Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UK Essays.
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the advantages of integrating arts into the curriculum. Looking closely at students with communication disorders, the immeasurable possibilities to aid them with verbal communication aids are never-ending. It is important for educators to acknowledge the success that has been demonstrated when students involve themselves in their learning as well as in their ability to communicate. Arts integration is an educational approach that creates a level of personal connection, as well as an appreciation for different learning styles. An emphasis on the process of discovery with the arts allows for unexpected outcomes. Teachers help students to develop more complex thinking skills, and add depth in the classroom through a creative analysis of the work created. The work is looked at for its meaning rather than its visual appeal. Using the arts can assist students in verbal understanding, focusing and concentration. Ranging from speech disorders to developmental disorders, the idea of art as therapy is never looked at as an alternative within the school system. I will be using the utilization of art integration in the school system as a way to analyze the success of students with speech therapy issues. With the increase in the number of students that need help with speech issues, the variety of methods that teachers are able to use should also expand. By using various strategies teachers demonstrate how the arts ignite creativity and enhance learning. Arts integration as a form of speech therapy in the Elementary Schools has a positive impact on the oral language and overall comprehension in elementary age children.
The art as a method for assisting verbal communication in learning-disabled students combines “articulation and language skills”. Incorporating professional speech pathology strategies, the use of the arts looks at things that might assist the children in not only speaking but also progressing in creating their own communication. The events created are built on a “foundation of methods, enhanced by current research, and techniques that have been successful in many experiences.” (Estrella, 2005)
“Can we think beyond the developmental stages in art that we have taken for granted for so long and that have implicitly limited the possibilities of experiences and materials that we have offered children?” (Mason 2006)
It is important that all educators acknowledge the success that has been demonstrated when students involve themselves in their learning. Arts integration is an educational approach that creates a level of personal connection, as well as an appreciation for different learning styles, for both professor and student. Before finding the answer to questions regarding art in relation to communication it is necessary to understand the background, history, and importance of what Art Therapy is. Although similarly different, Art Integration and Art Therapy are similar notions but different practices. With a general concentration on combining art into the curriculum, Art Integration is a general education tool. While art therapy focuses solely on the use of art in relation to verbal exercises. Art Therapy by definition is a form of psychotherapy; in psychotherapy there is an exploration of feelings and concerns in nonverbal and verbal exercises that use simple visual art materials. Art therapy focuses on the creative processes possible for a person instead of what they are able to produce. Perplexing and difficult feelings are able to be expressed through using Art Therapy because it is presented in a non-threatening manner. It is used to encourage insight, self-awareness, and independence of the patient. Teachers help students to develop more complex thinking skills, and add depth in the classroom through a creative analysis. Those who utilize Art Therapy often feel they are able to communicate and gain understanding within various communicational aspects through it. Art Therapy is said to help in a creative process that a person goes through in which they can find “inner guidance” and find “self-healing” at a conscious level.(Ulman, 1975) Art Therapy can be expressed through “storytelling, poetry, music, dance, visual arts, painting, sculpture, and any other type of creativity activity”.(Ulman, 1975) Many Art Therapists believe that there is growing a stronger connection between art and healing and believe that Art Therapy is significant to a person’s health.
In an article entitled “Expressive Therapy: An Integrated Arts Approach” expressive therapist Estrella, discusses expressive arts therapy, integrative arts therapy, and therapy as an all-purpose treatment for children with communicative as well as learning disabilities. Her idea of “interrelatedness of the arts” takes an integrated approach to the use of the “arts as a tool for psychotherapy.” “Also referred to as expressive arts therapy, integrative arts therapy, multimodal expressive therapy, or intermodal expressive therapy”, according to the author this represents a “discipline rooted in philosophical, cultural/historical, and clinical models that each support the unique contributions that an interdisciplinary approach to the arts affords.” (Estrella 2005)
Using the arts can assist students in understanding, focusing and concentrating. Arts integration in the Elementary Schools has a positive impact on the language, oral as well as overall comprehension in elementary age children. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the advantages of integrating and effectively using the arts in the curriculum as a therapy tool, for students with language as well as communication disorders. Furthermore, this paper will evaluate the arts as an integration tool to encourage mainstreaming of LD (Learning Disabled) students into the classroom. By using these various strategies teachers demonstrate how the arts ignite creativity and enhance learning. “There is a growing recognition of the arts as intrinsically interdisciplinary.”(Estrella, 2005)
“Recent research tends to stress the negative impact of knowledge on drawing, the extent to which what children know about an object prevents them from drawing what they see.” (Giles 2004)
The arts too many educators are viewed as leisure activity, non-academic, and irrelevant to the employment world. An integrative approach to teaching, for example, “connects visualization with reading comprehension, contextualizes math, or brings an experiential context to the science or social studies classroom.”(Estrella 2005) Funding for art education in many schools both public and private has significantly reduced or completely been cut. Government officials at state or city levels feel the need for art education is not as significant as the need for more academic based programs like mathematics, history, science and social studies. Studies proposed to make a cut of 35.6 million dollars in art education (FY 2006 Ed Budget Summary, 2005). Officials see art education as something that is impeding on their student’s academic careers, rather than helping them. Using the arts can assist students in understanding and applying skills to standardized exams. Focus and concentration can be developed through an appreciation and appliance of different learning styles, such as “linguistic, visual or kinesthetic thinking.”(Estrella 2005)
Through the integration of insight into cognition (thinking) and expression (acting) students perform at a higher level. Although art therapy has been used in some fashion beginning in the “first half of the twentieth century”, its range of helpful effects is still only partially explored today. (Appel 2006) Therapists constantly invent new ways to use the arts to assist people with a variety of disabilities and psychological problems. However, it was not until about “one hundred years ago that doctors began to record descriptions of spontaneous artwork done by their patients”. (Appel 2006) “The emotional development of children, fostered through encouragement of spontaneous creative expression and self-motivated learning, should take precedence over the traditional intellectual approach to the teaching of standardized curriculum”(Appel 2006). Not only does it encompass “less threatening, non-verbal techniques with patients that have profound difficulty verbalizing” their feelings and thoughts; it can be used to “open and expand verbal communication’, as well.(Geist 2008) Art therapy, is meant to function as a way of supporting “ego functioning by enhancing a sense of identity and self-esteem and in the process, fostering maturation” in the patient.(Ulman 2005) In other words, Art therapy complements or supports psychotherapy but does not replace it. An entity of its own, psychotherapy, although an effective therapy method, would be used with art therapy rather than by itself. From the earliest days of psychoanalysis, the making of art was viewed according to the analyst’s theoretical stance. By examining the patient’s conscious mind art therapy is still engaged in this fashion as an attachment to logical treatment. This concept has also had a “considerable impact on the broader field”. (Strand 2006)
There are many fields of study that focus on children and their needs whether it may be mental, social or physical, one of these fields of study is child psychology. Child psychology is a form of study that allows understanding the developmental stages of children and what should be expected of them during their different stages. But art therapy permits us to understand children at a different level, a more intimate level, allowing us to view more in-depth the mind of a child. By understanding the developmental and behavioral stages of children, therapists can better identify what is hindering the child from proper and age appropriate communication. The theory that encompasses ideas to increase aid for students with developmental disorders touched upon by theorist Lev Vygotsky, who states that culture gives the child the cognitive tools needed for development. Vygotsky’s “zone of proximal development” is one of his best-known concepts. The overall role of the speech-language pathologist is the integration of “fluency-shaping and stuttering modification approaches.” The author goes in detail about how well children represent events seeming in “their world” in relation to speech. The authors concept in relation to Vygotsky and his theory of Scaffolding which argues that students can, with help from adults or children who are more advanced, master concepts and ideas that they cannot understand on their own, connects directly through a process of using what the students already know, to develop the things they need help with.
Those who argue against funding arts education need to take a closer look at what art education does for a child. With the constant need for extracurricular activities resources in the schools are limited, with too much emphasis on instruction time; students lose the opportunity to express themselves as individuals. As displayed in the graph above, a 2003 study of a Minneapolis Elementary school system showed the overall amount of students that had integration in schooling had an impactful increase in the amount on their reading score. The “pink line” representing the English Language Learners showed a valuable increase in the total reading scores increased in relation to the amount of integration incorporated. Likewise, the amount of students qualifying for free lunch had a measurable increase due to an increase of arts integration. Researchers have found that enriched arts education bridges gaps created by socioeconomic and language barriers because art is a shared language and skill that all children understand. Likewise, research has shown through the graph that Low-SES students involved in music programs outscored low-SES no-music students on the referenced mathematics assessment. Low-SES students who were more involved in drama activities had greater reading proficiency and a more positive self-concept, and the gaps widened over time, as compared to low-SES students with little or no involvement.
With the 2001 “No Child Left Behind Act”, some states and districts have dramatically cut back their arts programs as well as decreased funding for arts education; the number of art, music, and drama teachers; and the time chosen in schools for art related activities. But in many instances there is a lack of knowledge about art and its therapeutic forms, among caregivers as well as among those who could benefit from it. As Ulman points out, the term “Art Therapy” is used to refer to a variety of practices with many different aims, noting that there are numerous different kinds of qualifications. What all art therapy has in common, however, is that engaging in an art practice is “used in some attempt to assist integration or reintegration of personalities.”(Ulman 2005) Similarly, an interview from the mother of a now, 11 year old son states that when he was 5- 8 years old he participated in art/play therapy and states that, “It (art therapy) has helped him to accept himself the way he is. He had difficulty feeling like he was “different” from other children and the play/art therapy has helped him understand to accept the differences as positive aspects of his life.” (N. Gidney, personal communication, February 14, 2010)
In a 2010 article about funding in schools, Holly Lambert, a teacher at Morgan School in uptown Charlotte, is reaching out to the ASC (Arts & Science Council) for “up to $60,000 through a web site that raises money and matches donations to go towards the arts education across the United States (DonorsChoose.org).” Lambert and many of her colleagues are submitting requests for “musical instruments, art supplies and other materials on a special page: donorschoose.org/asc. The ASC will match up to $30,000.” The need for resources is ever growing and will continue to increase as funding decreases. (Brown, 2010)
Teachers often find themselves in a field without formal “recognized certification”; working within schools art teachers or classroom teachers, often have to teach in their own art field, because a standard art inclusion curriculum isn’t provided. Meanwhile, boards of education, principals, and state legislatures are pressing for reading, mathematics, science, and social studies achievement, placing the arts in schools at risk.
In this graph it displays a fifth grade classroom, focusing on males. This shows, likewise to the other graph, a significant increase in the reading scores in relation to the amount of integration. The more integration allowed, the better the students’ scores ended up, especially in males. Students performing “below the standard” or “nearly meeting the standard,” require educational opportunities that partner their learning styles (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal) with their areas of weakness (verbal linguistic, logical/mathematical). (Wadeson 1980)
Q: Do the arts transform the environment for learning?
Language for the students should strive at all times to develop an atmosphere that encourages verbal communication. In this, interviewer N. Gidney states that her sons “communication skills have increased through play therapy. Through the play therapy we have learned new ways to communicate with each other. I have learned a lot about the way he communicates and it has helped my son to feel more comfortable talking to me about subjects he may not have if it was not for the therapy.” (N. Gidney, personal communication, February 14, 2010)
Likewise, there must be times of quiet during the school day for individualized instruction, but in integrating art into the curriculum it encourages and helps develop independent working skills. In providing enriching language activities more can be made of group activities. The idea of social exchange is evident when looking at the things that encourage students to speak to each other rather than think independently. The development of language skills is important for successful interpersonal communication. Geist argues in an article entitled “Integrating Music Therapy Services and Speech-Language Therapy Services for Children with Severe Communication Impairments: A Co-Treatment Model,” how preschool children with speech-language disorders demonstrated social communication skills in basic group music activities with their non-disabled peers. This text connects directly to BF Skinners behaviorism theory stating that “learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment.” The effectiveness of arts activities relating to the overall goals of a special needs students as well as the overall goals of the academic curriculum. Perceptual training through the arts is emphasized, and teacher’s guides to problems related to slow learners as well.
“"¦Although researchers involved with child art have long insisted that art is far more tightly interwoven in the fabric of human learning than contemporary Western culture tends to admit, the complex socio cultural and historical reasons for the peripheral position of art in North American schools and preschools remain to be fully explicated, widely understood, and revised in action.” (Geist 2008)
By using and integrating art into lessons, techniques to broaden language experiences using activities that are divergent from the traditional instructional processes, bombard the child with experiences and specific uses of language, exposing them to a variety of modes of expression, encouraging listening skills, thinking skills, and opportunities for talking. Often times the language distorted child feels self-conscious in speaking before others. The child is often misunderstood, resulting in a reluctance to attempt further verbal communication, resulting in looking for ways of dealing with this hesitancy to talk. With the integration of various art forms, these students with communication disorders or an inability to verbalize become responsible for expressing themselves to other children through a range of media.
“Drawings are believed to reflect the subject’s mental representations and conceptual knowledge about the objects they draw. Drawings become more accurate and detailed as children’s mental models of the world become more extensive and differentiated.” (Gardner 2006)
Certain forms of arts instruction enhance and complement basic reading instruction aimed at helping children “break the phonetic code” that unlocks written language by associating letters, words and phrases with sounds, sentences and meanings. Since we do not “read reading” but rather texts of various kinds in search of meaning, it is important that forms of arts instruction promote both basic reading skills and the achievement motivation that engages young learners in the reading experience. Children develop the ability to write, read, speak, listen, and think by having “real” experiences with motor activities, reading, speaking, writing, listening, and thinking, and by getting support from experienced learners. Integrating the arts means that the elements of creativity are developed and taught with a set of common experiences. (Gardner 2006)
There are many advantages to integrating the arts in relation to speech therapy. Children learn all aspects of language by using language in purposeful situations as well as in situations they enjoy. By integrating the arts into therapy methods, we put children in situations that match the way in which they naturally learn and use language. By integrating the arts for children with communication delays, children develop better critical thinking abilities. A treatment for many kids with speech and or language disorders refers to a problem with the actual production of sounds, where a language disorder refers to a difficulty understanding or putting words together to communicate ideas.
As defined, a speech or communication disorder is characterized by the following:
“Articulation disorders include difficulties producing sounds in syllables or saying words incorrectly to the point that other people can’t understand what’s being said.
Fluency disorders include problems such as stuttering, the condition in which the flow of speech is interrupted by abnormal stoppages, repetitions (st-st-stuttering), or prolonging sounds and syllables (ssssstuttering).
Resonance or voice disorders include problems with the pitch, volume, or quality of the voice that distract listeners from what’s being said. These types of disorders may also cause pain or discomfort for the child when speaking.
Dysphasia/oral feeding disorders, including difficulties with eating and swallowing.” (Sutton 24)
Because language disorders can be either passionate or significant, therapy should focus on children who have difficulties understanding language as well as those who difficulty putting words together, limited vocabulary, or inability to use language in a socially appropriate way. Including art, books, objects as well as constant events, these aid in the stimulation of language development. Repetition as well as exercises to build speech and language skills help with articulation or sound production. With the variety of reasons why children need speech therapy, the arts in collaboration relates to cognitive (intellectual thinking) or other developmental delays and motor problems.
Certain music instruction, including inclusive instruction that includes spatial training, “develops spatial reasoning and spatial-temporal reasoning skills”, which are fundamental to understanding and using mathematical ideas and concepts. Learning in individual art forms as well as in multi-arts experiences engages and strengthens fundamental capacities as “spatial reasoning”, including organizing and sequences, conditional reasoning, theory and consequences, problem solving, and creative thinking.
Those officials that are not fighting the budget cuts made towards music education are becoming a part of the reason that current youth will suffer a loss in education. The attitude that math and science are the most valuable subjects to learn is carried over in the budget debate. It has made the whole idea of publicly funded fine arts projects seem wasteful and frivolous. Students who were achieving at academic expectation scored high on all rhythmic tasks, while many of those who scored lower on the rhythmic test achieved below academic expectation. If music education keeps being disregarded, America will suffer by losing a unique opportunity to educate children and keep them in school. Creative thinking skills are improved, by using “the side of their brains that don’t get used in math and science”. Geist argues that music therapy can be integrated with speech therapy and service as an effective method for children with communication delays. This argument is that with the integration of communication arts through music effective speech-language services are set. Through mutual models with “procedures, experiences, and communication outcomes” demonstrate how preschool children with speech-language disorders “demonstrated social communication skills in basic group music activities with their non-disabled peers”. However, many professionals are working carefully to improve procedures to “address the varied and sometimes complex communication and educational needs of children with disabilities” (Geist 2008).
Sublimation is a topic that is notorious in art therapy, where some art therapists support the concept and others dismiss it. According to Ulman, author of Art Therapy, “only on the basis of sublimation can the function of art and full potential of art therapy be adequately understood” (8). While some art therapists believe that the therapeutic value of art therapy can only be achieved through sublimation, many others have witnessed the positive effects art therapy can have in individuals who do not achieve sublimation. This text relates directly to my topic in that through the theorist Freud and his Artistic Sublimation theory. Which states Sublimation is the transformation of unwanted impulses into something less harmful. This can simply be a distracting release or may be a constructive and valuable piece of work, in relation to art. Sublimation channels this energy away from destructive acts and into something that is socially acceptable and/or creatively effective.
Typically, an Art Therapy assessment involves the therapist’s giving the client a series of five or six art tasks, using a variety of media. These tasks relate to the student’s perception of self, his or her family, and school, or other aspects of their environment. These drawings and the student’s behavior while approaching this task are then evaluated along with developmental, family, and academic history. It is important to note that children’s progress in drawing differs significantly across the cultural spectrum. A person who uses art as an assessment tool needs to be familiar with the art children are exposed to and the culture they are from, before making an evaluation.
Ulman describes sublimation as “instinctual behavior is replaced by a social act in such a manner that this change is experienced as a victory over the ego” (balance between reality, primitive drives, morals) (p. 8). According to Ulman, “Artistic sublimation consists in the creation of visual images for the purpose of communicating to a group very complex material which would not be available for communication in any other form"¦Every work of art contains a core of conflicting drives which give it life and determine form and content to a large degree”
Fine arts educations were not seen as important or even minimally essential, “music should be used to help students overcome racial and cultural stereotyping, bias, and insensitivity”. Studies have shown the number of years of instrumental music instruction and academic achievement in math, science and language arts are significantly connected. This practice emphasizes the adaptive components that can be put into music integration. Focusing but not limiting to autistic students, Geist claims that when paired with music, speech contributes to feelings that need to be expressed. What students are able to learn, as well as retain through the arts is demonstrated in a variety of mediums. Young children who engage in dramatic enactments of stories and text improve their reading comprehension, story understanding and ability to read new materials they have not seen before. The effects are even more significant for children from economically disadvantaged circumstances and those with reading difficulties in the early and middle grades.
In looking at dance integration researchers suggest it encourages pro-social behaviors as well as self-control. The ability to express oneself through dance shows a significant decrease in the frequency of negative behaviors. These techniques were introduced using movement, childrenrsquos stories and discussion. Using dance in the classroom, results have shown that teachers noticed a significant decrease in violent behavior in their students. Including fights, failing to pacify, being frustrated as well as not being able to control their emotions. The children reported significant decreases of these behaviors both seen and experienced: “someone is doing something wrong,” and “someone throwing something.” Significant changes in the students’ perceptions and feelings about experiencing or seeing aggression were noted in their “not feeling happy”. The use of dance in the classroom allows students to handle themselves and responding to certain situations. Research in dance showed an increase of ldquofeeling happy,rdquo and a decrease in ldquofeeling scared.rdquo (Wadeson 1980)
“Cognitive psychologists continue to undertake studies related to children’s art experiences, operating within an established consensus regarding the nature of age related changes in children’s drawings observes persistent interest among his colleagues in children’s passage from “intellectual” to “visual realism”. (Purnell 2004)
Art therapy is a therapy technique that did not “position its existence until the 1940s” (Sutton 12). Originally techniques used in art therapy were used in other form of therapy such psychoanalysis or the method of understanding mental life. In which a person would illustrate spontaneously and use free-association.
“Art therapy gives children both verbal and nonverbal outlets. In art therapy the whole creative of art is recognized: form, content, and individual meaning. Art therapy helps in reconciling emotional conflicts as well as promoting self-awareness and personal growth.” (Mishook 2006)
The process of creating art is rather simple, while the field of art therapy is complex. Creating art in a therapeutic setting the child goes through a process. Focusing on a feeling or an event; creating an image that represents the feeling or even; and discussing the significance of the created image (Kramer 1971). In the creation of an image the client is given a choice of various mediums whether it is drawing, painting, modeling, or construction.
A more structured technique in art therapy is that of the “Human Figure Drawing Test” by Elizabeth Koppitz. This technique is used to measure a child’s emotional and mental development. Various depictions of figures have meanings. According to Koppitz, if child were to draw “small figures these would be interpreted as meaning being timid, while large figures would represent aggression”. Likewise some of these drawings reveal the relationships between the members of the child’s family.
According to (Gullant 2008) the Best Practice for Arts Integrated 21st century Learning include the idea that the products created “reflect students’ responsibility for identifying problems and issues, conducting research, examining values, and making reflective decisions within an arts infused curriculum.” This also includes “active involvement in developmentally appropriate activities results in high-quality works that are a fusion of arts and non-arts disciplines.”
Gardner refers to the ages between 5 and 7 as “the golden age of drawing,” and the research teams have devoted considerable attention to the apparent demise of artistry in the middle to late childhood and its unreliable resurgence in adolescence.” (Geist 2004)
Developmental aspects of children’s drawings
In 1947 Victor Lowenfeld published the book Creative and Mental Growth that was used to connect intellectual growth, psychosocial stages of development, and six stages of development in children’s drawings. Kellogg Foundation (1970) also supported the conclusion that children progress in drawing through different stages, fall into predictable age groups. The Scribble Stage, which appears at about eighteen months to two years of age is said to not just be aimless motion created at random by the child, but demonstrates an awareness of pattern and growing hand-eye coordination. (Silk & Thomas, 1990; Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987)
“Soon after children start scribbling, they will start to name what it was they drew after they have finished drawing it. Around two years of age, children will sometimes label their drawing before they have started working on it, but if the drawing looks like something else to them, they may just change the label. Their scribbles progressively become more recognizable and separate shapes appear on the same page. At around three and a half years, children begin incorporating details like fingers on hands.” (Silk & Thomas, 1990; Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987)
The following stages from ages four to nine consist of two drawing stages, The “Pre-Schematic” Stage and the “Schematic” Stage. Both identified by Lowenfeld, the “Pre- Schematic stage is when children can draw a human figure with a circle and two dangling lines for legs, sometimes as Lowenfeld states include a
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Language technique plays an essential role in writing a story or assignment writing. There is a wide range of language techniques. Before we go further, it’s important for us to know the definition of Language techniques.
What is language technique?
Language techniques are the elements that a writer brings to his or her story to emphasize the theme on which they are focusing. It plays an important factor in writing an essay or story.
Language techniques and elements can be found anywhere in the story. As a result, it helps a student to understand a story, poem, essay, or novel in a better way.
Language techniques and their effects
Language technique helps you to score well in your writing. If you have a deep understanding of language techniques, then you can score well. For this, you need to understand language techniques deeply.
Language techniques and their effects help you to understand the following principal factors:
- How writers gain impact in their writing
- to use various features in your writing (creative and transactional, as well as for your oral presentations) to craft your writing and gain impact
- to help you achieve unit standards which require you to explore language and think critically about poetic/transactional/oral texts
In the English language, you will learn many language techniques. These techniques are helpful in making a good essay or story. These techniques help us to write in a different style and format. Moreover, these are the base of the writing techniques.
First of all, we will discuss the language feature and the common verbal language technique.
Let’s discuss the Language feature.
When analyzing language, you must show that you are aware of how it is written. This means identifying the language features used and explaining their effect. This will get clearer when you read the examples.
Let us discuss more than 10 techniques that everyone should know.
Common Verbal/Written English Techniques
Now, let’s discuss the most common English language techniques! These include literary techniques and figures of speech that we use in the English language to convey messages, meaning, or depth in our writing, poetry, or storylines. Here we will discuss the list of structural features in English.
It is the repetition of the vowel sounds creating an internal rhyming within phrases and sentences.
In the sentence, “The mother spoke in a low mellow tone.” This contains the repetition of the “o” sound. This indicates that there is a repetition of a vowel sound.
Imagery is a popular language technique. It is useful for the students. It helps the students to set up an image or scene in the audience’s mind. This makes a sensory impression in their mind. The students can relate their task with the help of imagery.
In the sentence: The music was so moving that our whole body was shaking as if it came from within us.
Imperatives are one of the most important language techniques. We use imperatives to give orders, commands, warnings or instruction. If you request somebody, then we use “please.”
- Come here!
- Sit down!
- Do not walk on the grass.
Minor sentences are also known as irregular sentences. These sentences consist the following:
- single words
- sentence fragments
There are two main parts of a Minor sentence:
Single words sentences
In conversational language, we use single words to get the response or information from another person. Some of the single word sentences are sentence words, one-word sentences, or just word sentences.
- Person A: “Where is your meeting again?”
- Person B: “Denver.”
Even though person B responded in a single word, but it contains all the relevant information that is necessary for the context of the conversation.
We often use sentence fragments as standalone sentences. The following are the examples:
- Incomplete clauses
- Dependent clauses
In conversational English, we use these language techniques. When we talk or respond to another person, we use this language technique.
- Person A: “Are you going to have lunch soon?”
- B: “In about an hour.” (prepositional phrase)
- Person A: “Do you want to come to a movie with me later?”
- B: “Sounds good!” (incomplete clause)
- Person A: “When did you realize that you wanted to pursue politics?”
- B: “When I was in college.” (dependent clause)
Interjections convey emotions, expresses meaning and feeling. Interjections are divided into primary and secondary interjections.
Primary interjections are single words derived from sounds, rather than from existing word classes. It still has widely recognized meaning. Some common primary interjections are:
- argh (an expression of frustration)
- brr (an expression of being cold)
- eww (an expression of disgust)
- grr (an expression of anger)
- ooh (an expression of amazement)
- phew (an expression of relief)
A comma helps in linking the interjections to a major sentence. They can also stand on their own as minor sentences. You can punctuate an interjection with the help of exclamation marks.
- “Ooh! That’s a beautiful dress.”
- “Brr! It’s freezing in here!”
- “Eww! I hate coconuts!”
Secondary interjections are single words or short phrases that belong to other existing word classes. Some common secondary interjections are:
- bless you
- good grief
- oh my
- oh well
- oh my God
Secondary interjections often punctuated with exclamation points. For example:
- “Oh my God! We won the lottery!”
- “Wow! What a great achievement!”
- “Congratulations! That was an impressive victory.”
However, we can also have weaker secondary interjections that are punctuated with periods or interrogative ones that use question marks.
- “Well shoot. I really thought we were going to win.”
- “Good grief. I didn’t see that coming.”
- “Well? Are we going to watch a movie?”
- “What? You don’t like coconuts?”
An idiom is a phrase or fixed expression that has a figurative, or sometimes literal, meaning. While talking in conversational language, we use Idioms.
- Person A: “Hi, how are you?”
- Person B: “Hey, Jeff! Long time no see!”
- Person A: “How can you evict us from our house like this
- B: “Orders are orders.”
- Person A: “When will you have that report ready for me?”
- B: “Any minute now!”
Idioms are frequently used and understood in everyday speech and writing. They are abbreviated, with the full phrase left to be understood by the listener or reader. For instance:
- Person A: “I went through all the trouble of getting her this job, and she still managed to screw it up.”
- B: “Well, you can lead a horse to water.” (Short form of “You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make it drink.”)
- Person A: “I took them to the best restaurant in town, but they said they would rather have had cheeseburgers.”
- B: “What do you expect? Pearls before swine.” (Short form of ”cast(one’s) pearls before swine”. )
Proverbs are similar to idioms. They are also understood due to their frequent use. Proverbs are widely used by everyone. Proverbs are self-contained sentences that express a truth based on common sense or shared experience. Many of them are divided into minor sentences over time.
- “You should try and form better habits in your day-to-day routine. Early to bed, early to rise, that sort of thing!” (Short for “Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise”)
- “I’m not sure why people are shocked that he’s suspected of stealing. If the shoe fits.” (Short for “If the shoe fits, wear it.”)
- “Sure, bring your friends. The more, the merrier!”.
Have you ever heard the following words?
What do you think, what are the common things in these words?
Shakespeare invented them and was termed as neologisms. Neologism is new word or phrase which most of the writers does not use now. Shakespeare used neologism in his stories and poems.
butter: to give a long, rambling speech about uncertainty
Butter combines other words like blabber and stutter to create a new word with a new meaning.
onesteva: the sound an off the hook phone makes
This word is an attempt at having a word for the sound we all know so well.
sarchasm: the gulf between the author of sarcastic cleverness and the person who doesn’t get it
This word combines sarcasm with chasm for a humorous new word.
Types of Neologisms
As there are a variety of ways to make new words, there are a variety of types of neologisms. Here are a few specific types of neologisms:
Portmanteaus or Blend Words
Portmanteaus do just what they say: Two words are blend together to create a new word which combines their meanings.
Here are a few examples of blend words:
- smoke + fog = smog
- spoon + fork = spork
- breakfast + lunch = brunch
Derived words are words that use ancient Greek and Latin phrases to match the English language.
Here are a few examples of derived words:
1.Latin word: Villa
Meaning: villa or house
Derived words: villa, village, villager
2.Latin word: sub
Derived words: submarine, subway
3.Latin word: Copia
Derived words: cornucopia, copious
Transferred words take derived words to a whole new level, as they encompass words taken from another language and used in an adjusted form in English.
- herbs from French is known as herbes meaning herbs
- alligator from Spanish is known as meaning lizard
- wiener dog from German is known as wiener meaning hot dog
New words come from creativity and invention. Sometimes we merge the existing words and borrow some from other cultures and languages.
Onomatopoeia is a language technique, which copies the natural sounds of a thing. It creates a sound effect that mimics the thing described. This makes the description more expressive and interesting.
“The gushing stream flows in the forest.”
It is a more meaningful description than just saying, “The stream flows in the forest.” It has said to attract the attention of the reader. It is done purposely to draw the reader’s attention to hear the sound of a “gushing stream.” This is making the expression more effective.
Words such as I, my, you, me, he, she, our, is known as the personal pronoun. The target is to attract the reader’s attention in a direct manner. It makes the readers involved and engaged.
Example: you can make a difference.:
In personification, you relate the qualities of a person to a non-human object. Personification makes non-living objects seem lively and lifelike. Moreover, it also contributes to our sense of togetherness with these non-living objects.
Raindrops danced on the pavement
Rhyme is a repetition of similar-sounding words occurring at the end of lines in poems or songs. It gives a pleasing effect to a poem. Moreover, it offers itself as a prompt device smoothing the progress of memorization.
For instance, all nursery rhymes contain rhyming words in order to ease learning for children. This helps them to memorize that particular poem effortlessly.
We do not seem to forget the nursery rhymes we learned as a kid. Below are a few nursery rhyme examples with rhyming words in bold and italics:
Baa baa black sheep, have you any wool?
Yes sir, yes sir, three bags full!
One for the master, one for the dame,
And one for the little boy who lives down the lane.
Simple sentences as a language technique are very useful for the students. It makes the communication easy to understand. Moreover, they are short and to the point. Simple sentences are the easiest way to attract the reader’s attention. It is a popular language technique.
The services are expensive
Slang consists of words that are non-standard in a given language and is generally spoken to show inclusion in a certain social group.
“Last night was flop. I was supposed to go to a party with my friends, but they flopped on me. They are all such floppers.”
Here the slang term being used is “flop” which means a planned event does not happen. A flopper is someone who cancels the plan at the last minute.
A catchy language technique strikes the attention of the reader. It has short and striking phrases.
‘If you think education is expensive, try ignorance’ – Derek Bok (US educator and lawyer)
Till now, Moreover, this will make you understand the language technique deeply.
Any words that cause an emotional reaction are examples of emotive language.
Put that in the recycle bin.
This sentence is not emotive. It is a command, but it does not cause an emotional reaction.
You should recycle because it saves the planet.
This sentence is emotive. It suggests an action that produces an emotional response.
Don’t you want to save the planet? How could you choose not to recycle since it saves the planet?
The emotive response causes a reaction or a response.
The Effect of Emotive Language
Especially relevant, Emotive language causes an effect on the audience. When used effectively, emotive language can cause an audience to react in a particular way.
This audience manipulation is a type of rhetoric. Therefore, emotive language can cause an audience to take action or to argue with the speaker.
Emotive language should not be overused. Additionally, we should use when there is a purpose. The speaker should achieve what he/she exactly wants. As a result, using emotive language effectively can be very beneficial to a speaker.
Coming on to the next section, we will discuss the different literary techniques. Before proceeding, we must know that what are the different literary techniques?
What is a literary device?
Commonly, the term Literary Devices refers to the typical structures used by writers in their works to convey his or her message(s) in a simple manner to his or her readers. When employed properly, the different literary devices help readers to appreciate, interpret and analyze a literary work.
There are two main parts of Literary devices:
- Literary elements
- Literary techniques
The writers use Literary Elements to develop a literary piece e.g. plot, setting, narrative structure, characters, mood, theme, moral, etc. Writers simply cannot create his desired work without including Literary Elements in a thoroughly professional manner.
Common Literary Elements
Plot: The logical sequence of events that develop a story.
Setting: It refers to the time and place in which a story takes place.
Protagonist: It is the main character of story, novel or a play e.g. Hamlet in the play Hamlet
Antagonist: It is the character in conflict with the Protagonist e.g. Claudius in the play Hamlet
Narrator: A person who tells the story.
Narrative method: The manner in which a narrative is presented comprising plot and setting.
Dialogue: Where characters of a narrative speak to one another.
Conflict: It is an issue in a narrative. The whole story revolves around this.
Mood: A general atmosphere of a narrative.
Theme: It is central idea or concept of a story.
Literary Techniques, on the contrary, are structures usually are words or phrases used in literary texts. A writer uses this to achieve not only artistic ends but also readers understanding and appreciation of their literary works.
Examples are metaphor, simile, alliteration, hyperbole, allegory, etc. In contrast to Literary Elements, Literary Techniques are a major aspect of literary works.
Literary Devices, it is useful to look at their definition and examples:
Common Literary Techniques
Imagery: It is the use of figurative language to create visual representations of actions, objects, and ideas in our mind in such a way that they appeal to our physical senses.
The room was dark and gloomy. -The words “dark” and “gloomy” are visual images.
The river was roaring in the mountains. – The word “roaring” appeals to our sense of hearing.
Simile and Metaphor: Both compare two distinct objects and draws a similarity between them. The difference is that Simile uses “as” or “like” and Metaphor does not.
“My love is like a red red rose” (Simile)
He is an old fox very cunning. (Metaphor)
Hyperbole: It is a deliberate exaggeration of actions and ideas for the sake of emphasis.
Your bag weighs a ton!
I have got a million issues to look after!
Personification: It gives a thing, an idea or an animal-human quality.
The flowers are dancing beside the lake.
Have you seen my new car? She is a real beauty!
Alliteration: It refers to the same consonant sounds in words coming together.
Better butter always makes the batter better.
She sells seashells by the seashore.
Allegory: Here an abstract idea is given in the form of characters, actions or events.
“Animal Farm,” written by George Orwell, is an example allegory using the actions of animals on a farm to represent the overthrow of the last of the Russian Tsar Nicholas II and the Communist Revolution of Russia before WW II. In addition, the actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the Revolution.
Irony: The intended meaning is completely opposite to their literal meaning.
The bread is soft as a stone.
So nice of you to break my new PSP!
Language techniques are vast. Language techniques help the students to write in a different way.
What are Persuasive Techniques?
Persuasive Techniques is presenting reasons and examples to influence action or thought. Effective persuasive writing requires a writer to state clearly an opinion and to supply reasons and specific examples that support the opinion.
We have discussed the different persuasive techniques in our another blog post.
First of all, we should know what language analysis technique is?
Language analysis technique: It means that how the writer conveys meaning through language techniques, such as figures of speech, sentence structure, tone and word choice.
Common language analysis techniques are:
We have discussed all these language analysis techniques in our another blog post.
In conclusion, we have discussed in detail about the language techniques a student must know. These language techniques will help you to understand the functions and usage of the language techniques. These are helpful in your writing techniques. If you implement these techniques in the assignment writing, then you will get the best result.
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Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Indigenous Australians
Motivation and Indigenous AustraliansEdit
The aim of this chapter is to explore motivational psychology within Indigenous Australians. This is far from an easy topic because of the lack of dedicated psychological literature to date. Indigenous psychology only became a teaching requirement within the psychology curriculum in Australia during the 2000s and there are still limited resources on this topic. This is, in part, because there are few Indigenous psychologists and social science researchers. Much of current Indigenous research work pertains to Aboriginal health and social issues, and not necessarily to specifically understanding motivational psychology. Nevertheless, this chapter seeks to identify some motivational psychology groundwork to improve on the psychological understanding of the impact of European settlement on Indigenous Australians' motivation and values.
- What are the traditional values and motivations of indigenous Australians?
- What are the contemporary values and motivations of indigenous Australians?
- What are the motivational differences between indigenous and non-indigenous Australian cultures?
- What kind of impact has European settlement had on influencing or affecting values and motivations within the indigenous Australian cultures?
- It was estimated that indigenous Australians first arrived on the Australian continent around 68,000 years ago. This was a period in time when Australia was closer to Indonesian shores and Tasmania was still apart of the mainland.
- Around 1606, Dutchman Willem Janszoon sailed to west coast Australia. Janszoon was the first European to meet with the native indigenous Australians, where he discovered their semi-nomadic hunting and gathering behavioural habits (Broome, 1994).
- In 1788 the First Fleet arrived in Australia. Indigenous Australian political structure was far different from European political structure, as a result, a cultural gap formed between the indigenous Australians and Europeans.
- Lack of cultural understanding and acceptance lead to violent interactions between the two cultures. Many indigenous people were slaughtered defending territory, family and cultural beliefs (Broome; Clancy 2004 & Kauffman, 2000).
- Introduction of feral animals and plants added to the devastating loss in native wildlife and habitat destruction. The arrival of foreign species meant that new diseases were introduced, to which indigenous Australians had no naturally immunity (Colley, 2002).
- 1869 saw the removal of indigenous Australian children from their families. These children later became known as the Stolen Generation.This period greatly added to the cultural gap already formed at the time (Broome).
- In 1967 a referendum allowing indigenous Australians to be recognised as Australian citizens was accepted throughout the Australian population (Murphy, 2008).
- 1991-2000 saw the endorsement of the Declaration for Reconciliation (Kauffman, 2000).
- 2000 to 2010 saw the Australian government issuing a public apology for the wrongful acts in the past, such as the stolen generation. Today, there is more acceptance and acknowledgment of the indigenous Australian culture (Bretherton & Mellor, 2006).
Comes from Latin word ab origine, meaning "from the origin or beginning". Have prior or historical ownership of a land, maintain parts or all of their distinct traditions and associations with the land. Aborigines differentiated in some way from the surrounding populations and dominant nation’s culture.
Traditional Values and Motivations of Indigenous AustraliansEdit
The Power of Dreaming on Indigenous Motivations, Beliefs and LifeEdit
Traditional values and motivations within the indigenous culture are conveyed through dreaming. This narrative styled law reflects an understanding of truth, goodness and life values. Some of these values include equality, justice and the importance of family and community. Dreaming can be seen as a form of extrinsic motivation, in the sense that if these cultural values and expectations are achieved, then a person will be rewarded in the spirit world. From a non-indigenous perspective, dreaming can be interpreted, as a religion that motivates and encourages a particular style of thinking and living within the world. This style of thinking is unique and spiritual. There are behavioural and cognitive motives that can be characterised by certain rituals within this spiritual religion, that have been preserved and passed down through indigenous generations. Some examples of these rituals include ceremonial dances and dream time stories (Colley, 2002; Howard, Thwaites & Smith, 2001; Kauffman, 2000 & Stasiuk & Kinnane, 2010).
An internal state that arouses, directs and encourages individuals towards some form of goal (Lei, 2010).
Importance of storytelling in reflecting motivations and valuesEdit
Summary of 'The Bat and the Butterfly' dreaming story
"A young man abducts a woman, and keeps her as a prisoner in a cave. Her family is not able to rescue her. As a final resort she turns into a butterfly and escapes. When her captor turns into a bat to chase her he is driven back into the cave by the hunters in the girl's family".
The lesson to the listeners of this story is that however talented you may be, when you behave like a coward and don't follow society's laws then you may be banished to live as another form forever in the darkness. This story also explains the origins of the bat and the butterfly. Stories such as these highlight values and beliefs the mold a society. Dreaming stories act as social models of how individuals are expected to live. The stories create awareness and direct behaviour that is influenced by environmental, social and cultural elements. For the video interpretation of "The Bat and the Butterfly" and other dream time stories click here
Stories from the Dreamtime are extremely complex and sacred, as such, the full meaning is only understood within Indigenous culture itself. For the non-indigenous population the surface meaning is only explained. Therefore, on the surface, dreaming stories help explain the processes that are involved in creating the world, while also acknowledging all living forms and spirits that inhabit the worlds surface, for example the "Bat and the Butterfly" story explains the creation of bats and butterflies. Dreaming stories also draw on values within the tribal regions they are told in. As such, many stories exist that reflect the totemic belief systems and environmental history of the surrounding land (Stasiuk & Kinnane, 2010). Indigenous Australians are motivated to achieve these values and cultural expectations. The bat and butterfly story teaches the lesson of respect for people. As selfishness and greed can result in social and spiritual repercussions. (Chur-Hansen, Caruso, Sumpowthong & Turnbull, 2006; Colley, 2002; Howard, Thwaites & Smith, 2001 & Kauffman, 2000).
Spirituality is a key feature within the Indigenous Australian dreaming and culture. The concept of spirituality is forged around the land, self and community. Spirituality is used as a motivation for health and well-being, where the mind, body and spirit are connected in sickness and healing.All of which ultimately creates purpose and meaning for life and death as it incorporates past, future and present experiences (Kauffman, 2000 & McLennan, 2003).
Dreaming and spirituality are believed to be forms of psychological resilience within the indigenous culture. For instance, indigenous Australians who were part of the stolen generation, where they were acculturated from their indigenous culture, were found to be more susceptible to mental illness than culturally-connected indigenous Australians. In addition, McLennan's (2003) study suggested that higher levels of stress within indigenous Australians at that time was related to their difficulty adapting to this changing social structure. Recent studies suggest that dreaming can create opportunities for indigenous Australians who are experiencing cultural dislocation or stress to reconnect to their ancestors and spiritual aspects of their culture. This connection is highly motivating and significant to their identity and well-being (McLennan). By redeveloping this spiritual bond, McLennan found mental illness to decrease. Stress levels lowered and there was a stronger ability to cope. McLennan's study highlights the potential importance of spirituality in maintaining a sense of purpose and connection to indigenous identity and cultural beliefs, all of which seems to be a source of motivation in regard to psychological survival (McLennan).
A contemporary link to indigenous dreaming, in the aspect of helping to develop meaning and direction in one's life, can be seen within the narrative style therapies that have been employed within counselling settings. Found to be very successful, narrative knowing is based on the idea of making sense of the world by telling stories, which individuals are surrounded by in everyday life. Similar to the ideas behind indigenous dreaming, the narrative is a representation of knowledge, culture, family, life and living. Both the narrative therapy and dreaming emphasise collectiveness and collaboration. Individuals are members of a network and society, which can be interpreted as family, therapist or community type networks. Ultimately, both cultures use narrative style to externalise problems in an expressive and collective nature in order to find solutions (Percy, 2008).
Refocus Box: "The Importance of Dreaming" Margaret Maria Brandl is an educator of Indigenous Australian culture. This is her interpretation of the dreaming;
“Land is hollowed for Aborigines in ways non-Aborigines are not even able to guess at. The landscape as we see it is, to Aboriginal eyes, shaped by the tracks of the ancestors beings who have passed through it and over it (and still do). These marks and tracks of the ancestors can be seen in the shape of the hills and valleys, in the rocks and rivers and caves, in the trees and other plants in it and in the animals that live on it. Such ‘tracks’ become patterns in art or song and dances in music and permeate Aboriginal thinking and life at every level. The land is seen as giving constantly of its riches and resources and stories to its Aboriginal people. Like a mother it cares for them. Aboriginals throughout Australia often say, ‘The Land, my Mother’.”(Kauffman, 2000, p. 6)
Dreaming can be interpreted as a spiritual religion dedicated to the landscape and to the living and spiritual forces. There is a deep sense of respect that transcends from the dreaming, motivating aborigines to understand, acknowledge and pass on the cultural values that are portrayed as sacred and necessary for the survival of this culture (Kauffman, 2000).
de Souza and Rymarz (2007, p. 279) define cultural identity as
the level of identification and integration that individuals have with a particular set of beliefs, practices and way of life. It is critical time in adolescent growth and establishment of cultural identity as an individual moves beyond the perceived control of parents in an attempt to establish ones own identity, which may or may not conflict with community expectation.
History has a strong influence on identity, as cultural identity is highly reliant on being passed down to younger generations by elder community members for its survival. The key feature in keeping cultural identity alive comes down to maintaining a sense of community. It is argued that community offers a variety of basic services and activities. If an indigenous adolescent is unable to obtain the services or have access to particular activities, there is a high chance he or she will search for another community. This may involve finding new social networks with people that do not share the same cultural beliefs, ultimately resulting in a change of cultural identity and motivational source (de Souza & Rymarz, 2007). Research highlights that urbanised indigenous children face a loss of identity due to a high degree of dislocation from their cultural heritage. Indigenous identity has evolved overtime as a result of diverse cultural ideologies and practices that have developed in Australia since before European settlement. Urbanised indigenous people may struggle to reunite with their identity and cultural beliefs. This is believed to be the result of growing urban populations that marginalise the smaller number of indigenous members in such areas. Loss of identity or culture is thought to be a major contributor for lowing motivation to reconnect with one's heritage (de Souza & Rymarz).
Kinship within the aboriginal community instills a great sense of togetherness regardless of genetic linkage. Totems are given to individuals in order to create a place for that person within a community. It can link them to other relatives (via links to totems) in different locations. If an aboriginal has no family in other communities then they can be adopted, if their totem links to another family. They are then termed 'brothers' of that family kinship or new community. Kinship can therefore be seen as a form of human support, this is one of the fundamental needs that maintains or allows motivation to grow. Aboriginal Australians can then develop motivation from the degree of kinship felt within their lives (Broome, 1994; Kauffman, 2000).
Contemporary Values and Motivations of Indigenous AustraliansEdit
Traditional indigenous values, beliefs and motivations have evolved since the arrival of indigenous Australians approximately 68,000 years ago. This evolution is a result of diverse cultural interactions in Australia since European settlement. While the basic concept of dreaming is still strong in the aboriginal culture, there are some changes as a direct result of the technological advances in societies and new awareness of other ideologies and cultural beliefs. This is a large area of interest for Fogarty and White (1994), Schwartz and Bilsky (1987) and Schwartz and Bilsky (1990) who came up with a set of psychological human values with the belief they could be replicated cross-culturally (Schwartz and Bilsky). These values included the biological needs of human beings, the necessity of organised social interaction, survival and welfare in terms of group needs and cognitively formed values that strengthen through socialisation, development, and conscious goal setting. From the above human requirements, 11 motivationally associated values were constructed.
- Self-direction: encompassing creativity, freedom, goal choice, independency and curiosity.
- Stimulation: formed from variety and excitement.
- Hedonism: the pleasures and enjoyment of life itself
- Achievement: the successfulness and capabilities that are the result of ambition, motivation and intelligence.
- Power: level of authority, wealth, social influence, public perception and recognition.
- Security: social order, family security, national security, reciprocation of favours, cleanliness, sense of belonging, health.
- Conformity: obedience and self-discipline, respecting elders and honouring family.
- Tradition: respect for customs, humility, devoutness, acceptance of role in life, moderation.
- Benevolence: helplessness, loyalty, forgiveness, honesty, responsibility, truth, friendship, mature love.
- Universalism: broadmindedness, social justice, equality, world at peace, unity, with nature, wisdom, protection of the environment.
- Spirituality: meaning of life, sense of inner harmony, sense of detachment
(Fogarty & White, 1994, pp. 4-5; Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987; Schwartz & Bilsky, 1990).
Fogarty and White (1994), suggest that only items six to eleven relate to indigenous Australians, as these reflect a more collectivist society. Below are the ten motivational values that were ranked highly for indigenous university students (Fogarty & White, 1994)
The top ten Indigenous motivational values were ranked:
- Family security
- Honoring parents
- Choosing own goal
- True friendship
- Social justice
The above list indicates the motivational values of security and family as being the most important item for indigenous students. Some of the unique motivational values chosen within the indigenous experimental group included honouring parents, equality, politeness and social justice. These values reflect the sixth to eleventh items of Schwartz and Bilsky (1990) motivational associated values. In comparison, non-indigenous student values were found to have more individualistic-oriented rankings, such as family, security, true friendship, health, self-respect, choosing own goals, inner harmony, honesty, freedom, mature love and success.
Motivational Differences Between Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Australian CulturesEdit
Over the years, a popular area of investigation within cross-cultural psychology has been the differing cultural perspectives in Australia (Fogarty & White, 1994). The primary difference in perspectives is believed to come from motivational sources such as values (Vernon, 1976, cited by Fogarty & White, 1994). Chur-Hansen, Caruso, Sumpowthong and Turnbull (2006) add that life perspectives differ between indigenous and non-indigenous people as a result of cultural heritage and value systems. For indigenous populations, education and health systems are inadvertently seen as unnecessary or shameful in regard to cultural pride and values. On the other hand, non-indigenous cultures, such as the dominant white Anglo-Saxon Protestant, highly value education and government health systems. When Indigenous people experience a burden of values between conflicting cultures, which can occur within an education system, then their motivational value system prioritises attitudes and relationships.
Table 1. Some major comparisons between Australian cultures (Harris, 1988, cited by Fogarty & White, 1994, p. 3)
|Indigenous Australian Perspective||Non-Indigenous Australian Perspective|
View knowledge as owned and is looked after by particular people within the community.
|World view consists of major changes that have already taken place||Knowledge is freely available for those who want it.|
|View of world has religious basis||View of world is more scientific (Westernised perspective)|
|View of environment is more passive, with more focus placed on adapting to the land.||Manipulate the land to benefit personally, e.g. farming and introducing foreign plants and animals.|
|Greater emphasis placed on quality of personal relationship and belief that a perfectly good social system exists.||Westernised concepts of world view and progress entails development, change and control.|
Table 1 presents differing Australian cultural perspectives and focuses on what is more salient for each culture. Traditional Aboriginal cultures place a significant weight on personal qualities and relationships as well as a deep sense of respect for the environment and what it has to offer. Christie (1985, cited by Fogarty & White, 1994) highlights that Australian Aboriginals' survival is highly reliant upon communal cooperation and co-existence. Therefore, motivations tend to reflect a collective nature within Indigenous Australian populations. These motivations differ to white Australian populations which are more individualistically-oriented (Fogarty & White, 1994). Schwartz (1990) developed a 56 item questionnaire to determine motivational values across cultures. The questionnaire was used on indigenous and non-indigenous university students. Results found differences in motivational values, providing further evidence to suggest that indigenous Australian student values reflect collective tendencies.
Contemporary issues facing Indigenous AustraliansEdit
Indigenous families and community are believed to experience greater levels of exposure to stressors that have the potential to be detrimental to well-being.These stressors can include health issues like, mental disorders, death of family members or friends, accidents and disability. There are stressors that relate to relationship breakdowns, unemployment issues, risk seeking behaviours in regard to alcoholic consumption and taking drugs, witnessing violent, abusive acts and associating in criminal activity. Lastly, there are stressors in relation to imprisonment, overcrowded living arrangements, anxiety from pressures to achieve cultural responsibilities and dealing with experiences of racism and discrimination. Current literature highlights the increased likelihood for indigenous populations to experience one or more of the above stressors than non-indigenous populations (Fordham & Schwab, 2007, p. 15).
As one of the most disadvantaged cultures in Australia, governments and communities are highly motivated to help form better living conditions and respect for the Australian indigenous culture. Below are just some of the problems indigenous populations are still facing today:
- Poor housing
- Lower life expectancy
- Higher unemployment
- Lower incomes
- Lower participation in education
- Higher imprisonment rates
- Higher alcohol consumption rates
Much of these problems are the result of dispossession, racism and lack of understanding from the wider Australian community (Colley, 2002; Fordham & Schwab, 2007; & Kauffman, 2000). As a result of this, governments are trying to find ways of empowering and assisting the indigenous community. This includes providing better educational opportunities such as giving scholarships to study at universities; creating more job opportunities, introducing government social support systems, like helping individuals who can not find jobs and promoting reconciliation through awareness on indigenous cultures. (Colley, 2002; & Kauffman, 2000)
Indigenous Motivational Behaviours within Academic SettingsEdit
Another area of differences in motivation between indigenous and non-indigenous Australian populations can be seen in academic settings. A study by McInerney (2008) revealed differences in motivations using the personal investment theory. This theory is based on motivational components of achievement goal, which embodies an individual's abilities, mastership and adeptness within life, sense of self, where an individual has purpose, resilience and a self concept, and finally, facilitating conditions, which encompasses external support from people such as family, teachers and friends. According to personal investment theory these key motivational elements assist in the learning processes within academic settings. The study revealed that aboriginal students more often missed school then non-indigenous students. This is one possible explanation for lower academic levels within this population. McInerney believes this aspect of personal investment theory is linked to negative self concept, where school is not seen as important and therefore motivation to go or participate is low. This may be a direct result of minimal facilitating conditions as defined in the personal investment theory. Results found aboriginal students had lower levels of family support when it came to encouraging school attendance and achieving goals at school. It was further found that Aboriginal students were exposed to higher levels of negative peer influence for things like truancy. Aboriginal student awareness and acknowledgment of lacking social support is believed to be a major contributor for decreasing motivation in academic settings. This is then thought to create a chain reaction effect that later impacts on learning and future opportunities (Bodkin-Andrews, Craven & Martin, 2006 & McInerney, 2008).
Impact of European Settlement on Values and Motivations Within Indigenous Australian CultureEdit
A theory in motivation involved with effectively supporting intrinsic predispositions in regard to behaviours and cognitions
Motivations can be used as a valuable resource in the face of adversity, it can help people to adapt to environmental, social and personal challenges that arise overtime. When individuals feel helpless or a loss of control, then motivation can act as a driving force to help cope with unpredictable situations. In 1788, a sense of helplessness and loss of external control were real threats to the indigenous population at the time. The arrival of European settlers changed the indigenous social system dramatically, as there was a push for acculturation by the Europeans as a solution to the violent political struggles over land issues and for ultimate cultural dominance (Chur-Hansen et al., 2006). It is thought that one of the reasons indigenous Australians survived this unsettling era, was due to high levels of motivational adaptation through self determination (Colley 2002 & Murphy, 2008). Despite the dispossession, loss and human suffering, the indigenous population fought for their human and political rights, with the motivational belief that land taken away centuries ago should be returned. Furthermore, there was a push from state and federal governments to have a better understanding of indigenous culture, society and identity, with the belief it should be preserved not repressed (Colley; Finlayson & Curthoys, 1997 & Murphy).
Can you remember some of the major differences in indigenous cultures and non-indigenous cultures?
Here is a quick test to see how much you have learnt.
INSTRUCTIONS: Circle whether the following statements are characteristic of indigenous cultures or non-indigenous cultures.
- Land is seen as part of identity, gives feeling of strength and belonging, it is sacred.
Indigenous OR non-indigenous
- Culture portrays collectivist tendencies.
Indigenous OR non-indigenous
- Has greater levels of support and motivation in academic contexts.
Indigenous OR non-indigenous
- Views world in terms of science rather than spiritually.
Indigenous OR non-indigenous
- World view and progress entails development, change and control.
Indigenous OR non-indigenous
- Uses narrative styled storytelling to explain the earths creation.
Indigenous OR non-indigenous
True or FalseEdit
- For any human being, supportive conditions allow motivation to maintain or grow. True/False
- Motivations can assist in dealing with personal challenges and can help an individual to adapt to environmental and social changes out of their control. True/False
- Culture is a static concept, where culture stays the same throughout time. True/False
- According to personal investment theory, indigenous students show lower levels of motivation to learn and attend school as a result of poor intelligence. True/False
- Some of the motivational values found in indigenous university students were equality and social justice, which reflect a collectivist culture. True/False
- Indigenous Australians believe the mind, body and spirit are connected to well-being. True/False
- Dream time stories are only created as an entertainment tool for bored remote indigenous children. True/False
- The traditional values and motivations of indigenous Australians are carried through generations by storytelling.
- Dreaming can be interpreted as a spiritual religion that instills values and social law.
- Spirituality is forged around the land, self and community. It motivates health and well-being through the connection of mind, body and spirit.
- Spirituality and dreaming can build resilience within individuals that are stressed or have mental illnesses.
- Cultural identity relates to the level of identification and integration with a particular set of beliefs, practices and way of living.
- Loss of identity can contribute to lower levels of motivation.
- Kinship, social support and facilitating conditions all influence the growth of motivation.
- Indigenous Australians regard values such as, security, family, health, honesty, goal setting, friendship, self-respect, equality, politeness and social justice most highly within their culture.
- Major differences in environmental perspectives between indigenous and non-indigenous Australians.
- Indigenous Australians face contemporary issues, some of which includes unemployment, heavy alcohol consumption, lower income and higher imprisonment rates. This is believed to be the result of racism, lack of understanding and insufficient social and government support.
- Indigenous students lack the motivation in academic settings as a result of inadequate social and family support.
- By using motivational resources, such as self-determination, Indigenous Australians have been able to adapt to the changing social and political structure overtime.
Answers to ActivitiesEdit
- Activity 1: I, I, N, N, N, I
- Activity 2: T, T, F, F, T, T, F
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