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Remaster refers to changing the quality of the sound or of the image, or both, of previously created recordings, either audiophonic, cinematic, or videographic. The terms digital remastering and digitally remastered are also used.
A master is the definitive recording version that will be replicated for the end user, commonly into other formats (e.g. LP records, tapes, CDs, DVDs, Blu-rays).
A batch of copies is often made from a single original master recording, which might itself be based on previous recordings. For example, sound effects (e.g. a door opening, punching sounds, falling down the stairs, a bell ringing) might have been added from copies of sound effect tapes similar to modern sampling to make a radio play for broadcast.
Problematically, several different levels of masters often exist for any one audio release. As an example, examine the way a typical music album from the 1960s was created. Musicians and vocalists were recorded on multi-track tape. This tape was mixed to create a stereo or mono master. A further master tape would likely be created from this original master recording consisting of equalization and other adjustments and improvements to the audio to make it sound better on record players for example.
More master recordings would be duplicated from the equalized master for regional copying purposes (for example to send to several pressing plants). Pressing masters for vinyl recordings would be created. Often these interim recordings were referred to as mother tapes. All vinyl records would derive from one of the master recordings.
Thus, mastering refers to the process of creating a master. This might be as simple as copying a tape for further duplication purposes or might include the actual equalization and processing steps used to fine-tune material for release. The latter example usually requires the work of mastering engineers.
With the advent of digital recording in the late 1970s, many mastering ideas changed. Previously, creating new masters meant incurring an analog generational loss; in other words, copying a tape to a tape meant reducing the signal-to-noise ratio. This means how much of the original intended "good" information is recorded against faults added to the recording as a result of the technical limitations of the equipment used (noise, e.g. tape hiss, static, etc.). Although noise reduction techniques exist, they also increase other audio distortions such as azimuth shift, wow and flutter, print-through and stereo image shift.
With digital recording, masters could be created and duplicated without incurring the usual generational loss. As CDs were a digital format, digital masters created from original analog recordings became a necessity.
Remastering is the process of making a new master for an album, film, or any other creation. It tends to refer to the process of porting a recording from an analog medium to a digital one, but this is not always the case.[ citation needed ]
For example, a vinyl LP – originally pressed from a worn-out pressing master many tape generations removed from the "original" master recording – could be remastered and re-pressed from a better-condition tape. All CDs created from analog sources are technically digitally remastered.
The process of creating a digital transfer of an analog tape remasters the material in the digital domain, even if no equalization, compression, or other processing is done to the material. Ideally, because of their higher resolution, a CD or DVD (or even higher quality like high-resolution audio or hi-def video) release should come from the best source possible, with the most care taken during its transfer.[ citation needed ]
Additionally, the earliest days of the CD era found digital technology in its infancy, which sometimes resulted in poor-sounding digital transfers. The early DVD era was not much different, with copies of films frequently being produced from worn prints, with low bitrates and muffled audio.[ citation needed ] When the first CD remasters turned out to be bestsellers, companies soon realized that new editions of back-catalog items could compete with new releases as a source of revenue. Back-catalog values skyrocketed, and today it is not unusual to see expanded and remastered editions of relatively modern albums.
Master tapes, or something close to them, can be used to make CD releases. Better processing choices can be used. Better prints can be utilized, with sound elements remixed to 5.1 surround sound and obvious print flaws digitally corrected. The modern era gives publishers almost unlimited ways to touch up, doctor, and "improve" their media, and as each release promises improved sound, video, extras and others, producers hope these upgrades will entice people into making a purchase.
Remastering music for CD or even digital distribution first starts from locating the original analog version.  The next step involves digitizing the track or tracks so it can be edited using a computer. Then the track order is chosen. This is something engineers often worry about because if the track order is not right, it may seem sonically unbalanced.
When the remastering starts, engineers use software tools such as a limiter, an equalizer, and a compressor. The compressor and limiters are ways of controlling the loudness of a track.  This is not to be confused with the volume of a track, which is controlled by the listener during playback.
The dynamic range of an audio track is measured by calculating the variation between the loudest and the quietest part of a track.  In recording studios the loudness is measured with negative decibels, zero designating the loudest recordable sound. A limiter works by having a certain cap on the loudest parts and if that cap is exceeded, it is automatically lowered by a ratio preset by the engineer.
Remastered audio has been the subject of criticism.   Many remastered CDs from the late 1990s onwards have been affected by the "loudness war", where the average volume of the recording is increased and dynamic range is compressed at the expense of clarity, making the remastered version sound louder at regular listening volume and more distorted than an uncompressed version.   Some have also criticized the overuse of noise reduction in the remastering process, as it affects not only the noise, but the signal too, and can leave audible artifacts.   Equalisation can change the character of a recording noticeably. As EQ decisions are a matter of taste to some degree, they are often the subject of criticism. Mastering engineers such as Steve Hoffman have noted that using flat EQ on a mastering allows listeners to adjust the EQ on their equipment to their own preference, but mastering a release with a certain EQ means that it may not be possible to get a recording to sound right on high-end equipment.   Additionally, from an artistic point of view, original mastering involved the original artist, but remastering often does not.[ citation needed ] Therefore, a remastered record may not sound how the artist originally intended.[ citation needed ]
To remaster a movie digitally for DVD and Blu-ray, digital restoration operators must scan in the film frame by frame at a resolution of at least 2,048 pixels across (referred to as 2K resolution).  Some films are scanned at 4K, 6K, or even 8K resolution to be ready for higher resolution devices.  Scanning a film at 4K—a resolution of 4096 × 3092 for a full frame of film—generates at least 12 terabytes of data before any editing is done.
Digital restoration operators then use specialist software such as MTI's Digital Restoration System (DRS) to remove scratches and dust from damaged film. Restoring the film to its original color is also included in this process.
As well as remastering the video aspect, the audio is also remastered using such software as Pro Tools to remove background noise and boost dialogue volumes so when actors are speaking they are easier to understand and hear.  Audio effects are also added or enhanced, as well as surround sound, which allows the soundtrack elements to be spread among multiple speakers for a more immersive experience.
An example of a restored film is the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz .  The color portions of Oz were shot in the three-strip Technicolor process, which in the 1930s yielded three black and white negatives created from red, green and blue light filters which were used to print the cyan, magenta and yellow portions of the final printed color film answer print.  These three negatives were scanned individually into a computer system, where the digital images were tinted and combined using proprietary software.
The cyan, magenta, and yellow records had suffered from shrinkage over the decades, and the software used in the restoration morphed all three records into the correct alignment.  The software was also used to remove dust and scratches from the film by copying data, for example, from the cyan and yellow records to fix a blemish in the magenta record.  Restoring the movie made it possible to see precise visual details not visible on earlier home releases: for example, when the Scarecrow says "I have a brain", burlap is noticeable on his cheeks. It was also not possible to see a rivet between the Tin Man's eyes prior to the restoration.
Shows that were shot and edited entirely on film, such as Star Trek: The Original Series , are able to be re-released in HD through re-scanning the original film negatives; the remastering process for the show additionally enabled Paramount to digitally update certain special effects.  [ unreliable source? ] Shows that were made between the early 1980s and the early 2000s were generally shot on film, then transferred to and edited on standard-definition videotape, making high-definition transfers impossible without re-editing the product from scratch, such as with the HD release of Star Trek: The Next Generation , which cost Paramount over $12 million to produce. Because of this release's commercial failure, Paramount chose not to give Deep Space Nine or Voyager the same treatment.  In 2014, Pee-wee's Playhouse was digitally remastered from the original 16 mm film elements and original audio tracks.
Remastered movies have been the subject of criticism. When the Arnold Schwarzenegger film Predator was remastered, it was felt by some critics that the process was overdone, resulting in Schwarzenegger's skin looking waxy.  As well as complaints about the way the picture looks, there have been other complaints about digital fixing.  One notable complaint is from the 2002 remastered version of E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982), where director Steven Spielberg replaced guns in the hands of police and federal agents with walkie-talkies. A later 30th-anniversary edition released in 2012 saw the return of the original scene.
Canadian animator John Kricfalusi (of The Ren & Stimpy Show fame) has become a prominent critic of digital remastering, particularly in regards to its effects on Western animation. In his blog "John K. Stuff," he has admonished remasters for over-saturating colors and sharpening lines to the point of color bleeding (among other criticisms). He has gone on record in his blog to describe remastering as "digital ruination" and "digital destruction."   [ unreliable source? ]
Remastering a video game is more difficult than remastering a film or music recording because the video game's graphics show their age.  This can be due to a number of factors, notably lower resolutions and less complicated rendering engines at the time of release. A video game remaster typically has ambience and design updated to the capabilities of a more powerful console, while a video game remake is also updated but with recreated models.
Modern computer monitors and high-definition televisions tend to have higher display resolutions and different aspect ratios than the monitors/televisions available when the video game was released.  Because of this, classic games that are remastered typically have their graphics re-rendered at higher resolutions.  An example of a game that has had its original graphics re-rendered at higher resolutions is Hitman HD Trilogy , which contains two games with high-resolution graphics: Hitman 2: Silent Assassin and Hitman: Contracts . Both were originally released on PC, PlayStation 2, and Xbox.  The original resolution was 480p on Xbox, while the remastered resolution is displayed at 720p on Xbox 360.  There is some debate regarding whether graphics of an older game at higher resolutions make a video game look better or worse than the original artwork, with comparisons made to colorizing black-and-white-movies.
More significant than low resolution is the age of the original game engine and simplicity of the original 3D models. Older computers and video game consoles had limited 3D rendering speed, which required simple 3D object geometry such as human hands being modeled as mittens rather than with individual fingers, while maps having a distinctly chunky appearance with no smoothly curving surfaces. Older computers also had less texture memory for 3D environments, requiring low-resolution bitmap images that look visibly pixelated or blurry when viewed at high resolution. (Some early 3D games such as the 1993 version of DOOM also just used an animated two-dimensional image that is rotated to always face the player character, rather than attempt to render highly complex scenery objects or enemies in full 3D.) As a result, depending on the age of the original game, if the original assets are not compatible with the new technology for a remaster, it is often considered necessary to remake or remodel the graphical assets. An example of a game that has had its graphics redesigned is Halo: Combat Evolved Anniversary ,  while the core character and level information is exactly the same as in Halo: Combat Evolved .
An analog signal is any continuous signal representing some other quantity, i.e., analogous to another quantity. For example, in an analog audio signal, the instantaneous signal voltage varies continuously with the pressure of the sound waves.
A sound effect is an artificially created or enhanced sound, or sound process used to emphasize artistic or other content of films, television shows, live performance, animation, video games, music, or other media. Traditionally, in the twentieth century, they were created with foley. In motion picture and television production, a sound effect is a sound recorded and presented to make a specific storytelling or creative point without the use of dialogue or music. The term often refers to a process applied to a recording, without necessarily referring to the recording itself. In professional motion picture and television production, dialogue, music, and sound effects recordings are treated as separate elements. Dialogue and music recordings are never referred to as sound effects, even though the processes applied to such as reverberation or flanging effects, often are called "sound effects".
Digital Audio Tape is a signal recording and playback medium developed by Sony and introduced in 1987. In appearance it is similar to a Compact Cassette, using 3.81 mm / 0.15" magnetic tape enclosed in a protective shell, but is roughly half the size at 73 mm × 54 mm × 10.5 mm. The recording is digital rather than analog. DAT can record at sampling rates equal to, as well as higher and lower than a CD at 16 bits quantization. If a comparable digital source is copied without returning to the analogue domain, then the DAT will produce an exact clone, unlike other digital media such as Digital Compact Cassette or non-Hi-MD MiniDisc, both of which use a lossy data-reduction system.
Sound can be recorded and stored and played using either digital or analog techniques. Both techniques introduce errors and distortions in the sound, and these methods can be systematically compared. Musicians and listeners have argued over the superiority of digital versus analog sound recordings. Arguments for analog systems include the absence of fundamental error mechanisms which are present in digital audio systems, including aliasing and quantization noise. Advocates of digital point to the high levels of performance possible with digital audio, including excellent linearity in the audible band and low levels of noise and distortion.
Mastering, a form of audio post production, is the process of preparing and transferring recorded audio from a source containing the final mix to a data storage device, the source from which all copies will be produced. In recent years digital masters have become usual, although analog masters—such as audio tapes—are still being used by the manufacturing industry, particularly by a few engineers who specialize in analog mastering.
The LaserDisc (LD) is a home video format and the first commercial optical disc storage medium, initially licensed, sold and marketed as MCA DiscoVision in the United States in 1978. Its diameter typically spans 30 cm (12 in). Unlike most optical-disc standards, LaserDisc is not fully digital, and instead requires the use of analog video signals.
Direct Stream Digital (DSD) is a trademark used by Sony and Philips for their system for digitally encoding audio signals for the Super Audio CD (SACD).
A camcorder is a self-contained portable electronic device with video and recording as its primary function. It is typically equipped with an articulating screen mounted on the left side, a belt to facilitate holding on the right side, hot-swappable battery facing towards the user, hot-swappable recording media, and an internally contained quiet optical zoom lens.
Dolby Laboratories, Inc. is a company specializing in audio noise reduction, audio encoding/compression, spatial audio, and HDR imaging. Dolby licenses its technologies to consumer electronics manufacturers.
Exit... Stage Left is the second live album by the Canadian rock band Rush, released as a double album in October 1981 by Anthem Records. After touring in support of their eighth studio album Moving Pictures (1981), the band gathered recordings made over the previous two years and constructed a live release from them with producer Terry Brown. The album features recordings from June 1980 on their Permanent Waves (1980) tour, and from March 1981 on their Moving Pictures tour.
In digital recording, an audio or video signal is converted into a stream of discrete numbers representing the changes over time in air pressure for audio, or chroma and luminance values for video. This number stream is saved to a storage device. To play back a digital recording, the numbers are retrieved and converted back into their original analog audio or video forms so that they can be heard or seen.
Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab is a record label that specialized in the production of audiophile issues. The company produces reissued vinyl LP records, compact discs, and Super Audio CDs and other formats.
Film-out is the process in the computer graphics, video production and filmmaking disciplines of transferring images or animation from videotape or digital files to a traditional film print. Film-out is a broad term that encompasses the conversion of frame rates, color correction, as well as the actual printing, also called scannior recording.
High-definition video is video of higher resolution and quality than standard-definition. While there is no standardized meaning for high-definition, generally any video image with considerably more than 480 vertical scan lines or 576 vertical lines (Europe) is considered high-definition. 480 scan lines is generally the minimum even though the majority of systems greatly exceed that. Images of standard resolution captured at rates faster than normal, by a high-speed camera may be considered high-definition in some contexts. Some television series shot on high-definition video are made to look as if they have been shot on film, a technique which is often known as filmizing.
DTS, Inc. is an American company, DTS company makes multichannel audio technologies for film and video. Based in Calabasas, California, the company introduced its DTS technology in 1993 as a competitor to Dolby Laboratories, incorporating DTS in the film Jurassic Park (1993). The DTS product is used in surround sound formats for both commercial/theatrical and consumer-grade applications. It was known as The Digital Experience until 1995. DTS licenses its technologies to consumer electronics manufacturers.
The SPARS code is a three-position alphabetic classification system developed in the early 1980s by the Society of Professional Audio Recording Services (SPARS) for commercial compact disc releases to denote aspects of the sound recording and reproduction process, distinguishing between the use of analog equipment and digital equipment. The code's three positions refer to recording, mixing, and mastering respectively. The first two positions may be coded either "A" for analog or "D" for digital; the third position (mastering) is always "D" on digital CDs. The scheme was not originally intended to be limited to use on digital packaged media: it was also available for use in conjunction with analog releases such as vinyl or cassette, but this was seldom done in practice.
Sound recording and reproduction is the electrical, mechanical, electronic, or digital inscription and re-creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects. The two main classes of sound recording technology are analog recording and digital recording.
The loudness war is a trend of increasing audio levels in recorded music, which reduces audio fidelity and—according to many critics—listener enjoyment. Increasing loudness was first reported as early as the 1940s, with respect to mastering practices for 7-inch singles. The maximum peak level of analog recordings such as these is limited by varying specifications of electronic equipment along the chain from source to listener, including vinyl and Compact Cassette players. The issue garnered renewed attention starting in the 1990s with the introduction of digital signal processing capable of producing further loudness increases.
Audio restoration is the process of removing imperfections from sound recordings. Audio restoration can be performed directly on the recording medium, or on a digital representation of the recording using a computer. Record restoration is a particular form of audio restoration that seeks to repair the sound of damaged gramophone records.
The history of sound recording - which has progressed in waves, driven by the invention and commercial introduction of new technologies — can be roughly divided into four main periods:


Indian History Chronology: Indian History is a topic of interest to many including foreigners because of the cultures and civilizations existed in this sub-continent. History of India can be studied under political, cultural, religious or economic heads.
Indian History Chronology
Chronologically, Indian History can be classified into three periods – Ancient India, Medieval India and Modern India.
Ancient India (Pre-historic to AD 700)
There were activities of proto-humans (Homo erectus) in the Indian subcontinent 20 lakh years (2 million years) ago, and of Homo sapiens since 70,000 BC. But they were gathers/hunters.
The first inhabitants of Indian subcontinent might have been tribals like Nagas (North-East), Santhals (East-India), Bhils (Central India), Gonds (Central India), Todas (South India) etc. Most of them are speakers of the Austric, pre-Dravidian languages, such as Munda and Gondvi. Dravidians and Aryans are believed to be immigrants who came later to the sub-continent.
Ancient India can be studied under other heads like Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic period – based on the type of stone/ metal tools people used.
Paleolithic Period (2 million BC – 10,000 BC)
- Tools made up of lime stone
- Ostrich Eggs
- Important Paleolithic sites: Bhimbetka (M.P), Hunsgi, Kurnool Caves, Narmada Valley (Hathnora, M.P), Kaladgi Basin
Mesolithic Period (10,000 BC – 8,000 BC)
- Major Climatic Change happened
- Domestication of animals ie Cattle rearing started
- Microliths found at Brahmagiri (Mysore), Narmada, Vindya, Gujarat
Neolithic Period (8000 BC – 4,000 BC)
- Agriculture Started
- Wheel discovered
- Inamgaon = An early village
- Important Neolithic Sites : Burzahom(Kashmir), Gufkral(Kashmir), Mehrgarh(Pakistan), Chirand(Bihar), Daojali Hading(Tripura/Assam), Koldihwa(UP), Mahagara(UP), Hallur(AP), Paiyampalli(AP), Maski, Kodekal, Sangana Kaller, Utnur, Takkala Kota.
- NB: Megalithic Sites: Brahmagiri, Adichanallur
Chalcolithic Period (4000 BC – 1,500 BC)
- Copper Age. Can be considered part of Bronze Age. (Bronze = Copper + Tin)
- Indus Valley Civilization (BC 2700 – BC 1900).
- Also cultures at Brahmagiri, Navada Toli (Narmada region), Mahishadal (W.Bengal), Chirand (Ganga region)
Iron Age (BC 1500 – BC 200)
- Vedic Period (Arrival of Aryans ie. BC 1600 – BC 600) – Nearly 1000 years (Basic books of Hinduism, ie Vedas were composed, might have written down later.)
- Jainism and Buddhism
- Mahajanapadas – Major Civilization after Indus Valley- On banks of river Ganga
- Magadha empire – Bimbisara of Haryanka Kula
- Sisunga dynasty – Kalasoka (Kakavarnin)
- Nanda empire – Mahapadma-nanda, Dhana-nanda
- Persian- Greek: Alexander 327 BC
Mauryan Empire (321-185 BC)
Important rulers of Mauryan Empire: Chandra Gupta Maurya, Bindusara, Asoka
Post-Mauryan Kingdoms (Middle Kingdoms):
- Sunga (181-71 BC), Kanva (71-27BC), Satavahanas (235-100BC), Indo-Greeks, Parthians (19-45AD), Sakas (90BC-150AD), Kushanas(78AD)
- South Indian Kingdoms – Chola, Chera, Pandyas (BC 300)
Gupta Kingdom (300AD – 800AD): Classical Period
Important ruler of Gupta Period: Samudra Gupta (Indian Napoleon)
Post Guptas or Contemporary Guptas
- Harshvardana, Vakatakas, Pallavas, Chalukyas. Also, Hunas, Maitrakas, Rajputs, Senas and Chauhans.
Medieval India (AD 700 – AD 1857)
- AD: 800-1200: Tripartite struggle – Prathiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas
- Attack of Muhammed Bin Kassim (AD 712)
- Rise of Islam and Sufism
- Mohammed Ghazni (AD 1000-27)
- Mohammed Ghori (AD 1175-1206)
Delhi Sultanate (1206 AD – 1526 AD)
The following dynasties flourished one after the other during the Delhi Sultanate period.
- Slave Dynasty
- Kilji Dynasty
- Tuglaq Dynasty
- Sayyid Dynasty
- Lodi Dynasty
Mughals (AD 1526 – AD 1857)
- Great Mughals
- Later Mughals
Mughals from Babar (1526) to Aurangazeb (1707) were more powerful and hence known as Great Mughals. Mughals who ruled from 1707 to 1857 were known as Later Mughals.
- Arrival of Europeans
- Other Kingdoms of North India – Marathas, Sikhs
Modern India (AD 1857 +)
- First War of Indian Independence (1857)
- Formation of Indian National Congress (1885)
- Formation of Muslim League (1906)
- Non-Co-operation Movement (1920)
- Civil Disobedience Movement (1930)
- Quit India Movement (1942)
- Partition of India (1947)
- Constitutional Development of India (1946 – 1950)
- Economic Development of India
- Wars – India-Pak – Formation of Bangladesh; India- China
- New Economic Policy of 1991
- Nuclear, Space and Defense Development
- Orientalist School – West Patronizing the East Culture – Not active now
- Cambridge School – Downplays ideology
- Nationalist School – Importance to Congress and Gandhi; Hindu Nationalists for Hindutva version
- Marxists School – Class conflict
- Subaltern School – Caste conflict
Charanjot Singh says
Sir I have just begun my preparation for civil services with Histiry.I am confused whether to make notes in the first reading of the subject or in subsequent readings.
Kindly guide me.
First study throughly . In 2nd reading make notes by understanding.
I did the same, and yeah it’s working!
Your Dad says
Sab janna h iss [email protected]*£e ko 😅
Varun Baria says
Kindly, advice how one make notes for optional such vast as History itself. Any help would be appreciated! Thank you.
Make as per syllabus and current affairs.
can anyone suggest
for world history and culture baliyan notes better or vaji
2. vaji printed or vaji handwritten which one is better
md nazeeb alam says
u read world history by jain and mathur, which is very useful for ias
romila sinha says
I am preparing myself for 2015 and wanted to know the process of joining your test series or answer writing challenges for mains as well as prelims.
Kushal Kumar says
Behen ka loda
sir i want to have geography optional, will i have different books for prelims and main
Maps are correct, but at many places chronology is bit incorrect..e.g Gupta empire was from 315 to 550 and medival history was from early medival 750 to 1200 and medival from 1200 to 1757, commonly accepted…not hard and fast rule..but ur figures are bit stretched…
Hlo can you give your number
I am handicapped if you have notes then gives me
Smriti anand says
sir i am in class 11 and i want to become an ias officer.
How can i prepare for it.
Plzz i need a guideline plzz help me.
Pehle zindagi air explore karlo.
Maa ki choot
Sir i am studying economics start with through ncert books but it is difficult to analyses economics questions in mains question papers and analyses of news papers economics reports.i am trying different ways but it is very confused.sir please suggest the material regarding this and way of approach..
AnnaParameshwari Srinivasan says
I just started to read History NCERT – class VI… got confused and found hard to get an idea.. went on searching online & luckily found this post.
It makes my job easier.. I hope it’ll serve as a roadmap for History preparation.
thanks a lot ClearIAS… 🙂 🙂 🙂 🙂
Sam Takhar says
divya prakash says
It’s good but u can add about rise of regional powers like awadh,hyderabad,Bengal,Sikhs ,maratha etc under topic mughal
NB: Print Pdf
Dola babu says
Sir how to download this article PDF,I am not able to get pdf
ClearIAS study materials are available for download as PDF for FREE on the ClearIAS Telegram Channel (https://t.me/clearias). Join us now!
SEME HERE…. ONLY PRINT OPTION AVLIABLE
sir I want to prepare SSC CGL examination, l am science graduate so l need help to prepare Indian history pls guide me
How many articles are thir in india constitution
Sir i am in BA ist sem and my sub is pol sci and history,now i am confusing in choiseing the additional sub for IAS so what i can do? which sub is better for IAS.
What we call the reign of pre mouryan period?
Nikita Mane says
Sorry Sir/Madam, but I think you missed Harappan civilisation in this chronology.
Suryaprakash Parida says
Indusvalley civilisation is also known as harappan civilisation
Did we have ostrich in India during palaeolithic period ?
Great information about history of India. Your article is an evergreen compilation of data.
Thanks a lot.
Smart Readers says
For all parts of prachin bharat https://youtu.be/IIzDbgQEAUw
how to download notes
Rakshita Jadhav says
India also has a wide political as well as social history. It is a very rich country in terms of history.
aditya abhale says
thanks for your article, i have referred your article for writting old history of india blog.
thanks again, it helped me alot
Rattan Sharma says
There are arguments about Buddha.Some say Buddha was born in India.Great historian A.L.Bhasham says no buddha was born in India. How can I find the truth.What is the history book I should buy.Could you please help me.Thanks
How to download these notes kindly tell me
Maresh kumar says
Kindly tell me quick gs study capsule to go through jkpsc cc pre exam 2
Gufran Ahmad says
You should have to clear 12 the exam now.After 12th u have to choose any one subject prescribed by recognised university of India for B.A(Hns)/ B.Sc(Hns)/ B.Tech(Hns)/ B.Com(Hns).At begining u should be conscious on two subjects for mains exam eg; Geography/Economics/ Mathematics/ Anthropology/History/Physics/Chemistry/psychology…etc. First of all u should have to download upsc ( IAS) syllabus.After doing this u will be prepare for IAS by serially.
Pankaj Kumar says
Sir i did my graduation parallel to i.t.i in similar session by regular based still I’m working in SAIL Bt now I want to prepare for upsc nd I’m thinking that if I got selected then would I got any problem in further process.
How to read history.iam very confused pls guide me
Sunil Kumar Panday says
Good morning sir
Thank you sir for this effort
Sir I have a question, sir what is your motivation for doing this great work
Good question 🙂 You are right. Without enough motivation, we cannot keep coming up with quality articles/mock exams on a daily basis. The following are the major motivating factors for me and ClearIAS Team as a whole.
(1) The realisation that we are solving the big problems students faced or facing – in terms of accessibility, affordability, and quality – of education.
(2) The feeling that about 1 million students depend on ClearIAS for learning each month. That adds a lot of responsibility too.
(3) As a person, I love teaching and creative writing. Most of the team members of ClearIAS too. It’s highly satisfying. We love to make things simple. ClearIAS gives maximum space to creativity and innovation. Our focus is to create easy-to-learn study materials, saving valuable time of aspirants.
(4) As a social startup, with a sustainable business model, we do realise the value of our work.
(5) Users like you who encourage and support us.
(6) Toppers who sent us thank-you letters appreciating the crucial role played by ClearIAS.com in helping them clear UPSC Civil Services Exam.
(7) My own past experiences, mistakes, failures, and lessons learned.
(8) The vision and mission of ClearIAS.
(9) The urge to make the lives of others better.
PS: There is a 10th point as well – the conviction that what we have done so far is just nothing, but only a beginning.
We have just started.
There are plenty of things to be done in the days ahead.
NCERT Cl 6 History textbook, Chapter 2- evidence of ostrich shells used for making beads and decorative items was found in Patne, Maharashtra.
Harman gill says
sir,i m currently studying in 12 icse science class….will these only notes would be sufficient for me to study….???? Kindly help pls
I have been searching for this chronology for a while now, and then I got it here. Thanks from the secluded place of my heart. regards
Very nice for prepration for upsc.
Hindi language hai sir
Hi Sir can this material be used for preparing for the CDSE by UPSC?
Sueetha Jammana says
I am Geethika …. and I am going study in class 9th . My dream is to be the IAS officer and I want to start my preparation from my 9th . Now I am 13 years old and I want your guidance . Can you please guide me in the best way to serve my nation as an IAS officer ?
Thanks in advance,
Your lovingly child,
Geethika . V . Sastry
Ancient period is prehistoric to AD 700,but how can the paleolithic,Mesolithic,chalcolithic and neolithic are in BC…….plz I have a confusion…anyone solve this
Chandan Kumar Bharti says
Pre history, Proto history till Sakas in BC, Sakas and afterwards in CE or AD
Shikhar agrahari says
Sir I just start my preparation for civil services so can u please tell me what I do first and from where I can start
I totally confused what I study what not….
I’m Sibiya from Erode, Tamil nadu. I would like to start my UPSC exam preparation. Where should i start now?
As there are many institutes here though I dont feel good with them only focusing on money. As I’m from financially down family I need some support and guidance to prepare my exams from the team like yours who only want people to get benefit of. There lies a real support I hope!!!
Ajeet Goswami says
Download telegram and get free video
Chinnu Varghese says
Can I get the pdf notes?
Sweta Biradar says
What does the NB abbreviation mean?
I have seen different timelines for stone & metal age on different sites, & in different books, so just want to confirm if this timeline is correct?
i think the period mention for homo-erectus and homo-sapiens in indian sub-continent is not correct
look into this matter
Mithilesh pandey says
Is the notes are only cover ncerts or reference also
It’s really helpful for the upsc and as well history portion thanks a lot sir
Dattatray ingale says
I was searching this article. Very helpful for me.
Veeru singh says
Hi sir I am sneha Singh and I read class 9th. I want to became an IPS officer. Sir please guide me
Manhad khan says
Thanks you soo much.. for this notes.
If similar kind of notes for Politics is available , Request to share.
Thanks in advance.
Suresh Kumar says
It’s not a research work. Just copied from Indian history books written by foreign historians like Romilla thaper. May be he is not studied Vedic literature to calculate Vedic time period and using prossesion of equinoxes calculations.
Shraddha Thombre says
A Very Big THANK YOU To CLEAR IAS
For Making Our UPSC Preparation More Easier😊😊 💝💝
i want pdf files
Is there is all pdf files of all subjects ?
Nidhi bhardwaj says
These notes are enough for IAS preparation. Tell me plzzzzz
Hii this is Nahida akhter
I’m from jammu and kashmir
My hobby is ias officer
And my dream is civil services
May Allah bless me for All examination
Give me a one chance please
Sweta Singh says
Really very very thanks a lot sir
Sir I am doing self-study have little confusion how to connect with you because I will take exam in 2022 so please suggest me
Arindam Sen says
Nice article post !!! For various historical Indian events Click Here For Visit this Site thanks ….
KRISHAN KISHORE says
Not enough for upsc


Conflict is a state of disagreement between two or more parties. This disagreement can be realized in both peaceful and violent manifestations. A clash of interests, values, actions, or directions often sparks a conflict. Conflict occurs on a many levels—within the individual when a person confronts their own competing desires; between individuals such as in a marriage; between groups of individuals, such as work groups; between societies or cultures, such as different religions or ethnicities; or international conflict which may become a fully fledged war.
While differences are natural, the ways to resolve them can be violent or harmonious. Appreciating diversity of opinion, ability, and interest is the beginning of living in harmony, allowing the development of new ideas through give and take with each offering different information or skills. Overcoming the barriers between different individuals and groups, living in service to others, is a good foundation for successful interactions that will not lead to violent conflict. When conflict has occurred, reconciliation requires that each become sensitive to the other's perspective and experience, possibly through the use of a mediator. True reconciliation is achieved based on forgiveness.
Conflict is a state of disagreement. To be considered conflict, a number of characteristics are generally evidenced (Dana 2000):
- Interdependence - those involved need something from each other
- Blame - the parties attribute the cause of the dispute to the behavior, attitude, beliefs, and so on of the other
- Anger - the situation causes one or both parties to experience significant emotional reaction, in the form of anger
- Actual problems - the behavior of those involved in the conflict leads to problems for themselves and others.
Conflict is generally regarded as an unpleasant state of affairs. Terms associated with conflict by people from over 60 countries worldwide include anger, avoid, bad, control, destruction, fear, fight, hate, impasse, loss, mistake, pain, war, and wrongdoing (Weeks 1994).
Conflict resolution is the attempt to reduce the tension and difficulties associated with a state of conflict. Methods of conflict resolution have been developed and applied in a wide range of social situations.
Conflict can occur between individuals or between groups of many types. Among these variations are: interpersonal conflict between two people (such as within a family in the form of sibling rivalry or conflict between husband and wife, or bullying in school situations), group conflict between two groups (such as within a work environment), inter-societal conflict between two societies or cultures (such as conflict between Islam and Christianity during the Crusades, or between different ethnic groups within a country), interstate conflict (such as civil wars), or international conflict (war between two countries). Conflicts in these levels may appear "nested" in conflicts residing at larger levels of analysis. For example, conflict within a work team may play out the dynamics of a broader conflict in the organization as a whole.
Conflict can also occur within an individual. This conflict can be rational opposition between logical arguments or can degrade into schizophrenia, in which a person's mind is actually divided against itself. Such a struggle is often subconscious and can result in great stress for the sufferer. Sigmund Freud believed humans suffer from a number of conflicting impulses for survival, sexual pleasure, and social restraint, which result in neuroses and other mental disorders.
Psychologist Kurt Lewin developed a typology of internal conflicts that individuals face. He identified several situations in which we experience mutually irreconcilable alternatives that arouse different emotions:
- Approach-approach - when we want two different things, both of which we like (have "positive valence")
- Avoidance-avoidance - when we have to choose between two alternatives that we do not like ("negative valence")
- Approach-avoidance - when one thing has both positive and negative qualities
- Double approach-avoidance - a choice between two things each of which have both positive and negative qualities.
Together with the varying levels of conflict come a wide variety of external causes of conflict. These include specialization, in which niches fight over the right to assert validity of their position; interdependence, when a group cannot operate without the assistance of others; arguments over common resources; differences in goals; over authority; jurisdictional ambiguities; skills and abilities; values and ethics; and cultural differences.
However, all conflicts have as their root cause self-centered behavior, when one's personal desires, or those of one's own group, are pursued without regard for the needs of the other or for the larger society to which both belong. The result of such selfishness is the breakdown of harmonious interactions or the initiation of aggressive and destructive behavior.
Conflicts within the individual also arise from wrong motivation. Human beings often find themselves in situations where they experience a conflict between their mind, which seeks such eternal goals as beauty, truth, goodness, and love, and the body, with physical desires for such things as sleep, food, shelter, and sexual gratification. The conflict between these two types of desires is inevitable, since the nature and thus the needs of the mind and body are different, one being internal and eternal the other external and temporal. It is the challenge of all people to resolve this by training the body with discipline, and strengthening the mind to pursue goals of value while taking care of the needs of the body so that it can serve the mind's goals.
Similarly, dealing with the types of internal conflict described by Lewin is a normal feature of choice between alternative courses of action. Learning to deal with these conflicting emotions is part of the process of individual character development.
Human beings also experience a conflict between the mind's desires in pursuit of goodness, serving the whole purpose, and those that can be termed evil, namely those that seek to harm others, threatening or destroying the safety and well-being of others or even society as a whole. This type of internal conflict, which all people experience to some degree, is the subject of great debate. For many religions, this situation results from what may be called the Fall of Man, or a deviation of human nature from the original ideal of creation. In this view, the suffering resulting from wrong desires and our struggles to deal with such conflicts is something we are called to overcome. The secular view, particularly that of [[science |scientists]] who accept evolution as fact, tends to regard both internal and external conflicts as part of our "animal" nature that enables us to survive.
Conflict theory attempts to explain social conflict through the idea that all participants in a group or society attempt to maximize their personal benefits and are therefore at odds with all other members of the population. This view stems from the Hobbesian idea that men are naturally selfish and in a constant state of war with one another. The idea was later elaborated on by Karl Marx who believed history to be the story of conflict between the wealthy and working classes. Marx taught that this conflict would eventually erupt into a society-wide war or revolution. The theory has also been applied to microlevel interactions.
Conflicts among animals
Aggressive behavior is common in many species. Conflicts and their resolution appear to follow somewhat similar patterns between those between human beings.
Conflict resolution has been observed in non-human primates. Aggression is more common among relatives and within a group, than between groups. Instead of creating a distance between the individuals, however, primates were observed to be more intimate in the period after the aggressive incident. These intimacies consisted of grooming and various forms of body contact. Different types of primates, as well as many other species who are living in groups, show different types of conciliatory behavior. Stress responses, like an increased heart rate, usually decreased after these reconciliatory signals. These findings contradicted previous existing theories about the general function of aggression, such as creating greater space between individuals (first proposed by Konrad Lorenz), which seems to more accurately apply to conflict between groups.
In addition to research in primates, in more recent studies biologists have explored reconciliation in other animals. Peaceful post-conflict behavior has been documented. Reconciliation has since been documented in such species as spotted hyenas, lions, dolphins, and domesticated goats.
Conflict resolution is the ending of a conflict, or at least reduction of its severity. It may involve conflict management, in which the parties continue the conflict but adopt less extreme tactics; settlement, in which they reach agreement on enough issues that the conflict stops; or removal of the underlying causes of the conflict. Settlements sometimes end a conflict for good, but when there are deeper issues—such as value clashes among people who must work together, distressed relationships, or mistreated members of one’s ethnic group across a border—settlements are often temporary. True resolution of conflict involves not only a cessation of antagonistic interactions, but also a reconciliation—forgiveness and a new start in the relationship.
There are many ways that can end a conflict, ranging from surrender or escape, acting with sufficient violence to defeat one's opponent, to filing a lawsuit so that the courts will resolve the issue. These methods assume that one side is either correct or stronger than the other. An alternative approach is to assume that agreement can be reached through communication between the parties. Methods involved in such forms of conflict resolution include negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and mediation-arbitration, which is a hybrid of the two processes.
Negotiation, the most heavily researched approach to conflict resolution, has mainly been studied in laboratory experiments, in which undergraduate participants are randomly assigned to conditions. These studies have mostly looked at antecedents of the strategies adopted by negotiators and the outcomes attained, including whether agreement is reached, the joint benefit to both parties, and the individual benefit to each party.
Researchers have found that problem solving behavior such as giving or requesting information about a party's priorities among issues encourages high mutual benefit. Contentious behavior, such as making threats or standing firm on one’s proposals, encourages failure to reach agreement or, if agreement is reached, low joint benefit. Conceding makes agreement more likely but favors the other party’s interests. The party who makes the first offer tends to achieve greater benefit than the other party.
Three states of mind discourage concession making: viewing concessions as producing loss rather than as foregoing gain; focusing attention on one’s goal rather than one’s limit (the alternative that is minimally tolerable); and adopting a fixed-pie perspective, in which one views the other’s gain as one’s loss, rather than an expandable pie perspective. Adopting any of the states of mind above diminishes the likelihood of agreement; but if agreement is reached, it increases the likelihood of winning, especially if the other party adopts the opposite state of mind.
Negotiators from individualistic cultures tend to take a more contentious approach, while those from collectivist cultures are more concerned about maintaining positive relationships and hence more likely to cooperate (concede or engage in problem solving). Accountability to constituents encourages contentious behavior for individualists, it encourages cooperative behavior for collectivists.
Mediation and arbitration
Two common forms of third-party intervention are arbitration and mediation. In arbitration, the third party listens to both sides and then renders a decision, which can be either binding or advisory. Most mediation consists of third-party assistance with negotiation. When conflict is severe and the disputants have difficulty talking calmly with each other, mediators can put them into contact and help them develop a cease-fire or settlement. If the disputants cannot or will not meet each other, mediators commonly become intermediaries and shuttle between them. Sometimes a chain of two intermediaries is necessary because there is no single individual who can communicate effectively with both sides.
Research into mediation suggests that it is usually successful in producing settlements. Disputants generally prefer mediation over arbitration, since it allows them to retain control over the final decision. This means that where failure to reach agreement in mediation is followed by binding arbitration, disputants will work harder to reach agreement than in straight mediation. In the case of small claims disputes, that mediation produces more compliance with the agreement than adjudication (a form of arbitration), perhaps because mediated decisions accord more with the parties’ needs. To be fully successful, mediators must be seen as impartial between the two parties. Having stronger initial ties to one side than the other is less damaging to the perception of impartiality than exhibiting bias during the mediation session. Disputants even sometimes prefer that the mediator be close to the other party so that he or she can exert influence over that party.
Reconciliation is the transition from a broken relationship to a restored one. Often, the restored relationship is stronger than it was prior to the conflict. Reconciliation allows renewal, which opens new avenues of friendship based on the common experience of the conflict and its resolution. The process of reconciliation involves taking a closer look at the other and at oneself, which leads to greater empathy, understanding, and respect.
Forgiveness is essential to bringing to an end the tensions that exist in the conflict. It means giving up the claim to retaliation and allowing positive interactions to take place. Forgiveness does not excuse wrong actions, nor does it mean that they are to be considered acceptable in the future. However, it does mean that they are no longer a barrier to effective communication and harmonious interactions.
Often forgiveness is difficult because the wounds of the conflict run deep. In many cases, it is the act of serving the other that allows these feelings to change. Thus, service learning, a form of experiential education, has been found effective in bringing together those who have had difficulties and allowing them to see each other in a new light. Whether this involves one party directly serving the other, as in a community service project in which white youths clean and restore parks and playgrounds in a black neighborhood, or where both parties work together to serve a third community, the act of service opens the heart and allows new understanding and appreciation of the other. Reconciliation becomes easier on this foundation.
Conflict resolution in schools
Among children, conflicts occur many times simply because of their immaturity. They are still in the process of learning to develop their social skills, and learning to resolve conflicts is part of their growth process. Schools offer a situation where conflicts will be experienced and where conflict resolution skills can be learned. To assist students in their development of such skills schools need to set high expectations for their students' behavior, conveying the message that over-aggressive and antagonistic behaviors will not be tolerated.
At the same time, teachers need to give students choices so that they can work out their differences by themselves. Teachers can challenge students to analyze and suggest solutions to conflict situations. In this way children learn to take responsibility and go beyond the tendency simply to blame the other, expanding their responses to provocation beyond defensive reaction.
Students also need to learn how to communicate their feelings and needs constructively. Violence often results from inability to communicate effectively. Effective communication skills involve listening and comprehending, as well as expressing one's own viewpoint well. Students can practice articulating the other's viewpoint to foster empathy and mutual understanding.
Peer mediators are very helpful in resolving conflicts in school situations. Students can learn valuable lessons by acting as mediator and helping others to find solutions to conflicts. If peer mediation is not sufficient, teachers or school administrators may intervene to bring about resolution.
Conflict resolution in marriage
Marriage is a relationship that arouses the deepest emotions, both positive and negative. The intimacy of married life creates greater expectations and requires greater trust. If this trust is violated, then the feeling of hurt and betrayal can be far greater than with friends and acquaintances, and certainly strangers. The closeness of the marriage relationship makes both parties very vulnerable; violations of trust cut deep and can be very hard to forgive. When faced with such pain and stress, people may feel trapped, and rather than seeking a solution are tempted to escape. Divorce has become increasingly acceptable, providing an apparently easy escape from marital conflict.
Resolving marital conflict, however, is by no means impossible, although it requires hard work and investment on the part of both spouses. Marriage counselors (and family counselors when children are involved) are trained professionals who act as mediators to help a couple resolve their difficulties.
It may help to depersonalize the issues. Often, marital conflict has roots in differences between gender roles, experiences each had prior to the marriage (particularly if these involved sexual abuse or other domestic violence), or cultural differences. When people focus on their spouse's shortcomings they may put love on hold and wait for him or her to change to match their own expectation of a spouse—often an impossible task. By accepting the other as they are and concentrating on self-improvement, investment in the relationship becomes possible again and harmony may well result.
On a deeper level, husband and wife can learn to appreciate their differences rather than try to make their spouse more like themselves. This allows each party to more fully express their individuality, fulfilling their unique potential, and becoming the mature person that their spouse can love with increasing joy and satisfaction. Once they feel loved, people often are more open to change, and thus differences can be overcome with less antagonism.
Conflict resolution and religion
All religions teach peace and harmony, yet many of the worst wars and continuing conflicts today are between adherents of different faiths:
Religion is associated with man's attempts to plumb the depths of meaning in both himself and the universe. It has given rise to the most spacious products of his imagination, and it has been used to justify the most extreme cruelty of man to man. It can conjure up moods of sublime exaltation, and also images of dread and terror (Nottingham 1964).
In recent times, religion itself has come to be viewed as an agent of conflict rather than an aid to conflict resolution and the establishment of world peace. The Thirty Years War (1618 - 1648) diminished the population of Europe by close to 20 percent, and has been attributed primarily to conflict between Protestants and Catholics, at least in popular understanding. The "troubles" in Ireland spanning much of the twentieth century were also between the Catholic and Protestant groups. Terrorism in the twenty-first century, especially following the September 11, 2001 attack on the World Trade Center, has been seen as perpetrated by radical Islamic jihadi against those of other faiths.
The job of religion, though, is to empower human beings to change for the good. And, all religions have much in common, not the least of which is hope and desire for a world of goodness and peace (Wilson 1995). Thus, to exclude religion from the process of peace making is surely a loss to that process. But to be included in the peacemaking process, for example at the United Nations, contemporary religions must remove from popular opinion the assumption that strong religious belief is characterized by the likelihood if not inevitability of clash and conflict with anyone who does not believe in the same way.
To be successful, conflict resolution on the world scale must include the elements of religion and spirituality that exert such powerful influence in personal and world affairs. For this to be successful, religious leaders need to find within their own faith the strength to dialog, to respect the viewpoint of the other, and, in many cases, to reconcile and forgive.
Models of conflict and resolution
Within the Abrahamic faiths is found the model of conflict recounted in the story of the brothers Cain and Abel in the first human family. According to the account in the Book of Genesis, Cain's offering was rejected by God while his brother Abel's was accepted. Cain was angry—"his countenance fell"—as he experienced the feeling of lack of love. Acting on his jealousy with violence, Cain murdered his brother. This story provides a formula for analysis of the archetypical enmity of brothers.
In many conflicts these two relative positions are found: the "Abel position" in which one feels loved, valued, and respected when one's efforts are validated and appreciated; and the "Cain position" in which hard work goes unrewarded for no apparent reason while another receives all the praise, glory, love, and rewards that Cain feels are his due. The strong emotions experienced in these two positions are opposite: Abel feels pride, happiness, and satisfaction; Cain feels anger, resentment, and lack of love. When these powerful emotions are acted on the conflict escalates, often with tragic and irreversible consequences.
Also told in the scriptures, though, is the story of Jacob and Esau, who were also brothers and who experienced a situation in which Esau rightly felt wronged as his brother stole his birthright by tricking their father, Isaac. In this case, however, their mother, Rebekah helped Jacob escape before his brother could hurt him. Then, after Jacob labored many years under conditions in which he was tricked many times, he overcame his trials and became prosperous. Returning to his family, Jacob acted humbly instead of with arrogance, and was able to placate his brother by sending much of his wealth ahead as a peace offering. Finally, when they met, Jacob bowed low and told Esau that "to see your face is like seeing the face of God" (Genesis 33:10). Through such service and respect, valuing his brother, Esau was able to forgive and the brothers reconciled.
This story of Jacob and Esau stands as a model of conflict resolution. One party, through strength of character (in Jacob's case learned through 21 years of trials) is able to humble himself and serve the other, melting their heart so that forgiveness is possible, bringing mutual benefit. The act of serving the other is a key to opening their heart to allow a change of feeling from anger and resentment, restoring the feelings of brotherhood that existed originally.
Conflict resolution among cultures
Conflicts among nations or ethnic groups today are the result of accumulated historical burdens of crimes and mistreatment. These are passed on from generation to generation because of ignorance or unwillingness to take responsibility for the past. Fortunately, each new generation offers new possibilities; children are not doomed to repeat the mistakes of their parents' and ancestors' generations. In today's world where technology allows us to communicate with people from all over the world and the increasingly globalized society requires us to work together, young people have many opportunities to relate to others. When they learn to relate to all people with respect, fairness, tolerance, and love they will be able to resolve the past conflicts and live in harmony.
It is easier to reconcile when the other is seen as a fellow human being, also vulnerable, possibly suffering and in pain, or deprived of attention and with unmet needs. In twentieth-century South Africa the black population mounted ever increasing protests against the oppressive apartheid regime. The most respected black leader, Nelson Mandela, had been imprisoned by the white government for many years. President F.W. de Klerk knew that if he succumbed to pressure, both from the black population within his country and from around the world, and released him that the white government would inevitably fall. Against the advice of his fellow political leaders he released Mandela in 1990. After his release, Mandela successfully appealed to end the violence and brought about a peaceful transition to black rule and a multiracial society. While in prison, Mandela underwent a transformation. Although belligerent when he was first incarcerated, he had a change of heart, and instead of nurturing resentment and hatred against those that put him there he rather made great efforts to understand the white Afrikaners, learning their language in order to read their books, and listening to the stories of the prison officers. Mandela was thus able to forgive the enemies who jailed him, setting an example of forgiveness and reconciliation for his countrymen. His switch to a policy of reconciliation and negotiation helped lead the transition to multi-racial democracy in South Africa. Mandela served as president, with de Klerk as his vice-president. The efforts of both men in regarding the other as a fellow human being with the common goal of peace led to a successful resolution, for which they were jointly honored with the Nobel Peace Prize.
Martin Luther King, Jr. received a Nobel Peace Prize for his work toward peaceful resolution of racial segregation in the United States. He faced a culture in which he was judged as inferior because of the color of his skin, barred from drinking at the same water fountain, using the same toilets, sitting in the front of a bus, or eating in the same restaurants as white people. Although King and his fellow black Americans had every justification for resentment, anger, hatred, and the desire to act with violence against their oppressors, he taught non-violent civil disobedience as the way to achieve their goals: "We never get rid of an enemy by meeting hate with hate; we get rid of an enemy by getting rid of enmity." On receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 for his efforts, King said "Man must evolve for all human conflict a method which rejects revenge, aggression and retaliation. The foundation of such a method is love."
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
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All links retrieved April 14, 2020.
- Search for Common Ground - One of the world's largest non-government organizations dedicated to conflict resolution.
- The Five Steps to Conflict Resolution American Management Association.
- Conflict Resolution Skills Help Guide.
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Graphic design has become an indispensable part of our modern world, permeating various aspects of our daily lives. From eye-catching advertisements to captivating websites, and from stunning logos to visually appealing packaging, graphic design plays a crucial role in communicating messages, creating brand identities, and enhancing user experiences. Learning graphic design skills opens up a world of opportunities for creative expression, professional growth, and even potential entrepreneurship.
In this article, we will explore the importance of learning graphic design and delve into the benefits it brings. We will also discuss the fundamental concepts and skills necessary to excel in this field. Whether you’re a budding designer or someone looking to expand your skill set, this guide will provide you with valuable insights and resources to embark on your journey to becoming a proficient graphic designer.
So, let’s dive in and discover the world of graphic design!
Understanding Graphic Design
A. Definition and scope of Graphic Design:
Graphic design is the art and practice of planning, projecting, and creating visual content using various elements and principles to convey messages, ideas, or concepts. It involves combining typography, imagery, colors, and layout to produce visually appealing and effective designs. The scope of graphic design extends to various mediums, including print, web, branding, advertising, packaging, and more.
B. Elements and principles of Graphic Design:
To create impactful designs, understanding the key elements and principles of graphic design is essential. The elements include line, shape, color, texture, typography, and space, while the principles encompass balance, contrast, alignment, proximity, repetition, hierarchy, and more. Mastery of these elements and principles enables designers to create visually harmonious and engaging compositions.
C. Different types of Graphic Design:
Graphic design encompasses diverse specializations, each with its own unique requirements and challenges. Some common types of graphic design include:
- Print Design: Designing for physical media such as brochures, posters, magazines, and packaging.
- Web Design: Creating user-friendly interfaces and layouts for websites and digital platforms.
- Branding and Identity Design: Crafting visual identities, logos, and brand guidelines for businesses and organizations.
- Advertising Design: Developing persuasive and visually appealing advertisements across various media channels.
- User Interface (UI) Design: Designing intuitive and aesthetically pleasing interfaces for digital applications and software.
- Motion Graphics: Incorporating animation and visual effects to enhance visual storytelling.
Understanding the different types of graphic design allows individuals to specialize in specific areas or explore a range of design disciplines based on their interests and career goals.
By grasping the definition, scope, elements, principles, and various types of graphic design, aspiring designers can lay a solid foundation for their creative journey. In the next section, we will explore the essential skills required to excel in graphic design.
Essential Skills for Graphic Design
A. Creativity and Visual Thinking:
Graphic design is a creative field that requires originality and the ability to think visually. Developing creative thinking skills helps designers generate unique and innovative design concepts that stand out. It involves brainstorming ideas, exploring different approaches, and pushing the boundaries of traditional design.
B. Typography and Fonts:
Typography is a vital aspect of graphic design, as it involves selecting and arranging fonts to enhance readability and convey the desired message. Understanding typography principles, such as font pairing, hierarchy, and spacing, allows designers to create visually appealing and effective typographic compositions.
C. Color Theory and Usage:
Colors evoke emotions, convey meaning, and play a significant role in design. Knowledge of color theory, including color schemes, harmony, contrast, and the psychology of color, enables designers to create visually compelling and harmonious color palettes that resonate with the target audience.
D. Layout and Composition:
Effective layout and composition skills are crucial in graphic design. Designers must understand how to arrange elements, balance visual weight, establish hierarchy, and create a pleasing flow within a design. Mastery of layout principles ensures that designs are organized, engaging, and easy to navigate.
E. Image Editing and Manipulation:
Graphic designers often work with images, and proficiency in image editing software such as Adobe Photoshop is essential. Understanding concepts like image cropping, retouching, color correction, and image manipulation allows designers to enhance and transform visuals to suit their design objectives.
F. Software Proficiency:
Proficiency in design software is a fundamental skill for graphic designers. The industry-standard software includes Adobe Creative Suite, which comprises programs like Photoshop, Illustrator, InDesign, and others. Learning and mastering these tools enables designers to create professional-grade designs and collaborate seamlessly with clients and colleagues.
Developing these essential skills forms the foundation of graphic design expertise. In the next section, we will explore different learning approaches and resources for individuals interested in acquiring graphic design skills.
Learning Graphic Design
A. Formal Education vs. Self-learning:
There are multiple paths to learning graphic design. Some individuals prefer formal education, such as pursuing a degree or diploma in graphic design from a recognized institution. This route offers structured curriculum, mentorship, and opportunities for networking. On the other hand, self-learning allows individuals to learn at their own pace, explore specific areas of interest, and take advantage of the vast array of online resources available.
B. Online Resources and Courses for Graphic Design:
The internet offers a wealth of resources for learning graphic design. Numerous online platforms provide courses, tutorials, and guides tailored for beginners and advanced learners alike. Websites like Coursera, Udemy, and Skillshare offer a wide range of graphic design courses taught by industry professionals. Additionally, websites and blogs dedicated to graphic design provide valuable insights, tips, and inspiration.
C. Books and Publications for Beginners:
Books remain a valuable resource for learning graphic design concepts and principles. Publications like “The Non-Designer’s Design Book” by Robin Williams and “Thinking with Type” by Ellen Lupton provide foundational knowledge on design theory, typography, and layout. These resources offer in-depth explanations, visual examples, and exercises to reinforce learning.
D. Joining Design Communities and Forums:
Engaging with the design community can be immensely beneficial for learning graphic design. Joining online forums, social media groups, and design communities allows individuals to connect with other designers, seek feedback on their work, and participate in design challenges. Platforms like Behance and Dribbble provide opportunities to showcase and gain exposure for their design projects.
Whether one chooses formal education or self-learning, the key is to practice regularly, engage with the design community, and seek feedback to continuously improve. In the next section, we will discuss the tools and resources necessary to build a graphic design toolkit.
Note: It’s worth mentioning that throughout the learning process, it’s important to familiarize oneself with copyright laws and ethical practices in graphic design to ensure responsible and legal use of resources and materials.
Building a Graphic Design Toolkit
A. Choosing the Right Design Software:
Graphic design relies heavily on specialized software to bring ideas to life. Adobe Creative Suite, including Photoshop, Illustrator, and InDesign, is widely used in the industry. However, there are also alternative software options available, such as Affinity Designer and CorelDRAW. Selecting the appropriate design software based on personal preferences, budget, and specific design needs is crucial.
B. Understanding the Features and Capabilities of Design Tools:
Once the software is chosen, it’s important to familiarize oneself with its features and capabilities. Explore the tools, menus, and functions specific to the software and understand how they can be utilized in various design tasks. Online tutorials, user manuals, and practice exercises provided by the software creators can assist in mastering the tools.
C. Exploring Design Resources and Asset Libraries:
Design resources and asset libraries are valuable assets in a graphic designer’s toolkit. These include stock images, icon sets, vector illustrations, textures, and more. Websites like Shutterstock, Adobe Stock, and Freepik provide a wide range of resources that can be incorporated into designs, saving time and enhancing visual quality.
D. Developing a Personal Design Style:
Aspiring graphic designers should strive to develop their unique design style. Experiment with different techniques, explore various design genres, and draw inspiration from diverse sources. Building a distinct visual identity and style helps designers stand out and develop a recognizable portfolio.
By carefully selecting design software, understanding its features, utilizing design resources, and developing a personal style, individuals can build a robust graphic design toolkit. In the next section, we will delve into mastering graphic design techniques across different design disciplines.
Note: While investing in design tools and resources is essential, it’s important to be mindful of budget constraints and consider free or affordable alternatives when starting out.
Mastering Graphic Design Techniques
A. Logo Design and Branding:
Logo design and branding are essential aspects of graphic design. Mastering the art of creating memorable and effective logos involves understanding the principles of simplicity, versatility, and brand identity. Additionally, delving into branding concepts like color psychology, typography choices, and brand consistency helps designers create cohesive visual identities for businesses and organizations.
B. Layout Design for Print and Digital Media:
Proficient layout design skills are vital for creating visually appealing compositions in both print and digital media. Understanding grid systems, visual hierarchy, whitespace utilization, and balancing text and imagery allows designers to create engaging and well-structured layouts for brochures, magazines, websites, and more.
C. Web Design and User Interface (UI) Principles:
With the increasing importance of the digital landscape, mastering web design and UI principles is crucial. Designers need to focus on creating user-friendly interfaces, ensuring intuitive navigation, optimizing visual hierarchy, and understanding responsive design principles. Acquiring skills in HTML, CSS, and UI design tools like Sketch or Figma can enhance the ability to create functional and visually appealing websites and digital experiences.
D. Poster and Advertising Design:
Poster and advertising design require the ability to grab attention and convey a message effectively. Mastering techniques like impactful typography, strategic use of color and imagery, and understanding the target audience’s preferences helps designers create compelling posters and advertisements that communicate effectively.
E. Packaging Design:
Packaging design is a specialized field that requires a deep understanding of materials, structural design, and visual aesthetics. Designers must consider factors such as product protection, shelf appeal, and brand consistency when creating packaging solutions. Mastery of techniques like die-cutting, folding, and visual storytelling ensures packaging designs that captivate consumers.
F. Infographic and Data Visualization Design:
In an era of information overload, the ability to present data and complex information in a visually engaging and understandable way is highly valuable. Mastering infographic and data visualization techniques involves creating visually appealing graphics, organizing data effectively, and utilizing visual hierarchy and storytelling techniques to communicate information clearly.
By honing skills in logo design, layout design, web design, poster and advertising design, packaging design, and infographic design, graphic designers can expand their versatility and cater to a variety of design projects. In the next section, we will explore the application of graphic design in real-world scenarios.
Applying Graphic Design in Real-world Scenarios
A. Freelance Graphic Design Opportunities:
Freelancing offers graphic designers the flexibility to work on a variety of projects for diverse clients. Building a strong portfolio, networking, and leveraging online platforms like Upwork, Freelancer, or Fiverr can help designers find freelance opportunities. Collaborating with clients, understanding their requirements, and delivering high-quality designs within deadlines are essential for success in freelance graphic design.
B. Working in a Design Agency or Studio:
Joining a design agency or studio provides designers with the opportunity to work on larger projects, collaborate with a team, and gain valuable industry experience. Working under creative directors or senior designers can offer mentorship and exposure to diverse design challenges. Design agencies often work with clients from various industries, allowing designers to gain expertise in specific niches.
C. Collaboration with Other Professionals:
Graphic design often involves collaboration with professionals from different fields, such as writers, marketers, photographers, and developers. Effective communication, teamwork, and understanding the goals and requirements of other stakeholders are crucial for successful collaborations. Collaborating with others can lead to the creation of cohesive and comprehensive design solutions.
D. Designing for Specific Industries or Niches:
Graphic designers can specialize in designing for specific industries or niches. For example, designing for the fashion industry may require a keen eye for aesthetics and an understanding of current trends, while designing for the healthcare sector may demand clarity, accessibility, and sensitivity to the target audience. Specializing in specific industries allows designers to become experts in their chosen field and cater to the unique design needs of that industry.
Applying graphic design in real-world scenarios requires a combination of technical skills, creativity, effective communication, and adaptability. Whether working as a freelancer, in a design agency, or collaborating with professionals, graphic designers play a crucial role in visual communication and problem-solving. In the next section, we will explore the importance of building a portfolio to showcase one’s skills and attract clients or employers.
Note: It’s important to respect client confidentiality and adhere to intellectual property rights when showcasing work in a portfolio. Seek permission from clients or anonymize sensitive information when necessary.
Building a Portfolio
A. Showcasing a Range of Work:
A well-rounded portfolio should demonstrate a variety of design projects that highlight different skills and styles. Include samples of logo designs, branding projects, print layouts, web designs, and any other relevant work. Showcase a diverse range of projects to showcase versatility and expertise across various design disciplines.
B. Highlighting Strong and Successful Projects:
Within the portfolio, emphasize the strongest and most successful design projects. Choose projects that effectively showcase your skills, creativity, problem-solving abilities, and understanding of client requirements. Include before-and-after examples to demonstrate your design process and the impact of your work.
C. Organizing and Presenting Work Professionally:
Present your portfolio in a clean, organized, and visually appealing manner. Consider using a digital portfolio platform or website to showcase your work professionally. Use clear project titles, descriptions, and high-quality images to enhance the presentation of your work. Pay attention to the overall visual aesthetics and user experience of your portfolio.
D. Including Client Testimonials and Recommendations:
Client testimonials and recommendations can add credibility and build trust with potential clients or employers. Include positive feedback from satisfied clients to demonstrate your professionalism, communication skills, and ability to deliver exceptional design solutions. Seek permission from clients to use their testimonials in your portfolio.
E. Updating and Evolving the Portfolio:
A portfolio should be a dynamic and evolving representation of your skills and growth as a designer. Continuously update your portfolio with new and improved projects to reflect your latest work. Remove outdated or weaker projects to maintain a high standard of quality. Regularly evaluate and refine your portfolio to ensure it accurately represents your abilities.
F. Seeking Feedback and Critique:
Feedback from peers, mentors, or industry professionals can provide valuable insights and help improve your portfolio. Seek constructive criticism to identify areas for improvement and make necessary adjustments to strengthen your portfolio. Join design communities or seek feedback from fellow designers to gain different perspectives.
Building a strong portfolio is essential for showcasing your abilities, attracting clients or employers, and advancing your graphic design career. By presenting a range of work, organizing it professionally, incorporating client testimonials, and continuously updating and seeking feedback, your portfolio becomes a powerful tool to demonstrate your skills and make a lasting impression.
In conclusion, graphic design offers immense opportunities for creativity, professional growth, and impact. By understanding the fundamentals of graphic design, acquiring essential skills, building a design toolkit, mastering design techniques, and applying graphic design in real-world scenarios, individuals can embark on a fulfilling and successful journey in the dynamic field of graphic design.
Continuous Learning and Growth in Graphic Design
A. Embrace Lifelong Learning:
Graphic design is a constantly evolving field, and staying updated with the latest trends, techniques, and technologies is crucial for professional growth. Embrace a mindset of lifelong learning and commit to continuous improvement. Stay curious, explore new design trends, attend workshops or conferences, and enroll in advanced courses to expand your skills and knowledge.
B. Follow Industry Influencers and Trends:
Stay connected with the graphic design community by following industry influencers, design blogs, and social media accounts. Engage in discussions, share ideas, and stay informed about emerging trends, tools, and design practices. Participate in design challenges or competitions to push your creative boundaries and gain exposure.
C. Seek Mentorship and Feedback:
Seek mentorship from experienced designers or industry professionals who can provide guidance, insights, and constructive feedback on your work. Their expertise can help you identify areas for improvement and provide valuable career advice. Actively seek feedback from clients, colleagues, and peers to refine your design skills and enhance your work.
D. Expand Your Skill Set:
Continuously expand your skill set by exploring new areas of graphic design. Learn motion graphics, UX/UI design, 3D modeling, or coding to diversify your abilities and open doors to new opportunities. Acquiring complementary skills can make you a more versatile and valuable designer.
E. Collaborate and Network:
Collaborating with other designers and professionals from related fields can broaden your perspective and foster creative growth. Attend industry events, join design organizations, or participate in online forums to connect with like-minded individuals. Networking can lead to valuable collaborations, referrals, and career advancement opportunities.
F. Personal Projects and Experimentation:
Dedicate time to personal projects and experimentation. Use these opportunities to explore new design styles, techniques, or mediums without the constraints of client briefs. Personal projects allow you to express your creativity, challenge yourself, and showcase your unique design approach.
G. Stay Inspired and Reflect:
Seek inspiration beyond the design world. Explore art, photography, architecture, nature, and other creative disciplines to fuel your creativity. Take time to reflect on your design journey, analyze your growth, and set goals for further development. Regularly review your portfolio and update it with your best and most recent work.
Remember that growth in graphic design is a continuous process. Embrace a growth mindset, be open to feedback, and actively seek opportunities to learn and expand your skills. By staying current, seeking mentorship, collaborating with others, and nurturing your creativity, you can thrive in the ever-evolving world of graphic design.
In conclusion, graphic design is a dynamic and rewarding field that offers endless opportunities for learning, growth, and creative expression. With dedication, passion, and a commitment to continuous improvement, you can embark on a fulfilling and successful journey as a graphic designer.
Graphic design is a captivating field that offers endless possibilities for creativity and professional growth. Throughout this article, we explored the importance of understanding graphic design, the essential skills required, and various avenues for learning the craft. We discussed the significance of building a graphic design toolkit, mastering different design techniques, and applying graphic design in real-world scenarios.
Furthermore, we emphasized the significance of building a strong portfolio to showcase one’s skills and attract potential clients or employers. We also highlighted the importance of continuous learning and growth in graphic design, encouraging individuals to embrace lifelong learning, follow industry influencers and trends, seek mentorship and feedback, expand their skill set, collaborate, and stay inspired.
Graphic design is an ever-evolving field, and by staying curious, adapting to new technologies and trends, and continuously refining our skills, we can thrive as designers. With dedication, passion, and a commitment to improvement, one can embark on a fulfilling and successful journey in the dynamic world of graphic design.
So, whether you are just starting your graphic design journey or seeking to enhance your existing skills, remember to embrace creativity, remain open to learning, and never stop pushing the boundaries of your own artistic expression. The possibilities are endless, and with each design project, you have the opportunity to make a lasting impact through the power of visual communication.
So go forth, unleash your creativity, and make your mark in the exciting world of graphic design!