity and their critical thinking skills. I’m a proponent of technology in the classroom and wish that my students had these tools available to them at school. In reality, however, I teach in a high poverty, rural district (m ore than 70 percent of the students receive free and reduced lunch). Our principal is of the theory that if you can’t do it with pencil and paper, then it doesn’t need to be done. Students do not have access to social media, Wikis or GoogleDocs. They are not allowed to use cell phones during school. Many students and staff (including myself and our principal) do not have Internet access at home because of where we live.
Many of these AP and NWP teachers also noted the challenge they face shifting students’ perceptions of digital tools as “toys” to be used for social activities to viewing digital tools as important parts of the learning process. Several teachers described the “tool as toy” mentality many children develop through their early exposure to digital technologies at home. A child’s first experience with these technologies is often in the realm of play, entertainment, and communication with loved ones, which encourages the perception of digital tools as useful only for these tasks. When AP and NWP teachers use digital tools such as cell phones as a learning device in class, they note, it is not uncommon to have to “retrain” their students to see these devices as learning tools.
Teaching students to see digital technologies as important tools for learning is a challenge…
The first impact [of using digital technology in the classroom] is their realization that digital technologies carry the expectations and benefits of being a good communicator. Technology is toy before it is a tool in the lives of my students. So, I discover with them just how much they do not know about technology. While they may be willing and eager to use technology, they do not necessarily understand any of it as a tool or life application.
We’re both a Google and Apple oriented school–teachers are encouraged to use Google Apps, Docs, etc. In my class, we set up our Google Reader app earlier this year. They learned what RSS stands for and what it means to use an aggregator such as Flipbook. My intention is to use that tool as an ongoing product for research–to encourage the concept that research is no isolated in on project or paper, but it is always a good idea to read and explore ideas as we write. I wouldn’t say my students are resistant to it, but it is definitely a literacy skill that they have little experience with…let alone comfort.
At the 8th grade level, digital literacy is a real a ground floor venture. It is proving to be more about exposure and developing knowledge rather than setting them on their own to be digital readers and writers. Today, for instance, we tried cel.ly in class. Students are so trained to leap into texting for fun, and in that they expect immediate results, I was surprised at how specific and slow I had to be in instruction—text this phrase to this number–for kids who text to each other all the time, that basic engagement did not come naturally. Once we got into the lesson, they were able to warm to the idea of texting responses, offering their confusion, etc. about the short story they read the night before.
Many of these teachers expressed the belief that teaching writing is less about the actual writing mechanics and more about the students’ ability to think critically. In focus groups, several teachers said they find today’s students so rushed in everything they do, and so accustomed to getting and processing information quickly, that they often approach the organization of their thoughts for a writing assignment the same way. Many teachers say a major challenge is getting their students to slow the process down, take sufficient time to analyze information closely and carefully, and only then begin the writing process. Instead, according to teachers’ accounts, they often see students speed through these tasks and underestimate the time it takes to produce a solid piece of writing containing a coherent and persuasive argument that synthesizes material well.
Teaching students to take their time and think critically is a challenge…
The biggest challenge is of course the students’ willingness to write and be patient in the process. There is always a level of frustration on their part because they want immediate results. I think with technology the process may be more efficient and students are able to get more immediate feedback from programs such as turnitin.com and criterion.
The biggest obstacle in teaching writing is really not so much about the writing as it is about the thinking. Good writing relies on clear thinking. Getting students to think and communicate logically will always be hard; thinking clearly hurts! Technology allows students to get faster feedback on their writing and allows the teacher to give that feedback flexibly and conveniently. We don’t have to wait for class to go over student work.
The survey included an open-end question asking teachers the biggest challenge they face teaching today’s students to write well. While many themes emerged, including grammatical issues, plagiarism, and having them develop an appreciation for the importance of writing well, one theme stood among the others – that was getting students to slow down and take their time. These AP and NWP teachers repeatedly mentioned the tendency of today’s students to want instant gratification, which they see as a serious detriment to the writing process. Not only do teachers tell us that getting students to think before they begin writing is a challenge, it is also a challenge to have them revise their work and produce multiple drafts.
Asked “What is the biggest challenge today in teaching your students to write well, AP and NWP teachers say…
Encouraging students to take their time in planning what they want to write. Students are always in a hurry to just write what they know and then show you. I want my students to show relationships in the content of what they write. Don’t just throw an answer out there or a topic out there.
They are not as patient given the time commitment required to write a successful piece. Text speak is taking over. It’s all about getting things done FAST.
Getting past their conditioning for immediate gratification. Truly effective writing takes time and students are not generally accustomed to working on projects which take longer than a class period.
Getting them to really read and analyze what they are supposed to be writing about. They want the quick answer. They don’t want to have to search for it. They don’t want to have to analyze it. They want to go to Google, type a term in and find the info. They are not interested in really understanding that info.
To do pre-writing activities so that they have thought through what they want to write before starting. Students tend to want to jump right in without thinking through their essay, story or poem.
They want instant results and it is difficult to show them that writing is a process. It is not something you put in a search engine and receive results in .1222 seconds.
In science, it is actually the critical thinking required to write analytically more so than the actual writing itself. For the writing itself, being able to write a coherent paragraph seems to be the biggest challenge. Most students seem to write simplistically and in a steam-of-consciousness manner.
Teaching students that writing is a slow, deliberative process — a first draft can never be a final draft!
The biggest challenge is to get students to slow down, think carefully, and revise their writing.
The biggest challenge for teaching students to write well is planning and revising. Students do not often take the TIME to plan a well organized essay nor do they find it beneficial to revise.
Time management. Students need time to proofread, peer review, edit, revise and rewrite. Too often pushing deadlines creates hurried work with poor structure and mechanics simply because they need a good proofread!
Taking the time to evaluate and revise their writing.
Writing is a process, and many students rush the process, and it is hard to get them to revise and edit.
Convincing students that there is a need to revise and edit and revise again. Students tend to be too content with their first draft.
Ultimately, most of these AP and NWP teachers say the value of digital technology in teaching does not lie within the tool itself, but rather in how it is used
Ultimately, most AP and NWP teachers in the study say, digital tools used in the learning process are only as valuable as the pedagogy behind their use, and this speaks to the need for effective professional development in this area. While most of these teachers report having at least some training in how to use digital tools effectively in the classroom, they most often seek out that training on their own.14 What many desire is a more structured and comprehensive approach to the use of digital technologies in the learning process, as well as sufficient access to the tools and support that both teachers and students need.
These tools do not accomplish these goals straight out of the box. The devil is in the details. Students need teachers who construct thoughtful assignments and inquiry projects, a classroom community and school culture which values creativity and expression and has structures in place to push students to continually further their craft. But, whether it be blogs or GoogleDocs or tweets or marble composition notebooks, students need to write frequently in low stakes ways to work these cognitive muscles. Also, we must constantly remember that the tool is not the thing — the learning and the literacies are the thing.Teaching kids to use GoogleDocs cannot replace teaching organization and developement. Perhaps it is now more important since so much writing can easily become first draft published writing (Tweets, blog posts, and even GoogleDocs positions) without the proper support and encouragement to thoughtfully revise.
Technology tools do not replace quality instruction or a strong literacy community in the classroom. It concerns me that we rush to embrace these tools without understanding that access to technology in the classroom does not instantly improve students’ learning. We limit the potential of these tools (and our students’ potential) if we do not use digital technologies alongside a strong pedagogical foundation.Powerpoint presentations shown on a projector become 21st Century overhead transparencies. Multiple choice worksheets in GoogleDocs are still worksheets. Posting writing online isn’t better than turning it in to the teacher’s tray if she is the only person who reads your work. I do see that my students write m ore because they have more outlets for publishing their work and authentic reasons for writing, but they still must learn how to write well, work with others, manage deadlines, conduct research, and use the right tool for the task.
I’m constantly reminded of two things as I continue to incorporate digital resources:
a) it is always about the pedagogy–if you do not have a good plan, the technology itself is really an impotent tool without…it is no better than a toy
b) training…training…training…we are not training our teachers enough in this area
- See “How Teachers are Using Technology at Home and in their Classrooms,” available at http://www.pewinternet.org/Press-Releases/2013/Teachers-and-Technology.aspx. ↩
- See “How Teachers are Using Technology at Home and in their Classrooms,” available at http://www.pewinternet.org/Press-Releases/2013/Teachers-and-Technology.aspx. ↩


Rhetoric and Composition/Writing in the Humanities
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Categories of Humanities Writing
- 3 Elements of the Humanities Paper
- 4 Resources To Use
- 5 References
- 6 External Links
Writing in the humanities includes posing questions dealing with human values. The ultimate goal in writing in the humanities is to explain/share the human experience, to use writing as a tool to reflect upon life, and to tell how life should, or should not, be lived. "Humanities" as a discipline includes not only literature, but also philosophy, ethics, performing arts, fine arts, history, aspects of anthropology and cultural studies, foreign languages, linguistics, jurisprudence, political science, and sociology. In a humanities class, you might be asked to attempt the analysis of a poem, a performance or a play, a painting, a film or even a musical performance.
There is often a difference in feel between writing in the Sciences and writing in the Humanities. Writing in the Sciences is often convergent (meaning oriented toward finding or articulating a specific answer to a specific question). Writing in the Humanities is often divergent (meaning oriented toward exploration of multiple answers to multiple questions).
Categories of Humanities Writing
Writing in the Humanities falls into three categories: theoretical writing, creative writing, and interpretive and analytical writing. Term papers and research papers are included in this discipline of writing when their topics pertain to the field of humanities.
Theoretical writing involves writing on a topic from a theoretical perspective. In physics, for example, there is a theory on how the galaxy operates called the "string theory." A physics paper centered around the string theory would be considered a theoretical paper.
Creative writing attempts to achieve, or create, an affect in the minds of the readers. The intended affect differs depending on the goals of the writer. The intention may be to expound on the grieving process (catharsis), or to make a person laugh or cry. The potential results are unlimited. Creative writing can also be used as an outlet for people to get their thoughts and feelings out and onto paper. Many people enjoy creative writing but prefer not to share it. Creative writing can take place in a variety of forms. Poems, short stories, novels, and even song lyrics are all examples of creative writing. Viewpoints regarding what exactly is encompassed under the term creative writing differ. To some, non-fiction can be considered creative writing because it is done from the author's point of view and may be written in an individual style that engages the reader. In fact, many universities offer courses in "Creative non-fiction." Others like to separate non-fiction from creative writing because it deals with details that actually took place, even if viewed subjectively. Regardless, the outlook of the writer is what matters, and whether something is considered creative writing or not is less important than producing a product that you can be proud of.
A narrator is the voice or person who tells the story. One must never assume that a narrator of a story is related to the author in any way. Even if we, as an audience, are aware that the author of the story once had a similar experience to that of the narrator, we cannot make assumptions that there is any truth to the text. When writing or discussing criticism, the intent of the author is also off limits because regardless of the author intent, the value of a text is determined by reader response alone. An example of an author having a similar experience to the narrator of a story she'd written, is Charlotte Perkins Gilman's short story The Yellow Wallpaper. Because the author had released statements revealing that she'd had a smilar medical treatment in her life to the narrator of her story, we still cannot assume that the narrator and Gilman are one in the same person.
A First-Person narrator is when one person narrates the story. Thus, a reader will recognize a first-person narrator because the pro-nouns "I" and "my" will be used. Because the story is narrated by one person, we are limited to the thoughts and observations of that person. There are many reasons that an author may choose to use a first-person narrator, but the reason is mainly to demonstrate the changes within one particular character, and also to build suspense. For example, if an author were to suddenly switch a first-person novel to a third-person narrator, the "who-done-it" aspect of the story would be ruined because we would suddenly be able to dive into the minds of multiple characters.
There is also Third-person limited and Third-person omniscient. Third-person limited is when the narrator is limited to the thoughts of one particular character, but there is a little more freedom than with a first-person narrator because the narrator can more easily observe the behavior of others. Finally, a third-person omniscient narrator is when the lens of the storyteller is pulled back even further, but we are able to dive into the minds of any and all characters. Therefore, a third-person omniscient narrater is rather God-like in that it enables us to know absolutely anything and everything that is happening in the novel. This may sound like the most enjoyable way to compose, but as stated earlier, there are drawbacks to this kind of narrator in that it may be harder to create an element of surprise for the reader.
Deconstructionism is an approach to literature which suggests that literary works do not yield a single, fixed meaning because we can never say what we truly mean in language.
Early Modern Era Period extending from about 1500 to 1800, marked by the advent of colonialism and capitalism.
Modernism Writing and art roughly made in at the start of WWI (1914) through the end of WWII (1945).
Postmodernism is a literary and artistic movement that flourished in the late twentieth century, partly in response to Modernism. A common theme in this kind of work is self-reflexiveness.
Interpretive and Analytical Writing
- An interpretation involves the discovery of meaning in a text (or film or painting, etc.) or the production of meaning in the process of reading a text. Therefore, interpretive writing must address many questions. It tries to assist the reader in understanding specific events (literary, cultural, or otherwise) rather than just engaging in summary. For example, a student writing an interpretive paper about a specific book may try to explain the author's attitudes or views on a specific subject matter. The writer of the paper then uses the evidence found in that book to back up his or her claims. A poor example of interpretive writing is a book report. A good example of interpretive writing is a scholarly article about another text.
Writing might ask questions such as, "Why did these events happen?" or "What was the significance of these events to the author or main character?" as opposed to, "What happened" or "How did these events come about?" The former questions encourage writers to explore their own thoughts or to delve into the mind of the writer of the text, or even attempt to put himself in the shoes of the protagonist. The latter is less challenging, as the book or piece of literature will plainly lay this type of information out for the reader.
- Analytical writing examines the components of a text. Writers of analytical essays or articles consider information, break it apart, and reconstruct it in order to describe the information so another reader can make sense of it. Writers must make sense of a work before they can begin to describe its constituent parts.
- Analytical writing focuses on the words "how" and "why." A writer often uses each of these two terms to give proof of their current analogies. By using these strong terms, a reader can feel that the writer is confident in their work and know "how" and "why" they should react.
- Analytical writing happens in four steps. The first step is to clearly identify the problem, the question, or the issue. The second step is to define the issue. The third step is the actual analysis of the topic. Finally, the fourth step defines the relationship between the issue and the analysis of that issue.
Analyzing and Interpreting Literature
- There is a lot of overlap in the processes of analysis and interpretation, especially when writing about literature. Writing about literature (poems, short stories, plays, etcs) often involves making an argument that can be backed up with specific examples from the text. When interpreting a poem the writer should expect that they will have to include specific references to the lines, words, or phrases to which they are referring. A writer analyzing the main character in The Great Gatsby should include specific references that explain why they have reached a particular conclusion.
- An essay dealing with literature should not be a summary of the text. It doesn't always hurt to give a few background examples, but the writer should focus on talking about the portions of the text that emphasize their points, not summarizing the entire piece for the reader. If the reader isn't familiar with the primary text, they can go back and read it themselves. The interpreter's job isn't to recap, but to make an argument, and hopefully provide some sort of illumination of the work.
- A piece of literature should always be referred to in the present tense.
- Take a look at this sample essay on the play A Midsummer Night's Dream
Here the writer has chosen to focus on one specific scene in the play, and how it fits their argument about the duality and conflict present within the play. Notice that throughout the entire essay there are numerous examples from within the text. Had the author not included these, or had they just summarized everything briefly, the essay wouldn't be as strong as it currently is. Here the reader can see exactly what lines make the writer think the way they do. Also, notice that the paper isn't a summary of what happens in the scene. When the writer gives details about what happens in the scene, it is because these details relate directly to the topic of their paper.
Research Papers and Term Papers
Term papers have a variety of elements that make them stand out from other papers. They carry three distinct characteristics. First, there is a large amount of research that goes into a term paper. The research contains various findings such as: facts, statistics, interviews, quotes, etc. Researching and gathering data must include understanding that information once it is compiled. The second characteristic is the amount of preparation it takes in gathering, compiling, analyzing, and sorting through everything in order to create a draft of your data. Finally, the third characteristic involves knowing the rules that must be followed when writing a specific term paper in the humanities discipline. These rules will generally be conveyed by your instructor.
Writing the research paper involves a bit of detective work. While there is much reading to be done on the chosen topic, reading is not the only pathway to gain information. As a writer in the humanities, you can also conduct interviews, surveys, polls, and observation clinics. You should research and discover as much information as you can about the given topic so you can form a coherent and valid opinion.
Elements of the Humanities Paper
Many styles of documentation are used when writing the humanities paper. Choosing the style depends on the subject being addressed in the paper and the style your instructor may prefer you use.
When it comes down to actually writing your paper, be sure to include the following elements: an introduction, a thesis statement, the body of the paper (which should include quotations, and, of course, the citations), and the conclusion.
Like most papers and essays, an introduction is absolutely necessary when writing in the humanities. There can be some confusion as to which should come first; the introduction or the thesis statement. This decision could probably be clarified by asking your instructor. Many writers include the thesis statement in their introduction. Generally speaking, however, the introduction usually comes before the thesis statement.
The introduction should grab your reader and make them interested in continuing to read your paper. Ask a question, say something powerful, or say something controversial. Be specific, not vague. Say something interesting, not mundane. Relay something the reader may not know, not something that is public knowledge. The idea is to get the reader's attention, and keep it.
A good intro may go something like this:
After the introduction has been written, you can then go into your thesis statement. Many people regard the thesis statement as a continuation of the introduction, only in the next paragraph.
The thesis statement should come at the beginning of the paper. It will introduce the reader to the topic you intend to address, and gives them a hint of what to expect in the pages that follow. Thesis statements should avoid words and phrases such as, "In my opinion..." or "I think that..." Start your thesis by taking a stand immediately; be firm in your statement, but not pushy. You'll either be given your topic for your paper or you will choose it yourself. In either case, after the topic is chosen, write a thesis statement that clearly outlines the argument you intend to address in the paper. The thesis statement will be the center of your paper. It should address one main issue. Throughout the paper, whatever you write will be focused on the thesis statement. As your paper develops, you may find you will want to, or need to, revise your thesis statement to better outline your paper. As your paper evolves, so does your thesis. In other words, when writing your thesis statement, keep your paper in mind, and when writing your paper, keep your thesis statement in mind. Your paper will defend your thesis, so write your paper accordingly.
For example, if the topic is "Analyzing Mark Twain's 'Huckleberry Finn,'" your thesis statement might address the social implications or meanings behind the characters chosen for the story. Keeping the thesis statement in mind, you would then write your paper about the characters in the story. Let's say you are writing a philosophy paper. Your thesis statement might include two opposing arguments, with the hint that you intend to argue or prove one side of the argument. Many thesis statements are written in such a way as to try to prove an argument or point of view, but challenge yourself; make your thesis statement a statement of how you plan to disprove an argument. Maybe you want to attempt to show your readers why a specific point of view does not work.
Your thesis statement should address one main issue. It takes a point of view or an argument, and the paper is the development of this argument. If your thesis statement is too simple, obvious, or vague, then you need to work on it a little more. You should try to write it in a way that will catch your reader's attention, making it interesting and thought-provoking. It should be specific in nature, and address the theme of the entire paper. The thesis statement may be written to try to convince the reader of a specific issue or point of view. It may also address an issue to which there is no simple solution or easy answers; remember, make it thought-provoking. Many thesis statements invite the reader to disagree.
Don't be alarmed if you find yourself midway through your paper and wanting to change your thesis statement. This will happen. Sometimes a writer will start out thinking they know exactly the point they want to make in their paper, only to find halfway through that they've taken a slightly different direction. Don't be afraid to modify your thesis statement. But a word of caution; if you modify your thesis statement, be sure to double check your paper to ensure that it is supported by the thesis. If you have changed your thesis statement, it would be wise, even advisable, to have a third party read your paper to be sure that the paper supports the thesis and the revised thesis describes the paper.
The "body" of your paper contains the evidence, analysis, and reasoning that support your thesis. Often the topic of the paper is divided into subtopics. Typically, each subtopic is discussed in a separate paragraph, but there is nothing wrong with continuing a subtopic throughout multiple paragraphs. It is good practice to begin each paragraph with a topic sentence that introduces the subject of the new paragraph and helps transition between paragraphs. A topic sentence will help keep you focused while writing the paragraph, and it will keep your reader focused while reading it.
The purpose of a conclusion is to "wrap up" the discussion of your paper. Especially if the paper is a long one, it is a good idea to "re-cap" the main ideas presented in your paper. If your paper is argumentative, you'd likely want to re-enforce the standpoint introduced in your thesis statement; however, rather than repeating your thesis, offer closing statements that make use of all the information you've presented to support your thesis. Try to "echo" your thesis so that your reader understands that you have fulfilled the "promise" a thesis statement implies, but give your reader a sense of closure rather than simply restating everything you said above just ending it.
Here are some strategies for closing your discussion:
After summing up your main points/thesis you might
- Comment on the significance of the topic in general: why should your reader care?
- Look to the future: Is there more work to be done on the topic? Are there predictions you can make about your topic?
- Ask something of your reader: Is there something your reader can do? Should do?
Argumentative Research Papers
One of the main things that differentiates a college level research paper from research papers below the college level is they almost always will be argumentative; that is, they will be taking a stance. The research is then used to back up the argument of the writer, or to put their argument into context. Students new to college will often attempt to simply provide information that makes the research paper becoming stale and unnecessary. If all the paper is doing is repackaging old information, why not just go back to the original source? Papers that just provide information risk unintentional plagiarism. If none of the information provided contains your own insights, then failing to cite everything means that it is plagiarized. Yet, most students would be reluctant to cite the entirety of their paper.
Plagiarism results from including non-trivial information (ideas, facts, etc) from another source without acknowledging its source. Plagiarism is one of the most serious offenses that can be committed in academia and it involves varying degrees. Plagiarism at its most blatant includes handing in an entire paper that is not one's own; it also includes failing to document one's sources. When writing a research paper, avoid unintentional plagiarism. Because almost no knowledge other than eye-witness accounts is truly original, be sure to find sources for all non-trivial information. Plagiarism can be grounds for failing a paper or the course as a whole.
Resources To Use
The humanities category offers many good sources from which to gather information. The Internet is fast becoming an important source of information for humanities writing. There are many history sites, journalism and news sites, sites focusing on the history of film, sites dedicated to womens' issues, and so on. More traditional physical resources include dictionaries, encyclopedias, biographies, indexes, abstracts, and periodicals, and our old friend, the library.
As you can see, there are many resources from which to choose when writing your paper. Start at the most basic level and progress from there. For example, if you are writing about a specific work of a famous author, the obvious place to begin is with a careful reading of the work in question. Once you are done, try to articulate what you know to be true, what you think is probably true, and what is open to question: that is, what you might need to find out. It is helpful to actually go through the physical process of writing out two or three key questions that you would like to focus on.
At that point, you may want begin your further researches with a search through an encyclopedia, or do an online search for available resources, including interviews. After you have found the information you need there, you might then search a through a card catalog in a library for specific books. You may find that while searching for one specific book you will stumble upon many other useful books on the same subject. You can then begin to look through book reviews for information on your subject. Book reviews can be especially informative in that they will often will identify important themes, raise new questions, and broaden your sense of what is at stake in the text. Next, you may want to try searching for articles in periodicals, and even abstracts of articles, which will provide a summary of the content of the potential article.
- The Bedford Anthology of World Literature
- Academic Writing Support Materials for Humanities Students
- Four Keys to Writing in the Humanities
- Conventions of Writing Papers in Humanities