Strategies and Definitions of 3D Animation
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Published: Mon, 26 Feb 2018
2.1 Definition of Animation
2.1.1 A Technical Definition of Animation
Various definitions of animation exist that cover technical, physiological, through to philosophical aspects. In a technical sense, Myers (1999, [Online]) describes animation, the form that we have become familiar with, as a series of drawings that are linked together and photographed. ‘The drawings have been slightly changed between individualized frames so when they are played back in rapid succession there appears to be seamless movement within the drawings'(Myers 1999, [Online]).
Jonsson (1978, p. 2) also describes animation in a technical sense:
A strip of movie film consists of still pictures – called frames – each one slightly different from the one preceding it. When the film is projected and run continuously these still pictures give an illusion of movement (Jonsson 1978, p. 2).
Morrison (1994, p. 5) simply defines, animation as ‘the illusion of movement’:
This illusion of movement can be achieved by quickly displaying a series of images that show slight incremental changes in one of the depicted objects. If you play back these images fast enough, the eye will perceive movement (Morrison 1994, p. 5).
It is safe for one to conclude that animation and motion picture in general, when viewed by a human is an illusion, the rapid succession of ordered singular frames tricking the viewers eye into perceiving there is an apparent seamless movement. This technical definition of animation is closely linked to the history and evolution of motion picture, also to human physiology and how the eye and the brain perceive movement.
2.1.2 The Beginnings of the Motion Picture
‘Animation cannot be achieved without first understanding a fundamental principle of the human eye: the persistence of vision'(James 2002, [Online]). Animation literature shows that the appreciation of this principle is not only linked with the history of animation and motion picture but much earlier, beginning long ago in our past.
‘Since the beginnings of time, human beings have tried to capture a sense of motion in their art'(James 2002, [Online]). Williams (2001) points out several examples; a 35,000 year old pre-historic cave painting of a boar in Northern Spain ‘displaying four pairs of legs to show motion'(Williams 2001, p. 11). Egyptian temple paintings of figures that ‘progressively changed position'(Williams 2001, p. 12). Ancient Greek ‘decorated pots with figures in successive stages of action. Spinning the pot would create a sense of motion'(Williams 2001, p. 12). Other examples are cave and wall paintings, medieval tapestries, scrolls, and paintings which all ‘tell continuous stories’and some of which attempt to illustrate ‘repetitive motions'(James 2002, [Online]).
Theories that were born in the ancient world by classical scholars were to prove very important in the genesis of animation, as The Private Lessons Channel (2002, [Online]) points out. It identifies historical figures such as the Greek Aristotle (384-322 BC), who ‘observed light and motion after effects’, dating back to 340 BC (The Private Lessons Channel 2002, [Online]).
The Private Lessons Channel (2002, [Online]) then points out that later, in 130 AD, Greek astronomer and geographer Ptolemy (100-178 AD) discovered the aforementioned persistence of vision. In elaborating a point made by Thomas (1964, p. 8), one can see how these ancient scholars came to such discoveries; Imagine a torch lighted with fire, being whisked around in a circular motion in the darkness, the eye seeing a continuous unbroken circle of light. ‘This type of phenomenon must have been known to the ancients'(Thomas 1964, p. 8).
2.1.3 A Physiological Definition of Animation – The Persistence of Vision
While there is evidence of a fascination with the visual documentation of movement and narrative in prehistoric and classical periods, it was not until these notions were later revisited by 19th century inventors, that modern animation principles emerged. One of these inventors was the Frenchman Peter Mark Roget, also the author of the famous Roget’s Thesaurus, who in the 1820’s rediscovered ‘the vital principle, the persistence of vision'(Williams 2001, p. 13).
Williams (2001, p. 13) explains the persistence of vision on the following way:
This principle rests on the fact that that our eyes temporarily retain the image of anything they’ve just seen. If this wasn’t so, we would never get the illusion of an unbroken connection in a series of images, and neither movies nor animation would be possible. Many people don’t realise the movies don’t actually move, and that they are still images that appear to move when they are projected in a series (Williams 2001, p. 13).
Jonsson (1978, p. 2) gives a more physiologically oriented explanation:
What makes this possible is a quality of our brain called persistence of vision – that is; although the frame we are viewing at any given moment is in fact still, the image burns itself onto our retina, so that it remains with us for a small fraction of time – while we view the next one and if the difference seems to be a reasonable follow-on, an illusion is created (Jonsson 1978, p. 2).
Concluding that technical and physiological aspects work hand-in-hand in motion picture, Jonsson (1978, p. 2) explains that for the eye to record an apparent continuous seamless movement, a certain frequency of frames per second needs to be displayed. Morrison (1994, p. 5) states that ‘human visual acuity is low enough that only 12-15 different pictures (or frames) need to be displayed per second to produce the illusion of movement’.
The Private Lessons Channel (2002, [Online]) states that ‘the number of frames per second, or fps, directly correlates to how smooth the movement appears’. ‘If the frame rate is too slow, the motion will look awkward and jerky. If the frame rate is too high the motion will blur'(The Private Lessons Channel 2002, [Online]). For the eye to record a normal, continuous movement that is not too fast, and not too slow there needs to be a frequency of around 24 to 30 fps displayed by a projector. Jonsson (1978, p. 2), states that this is the sole principle by which both live-action and animated films work. 24 fps is used in cinema, 25 fps is used for PAL television (Europe and Australia), and 30 fps is used for NTSC television (America and Japan).
In relation to the illusion of movement and persistence of vision, both Wells (1998 p. 10) and Furniss (1998 p. 5) portrays the view of well-known Scottish-born animation identity Norman McClaren:
Animation is not the art of drawings that move, but rather the art of movements that are drawn. What happens between each frame is more important than what happens on each frame; Animation is therefore the art of manipulating the invisible interstices that lie between the frames (McClaren qtd. in Furniss 1998 p. 5).
James (2002, [Online]) states that Roget demonstrated the persistence of vision principle in his invention, the thaumatrope. James (2002, [Online]) and Williams (2001, p. 13), describe it as a disc held between two pieces of string, which was attached to both of the disc edges. Each flat side of the disc had different images; one a bird, the other an empty birdcage. Twirling of the disc with the pulling of the string results in the bird appearing to be in the cage. ‘This proved that the eye retains images when it is exposed to a series of pictures, one at a time'(James 2002, [Online]). The Private Lessons Channel (2002, [Online]) notes that two other inventors are credited with this invention, the Frenchman Dr. John Ayrton, and Englishman Dr. Fitton, depending on the source.
2.1.4 The Early Evolution of the Motion Picture
Crucial to the evolution of Animation and indeed Motion Picture were other related inventions. James (2002, [Online]) describes other optical devices of a similar nature to the thaumatrope, such as the phenakistoscopeinvented in 1826 by Joseph Plateau, and the zoetropeinvented in 1860 by Pierre Desvignes. Williams (2001, p. 14) mentions another similar invention, the praxinoscope, invented by the Frenchman Emile Reynaud in 1877.
Clark (1979, p. 8) states that these contraptions ‘relied for their effect on either an endless paper band or a cardboard disc bearing series of pictures drawn in progressive stages of an action’. ‘Viewed intermittently through slots or reflected in mirrors the drawings came to life and appeared to move'(Clark 1979, p. 8). Another invention included the flipbook, or kineograph pad, first appearing in 1868.
Another important invention relevant to Motion Picture was photography. The first photographs were taken ‘in the late 1820’s by a Frenchman, Nicéphore Niépce'(Thomas 1964, p. 6). In the 1870’s ‘Sir Charles Wheatstone’s moving picture stereoviewer’was created to view a series of actual photographs in ordered succession (Thomas 1964, p. 16).
Thomas (1964, p. 18) points out that the first to capture and record a sequence of images, was the English/American Eadweard J. Muybridge, where he famously captured a horse and carriage trotting. He then played the captured images back in a viewing device, known as the zoopraxiscope.
Another important revolution in the evolution of the Motion Picture was that of nitrate celluloid film invented by H.W. Goodwin in 1887. Nitrate celluloid film was ‘a chemical combination of gun cotton and gum camphor'(McLaughlin 2001, [Online]). Thomas (1964, p. 29) acknowledges the birth of Cinema to the famous American inventor Thomas A. Edison, and the Scot William Kennedy Laurie Dickson. In 1892 Edison and Dickson succeeded ‘in building a camera capable of taking moving pictures at a rate of forty-six per second on Eastman celluloid film'(Thomas 1964, p. 29). Edison’s and Dickson’s viewing device, influenced by Austrian Ottomar Anschütz, was named the kinetoscope. Thomas (1964, p. 29) describes it as ‘a viewing cabinet by means of which only one person could view a film at a time’. As the images were not projected, the viewer had to use a small eyepiece to look into the cabinet in order to see the moving images.
Instigated and influenced by the work Edison and Dickson, other inventors set about evolving the kinetoscoperesulting in viewing devices with the ability to project images. The most well-known of these inventors were the Lumière brothers, who in 1895 ‘designed a camera and projector which they call the cinématographe'(Thomas 1964, p. 30). The Lumière brothers ‘became the first to give a public exhibition of moving pictures'(Thomas 1964, p. 30), which they held on the 28th of December 1895, at the Grand Café in Paris. It is interesting to note that Estonian animator Priit Pärn in his surrealist-inspired short film 1895, pays tribute to the Lumière brothers, and invention of the cinématographe. Thomas (1964, p. 31), concludes that ‘the interest shown by the public in these first cinema shows gave rise to a rapid growth in a new industry’. In time, with the advent and advancement of various technologies and techniques, the first true animated films were born.
2.1.5 A Philosophical Definition and Discussion of Animation
‘Animation is the art of bringing something to life. How it’s brought to life can be done any number of different ways’, simply states Ludwin (1998, [Online]). Bringing something to life is indeed a very important theme in animation. To better understand the definition of animation, it is useful to find out the original term from which the word animation derives. Wells (1998, p. 10) notes that animation derives from the latin word ‘animare’, which means ‘to give life to’, and that the animated film ‘largely means the artificial creation of the illusion of movement in inanimate lines and forms’. The famous Zagreb School of Croatia relates the definition of to animate back to this original meaning. ‘They suggest, that to animate is “to give life and soul to a design, not through the copying but through the transformation of reality”‘(Wells 1998, p. 10). ‘When you’re animating and moving an object, you’re instilling life in something'(Lubin 2003).
This leads us onto animator’s philosophies, ideologies and animation aesthetics. There are many differences in philosophy among animators and opinion of what the essence of animation actually is. One interesting example illustrating the philosophical differences of opinion is with respect to the extent of which animation should reflect real-life. For instance, the copying of real-life movements using motion capture techniques, are not favoured by all animators. Stefan Marjoram of the Aardman studio notes that motion capture is alright in sports games, but it doesn’t necessarily make you a good animator. ‘Animation’s not about copying real life, after all – a lot of people use motion capture for that. For me animation is about exaggerating real life'(Ricketts 2002, p. 51). Lubin (2003) agrees:
That’s absolutely right. I mean if you’re doing a game and you want to get Tiger Woods’swing, fine. But Motion Capture which is only about animating humanoid animation, why bother? Just get real actors (Lubin 2003).
When asked the question on what the public perception of Animation is, Tom Lubin in an interview on 1 April 2003 stated that ‘it depends on who you ask’and ‘it depends on the show’. Some animation would be dismissed as stuff for ‘something to baby-sit’little kids with, whilst other animation has a broader market encompassing all age groups. I think the public has a very broad view of it depending on their interests'(Lubin 2003). Lubin (2003) also pointed out that ‘animation has been successful for a really long time’, and he stated that it was telling that the Academy Awards now, in the last few years, actually gives an Oscar for the best feature in animation. This has ‘to do with the public’s perception of animation as a viable stand alone'(Lubin 2003).
Animation ‘at its most creative, is a truly beautiful artform'(White 1988, p. 9). The term art and its related words feature heavily in many animation definitions and philosophies originating from the birth of modern animation. Winsor McCay the first American animator of the early 1900’s, who many have dubbed the father of the animated cartoon, once stated:
Animation should be an art…what you fellows have done with it is making it into a trade…not an art, but a trade…bad luck (Crandol 1999, [Online]).
Crandol (1999, [Online]) points out that McCay’s warning and prediction inevitably became true. Indeed a studio production system with ‘a streamlined, assembly-line process’was formed out of the necessity to satisfy time, expense and demand factors (Crandol 1999, [Online]).
Wells (1998) also mentions several times that the domination and ‘the proliferation of mass-produced cel animation'(p. 35), such as that produced in America and Japan, ‘has led to animation being understood in a limited way’by society (p. 24). Wells (1998, p. 35) elaborates stating that:
The amount of cheaply produced, highly industrialised cel animation made in the USA and Japan had colonised television schedules, and perhaps, more importantly, the imaginations of viewers (Wells 1998, p. 35).
Crandol (1999, [Online]) also points out that the ‘collective nature of the studio may prevent the artists from receiving the amount of praise an artist working solo garners’. Wells (1998, p. 7) makes the point that this type of animation has somewhat diminished animation in the eyes of society as a legitimate artform:
Animation has been trivialised and ignored despite its radical tendencies and self-evident artistic achievements at the technical and aesthetic level. Ironically, the dominance of the cartoon(i.e. traditional ‘cel’animation in the style of Disney or Warner Brothers, which is predicated on painting forms and figures directly onto sheets of celluloid which are then photographed) has unfortunately misrepresented and the animated film because it art seems invisible or, more precisely, is taken for granted by its viewers. The cartoon seems part of an easily dismissed popular culture; ‘animation’, as a term, at least carries with it an aspiration for recognition as an art and, indeed the popular evaluation of other animated forms (Wells 1998, p. 7).
Although there appears to be a domination of the of American and Japanese style of animation and its entertainment premise as suggested, affecting the common perception of animation, large difference in styles and approaches have occurred and do exist. In an interview with an animation Domain Expert on 1 May 2003, he made the point that European animation, due to the many various nations and peoples, have contributed a large number of diverse artistic visual styles, contrasting to the American or Japanese styles. He also stated that many animated works are not always of the purely entertainment premise. One example he stated was in the communist period of Eastern Europe where animation was state controlled, focusing on allegorical social comment, the animators slipping in their own secret messages in the films past the censors.
Even with the domination of industrialised mass-produced animation, and the influences it has on the audience, Crandol (1999, [Online]) remarks that there have been many animators ‘careful not to let business logistics overwhelm the artistic potential of the medium’. Crandol (1999, [Online]) concludes that as long as are creative people working, animation ‘will continue to be the best of both worlds: a trade and an art’.
Tom Lubin, Head of Training at FTI (Film &Television Institute), in an interview on 1 April 2003, in response to the question of animation being an art responded ‘I think it is. Well you need art skills to do it. But actually that not as important to me as storytelling. What animation is, is storytelling’. Storytelling and its importance to Animation will be specifically discussed and investigated in Chapter 3: The Principles of Storytelling.
‘To give life to’was a major inspirational theme in the animation process I went through, so to was the art of animation, as I have personally and purposefully embraced it when conducting the creative animation process. This will be touched upon in part 2 of the dissertation; The Self-Reflective Case Study.
2.2 The Animation Process
The Angus &Robertson Dictionary and Thesaurus (1992, p. 788) defines the word process as ‘a series of actions which produce a change or development’, and ‘a method of doing or producing something’. From these meanings the animation process can be described as what I am researching and undertaking in my Honours project; the pattern of methods an animator undertakes from start to finish in the creation of an animated work, or animation.
Animation and the animation process, like many other disciplines, have undergone a paradigm shift due to technological advancements. Indeed technology has been the catalyst for many paradigm shifts as Utz (1993, p. 16) points out. Due to the ever-increasing accessibility and affordability of various technologies, an animator’s methods, actions and options have changed when implementing the animation process. See Appendix 2: Paradigm Shift in the Animation Process, for a more detailed discussion of this subject.
Referring to these changes in the animation process, animator George Griffin believes the role of the animator in an artistic sense has changed very little:
Despite the enormous upheavals in technology, the independent animator’s artistic role remains essentially the same: to draw time, to construct a model of ideas and emotions, using any means available (Griffin qtd. in Laybourne 1998, p. xi).
2.3 Types of Animation
For a description of the various types of animation such as traditional 2D animation, stop-motion animation and computer generated 3D animation, please refer to Appendix 2: Paradigm Shift in the Animation Process.
Through investigating the various definitions of animation it can be seen that they cover and include many different aspects. The technical definition of animation is closely linked to the history and evolution of motion picture, and this is turn is linked to the understanding of human physiology and how the eye and the brain perceive movement. The different philosophical definitions and viewpoints animators hold also cover many different aspects, varying immensely.
This chapter directly relates to the practical component of the Honours project, as described in part 2 of the dissertation; The Self-Reflective Case Study. This is due to the fact that when creating the 3D animated pilot and series concept, I related to and strongly agreed with various animation philosophies that were discussed in this chapter e.g. ‘to give life to’, as mentioned beforehand. On some occasions these philosophies affected and influenced the way that I would conduct my own practical animation process. A brief investigation on society’s perception of animation subject matter was also relevant for the target audience of the series concept.
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A passion for sharing the gift of literacy with young children is the reason many professionals enter early childhood or elementary education. No matter what ages you teach, you know a strong background in early literacy helps children succeed. Now-iconic research backs this up. Studies highlight the integral relationship between reading proficiently before third grade and high school graduation, college and career success, and avoidance of poverty.
What exactly should teachers and schools do to support their youngest learners in developing an early literacy foundation? We’ve compiled this mega-list of tips and resources from recent research, experts in the field, and fantastic teachers so that you can get straight to incorporating them into your schools and classrooms to benefit your students.
1. Invite student talk with engaging questions.
Source: The Measured Mom
Oral language is a key component of early literacy. Consider starting the year with daily “Would you rather…” questions. They are great for modeling how to support answers with reasoning. Later you can move onto other open-ended questions to keep the conversation flowing. Provide sentence frames for ELL students to help formulate answers.
2. Up your participation opportunities.
Source: Kindergarten Smarts
Why give only a few students the chance to talk when everyone can? Even young students can share ideas in pairs effectively if you teach them how. We love this rundown from Kindergarten Smarts of how to teach kindergarteners to partner share (and the free food-themed partner icons!)
3. Make time for storytelling.
Humans have been sharing stories for centuries. Tell oral stories—true, made up, or retold—to engage students in a different way than reading aloud. Coaching children to tell their own stories supports language development, reading comprehension, and narrative writing. Practicing the vocabulary and literary language structures of storytelling is particularly helpful for ELL students. This “Mini Crash-Course on Oral Storytelling” from Two Writing Teachers has tons of tips for getting started.
4. Focus on building knowledge along with skills.
Literacy expert Catherine Snow emphasizes building children’s background knowledge in addition to focusing on finite skills like letter recognition and phonological awareness. “Your skills as a reader are a product of all of the accumulated knowledge of your lifetime,” Snow urges. So, don’t miss that opportunity to welcome a guest speaker, talk about a cool insect found on the playground, or drop everything to observe a weather event. Children will draw on these experiences later to understand what they read.
5. Plan interactive read alouds.
SOURCE: Our Elementary Lives
Help students get the most out of your read alouds by planning comments and questions ahead of time. These color-coded, pre-printed sticky notes from Our Elementary Lives give us serious teacher envy!
6. Read it again!
Of course, you have a million books you want to share with students, but slowing down to read some of them a second (or third, or fourth) time is worth it. Repeated read alouds have so many benefits, like supporting vocabulary growth, guiding children towards deeper comprehension, and scaffolding content for diverse learners.
7. Honor pre-readers’ interactions with books.
Source: The Daily Cafe
Coaching kids to interact with books before they can read conventionally is an early childhood classroom game changer. One place to start: Teach students “The Three Ways to Read a Book” from the popular Daily 5 model.
8. Invite students into the club right from the start.
Calling students “readers” and “writers” from Day 1 makes a big impression. Make it a point to specifically compliment the emergent reading and writing behaviors you observe. This will encourage students to make them habits.
9. Set your classroom library up for success.
It’s no secret that the classroom library is a key feature of a literacy-focused classroom; this is true even when your students can’t read yet. Encourage kids to take ownership of the space (and the books in it) with the ideas in this blog post from the Center for the Collaborative Classroom. Don’t forget to add a super-cute reading nook for enjoying all those titles.
10. Use a variety of instructional texts.
When young students are ready to attend to print in their own books, different types of texts encourage different types of skill-building. Patterned books, rhyming books, stories and nonfiction all have merit. Do you (or does your reading program) love the teaching power of decodable texts? Expert Tim Shanahan says use them if you find them useful, but don’t put all your eggs in the same /b/ /a/ /s/ /k/ /e/ /t/.
11. Prioritize the vocabulary words you teach.
Research suggests that pausing to offer a quick, kid-friendly definition of a word in context is one of the best ways to teach children new words. Intentionally choosing a few words to focus on at a time is key, so plan ahead to hone in on the most useful words for your students.
12. Review vocabulary words in playful and memorable ways.
Source: My Heart Belongs in First
Young students love to learn new words, but they do need engaging review to make them stick. Strategies should be tailored to their pre-reading status. Act out words, draw them, or play brainstorming games to generate examples and non-examples. Build excitement around using words by keeping a tally chart or making a special sound (Ding!) when someone uses a target word spontaneously. Encourage students to create touchstone memories by pairing words with the books that introduced them.
13. Encourage “word consciousness.”
No matter how excellent your vocabulary teaching, you could never teach students every single word they need to know. Up students’ attention to words by making using and exclaiming over sophisticated words part of your classroom culture. We love the ideas in this article for incorporating precise words into your daily routines. Why call the weather “hot” when it can be “sweltering?!”
14. Incorporate literacy across the curriculum.
Help literacy learning happen all day. Share read alouds that weave literacy learning into math, science, and social studies. Tasks like writing a sentence about a story problem or generating vocabulary words to describe an object in science help keep reading, writing, and speaking goals in mind across all lessons.
15. Get down to the sound level.
Source: A Teachable Teacher
Early childhood teachers love rhyming and alliteration activities, and why not? They’re tons of fun! Don’t let your phonological awareness instruction stop there, though. Research hails a focus on segmenting, blending and manipulating individual sounds as better tickets to reading success. Keep yourself “on task” with these handy “Phonemic Awareness Teacher Task Cards” from A Teachable Teacher.
16. Be strategic when teaching the alphabet.
Kids have to learn the letters and sounds of the alphabet. Best case scenario: they learn them quickly so they can use them in reading and writing. Researchers recommend ditching a traditional “Letter of the Week” approach. Instead, introduce a new letter each day in a strategic sequence with lots of review. This Reading Mama’s “Teaching the Alphabet” series has tons of research-inspired tips and ideas.
17. “Capitalize” on students’ names.
We have no trouble believing in what researchers have dubbed the “own-name effect”—the idea that children have a leg up when learning the letters in their own names, especially the first one. (Experience tells us that this works for names of classmates, too.) Display students’ names around the classroom wherever possible and refer to them often. Creating multi-use name materials like these name kits is worth the time, too.
18. Provide explicit and systematic phonics instruction.
The research just keeps stacking up that indicates it’s a key piece of successful reading instruction for kids. Keep phonics engaging with hands-on activities.
19. Make time for handwriting!
Source: Mrs. Wills’ Kindergarten
It feels old-school to spend precious teaching minutes on handwriting, but brain research (and seasoned teachers!) tell us it’s critical. Prepare preschoolers for writing with hands-on activities. For older students, check out this “Minute to Win It” practice routine from Mrs. Wills’ Kindergarten. (Her awesome punch card system for keeping track of student mastery is genius, too.)
20. Engage students in the entire writing process.
Show students the end goal of writing—to share their thoughts with others—and give them a map for getting there. Whether you use a published writing curriculum or plan your own lessons, your work should include guiding students through generating ideas, planning, writing, revising and publishing writing in different genres. Check out this post from Teach to Inspire for lesson ideas across the writing process.
21. Encourage invented spelling.
Students attempts at spelling words are amazing (and sometimes hilarious) windows into their letter-sound knowledge. Invented spelling gives kids essential practice in breaking words down into sounds and rebuilding them on paper. Plus, it helps kids share their ideas in writing without being dependent on an adult to write.
22. Build good habits from the start.
Balance encouraging students to take risks with nipping poor habits in the bud. If you teach Nico to start “N” at the top every time he writes his name, or teach a student who loves writing dialogue that it’s “said,” not “sed,” you won’t need to steal time from other learning to correct ingrained mistakes later. Insist that kids read for meaning and attend carefully to print from the start. This avoids having to address rushed or error-prone reading as students progress.
23. Use tech wisely.
If you use literacy-related apps and games with students, make sure you pair them with rich conversation about the concepts they address. This is crucial to make sure virtual tasks serve the intended purpose. Or, use technology to teach students to document their hands-on learning with an app like Seesaw.
24. Deliver mini-lessons for mini people.
Present direct literacy instruction in small bites. Learn about the structure of a mini-lesson, practice it, and use it again and again across all areas of literacy.
25. Use multisensory teaching strategies.
Multisensory teaching gives kids lots of opportunities to take in information and make connections. It’s a perfect match for early learners who, by design, thrive when they can see, touch, and manipulate learning materials.
26. Protect opportunities for literacy learning through play.
The disappointing departure of blocks and play kitchens from many early childhood classrooms means missed opportunities for literacy learning in meaningful contexts. Tasks like making a menu for a class restaurant, creating medical charts for stuffed animal vet patients, or labeling items in a “museum” of block creations are powerful early reading and writing skill-builders. Amanda Morgan of Not Just Cute offers many ideas for promoting literacy learning through play.
27. Get moving!
28. DON’T skip recess.
Or better yet, extend it. Time for active play is essential for young learners and boosts learning and attention at other times of day—especially a long literacy block.
29. Support students’ social-emotional growth.
Research shows that self-regulation, self-esteem, and ability to cope with frustration and anxiety all play into students’ capacity to grow their literacy skills. Don’t skimp on supporting students’ development of these important skills. (Of course, great books can help. Check out this list of books to teach social-emotional skills.)
30. Use assessment to inform teaching.
It’s increasingly common for teachers to be asked to collect extensive data about their young students’ literacy skills. Don’t lose sight of the primary goal, though. Experts Peter Johnston and Peter Afflerbach remind us, “Assessment is formative when it makes teaching more responsive.” Observation checklists, documenting of student conversations, and running records are helpful tools for identifying student needs.
31. Learn from a developmental spelling inventory.
Source: This Reading Mama
One type of formative assessment that’s particularly helpful for planning phonics instruction and informing writing conferences is a developmental spelling inventory. We’re partial to the Primary Spelling Inventory from Words Their Way: Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary, and Spelling Instruction. (Bonus: In our experience, young students feel so grown up when completing this task.)
32. Find a data management system that works for you.
Assessment information isn’t helpful unless you can use it. Find systems that work for you for keeping track of data for yourself, and for sharing it with students in developmentally appropriate ways. Start with these ideas.
33. Make the most of small group instruction.
Many schools have moved towards more focused small group instruction by adopting guided reading, but don’t stop there. Flexible small groups can be formed to teach writing strategies, phonics, and comprehension strategies, too. Plan meeting frequencies so kids who need more, get more.
34. Individualize instruction using conferences.
Conferring with students is an ideal way to target individual needs. Having a clear structure and a bank of appropriate teaching points in mind for emergent readers and writers helps maximize every brief interaction. This free resource from expert Jennifer Serravallo is full of useful info.
35. Take notes!
Great conferring notes are so useful for planning your next move. Distractions are constant in the lower grades, so an easy-to-use system for keeping track of your work with students is essential. This post from Two Writing Teachers covers myriad analog and digital options.
36. Make sure colleagues are “on the same page.”
We’re borrowing a pun from Nell Duke, here, because we completely agree. Learning standards tell us the “what” of early literacy teaching, but the “how” is just as crucial. It’s also subject to inconsistent interpretation. Use these guides from the Michigan’s Early Literacy Task Force as inspiration for outlining agreements about best practices in your school.
37. Collaborate virtually.
Teacher collaboration is definitely no longer limited by geography. Join Facebook groups for curriculum programs you use, like this one for the Units of Study in Writing. If you’re a little late to the Twitter game, catch up with the free online course Twitter for Educators and begin building a Personal Learning Network related to early literacy.
38. Give a new teacher a hand.
We’ve heard countless comments from teachers about how they felt unprepared for certain aspects of literacy instruction as newbies. Knowing what to teach when and supporting kids who struggle take practice! Give support with dedicated coaching for new teachers.
39. Make sure students get consistent messages.
Learning to read and write is hard enough! Offer training for all those who support young learners in your school. Cover details like which keywords you use to cue short vowel sounds or how to correctly segment words when supporting invented spelling.
40. Make your whole school a print-rich environment.
Noting print in their environment is a key component of building early literacy concepts. Being surrounded by it wherever students travel in school means more opportunities to notice it. Get a group of staff together and spend an hour after school creating kid-friendly labels and signs. Or, better yet, involve students in the process.
41. Team up with specialist teachers.
Viewing early literacy as a team effort benefits kids. Music teachers can support learning songs and chants used in the classroom for shared reading. (This is especially helpful if your teacher talents don’t include singing in tune!) Art teachers can support students’ ability to draw with detail, which ties in nicely with early writing lessons. Talking about works of art with young children is also fantastic for building oral language. This post from Tinkerlab offers helpful guidance.
42. Gather your cheerleaders.
Authentic purposes for reading, writing, and speaking help students develop literacy skills. Get school community members to help. The principal who responds to a Kindergartener’s persuasive letter, the custodian who asks for student help writing reminder signs to keep restrooms tidy, and the fifth-grade buddies who joyfully attend a first-grade readers’ theater performance all send the message that students’ work matters.
43. Buddy up.
Speaking of fifth-grade buddies…multiage literacy pairings have so many benefits. Older kids can provide examples of fluent reading. They also motivate younger learners in a different way than adults. Dedicating time to literacy activities shared between grades sends the message that literacy is important across your entire school.
44. Host family literacy events.
The best family literacy events build excitement about reading and writing and showcase strategies in a way that’s accessible to your school population. We love these simple suggestions from Colorin Colorado, like providing a variety of read alouds and fun activities so families can join in however they are comfortable.
45. Enhance and celebrate literacy learning with video.
It’s no secret that video is an engaging communication medium. Use it to introduce literacy concepts, document learning, and share information with families. A free educator Animoto account makes it simple to create and share compilations. Even young students can learn to use digital storytelling apps like 30hands Storyteller, as shown by superstar teacher Kory Graham.
46. Rethink your reading log.
Reading logs can be a great way to encourage reading at home, but a common complaint is that they zap the pleasure right out of it. How about shifting to an open-ended, family-focused reading log like this one? (Be sure to let families know that for pre-readers, being read to or “reading the pictures” definitely count!)
47. Send family tips via text.
Operating under the premise that many parents want to support their kids’ learning, but could benefit from gentle “nudge” reminders about appropriate ways to do so, researchers are exploring the benefits of texting educational tips to parents. So far, they’ve seen favorable results. It’s an approach to consider if you’re looking to share early literacy tips with families in a new way.
48. Encourage families to support children’s early literacy in the language they speak best.
ELL families should be encouraged to tell oral stories and read aloud in their home languages. Help families seek out books in their home languages, or share wordless books that they can adapt themselves.
49. Champion the public library.
If you aren’t already BFFs with a children’s librarian in your school’s community, what are you waiting for? Public libraries encourage family literacy when school’s not in session. Plus, they offer tons of knowledge-boosting perks like special programs and museum passes. Join forces to let your students’ families know about the resources available to them.
50. Aim for JOY.
Remember the end game: cultivating in children a love of reading, writing, and communicating with others that fuels a lifetime of learning. Marvel over books, words, and student successes together every day.
We know schools are doing amazing work to promote early literacy. Which strategies have been successful in your school to promote early literacy? What’s still challenging? Share your thoughts in our WeAreTeachers HELPLINE group on Facebook.


The essential ingredient of a good story is sequence: a plot in which one event follows another in an orderly way, and every element plays its part in advancing the story line. Ever since Aristotle, it has been generally accepted that a story must have a beginning, a middle, and an end, and that these elements should normally be closely connected to one another. To be sure, we are perhaps more plot-driven in our culture than at most times and places in history. We tend to be impatient with slow-moving novels, and we expect our stories to evidence a tight narrative structure. A book like Victor Hugo’s The Hunchback of Notre Dame, which contains a whole chapter that simply describes the view over fifteenth-century Paris from the roof of the cathedral, quickly makes us seek out the abridged version. Yet even that chapter has a function within the larger narrative of The Hunchback, giving the book a gothic, overdecorated tone that matches the architecture of the cathedral itself.
What function does Numbers 15 play in its context though? Why does the writer suddenly switch from telling a story to recounting what seems at first sight to be a series of miscellaneous laws? Is this simply poor storytelling technique? Or is there a method to his apparent madness, a reason why these particular laws fit into this particular context and move the overall narrative forward? You may remember that we asked the same question back in our discussion of Numbers 7 and found there that the laws inserted in the narrative had a particular significance within their specific narrative. The same is true here.
Numbers 15 is primarily about different kinds of sacrifices. The connection between the various sections of this chapter and what precedes this chapter becomes clear when you understand the purpose of these sacrifices. Israel’s sacrifices served a number of different functions in their religious life. Some sacrifices provided atonement for sin, others paid tribute to their heavenly overlord, while still others were the means of enjoying table fellowship with their covenant King. In this chapter, all three purposes are present. The opening section focuses on the meal aspect of these sacrifices (vv. 1–21), the offering of the first dough functions as tribute to the King (vv. 22–26), while the remainder of the section on offerings discusses which sins can be atoned for and which cannot (vv. 27–36). The case study of the man gathering wood on the Sabbath is included at this point as an example of a sin that cannot be atoned for, and then the chapter closes with the requirement that the Israelites wear tassels on their garments as a reminder of their covenant God (vv. 37–41). As we will see in our next study, this last section sums up the theme of the whole chapter, describing the obligations that flow from a relationship of grace.
First, the narrator describes the offerings made by fire (vv. 1–13). These sacrifices were not those that were required to atone for specific sins but rather those associated with more general fellowship with God, whether burnt offerings or fellowship offerings.1 These sacrifices were offered in the fire on the altar, and the smoke from the sacrifice ascended as an aroma pleasing to the Lord, as if the Lord too were participating in the meal. The regulations in Numbers 15 strengthen the picture of table fellowship between God and man by requiring a symbolic balanced meal at these offerings: a large portion of meat must always be accompanied by the appropriate carbohydrates and beverage. A grain offering of two quarts of flour mixed with oil was required with a sheep or a goat, together with a drink offering of a quart of wine (vv. 4, 5). Moreover, a sheep or a goat was only the small-size serving. These sacrifices also come in “regular” portions (a ram; vv. 6, 7) and “super-size” (a bull; vv. 8–10). In each case, the accompanying “side orders” had to be scaled up to match (vv. 11, 12).
REBUKE AND PROMISE
In the context of the surrounding narrative, these laws were both a rebuke and a promise. They were a rebuke to the unbelief that doubted the goodness of the Promised Land: if the future Israelites would be able to offer such substantial meals to their God, then they themselves would hardly go hungry. There would be abundant food for all. Yet alongside the implicit rebuke is a clear promise of grace for the future: in the days ahead, the Lord will enjoy fellowship with his people on a continuing basis. God and man will still eat together at one table.
Aren’t you amazed by God’s overwhelming grace to sinners? I don’t know about you, but if I were the Lord, my patience with Israel would have been long since exhausted by this point in the journey. He had brought them safely all the way from Egypt. Yet at the threshold of entry into the Promised Land, the majority of the scouts fell victim to unbelief and spread a bad report about the nature of the land and the power of its occupants (13:32). For their part, the people chose to believe the bad report of the majority, which left the Lord out of the equation entirely, in spite of the passionate pleas of Joshua and Caleb to trust God. They were ready to stone Joshua and Caleb, elect new leadership, and march right back to Egypt (14:1–4, 10). Even after the people heard the Lord pronounce judgment on their unbelief and send them back toward the wilderness, their next act was a further step of unbelief, trying now to enter the land without the Lord’s help (14:40–45). What is the Lord to do with such a people? I know what I would do! After all this ingratitude, if I were the Lord, I would have been ready to wipe out the whole nation on the spot, whatever Moses might say on their behalf.
The Lord’s very next word to his people after this renewed act of unbelief was this, however: “When you come into the land you are to inhabit, which I am giving you …” (15:2)! Isn’t that incredible? God’s good plan for this people was not aborted in spite of all of their sin. There was a future for Israel in the land of promise, a future of intimate relationship. What is more, God didn’t simply restore Israel while keeping them at a distance. Sometimes we do that. Perhaps we promise a friend that we will take him or her to the airport next week. In between our making the promise and the time for the trip, though, we have a falling out. We may still do what we said we would for our friend because we feel obligated, but the atmosphere on the trip may be like the inside of a freezer. We do what we have promised, but we do not restore the relationship. God is not like us, however. He welcomes Israel back into his presence, to share fellowship. Our God is indeed, as Moses said, “slow to anger and abounding in steadfast love, forgiving iniquity and transgression” (14:18, quoting Exodus 34:6, 7).
God’s grace is also evident in the insistence of the passage that this fellowship with the Lord extends to both native-born Israelites and sojourning aliens alike (vv. 13–16). The rules are to be the same for both. Once again the significance of that ruling in this context goes beyond the obvious. On the one hand, it is certainly true that in this regulation there is a faint foreshadowing of the gospel call to the nations, that one day Jews and Gentiles would be able to stand before God side by side on the same terms. Far from the Gentiles always being enemies to be feared, one day at least some of them will come to worship Israel’s God. Aliens and strangers were to be welcomed into the covenant community. However, that is not the only significance of the regulations here. In this context the key significance of this ruling is surely that one day in the future there will be native-born Israelites! There will one day be a generation of children who from birth can call the Promised Land home.
At this point in the book of Numbers, this declaration calls for faith on the part of Israel. The Israelites were still themselves wandering aliens, trekking through the wilderness. In fact, they had just been condemned to wander there for another forty years (14:34). Yet God promised that their children would nonetheless enter the Promised Land and inherit it as their own. This regulation that sojourners and native-born Israelites be treated alike depends on, and reaffirms, that promise. One day there would be native-born Israelites, people with a natural birthright of access to God that mere aliens and sojourners in their midst would envy. The new generation of native-born Israelites, the very ones whom the older generation in their unbelief had asserted would become plunder for the inhabitants of the land (14:3), would actually have profound rights and privileges before God.
However, along with privileges also come responsibilities, as we see in the next sequence of laws concerning the first dough (vv. 17–21). Since God is the one who gives the land to his people, they in turn need to make an offering from everything that it produces. That is the principle behind the requirement elsewhere that Israel tithe all of their crops and herds and that every year they offer the firstfruits to the Lord. In the days to come, though, they were also to take the first portion of every batch of dough2 and present it to the Lord. This law also presupposes that the people will receive the promise of the land, which will provide grain and flour in abundance. What is more, this regulation brings the law of firstfruits home to every household: the firstfruits of both the threshing floor and the vat were already claimed by God (Exodus 22:29; cf. Numbers 18:12, 13), but that would merely have been a single annual obligation, much like we have to file an annual tax return. Now they had to bring the first cake out of every batch of bread that they prepared to the priest as a gift to the Lord. In that way the cooks would constantly be reminded of the one from whom their daily bread came.
THE WAY TO TRUE FREEDOM
When you look at these laws in their narrative context, they thus show us profound spiritual truths. To begin with, they challenge our instinctive notion that obedience to God’s Law is bondage and that doing whatever we want brings freedom. In the previous chapter Israel chose the way of unbelief, which led to disobedience. They were afraid that if they obeyed God and did what he required, it would lead to death for themselves and bondage for their children (14:3). Yet, in reality it was their unbelief that led to their lives being wasted in the wilderness. Disobedience broke their relationship with God and led to death. On the other hand, faith follows the way of obedience to the demands of God’s Law, which in turn, as these regulations underscore, leads to life in God’s presence and fellowship with him. The goal of God’s regulations is not to ruin our lives but to fulfill them.
The same negative dynamic often operates in our own lives. Why is it that we give in to sin and disobedience so often, even though we know what we are doing is wrong? Why is it that we are so ineffective when we try to sanctify ourselves by our own effort, by telling ourselves to work harder? Such an approach rarely brings about lasting change in our lives because the root of our sin lies buried more deeply than our effort can reach. Tackling sin with mere effort is like trying to fight a tank with a water pistol: our weaponry cannot reach the heart of the issue. In fact, our heart is the heart of the issue: the underlying dynamic that drives our sin is our unbelief.3 Like the Israelites, we have false beliefs about God that we persist in doggedly in spite of all of the evidence to the contrary. Until these deep-rooted core beliefs are challenged, little real change is possible in our lives. That is why even when we recognize that our sinful patterns lead to painful consequences, we often find that we cannot change them.
The fundamental problem that drove Israel’s patterns of sin was their failure to believe that God is good and had good purposes for them. Faced with oversized enemies entrenched in fortified cities, Israel concluded that they would certainly die in any attempt to conquer the land (14:3). This is unbelief. In spite of the evidence of the firstfruits of the land in the shape of an enormous bunch of grapes (13:23), Israel chose instead to believe the majority report of the scouts that the land was bad and that it devoured its inhabitants (13:32). This is unbelief. When the Lord condemned them to wander another forty years in the wilderness, they then decided they could conquer the giant-infested land after all, with or without God (14:40–45). This is unbelief. Unbelief drove their disobedience.
THE DYNAMICS OF UNBELIEF
We need to clarify something at this point, however. When we speak of unbelief, it sounds very passive. Sometimes people will say, “Oh, it’s wonderful that you believe the things you do about God. You are a person of such faith. But I’m afraid I don’t have your kind of faith.” They make it sound as if Christians have the ability to believe in something, but they, poor souls, do not. Actually, though, unbelief is a position involving just as much faith as belief. Unbelief is as strongly committed to its view of the world as belief is. There is no such thing as a faith-free zone in this world.
This is clear from the example of the Israelites. Their actions were all profoundly irrational, if the Creator God of the universe was committed to them. They only make sense if Israel believed that God was actually their enemy, determined to do them harm. Unbelief is the opposite of faith not in being the absence of faith, but in being faith in the opposite set of propositions about God. Unbelief is the firm faith that, for all practical purposes, God does not exist, God does not care, God is not involved actively in my life.
The same dynamic of unbelief drives our own patterns of sin. Does giving in to sin really work for us? Does it fulfill us and leave us feeling warm and cozy all over? Does not following the path of sin, in most cases, leave us in the wilderness, thirsty and hungry and profoundly empty? So why do we continue to do it? Why are we so easily led astray into temptation and sin? It is because at a deep level we don’t really believe that God is good and has good purposes for us. We have a deep-seated practical belief that, on the contrary, God is not really working all things for our good. If we believed profoundly in God’s existence, power, and good purpose for us, then studying his laws and following them would become so natural and obvious that our lives would be transformed from the center outward.
THE ROAD TO RELATIONSHIP
That is why Numbers 15 makes a fitting sequel to Numbers 14. Israel’s unbelief and disobedience that led to a broken relationship was not the end of the road for God’s relationship with his people. Relationship with him is, after all, the good purpose for which God has designed us. The Westminster Shorter Catechism tells us that we were made “to glorify God and to enjoy him forever.” Or to put it another way, we were created to enjoy a relationship of close fellowship with God. Why was God going to bring Israel into the Promised Land? Was it simply so they could have a beautiful place in which to live, equipped with all of the ancient conveniences? Far from it: entry into the land was merely the beginning of God’s purpose for them. Once they were in the land, Israel would begin to offer these sacrifices, which would then be the means of their experiencing rich fellowship with the living God. Whereas Numbers 14 showed that disobedience leads to death, Numbers 15 shows that the doorway to a life-giving relationship with God is still open. If the older generation had truly believed that was God’s enduring purpose for them, as Joshua and Caleb did, then they would have been prepared to take on whatever giants they faced in order to enter the land. They would not even have feared death if they had truly believed in God’s good purpose of lasting fellowship with himself.
The nature of God’s good purpose for us is an important point to grasp because for some people around us sin does seem to be “working”—at least, if our understanding of the purpose of existence is skewed. If the chief end of man is to have a comfortable life, surrounded by everything our heart desires, then sin is definitely working for some people. That is what troubled the psalmist in Psalm 73. He saw people around him who had no commitment to follow God and pursue his ways, yet whose lives were free from visible trouble and pain, who seemed outwardly to be prospering (vv. 2–12). His faith was jolted, and he wondered if his obedience to God was just so much wasted effort (vv. 13, 14).
Visiting the sanctuary reoriented the psalmist’s thinking, however. What he saw there was exactly what Numbers 15 makes provision for: rich fellowship between God and his people that transcends the generations. There in the sanctuary, the psalmist realized what he had that the wicked lacked: God’s presence and favor with him now and the prospect of that fellowship continuing on into glory. “Whom have I in heaven but you? And there is nothing on earth that I desire besides you. My flesh and my heart may fail, but God is the strength of my heart and my portion forever” (vv. 25, 26). He grasped afresh the fact that God’s good purpose for his people was fellowship with them, both now and forever, and suddenly the position of the wicked didn’t seem so enviable after all. Embracing that relationship as his highest desire changed his heart and dealt with his grumbling spirit.
The motivating power of all sin lies in failing to believe God’s good purpose for us, which is for us to glorify him and enjoy him forever. Temptation always offers us something: Satan never goes fishing with a bare hook. It doesn’t always deliver what it seems to offer, but it always offers something. Yet whatever temptation offers us, it cannot offer us the opportunity to glorify or to enjoy God. Whatever we are pursuing when we sin, it is always something less than God’s good purpose for us. It is a functional idolatry of something other than the Lord. In practice, we are believing that something else is better than experiencing joyous fellowship with him forever. Something else has become our chief purpose in life, the desire that is driving us. Perhaps it is comfort or pleasure or pleasing people or succeeding in our career or having the perfect home. Idols come in all shapes and sizes, but until we do what the psalmist did and reorient our thinking at the most basic level, sin will always seem more attractive to us than righteousness as a means to satisfy our idolatry. As long as something other than fellowship with God is our chief purpose in life, we will easily be seduced away from obedience.
THE CONSEQUENCES OF FELLOWSHIP
Desiring fellowship with God above all else is not only the foundation for our obedience—it will shape our attitude toward giving as well. Numbers 15 makes substantial demands on the resources of God’s people. We may well not grasp how substantial they were since we don’t typically own working livestock, but an ox was the equivalent of a tractor or a car in the ancient world. Imagine taking your car to church as an offering and watching it go up in flames. That would be quite a commitment! The animal sacrifices laid out in the opening verses were thus not cheap, and even the commitment to give the first of every batch of dough would have meant an offering if not daily, at least weekly. It would be almost like setting another place at your table every mealtime for the Lord. How does your heart respond to such demands from God? Do they seem reasonable and desirable or burdensome and repressive?
Let me suggest that our response to the Scriptural obligations for giving is a good diagnostic test of what we are really thinking about God and about our chief purpose in life. The issue is not how much we give but our heart attitude to giving. Under the new covenant, we are no longer obligated to bring sheep and bulls to offer God, along with loaves of bread and offerings of wine. Nor are we obligated to bring to church the first roll out of every batch of sourdough bread that we bake. As a pastor, I certainly appreciate it when people in my church bring me a cake or a meal they have made, but they are not under any Scriptural duty to do so. How do we respond to that freedom? If we don’t really think God has our best interests at heart, and our chief desire is something other than fellowship with him, we will view that freedom as freedom from giving. We may still give something to the Lord, because it would look bad if we let the plate pass us by Sunday by Sunday. We may even give a large amount, if doing that feeds our functional idolatries by making others think well of us. However, we will be giving essentially for our own sake, and not for the Lord.
How will we respond, however, if we are thoroughly convinced that God is good and has the good purpose of fellowship with us, now and forever? We will desire to excel in the grace of giving, to use Paul’s terminology (2 Corinthians 8:7). We will seek to cut down our other expenses so we can give more generously to the Lord’s work, so that others too—others who are presently aliens and strangers when it comes to God—can know his beauty and enjoy his fellowship as their supreme purpose as well.
Often discussion of our giving revolves around the question “To tithe or not to tithe?” Am I obligated to give 10 percent of my income to the Lord, as Old Testament believers were, or does that requirement no longer apply to me? However, that question is already headed in the wrong direction.4 Even in the Old Testament, the tithe was merely the first of many obligations and opportunities to give, obligations and opportunities that flowed out of Israel’s relationship with God and the grace they had received from him. It is not coincidental that the various offerings that speak of fellowship with God come before the requirement to offer tribute through the first dough offering. Knowledge of God and his grace is foundational to the requirement to give.
Indeed, many of the offerings in Numbers 15 were voluntary, not compulsory, and there was certainly no rule that established how large the cake offered from the first of the dough had to be. If Israel’s thinking about God was correct, it would have been constantly evident to them that everything their land produced came to them from the Lord, the one who had given them the land in the first place. If they understood that, then the question on their lips would not be “Do I have to give?” but “How much am I able to give?”
It is the same for us. If we understand that everything we have comes to us from the Lord and that he has a good purpose for us, which is nothing other than fellowship with him, then we are ready to ask ourselves, “How much am I able to give?” In fact, it is even more true for us, for we understand more fully the cost at which our fellowship was bought. For the Old Testament saints, their fellowship meals with God were never vegetarian affairs. An animal had to die for the fellowship between God and man to take place. That is not coincidental. It is a picture of how fellowship between God and man would ultimately be restored through the death of Christ on the cross. Our Savior didn’t ask, “How much do I have to give?” He didn’t just give the first lump of his dough or even sacrifice a costly bull out of his own resources. For the sake of our fellowship with the Father, he offered himself as a living sacrifice, nailed to the cross. His fellowship with the Father was temporarily broken so our fellowship with the Father could be permanently restored. All of his sufferings were experienced so the vision depicted in the fellowship sacrifices of Israel could become a reality: God and man seated together around a table, enjoying rich fellowship together. As the apostle Peter put it, “you were ransomed … not with perishable things such as silver or gold, but with the precious blood of Christ, like that of a lamb without blemish or spot” (1 Peter 1:18, 19).
If we understand the sacrifice of Christ, by which God pays for our forgiveness, then obedience to his law is transformed. No longer is it a burden for us to bear as slaves; now it is an opportunity for us to serve as sons or daughters, a way for us to experience deeper fellowship with him. If we understand that God’s goal for us is to redeem us from an empty way of life and give us the fellowship with him that we were created for, then nothing can be too much for him to ask. God’s gift of Jesus proves beyond a shadow of a doubt his care for us and the power of his desire for relationship with us. He so wanted us to be with him for eternity that he died for us on the cross.
Why then will we persist in our unbelief? How can we remain skeptical about God, no matter what difficulties face us? Why do we hold back from doing what we know God wants us to do because we fear it may be too costly? His unquenchable purpose for us is that we may know him and enjoy him forever, and his plan for our lives is entirely directed toward that goal. The gospel rescues us from our wilderness of unbelief and brings us into a new relationship with God even now, with all of its privileges and responsibilities. It continues to transform us day by day until we enter his presence, once and for all. How awesome that such grace should be shown to sinners! How incredible that such mercy should be shown to us! Yet in Christ, God who is full of grace has shown rich mercy to us so that we should be called the children of God, heirs of his promise.
This blog is taken from Kent Hughes book called Numbers: God’s presence in the wilderness (pp. 179–188).


The Odyssey, traditionally attributed to Homer, is one of the two great Greek epic poems1. It tells the story of Odysseus' journey home from the Trojan War. Over the course of his ten-year journey, Odysseus encounters many perils: giants, a cyclops, witches, spirits and gods.
At the time that The Odyssey was composed, the Greek alphabet had not yet been developed and the poem is a product of a completely oral tradition. The ancient Greek epic tradition was an oral-formulaic tradition. In oral-formulaic traditions, generations of poet performers develop a special poetic language that consists of a vast number of metrical phrases (formulae) and longer story elements (themes or type-scenes) out of which long narrative poems are extemporaneously constructed. Although this technique may seem restrictive and eliminating originality, in fact, the poets were able to use many of the same literary devices used by modern novelists.
For the Odyssey to be the well-known story that it is today, Homer's telling of the Odyssey must have been well worth listening to. One of the characteristics of a good story, now as then, is that the audience is captivated, glued to their seats, so to speak. Homer achieves this using many different techniques that can be categorised into four main groups:
- The use of figures of speech, such as metaphors
- Fantasy, ie the supernatural
- The relationship between characters and plot
Figures of Speech
While there are other methods and tactics that Homer uses, the following are the most common and most important ones:
A formula is where part of the text is repeated; for example '... as dawn rose red and rosy fingered...' is a common formula in the Odyssey. The repetition not only helps the bard2 or rhapsode3 to remember what comes next in the story, but it also has to do with very complex Greek grammar, where a certain adjective for a hero would be called for in a certain case. The same would go for any kind of character and a poet would have these phrases ready to use, having learned his craft from a master.
As a result of the rhapsode using the formulae, the story should 'flow' better. However when you read, as opposed to hearing formulae, they may end up seeming monotonous, as things get repeated on a larger scale or more often. Another good example of this use of formulae can be found in the epic Gilgamesh where it is used a great deal, with entire paragraphs often repeated, making it hard to read at times.
A metaphor is when one thing is described as something else, thereby portraying a clear idea in a 'visual' way. Metaphors and similes help to maintain the audience's interest, because the technique captures the imagination. Metaphors are used to explain things that the audience may not be able to comprehend by relating it to something that they have already seen. For example, when Odysseus has just slain the suitors and Homer compares the dead suitors to a mound of dead fish, conjuring up the image of fish twitching and flopping. This would definitely capture the attention of an audience as not only do these scenes portray the mighty power of the hero but are also gruesome enough to keep the attention of a more modern, possibly bloodthirstier, audience.
A simile is when something is described and/or compared to something else using the words 'like' or 'as'. The simile is perhaps the most characteristic figure in Homer's repertoire, often being hugely extended into mini-narratives of their own. In the same scene Odysseus is:
... like a lion when he comes from feeding on a farmer's bullock, with the blood dripping from his breast and jaws on either side, a fearsome spectacle...
An epithet is an adjective put alongside a character's name to describe them either in general terms or at that particular moment in time. For example Odysseus is often referred to as resourceful or cunning. Often epithets are used to help explore a character's traits. Homer's descriptions of Odysseus help with his character development, giving the audience ideas to think about, helping them enjoy and understand the story, thus maintaining our interest in it. At other times the epithet is somewhat incongruous, demonstrating the fact that the epithets are fundamentally metrical place-holding formulae.
Dramatic irony and pathos are two other literary techniques that Homer uses to good effect in the Odyssey. Dramatic irony is when the audience either are familiar with the story or are informed about something that the characters do not know, so they can foresee what will happen before the characters do. A good example of how Homer uses dramatic irony is just before the battle in the hall, '... believe me, this bow will break the heart and spirit of many a companion here'. These words are spoken by Leodes, the first of the suitors to attempt to string the bow. This is dramatic, as it is the bow that he is talking about that will kill the suitors and so it truly is '... the bow that will seal our fate', as Antinous said.
Pathos is when a feeling of sorrow or pity towards something or someone is aroused by the author. The use of pathos helps to bring the audience into the story, allowing them to feel for the characters as if they were real, living people. Bringing the audience into the story in this way enables any author, to easily maintain audiences' interest. An unexpected example of this is when the Cyclops stops the last ram, the one that bears Odysseus, and tells it his feelings. This speech creates pathos for the Cyclops, who until this point we have not felt any sympathy for. This dramatic twist is completely unexpected and we start to feel sorry for a creature that has devoured several of Odysseus' men.
Suspense is a major part in keeping a modern reader's interest. One must remember that the original audience would already know the story of Odysseus. Suspense is something that the story offers to the modern reader. The interests of the ancient audience were vastly different.
The Gods and Fates
Gods and the vagaries of fate are the main representations of the fantastical and supernatural in almost all Greek epics. These allow for the stories to be far more fascinating and interesting, and with a world as large as that of the gods, there is a lot that can be done. Natural phenomena such as rainbows couldn't be rationalised in ancient Greece, but could be explained by the presence of the gods or gods' will. Homer can then include in his story things that are seemingly impossible like the Cyclops and the Laestrygonians, and when made so vivid, the supernatural power of the gods and the various monsters is captivating. This can be seen in Homer's description of the Laestrygonians as 'powerful' and 'more like giants than men'.
With a pervading sense that the gods can do as they please, order is needed as a counterfoil. This is provided by fate, which is a line that no one, not even Zeus, can cross. This gives the audience a sense of security; we are told from the very beginning that it is fated that Odysseus will make it back to Ithaca. This is very similar to the Roman version of the story, The Aeneid, written by Virgil, where the audience is told near the beginning that the hero is fated to found the city that will become Rome. This intricate network of gods, bound by fate, is possibly what makes the Odyssey and other Greek epics what they are. This exploration of the relationship between gods and fate is lost in modern literature. What the modern reader has instead is fantasy, such as The Lord of the Rings, the Harry Potter books and The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy.
Characters vs Plot
The characters themselves help to maintain the interest of the audience. Often overlooked, it's not necessarily the individual characters that are important, but the framework they create that is necessary for all epics. At the centre of the book we need a hero who is 'strong in mind and body'. This is exactly what Odysseus is and the audience is told this at the very beginning where Zeus himself says those words about Odysseus.
Aristotle argued in his work on literary theory, Poetics, that plot was more important than characters to evoke emotion in the audience, and the Odyssey serves as a good example for his argument. With the involvement of the gods and fate, who oversee and intervene where necessary. We also have evil, in the shape of the suitors, as well as various capricious women such as Circe, Calypso and Athena, over whom 'good' is trying to conquer. The idea of good triumphing over evil would have been enjoyed, allowing the audience to listen to the sub-stories in good spirits, making it less likely for them to stop listening.
Overall, Homer uses a wide range of techniques to maintain the audience's attention; these are mainly similes and metaphors, epithets, dramatic irony and pathos, suspense, the gods and fate and the characters themselves. Each element contributes to making the story exciting and interesting.
Who Is Who?
You will, unless you read this, be inundated with names that you have never heard of before. The main players are:
Odysseus' Friends and Family
Odysseus - Hero, 'wise beyond all mortal men', husband to Penelope, father to Telemachus and son of Laertes. Lost on his way back from Troy.
Penelope - Odysseus' faithful wife, who is trying to keep the suitors4 at bay.
Telemachus - Odysseus' 20-year-old son, who goes looking for his father as well as looking after the family house, his inheritance and his mother.
Laertes - Odysseus' father; lives in seclusion in the country and doesn't play a large role in the book.
Eumaios - Swineherd; a faithful servant of Odysseus.
Philoetius - Cowherd; a faithful servant of Odysseus.
Eurycleia - Faithful old servant of the family. She mainly looks after Penelope in this book, although she did raise both Odysseus and Telemachus.
Nestor - Comrade to Odysseus at Troy, sends his son to help Telemachus search for his father.
Menelaus - Leader of the attack on Troy, along with his brother Agamemnon. Helen, Menelaus' wife, has been abducted by the Trojan, Paris, which led to the war in the first place.
Argos - Odysseus' old hunting dog.
Alkinous - King of the Phaeacians, to whom Odysseus tells most of his story in a kind of a 'flash-back'.
Nausicaa - Daughter of King Alkinous; rescuer of Odysseus.
Demodokos - Blind minstrel who brought Odysseus to tears with his stories of Troy, thus giving his identity away.
The Opposition on Ithaca
Antinous - Ringleader of Penelope's suitors and the first to die.
Eurymachus - Another of the lead suitors, who threw a stool at Odysseus when he was disguised.
Melanthius - Goatherd; no longer faithful to Odysseus and is now on the side of the suitors.
Gods, Monsters and Immortals
Athena - Goddess of wisdom and war. She is Odysseus' guiding light through his journey, acting as his counsel, watching over him wherever he goes.
Calypso - Nymph who wants Odysseus as her husband and so keeps him on her island for seven years.
Circe - Goddess/witch who turns some of Odysseus' men into swine, but then helps Odysseus on his way.
Poseidon - 'Earth shaker', god of the sea who hinders Odysseus because of what he does to Polyphemus, his son.
Polyphemus - A cyclops, that is, a giant with a single eye in the centre of his forehead. He is the most powerful cyclops of all, and son of Poseidon.
Teiresias - Blind Theban prophet whom Odysseus seeks in the underworld.
Zeus - King of the gods, upholder of fate, ruler of the sky. Athena's father.
Hermes - Messenger god, carrying Zeus' commands to and fro. Also helps Odysseus defeat Circe.
Scylla and Charybdis - Scylla is a six-headed monster that eats passing sailors, Charybdis is a neighbour of Scylla's and is another monster who creates whirlpools and eats passing ships.
This summary may seem long but it is an epic, after all.
Book One - The book starts halfway through the story as Athena gains permission from Zeus to let Odysseus leave Calypso's island where he is being held. Athena, in disguise, tells Telemachus to go to his father's former comrades to see if they know where Odysseus is.
Book Two - The suitors turn down Telemachus when he asks them for a ship, but Athena, always there when you need her, guides him by night to one that is moored. She then rounds up a crew for him as well.
Book Three - Telemachus meets Nestor, one of Odysseus' mates from Troy. Nestor has news of other warriors at Troy which he then tells to Telemachus, but none of Odysseus. Telemachus goes with Nestor's son to Sparta to see if another of Odysseus' comrades has any better news.
Book Four - After finding Menelaus and his wife, Helen, Telemachus starts his journey back home with new-found confidence. Menelaus and Helen have told him of Menelaus' travels back from Troy; among his adventures is his meeting with an old man of the sea who tells of Odysseus' troubles on Calypso's island.
Book Five - Features the retelling of the story of Odysseus being trapped on Calypso's island because she is in love with him and won't let him go. Athena intervenes with Zeus and gets him to tell Calypso, through Hermes, that enough is enough and that after holding him for seven years she must now let Odysseus go. Odysseus is determined to continue along his fated path and builds a raft to carry on with his journey. He is hindered by a storm created by Poseidon, and is still angry about Polyphemus (see book nine), that washes him up on the shores of Phaeacia where he hides in the woods, naked, and goes to sleep.
Book Six - The princess of Phaeacia and her maids who are playing close by the beach, wake Odysseus with all of their noise and he goes to see what is going on. He finds the princess Nausicaa who tells him to come to the palace later and meet the king and queen. She also gives him some clothes to wear, along with some detailed instructions.
Book Seven - Odysseus begs for help from the king and queen at Phaeacia, giving a short version of his story. However he does give them his name.
Book Eight - Odysseus is at the palace where the king and queen entertain him according to ancient Greek customs. After shedding tears repeatedly when Demodokus tells of Troy, prompting them to question him, Odysseus proudly tells them who he is, and agrees to tell them the story of his journey so far.
Book Nine - Odysseus first tells of his encounter with the Cicones, a race of people that lived near the north east of modern Greece, and how they had a mighty battle. He then tells of the Lotus-eaters and how his men were nearly kept there, overcome by the power of the lotus fruit. Next comes the particularly gruesome story of the Cyclops: 12 men went over to the island of the Cyclops and entered a cave. When the Cyclops returned, he began to eat Odysseus' men, keeping them captive in the cave for days. Odysseus finally came up with a cunning plan: to blind the Cyclops and escape from the cave. He and some men put a hot stake in the Cyclops' eye after first getting him drunk on exceedingly strong wine5 and then once the Cyclops has opened the cave, they escaped by clinging to the underside of the Cyclops' sheep as they ran out. Just as the shipmates are leaving the island, Odysseus calls back, telling the Cyclops his real name, which is possibly the most thoughtless and unintelligent thing that Odysseus does in the entire epic, as armed with his name, the Cyclops, Polyphemus, curses Odysseus.
Book Ten - Odysseus and his men first sail to the floating island of Aeolia where they meet the god of the winds. Aeolus gives Odysseus a bag full of all the winds so that he can get home safely, but his 'Fools of men', thinking Odysseus is cheating them of some spoils, open the bag and they are blown back to Aeolus' island. They are promptly thrown off the island and so continue their voyage. They come to the land of the Laestrygonians where these giants of men destroy all the fleet, except for Odysseus' boat and crew, who manage to escape amid the turmoil.
Odysseus next arrives at the island of Aeaea where half of his men are turned into pigs by Circe. He goes to save them and is helped by Hermes. Following the god's instructions, Odysseus defeats the witch-like Circe and his men are returned to their true form. After a year of banquets it is time to move on, and so Odysseus and his men set off, but not before they are told by Circe that they have to go into the underworld to seek advice and thus ensure their return home.
Book 11 - Odysseus follows Circe's instructions and makes a sacrifice after entering the halls of Hades. He sees the prophet Teiresias, who tells Odysseus what is to happen to him in the future. Odysseus also sees the ghost of his mother, a member of his crew that died on the island of Circe and various Greek heroes.
Book 12 - Odysseus next sails on, past Scylla and Charybdis, to the island of the sun god where they are warned not to harm the cattle. However Odysseus' men, driven by hunger, go on to kill and eat some of the cattle and Zeus, in his anger, strikes Odysseus' ship with lightning, all of the crew but Odysseus die, and Odysseus is swept up onto Calypso's island, where he spends the next seven years. At this point Odysseus stops telling his story to the Phaeacians.
Book 13 - The king of Phaeacia gives Odysseus passage on a ship and he eventually arrives back on the coast of Ithaca. Once on Ithaca, Athena helps him on his way to get rid of the suitors by changing his appearance and disguising him as a beggar.
Book 14 - In disguise, Odysseus goes into the hut of his swineherd, Eumaios. Not knowing where Eumaios' allegiances lie he does not tell him his true identity but instead tells him made up stories. Eumaios doesn't believe him, but enjoys the stories anyway.
Book 15 - After finding out that Odysseus is on Calypso's island, and will leave there shortly, Telemachus leaves Sparta and goes home to Ithaca. With Athena's help, he avoids an ambush by the suitors.
Book 16 - Telemachus goes into Eumaios' hut where Odysseus reveals himself, telling him that he must keep Odysseus' return a secret. The suitors start to wonder what to do next as their ambush failed.
Book 17 - Telemachus goes from the swine herder's hut to the palace to see his mother, Penelope. Odysseus, disguised as the beggar, also goes to the palace with the guidance of Eumaios. On the way he is taunted by Melanthius the goatherd who is now in allegiance with the suitors. Once there, Odysseus tries to get (his own) food off of the suitors, but instead Antinous, a main suitor, throws a stool at him.
Book 18 - Odysseus has a boxing match with a beggar called Irus and wins. Penelope goes to see the suitors in the hall to receive the gifts that they have finally presented to woo her. While there, her servant Melantho insults Odysseus. Once again Odysseus has a stool thrown at him, however this time it is thrown by Eurymachus, another of the main suitors, incensed by Irus' loss to what appears to be an old man.
Book 19 - In preparation for what is to come, Odysseus and Telemachus, with help from Athena, take all the weapons down off the walls in the main hall. Odysseus, in disguise, tries to convince Penelope that he is still alive and is heading home. Penelope gets her maid Eurycleia, to wash Odysseus' feet as a thankful gesture to his soothing words. As Eurycleia does so, she sees a scar that reveals to her Odysseus' true identity, however she promises to keep quiet. Later Penelope tells Odysseus about the task she will set the suitors.
Book 20 - Omens tell how Odysseus will succeed in what he wants. So does a seer, Theoclymenus, who tells how the suitors will die. Odysseus continues to discern which of his servants have been loyal to him.
Book 21 - The suitors decide to have a contest to see who shall be the husband of Penelope. They have to string Odysseus' bow and fire an arrow through 12 axe heads (the axe heads have small loops on them), but none of the suitors can even string the bow. When, after an argument, Odysseus, still in disguise, has a go, he strings the bow and easily fires the arrow through all 12 of the axe heads.
Book 22 - With weapons from the storeroom, Telemachus fights by his father's side. They first kill Antinous and then the suitors decide to attack in waves. Athena is on Odysseus' side, as usual, and makes all their attempts fail. Eumaios and Philoetius, both loyal to Odysseus, find Melanthius getting weapons for the suitors. They tie him to a plank and hoist him to the ceiling. When all the suitors are dead, the unfaithful maidservants are called to clean up the mess and are then killed. Odysseus does some fairly nasty things to Melanthius including ripping off part of his anatomy and feeding it to the dogs!
Book 23 - Eurycleia goes to wake Penelope and tell her the news, but Penelope doesn't believe her. Eventually she goes down to look for herself. Penelope doesn't recognise Odysseus at first and Telemachus is very agitated by this. To add to the suspense, after a quick bath Odysseus returns to Penelope, Athena having removed the disguise. Penelope puts Odysseus to the test by telling him that they should move the bed out of their bedroom. He knows that this can't be done as he built it into a tree that grows in their room and when he says so, Penelope knows that he is indeed Odysseus.
Book 24 - Odysseus sees his father, Laertes, and reveals his identity. Hermes takes the souls of the dead suitors down to the halls of Hades where they meet warriors that died at Troy. The relatives of the suitors start to make plans to get back at Odysseus for what he has done, but Athena and Zeus make up a plan for peace in Ithaca. There is a fight where a few of the suitors' relatives are killed but then Athena makes an appearance and tells everybody to stop and live in peace. Although this is the end of the book, Odysseus still has to go on a small quest. He must walk inland until he finds a people that don't know of the sea, and there he must make a sacrifice to Poseidon to gain forgiveness for blinding Polyphemus.