English Language and Grammar - 'Adjectives, Nouns and Verbs - defined'
Adjectives – what are they?
Adjectives are used to modify nouns or pronouns. They are always near the noun or pronoun they are describing. They can be one word or a group of words. Adjectives can also be used with certain verbs (such as the verb "to be"). They are used to clarify the subject that is doing the action; adjectives are not used to clarify the verb. Adjectives are used to describe colour, material, shape, size, amount, price, quality, origin, personality, weight, temperature, weight, age, and direction.
There are 9 different adjective groups and the order of these adjectives is as follows:
When there are 2 or more adjectives that are from the same group "and" is placed between the 2 adjectives.
- The boat is green and red.
- The bookshop has old and new books.
When there are 3 or more adjectives from the same adjective group. Place a comma between each of the adjectives. A comma is not placed between an adjective and thenoun.
- We have a big, green, white and red boat on the canal.
- My friend lost a red, black and white scarf, if you find it please let me know.
Adjectives are placed before the noun. The form of the adjectives is the same for all types of nouns. Adjectives can be used with all forms of nouns.
Adjectives and Nouns
Usually, adjectives are placed before the noun. Adjectives are used to describe the noun.
- The little boy is cute.
- The black dog is very old.
2 or more adjectives can be used together to describe a noun.
- The big red bike outside is my new bike.
- I am going to take the long black tram to the town centre.
Nouns can be used as adjectives.
- Smokey, the cat likes his new cat igloo.
- Please close the pantry door.
When an article is used such as "a", "an" or "the", then the article is placed before the adverb.
What are comparative adjectives?
Comparative adjectives are used to compare the difference between 2 nouns, or a collective noun. Superlative adjectives are used to compare 3 or more nouns.
- The black boat is older than the white boat.
- My boat is bigger than his boat.
- The blue boat is more expensive than the green boat.
The Rules for using Comparative Adjectives
"Than" is usually used after the comparative adjective.
-er is added to the end of a 1-syllable adjective
- Cold - colder : The winter is colder than the summer.
- Small – smaller : The blue boat is smaller than the black boat.
- Tall – taller: Most jockeys are smaller than footballers.
-er is added to the end of an adjective with 2 syllables, if the word ends in -y.
- Early – earlier : I came home earlier than my husband.
- Happy – happier : I am happier now than I ever was.
- Crazy – crazier : You are crazier than me.
"More" or "less" is used for adjectives that have 2 syllables, if the word doesn't end in -y. Adjectives that end in -y, change the -y to i and add -ed.
- Honest - more honest : Policemen are more honest than criminals
- Difficult- more difficult : Yesterdays test was more difficult than today’s.
- Modern - more modern : Our generation is more modern than our parent’s generation.
"More" or "less" is used for adjectives that have 3 or more syllables
- Expensive - more expensive : My boat is less expensive than her boat.
- Comfortable - more comfortable : The green chair is more comfortable than the green settee.
Adjectives that end in -e, only -r is added to end of the adjective.
- Nice – nicer : This hotel is nicer than the last
- Safe – safer : Aeroplanes are safer than cars
Adjectives that end in with a consonant, vowel, consonant - the last consonant is doubled.
- Big –bigger : My boat is bigger than her boat.
- Hot –hotter : The summer is hotter than the winter.
The structure of comparative adjectives
There are two ways to form comparative adjectives, depending on the length of the adjective. Adjectives with 1 syllable or adjectives with 2 syllables if the word ends in -y, then -er is added to the end of the word. djectives ending in -y; change the -y to -i and add -er. Adjectives that end with a consonant, vowel, consonant - the last consonant is doubled and -er is added to the end of the adjective.
- cold - colder
- small – smaller
- tall – taller
- big –bigger
- hot -hotter
Adjectives with 3 more syllables, and words with 2 syllables that don't end in -y. The word "more" or "less" is placed before the adjective. Note: adjectives that end in -e, only -r is added to end of the adjective.
- Difficult- more difficult
- Modern - more modern
- Expensive - more expensive
- Difficult - more difficult
- Honest – more honest
"Than" is usually used after the comparative adjectives.
Superlative adjectives are used to compare at least 3 things or 3 groups of things. Superlative adjectives state that something is the most and there cannot be anymore or that something is the least and there cannot be any less.
- She is the smallest pupil in her class.
- The boat at the last mooring is the latest.
"The" is usually used before the superlative adjective.
- We have the biggest narrow boat on the part of the canal.
- He is the tallest pupil in the class.
Superlative Adjectives - Formation
There are two ways to form superlative adjectives, depending on the length of the adjective. The number of syllables the adjectives contain determines if -est is added to the end of the adjective, or if "most" or "least" is added before the adjective.
English Superlative Adjectives Rules
-est is added to the end of a 1-syllable adjective
- Cold – coldest : Last winter was the coldest, that I could remember.
- Small – smallest : The blue boat is the smallest boat in the marina.
- Tall – tallest : I am the tallest in my family.
2 syllable adjectives the -y is change to -i. and add -est to the end of an adjective
- Early – earliest : Today is the earliest that I came home all week
- Happy – happiest : She is the happiest I have seen her for a long time
- Crazy – craziest : I have the craziest dog in the world.
"most" or "least" are used for adjectives that have 2 or more syllables and don't end in –y
- Honest - most honest : She is the most honest person that I know
- Modern - more modern : She is more modern than her sister.
"most" and "least" are used for adjectives that contain 3 or more syllables
- Expensive - most expensive : She wore the most expensive dress in the world.
- Difficult - most difficult : This is the most difficult decision I have ever had to make.
- Comfortable - most comfortable : This is the most comfortable I have been.
Adjectives ending in -e, only -r is added to end of the adjective.
- Nice –nicest : you are the nicest family I have ever met.
- Safe –safest : This is the safest house in the street.
Adjectives that end in a consonant, vowel, consonant - the last consonant is doubled and -est is added to the end of the adjective.
- Big –biggest : My boat is the biggest in the marina.
- Fat- fattest : He was the fattest man in the world.
- Hot –hottest : Last summer was the hottest summer for a while
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List of Adjectives (not comprehensive)
Aback, abaft, abandoned, abashed, aberrant, abhorrent, abiding, abject, ablaze, able, abnormal, aboard, aboriginal, abortive, abounding, abrasive, abrupt, absent, absorbed, absorbing, abstracted, absurd, abundant, abusive, acceptable, accessible, accidental, accurate, acid, acidic, acoustic, acrid, actually, ad hoc, adamant, adaptable, addicted, adhesive, adjoining, adorable, adventurous, afraid, aggressive, agonizing, agreeable,
ahead, ajar, alcoholic, alert, alike, alive, alleged, alluring, aloof, amazing, ambiguous,
ambitious, amuck, amused, amusing, ancient, angry, animated, annoyed, annoying, anxious, apathetic, aquatic, aromatic, arrogant, ashamed, aspiring, assorted, astonishing, attractive, auspicious, automatic, available, average, awake, aware, awesome, awful, axiomatic
Bad, barbarous, bashful, bawdy, beautiful, befitting, belligerent, beneficial, bent, berserk, best, better, bewildered, big, billowy, bite-sized, bitter, bizarre, black, black-and-white, bloody, blue, blue-eyed, blushing, boiling, boorish, bored, boring, bouncy, boundless, brainy, brash, brave, brawny, breakable, breezy, brief, bright, bright, broad, broken, brown, bumpy, burly, bustling, busy
Cagey, calculating, callous, calm, capable, capricious, careful, careless, caring, cautious, ceaseless, certain, changeable, charming, cheap, cheerful, chemical, chief, childlike, chilly, chivalrous, chubby, chunky, clammy, classy, clean, clear, clever, cloistered, cloudy, closed, clumsy, cluttered, coherent, cold, colourful, colossal, combative, comfortable, common, complete, complex, concerned, condemned, confused, conscious, cooing, cool, cooperative,
coordinated, courageous, cowardly, crabby, craven, crazy, creepy, crooked, crowded, cruel,
cuddly, cultured, cumbersome, curious, curly, curved, curvy, cut, cute, cute, cynical.
Daffy, daily, damaged, damaging, damp, dangerous, dapper, dark, dashing, dazzling, dead,
deadpan, deafening, dear, debonair, decisive, decorous, deep, deeply, defeated, defective,
defiant, delicate, delicious, delightful, demonic, delirious, dependent, depressed, deranged,
descriptive, deserted, detailed, determined, devilish, didactic, different, difficult, diligent, direful, dirty, disagreeable, disastrous, discreet, disgusted, disgusting, disillusioned, dispensable, distinct, disturbed, divergent, dizzy, domineering, doubtful, drab, draconian,
dramatic, dreary, drunk, dry, dull, dusty, dusty, dynamic, dysfunctional.
Eager, early, ear-splitting, earthy, easy, eatable, economic, educated, efficacious, efficient,
eight, elastic, elated, elderly, electric, elegant, elfin, elite, embarrassed, eminent, empty, enchanted, enchanting, encouraging, endurable, energetic, enormous, entertaining, enthusiastic, envious, equable, equal, erect, erratic, ethereal, evanescent, evasive, even, excellent, excited, exciting, exclusive, exotic, expensive, extra-large, extra-small, exuberant,
Fabulous, faded, faint, fair, faithful, fallacious, false, familiar, famous, fanatical, fancy, fantastic, far, far-flung, fascinated, fast, fat, faulty, fearful, fearless, feeble, feigned, female, fertile, festive, few, fierce, filthy, fine, finicky, first, five, fixed, flagrant, flaky, flashy, flat, flawless, flimsy, flippant, flowery, fluffy, fluttering, foamy, foolish, foregoing, forgetful, fortunate, four, frail, fragile, frantic, free, freezing, frequent, fresh, fretful, friendly, frightened, frightening, full, fumbling, functional, funny, furry, furtive, future, futuristic, fuzzy.
Gabby, gainful, gamy, gaping, garrulous, gaudy, general, gentle, giant, giddy, gifted, gigantic,
glamorous, gleaming, glib, glistening, glorious, glossy, godly, good, goofy, gorgeous, graceful,
grandiose, grateful, gratis, grey, greasy, great, greedy, green, grey, grieving, groovy, grotesque, grouchy, grubby, gruesome, grumpy, guarded, guiltless, gullible, gusty, guttural,
Habitual, half, hallowed, halting, handsome, handsomely, handy, hanging, hapless, happy,
hard, hard-to-find, harmonious, harsh, hateful, heady, healthy, heartbreaking, heavenly, heavy, hellish, helpful, helpless, hesitant, hideous, high, highfalutin, high-pitched, hilarious, hissing, historical, holistic, hollow, homeless, homely, honourable, horrible, hospitable, hot, huge, hulking, humdrum, humorous, hungry, hurried, hurt, hushed, husky, hypnotic, hysterical.
Icky, icy, idiotic, ignorant, ill, illegal, ill-fated, ill-informed, illustrious, imaginary, immense, imminent, impartial, imperfect, impolite, important, imported, impossible, incandescent, incompetent, inconclusive, industrious, incredible, inexpensive, infamous, innate, innocent,
inquisitive, insidious, instinctive, intelligent, interesting, internal, invincible, irate, irritating, itchy.
Kaput, keen, kind, kind-hearted, kindly, knotty, knowing, knowledgeable, known.
Laboured, lackadaisical, lacking, lame, lamentable, languid, large, last, late, laughable, lavish, lazy, lean, learned, left, legal, lethal, level, lewd, light, like, likeable, limping, literate, little, lively, lively, living, lonely, long, longing, long-term, loose, lopsided, loud, loutish, lovely, loving, low, lowly, lucky, ludicrous, lumpy, lush, luxuriant, lying, lyrical.
Macabre, macho, maddening, madly, magenta, magical, magnificent, majestic, makeshift, male, malicious, mammoth, maniacal, many, marked, massive, married, marvellous, material, materialistic, mature, mean, measly, meaty, medical, meek, mellow, melodic, melted, merciful, mere, messy, mighty, military, milky, mindless, miniature, minor, miscreant, misty, mixed, moaning, modern, mouldy, momentous, motionless, mountainous, muddled, mundane, murky, mushy, mute, mysterious.
Naïve, nappy, narrow, nasty, natural, naughty, nauseating, near, neat, nebulous, necessary, needless, needy, neighbourly, nervous, new, next, nice, nifty, nimble, nine, nippy, noiseless,
noisy, nonchalant, nondescript, non-stop, normal, nostalgic, nosy, noxious, null, numberless, numerous, nutritious, nutty.
Obedient, obeisant, obese, obnoxious, obscene, obsequious, observant, obsolete, obtainable, oceanic, odd, offbeat, old, old-fashioned, omniscient, one, onerous, open, opposite, optimal, orange, ordinary, organic, ossified, outgoing, outrageous, outstanding, oval, overconfident,
overjoyed, overrated, overt, overwrought.
Painful, painstaking, pale, paltry, panicky, panoramic, parallel, parched, parsimonious, past, pastoral, pathetic, peaceful, penitent, perfect, periodic, permissible, perpetual, petite, petite, phobic, physical, picayune, pink, piquant, placid, plain, plant, plastic, plausible, pleasant, plucky, pointless, poised, polite, political, poor, possessive, possible, powerful, precious, premium, present, pretty, previous, pricey, prickly, private, probable, productive, profuse, protective, proud, psychedelic, psychotic, public, puffy, pumped, puny, purple, purring, pushy,
Quack, quaint, quarrelsome, questionable, quick, quickest, quiet, quirky, quixotic, and quizzical.
Rabid, racial, ragged, rainy, rambunctious, rampant, rapid, rare, raspy, ratty, ready, real, rebel, receptive, recondite, red, redundant, reflective, regular, relieved, remarkable, reminiscent, repulsive, resolute, resonant, responsible, rhetorical, rich, right, righteous, rightful, rigid, ripe, ritzy, roasted, robust, romantic, roomy, rotten, rough, round, royal, ruddy, rude, rural, rustic, ruthless.
Sable, sad, safe, salty, same, sassy, satisfying, savoury, scandalous, scarce, scared, scary,
scattered, scientific, scintillating, scrawny, screeching, second, second-hand, secret, secretive, sedate, seemly, selective, selfish, separate, serious, shaggy, shaky, shallow, sharp, shiny, shivering, shocking, short, shrill, shut, shy, sick, silent, silent, silky, silly, simple, simplistic, sincere, six, skilful, skinny, sleepy, slim, slimy, slippery, sloppy, slow, small, smart,
smelly, smiling, smoggy, smooth, sneaky, snobbish, snotty, soft, soggy, solid, sombre, sophisticated, sordid, sore, sour, sparkling, special, spectacular, spicy, spiffy, spiky, spiritual,
spiteful, splendid, spooky, spotless, spotted, spotty, spurious, squalid, square, squealing,
squeamish, staking, stale, standing, statuesque, steadfast, steady, steep, stereotyped, sticky, stiff, stimulating, stingy, stormy, straight, strange, striped, strong, stupendous, stupid, sturdy, subdued, subsequent, substantial, successful, succinct, sudden, sulky, super, superb, superficial, supreme, swanky, sweet, sweltering, swift, symptomatic, synonymous.
Taboo, tacit, tacky, talented, tall, tame, tan, tangible, tangy, tart, tasteful, tasteless, tasty, tawdry, tearful, tedious, teeny, teeny-tiny, telling, temporary, ten, tender, tense, tense, tenuous, terrible, terrific, tested, testy, thankful, therapeutic, thick, thin, thinkable, third, thirsty, thirsty, thoughtful, thoughtless, threatening, three, thundering, tidy, tight, tight-fisted, tiny, tired, tiresome, toothsome, torpid, tough, towering, tranquil, trashy, tremendous, tricky, trite,
troubled, truculent, true, truthful, two, typical.
Ubiquitous, ugliest, ugly, ultra, unable, unaccountable, unadvised, unarmed, unbecoming, unbiased, uncovered, understood, undesirable, unequal, unequalled, uneven, unhealthy, uninterested, unique, unkempt, unknown, unnatural, unruly, unsightly, unsuitable, untidy, unused, unusual, unwieldy, unwritten, upbeat, uppity, upset, uptight, used, useful, useless, utopian, utter, uttermost.
Vacuous, vagabond, vague, valuable, various, vast, vengeful, venomous, verdant, versed,
victorious, vigorous, violent, violet, vivacious, voiceless, volatile, voracious, vulgar.
Wacky, waggish, waiting, wakeful, wandering, wanting, warlike, warm, wary, wasteful, watery, weak, wealthy, weary, well-groomed, well-made, well-off, well-to-do, wet, whimsical, whispering, white, whole, wholesale, wicked, wide, wide-eyed, wiggly, wild, willing, windy, wiry, wise, wistful, witty, woebegone, womanly, wonderful, wooden, woozy, workable, worried, worthless, wrathful, wretched, wrong, wry.
Yellow, yielding, young, youthful, and yummy.
Zany, zealous, zesty, zippy, zonked.
Adjectives and Verbs
Verbs are the most important part of speech in the English language. Verbs do a lot of work in the English language. Some are busy action verbs; others are modest helping or linking verbs. No matter what kind they are, verbs keep the English language movin' and shakin'. Action verbs tell what a person, animal or thing can do or be. Verbs also use rules for telling when something happened - in the past, the present, or the future. Being Verbs tell about something in a state of being. A noun or pronoun does not always take action. Helping verbs do not stand alone or express action. They are part of verb phrases that "help" the main verb. Helping verbs define the tense (past, present, future) or change the meaning of the main verb. Linking verbs do not show action. Instead, they connect nouns and pronouns to other information in the sentence. Irregular Verbs are verbs that don't follow the rules for changing tense.
How are adjectives used with verbs?
Sometimes the adjective is placed after a verb especially if the verb is a "linking verb". Adjectives don't describe the verb. Adjectives describe the subject that is performing the action:
- The book looks good.
- Your picture looks great. Where did you get your picture?
- The boys play football all the time.
When you use an adjective and a verb together the adjective comes after the verb. Sometimes one adjective is not enough to describe the noun or the subject that is performing the action so 2 or more adjectives can be used together.
When do you use an adjective or an adverb? Do I need to define the verb or the sentence? Do I need to define the subject that is performing the action?
Be careful how you use adjectives such as interesting, beautiful, great, wonderful, or exciting. These and many other adjectives tend to be overused adding little definition to a sentence. You can demonstrate what you are talking about by creatively using verbs, nouns and a few well-chosen adjectives.
Basic English - Nouns Verbs Adjectives
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List of nouns (not comprehensive)
Able, able, account, achieve, acoustics, act, action, activity, actor, addition, adjustment, advertisement, advice, aftermath, afternoon, after-thought, agreement, air, airplane, airport, alarm, amount, amusement, anger, angle, animal, answer, ant, ants, apparatus, apparel, apple, apples, appliance, approval, arch, argument, arithmetic, arm, army, art, attack, attempt, attention, attraction, aunt, authority.
Babies, baby, back, badge, bag, bait, balance, ball, balloon, balls, banana, band, base, baseball, basin, basket, basketball, bat, bath, battle, bead, beam, bean, bear, bears, beast, bed, bedroom, beds, bee, beef, beetle, beggar, beginner, behaviour, belief, believe, bell, bells, berry, bike, bikes, bird, birds, birth, birthday, bit, bite, blade, blood, blow, board, boat, boats, body, bomb, bone, book, books, boot, border, bottle, boundary, box, boy, boys, brain, brake, branch, brass, bread, breakfast, breath, brick, bridge, brother, brothers, brush, bubble, bucket, building, bulb, bun, burn, burst, bushes, business, butter, button.
Cabbage, cable, cactus, cake, cakes, calculator, calendar, camera, camp, can, cannon, canvas, cap, caption, car, card, care, carpenter, carriage, cars, cart, cast, cat, cats, cattle, cause, cave, celery, cellar, cemetery, cent, chain, chair, chairs, chalk, chance, change, channel, cheese, cherries, cherry, chess, chicken, chickens, children, chin, church, circle, clam, class, clock, clocks, cloth, cloud, clouds, clover, club, coach, coal, coast, coat, cobweb, coil, collar, colour, comb, comfort, committee, company, comparison, competition, condition, connection, control, cook, copper, copy, cord, cork, corn, cough, country, cover, cow, cows,
crack, cracker, crate, crayon, cream, creator, creature, credit, crib, crime, crook, crow, crowd, crown, crush, cry, cub, cup, current, curtain, curve, cushion.
Dad, daughter, day, death, debt, decision, deer, degree, design, desire, desk, destruction, detail, development, digestion, dime, dinner, dinosaurs, direction, dirt, discovery, discussion
disease, disgust, distance, distribution, division, dock, doctor, dog, dogs, doll, dolls, donkey, door, downtown, drain, drawer, dress, drink, driving, drop, drug, drum, duck, ducks
Ear, earth, earthquake, edge, education, effect, egg, eggnog, eggs, elbow, end, engine, error, event, example, exchange, existence, expansion, experience, expert, eye, eyes, face, fact, fairies, fall, family, fan, fang, farm, farmer, father, faucet, fear, feast, feather, feeling, feet, fiction, field, fifth, fight, finger, finger, fire, fireman, fish, flag, flame, flavour, flesh, flight, flock, floor, flower, flowers, fly, fog, fold, food, foot, force, fork, form, fowl, frame, friction, friend, friends, frog, frogs, front, fruit, fuel, furniture.
Galley, game, garden, gate, geese, ghost, giants, giraffe, girl, girls, glass, glove, glue, goat, gold, goldfish, good-bye, goose, government, governor, grade, grain, grandfather, grandmother, grape, grass, grip, ground, group, growth, guide, guitar, gun, hair, haircut, hall, hammer, hand, hands, harbour, harmony, hat, hate, head, health, hearing, heart, heat, help, hen, hill, history, hobbies, hole, holiday, home, honey, hook, hope, horn, horse, horses, hose, hospital, hot, hour, house, houses, humour, hydrant.
Ice, icicle, idea, impulse, income, increase, industry, ink, insect, instrument, insurance, interest, invention, iron, island.
Jail, jam, jar, jeans, jelly, jellyfish, jewel, join, joke, journey, judge, juice, jump
Kettle, key, kick, kiss, kite, kitten, kittens, kitty, knee, knife, knot, knowledge.
Labourer, lace, ladybug, lake, lamp, land, language, laugh, lawyer, lead, leaf, learning, leather, leg, legs, letter, letters, lettuce, level, library, lift, light, limit, line, linen, lip, liquid, list, lizards, loaf, lock, locket, look, loss, love, low, number, lunch, lunchroom.
Machine, magic, maid, mailbox, man, manager, map, marble, mark, market, mask, mass, match, meal, measure, meat, meeting, memory, men, metal, mice, middle, milk, mind, mine, minister, mint, minute, mist, mitten, mom, money, monkey, month, moon, morning, mother, motion, mountain, mouth, move, muscle, music.
Nail, name, nation, neck, need, needle, nerve, nest, net, news, night, noise, north, nose, note, notebook, number, nut.
Oatmeal, observation, ocean, offer, office, oil, operation, opinion, orange, oranges, order, organization, ornament, oven, owl, owner
Page, pail, pain, paint, pan, pancake, paper, parcel, parent, park, part, partner, party, passenger, paste, patch, payment, peace, pear, pen, pencil, person, pest, pet, pets, pickle, picture, pie, pies, pig, pigs, pin, pipe, pizzas, place, plane, planes, plant, plantation, plants,
plastic, plate, play, playground, pleasure, plot, plough, pocket, point, poison, police, polish, pollution, popcorn, porter, position, pot, potato, powder, power, price, print, prison, process, produce, profit, property, prose, protest, pull, pump, punishment, purpose, push.
Quarter, quartz, queen, question, quicksand, quiet, quill, quilt, quince, quiver
Rabbit, rabbits, rail, railway, rain, rainstorm, rake, range, rat, rate, ray, reaction, reading, reason, receipt, recess, record, regret, relation, religion, representative, request, respect, rest,
reward, rhythm, rice, riddle, rifle, ring, rings, river, road, robin, rock, rod, roll, roof, room, root, rose, route, rub, rule, run
Sack, sail, salt, sand, scale, scarecrow, scarf, scene, scent, school, science, scissors, screw, sea, seashore, seat, secretary, seed, selection, self, sense, servant, shade, shake, shame, shape, sheep, sheet, shelf, ship, shirt, shock, shoe, shoes, shop, show, side, sidewalk, sign, silk, silver, sink, sister, sisters, size, skate, skin, skirt, sky, slave, sleep, sleet, slip, slope, smash, smell, smile, smoke, snail, snails, snake, snakes, sneeze, snow, soap, society, sock, soda, sofa, son, song, songs, sort, sound, soup, space, spade, spark, spiders, sponge, spoon
spot, spring, spy, square, squirrel, stage, stamp, star, start, statement, station, steam, steel, stem, step, stew, stick, sticks, stitch, stocking, stomach, stone, stop, store, story, stove, stranger, straw, stream, street, stretch, string, structure, substance, sugar, suggestion, suit, summer, sun, support, surprise, sweater, swim, swing, system.
Table, tail, talk, tank, taste, tax, teaching, team, teeth, temper, tendency, tent, territory, test, texture, theory, thing, things, thought, thread, thrill, throat, throne, thumb, thunder, ticket, tiger, time, tin, title, toad, toe, toes, tomatoes, tongue, tooth, toothbrush, toothpaste, top, touch, town, toy, toys, trade, trail, train, trains, tramp, transport, tray, treatment, tree, trees, trick, trip, trouble, trousers, truck, trucks, tub, turkey, turn, twig, twist
Umbrella, uncle, underwear, unit, use.
Vacation, value, van, vase, vegetable, veil, vein, verse, vessel, vest, view, visitor, voice, volcano, voyage
Walk, wall, war, wash, waste, watch, water, wave, waves, wax, way, wealth, weather, week, weight, wheel, whip, whistle, wilderness, wind, window, wine, wing, winter, wire, wish, woman, women, wood, wool, word, work, worm, wound, wren, wrench, wrist, writer, writing.
Yak, yam, yard, yarn, year, yoke.
Zebra, zephyr, zinc, zipper, zoo.
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English Language and Grammar
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© 2010 Leni Sands


This article was initially written as part of the IEEE STARS program.
One of the most influential technologies of the past hundred years has been motion pictures. Not only are movies big business, but they are also a large part of popular culture. They have an enormous impact on how people perceive the world and how people behave, as they provide information, elicit empathy, and shape everyday behavior. This entertainment medium and art form began more than a hundred years ago as a relatively simple technology of motion-picture camera and projector. Since then, continual technological innovation has improved the medium, all the while expanding its expressive possibilities.
One of the most influential technologies of the past hundred years has been motion pictures. A photographic technique for capturing action became a new medium, a significant part of the economy, and a dominant part of popular culture. A long series of technical advances created the medium and allowed it to grow to express the visions of filmmakers and to provide entertainment for most of the world's population.
Inventing a medium
A precursor to motion pictures was the Zoetrope. Invented in 1834, it gave the impression of continuous motion when the viewer watched a rapidly changing series of still images. In 1888 Thomas Edison filed a patent caveat for the Kinetoscope, which, he wrote, would do "for the Eye what the phonograph does for the Ear." Edison and his associate W. Laurie Dickson built a practical camera in 1890. They used, as a medium, celluloid film, which George Eastman, founder of the Eastman Kodak company, had invented the year before. In 1892 Edison and Dickson built a practical viewing device. One looked through a viewer at the top of a box-like cabinet to see the backlighted film. In 1894 a Kinetoscope parlor opened in New York City. It cost a penny to see a motion-picture sequence lasting about a minute.
Soon Kinetoscope parlors opened elsewhere. In 1895 in Paris the brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière, who had independently developed a movie camera, demonstrated a better way of viewing a motion picture: instead of a single viewer looking into a box, a group of people viewed the images projected onto a screen. In the United States, Edison purchased rights to a movie projector, renamed it the Vitascope and demonstrated it in New York City in 1896. A crucial invention, which permitted films longer than a few minutes, came in 1895 with the Latham loop, a slack-forming loop in the film's path before it passed by the shutter of a camera or projector.
In the years around 1900 the basic technology of camera and projector was developed and refined. By about 1910, 35-millimeter film, used by Edison, became the international standard. Because the photographic film at that time required high illumination, the electric spotlight, introduced in 1904 for theaters, became important in movie making, and in 1919, a much more intense carbon-arc lamp, the klieg light, began to be used. Most filming, though, continued to use natural lighting.
Motion pictures gained popularity rapidly. Though there had been many earlier storytelling films, Edwin S. Porter's 12-minute-long The Great Train Robbery, released in 1903, attracted much attention for its narrative style. In about 1905, nickelodeons, where film was projected on a screen, began appearing in cities. These were typically long, narrow rooms that could seat a hundred people or so. In the United States in 1910, there were about 10,000 nickelodeons serving some 20 million viewers per week. Films moved into theaters, where they were often part of a larger entertainment program, which typically included vaudeville acts. Movies were all short, usually one-reelers, that is, up to about 15 minutes in duration. The movie house almost always provided live musical accompaniment.
Around 1910, especially in Europe, there was a move toward so-called feature films, lasting an hour or more. In the United States, D.W. Griffith's 1915 Birth of a Nation exemplified this move. Also in this decade, Hollywood emerged as a center of movie making. Film companies gravitated there for its climate, cheap land, and lack of labor unions. In the era of silent movies it was relatively easy to export films to other countries, and the U.S. movie industry set up distribution offices overseas. At the end of the decade it was the fifth largest industry in the United States, where there were some 20,000 movie houses. In Europe, quite a few countries, among them France, England, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden, very early established strong national film industries, and France had the most influential film industry until World War I. The war, however, hindered European film production drastically, and Hollywood gradually established worldwide dominance.
Talking pictures and color movies
A momentous technical advance was the development of sound movies. In 1923 Lee De Forest demonstrated a sound-on-film process, in which the sound was recorded optically on the film strip. In making the film, the amplitude variations of the sound were captured as variations in gray level on the film strip. In playback, a light shining through the soundtrack onto a photocell created an electrical signal sent to a loudspeaker. Hollywood, however, showed little interest, in part because there had already been many failed attempts at synchronizing sound with motion pictures. In 1924 Western Electric demonstrated a sound-on-disk system, which used the same electric motor to drive the projector and the phonograph so that it was easier to maintain synchronization.
The Warner Brothers studio took up the Western Electric system, using it in 1926 with Don Juan (in which there was no talking, but with music synchronized to the action) and in 1927 with The Jazz Singer (which had several dialog sequences in addition to synchronized music). Both were successful, The Jazz Singer so much so that other studios rushed to make sound movies. The technology that won out, however, was the sound-on-film system, thanks especially to work by General Electric and by the German developers of the so-called Tri-Ergon system. Because the conversion to sound movies was expensive and because sound movies were more expensive to produce, the major Hollywood studios increased their market dominance within the United States. Sound movies helped competitors overseas, however, as it tended to segment the market by language.
Before the 1920s, movies were often shot at 16 frames a second. At this rate, flickering of the image was noticeable, hence the name 'flicks' for movies. Frame rates increased in the 1920s, but there was much variability until sound movies finally brought standardization of the 24-per-second frame rate.
Movies appealed to all social classes, and the movie business boomed in the 1930s. In 1939 the average weekly movie attendance in the United States was 85 million, equal to two-thirds of the nation's population. Because they were doing so well financially, the studios were disinclined to invest in new technologies, but the decade nevertheless saw several significant advances. One was deep-focus cinematography. Much more intense lighting, notably from powerful carbon-arc lamps, allowed cinematographers to decrease aperture, thus increasing depth of field. Contributing also were more sensitive film stocks and new lens coatings that permitted more light to pass through the lens. Another technical advance was dubbing, in which the original soundtrack was replaced with one in a different language. Most audiences much preferred this to the use of subtitles. Dubbing began in 1932 and helped the Hollywood studios regain overseas audiences they had lost with the coming of sound movies.
A third technical advance of the 1930s was greater use of color, which was pioneered by Disney cartoons of the early 1930s, such as Flowers and Trees and Three Little Pig. Color was highly successful in the full-length animated film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in 1937 and in the feature films Becky Sharp in 1935 and Gone with the Wind in 1939. These films were shot in so-called three-strip Technicolor, a system in which action was captured on three strips of film simultaneously. A camera, using a beam splitter and color filters, recorded three regions of the spectrum, red, green, and blue, on separate filmstrips; and in the laboratory a single full-color filmstrip was created from these three. Because of cost, however, color movies did not become standard until the late 1960s.
In the United States, as in many other countries, motion picture attendance climbed during World War II, and it reached an all-time peak shortly after the war. There was better sound recording and mixing, and in 1940 Disney's Fantasia introduced stereo sound for movies. The blue-screen process, used to superimpose a person's image on a separate background, was first used in the 1940 movie Thief of Bagdad. In the late 1940s filming on location became more common, facilitated by portable power units developed for that purpose. In 1948 the so-called "Paramount decision," which the movie industry unsuccessfully appealed all the way to the United States Supreme Court, ended the vertical integration of the film business. The studios were now compelled to separate cinema operation from production and distribution. Also, this ruling ended restrictive contracts with actors.
In Europe during the interwar years, the film industries in most countries thrived. Indeed, French and British cinema achieved international success in the 1930s, while in the same period the totalitarian regimes of Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union made much use of cinema as a propaganda medium. In Japan, for cultural and financial reasons, silent movies continued to be made through the 1930s.
CinemaScope and drive-in theaters
In the United States weekly movie attendance declined from 90 million in 1948 to 51 million in 1952, partly as a result of television and partly as a result of the move of many people to the suburbs. Thousands of cinemas closed in the 1950s and 1960s. The movie industry sought to regain customers by technological improvements such as widescreen formats, stereo sound, and 3-D images. From 1952 through 1954, several widescreen formats were introduced, notably Cinerama, which required three synchronized projectors, and CinemaScope and Panavision, both of which used a single projector. CinemaScope, which premiered with the 1953 movie The Robe, used anamorphic projection, which stretches an image horizontally. This allowed CinemaScope to use 35-mm film, which was less expensive than wider film, and it gave better image quality than widescreen systems that cropped the frame.
Stereo, which gave a spatial distribution of sound using left and right loudspeakers driven by different soundtracks, became common, and some of the largest cinemas implemented sound systems with more than two tracks. Magnetic sound-recording, newly available around 1950, facilitated movie production. Several types of 3-D projection had been demonstrated in the 1920s and 1930s, but it was the 1952 release of "Bwana Devil" that made the technique well known and started a brief 3-D craze.
Also in this decade, the number of color movies increased. The introduction in 1950 of Eastmancolor, a single-strip film which could be used in a standard 35mm camera, made it much less expensive to make a color movie. (Technicolor required a bulky camera, and the company demanded that Technicolor staff be on set.) In the 1950s in the United States, but not in Europe, drive-in theaters became common. The first drive-in movie theater had opened in 1933, but there were very few drive-ins before 1946. The number in the U.S. grew from 800 in 1948 to 6000 in 1961, which was the high point for the business, and in 1956 more people went to drive-ins than to "hardtop" cinemas. The drive-in movie business, however, underwent a great decline in the late 1970s and early 1980s, in part because people had color TV in the home and because real-estate prices and a limited season made it much more expensive to operate a drive-in than a traditional movie house.
In the 1960s greater use of color and greater permissiveness in movie making were industry responses to the lure of television. In the United States, concern about the increase in sex, violence, and profanity in movies, however, led to the adoption of movie ratings in 1968. Lightweight cameras with portable synchronous sound equipment made it much easier to film on location, and faster film stocks made it easier to film indoors and at night. Development of new zoom lenses in the late 1950s led to extensive use of zoom in the 1960s.
In the middle decades of the century, Japan had the most productive film industry outside the United States until India overtook it in the 1970s. Japanese movies remained highly influential, especially in other Asian countries. India had a thriving film industry already in the 1920s, centered, then and since, on Bombay (Mumbai). In the last decades of the 20th century, Indian cinema grew to be second only to Hollywood in earnings.
IMAX, videocassettes, and computer-generated imagery
In 1970 a new format, IMAX, offered a screen size ten times that of conventional films. Because of construction costs, the number of IMAX theaters grew slowly, and production costs limited the number of IMAX movies. Dolby noise reduction, which reduced tape hiss and other noise, was introduced to movies with A Clockwork Orange in 1971, and multitrack sound finally became established in cinemas with the arrival of Dolby four-channel sound in 1975. The sound system attracted much notice with "Star Wars" in 1977, and this movie also made use of new special effects, notably "motion control", which was computerized control of both camera and model.
Toward the end of the 1970s movies began to be sold on videocassette and on video disk. There were two competing videocassette formats, Betamax introduced by Sony and VHS introduced by the rival Japanese electronics company JVC, and there were three competing video-disk formats, Philips's LaserVision, RCA's SelectaVision, and JVC's VHD. Video disks did not become popular, but videocassettes did, with the VHS format outcompeting the Betamax format. Already in the mid 1980s rentals and sales of videos was a huge business, greatly increasing home consumption of movies. Indeed, in 1987 in the U.S., video rentals surpassed ticket sales as the leading revenue source for the movie industry.
In the later decades of the 20th century, Hollywood retained a dominating position, as its films were marketed worldwide and exhibited in new ways, including television, videos, and DVDs. Other internationally prominent centers of filmmaking were Bombay (Mumbai), Hong Kong, and Paris. In the 1980s many major studios became part of media and consumer electronics conglomerates. Warner merged with Time, News Corporation acquired Fox, Sony acquired Columbia and Tri-Star, and Matsushita acquired MCA-Universal.
Characteristic of the 1980s were multiplex cinemas. Though the first multiplexes appeared in the 1960s, it was in the 1980s that they became common. The major studios emphasized action movies, and they directed marketing more than ever to teens and young adults. At the same time the number of independent films increased dramatically. The new and large video market made it much easier for independent filmmakers to obtain financing for their films and to distribute them.
Computers became important in film production, especially for computer-generated imagery (CGI). Such computer animation debuted in the movie Tron, released by Walt Disney Pictures in 1982. By the end of the decade CGI was lowering the cost of producing certain effects and making possible images that could hardly be created in other ways. The Turner Broadcasting System made use of computer technology in another way when, in 1987, it began offering colorized versions of black-and-white movies.
Home-theater systems and the move to digital
In the 1990s, viewing of movies in the home increased markedly. There were video rentals and video purchases and, late in the decade, DVD rentals and DVD purchases. Cable and satellite TV offered movie channels and pay-for-view movies. And direct-to-video movies, bypassing theaters altogether, became an important business. People acquired home-theater systems, with large screens and multiple speakers, so that the home experience approximated the cinema experience. The most obvious technological change of the decade was the arrival of DVDs and DVD players in 1997. Another obvious change was improved sound, both in cinemas and in homes. The 1992 movie Batman Returns pioneered Dolby Digital, a 5.1-channel digital sound system. (The channels were left, center, right, left-rear, and right-rear, supplemented by a subwoofer channel for lowest frequencies.) A similar system became part of DVD specifications, and a principal attraction of many home theaters was a six-speaker sound-system for Dolby Digital.
In the 1990s computer-generated special effects became widespread. The first computer-generated 3-D character appeared in the 1989 movie The Abyss. Morphing (the computer technique of changing one image seamlessly into another image) appeared in the 1991 movie Terminator 2. The success of Jurassic Park in 1993 made clear to filmmakers the value of CGI. The 1994 movie Forrest Gump combined, in several sequences, historical footage and live action, and the 1995 movie Toy Story was the first commercially released full-length movie created entirely on a computer. Motion capture, a technique of recording physical movements, made digital creations move realistically. The 1999 movie The Matrix, in the technique called "bullet time", used computers to create seamless action from multiple stills.
Characteristic of the 1990s was the move from analog to digital with cell phones, cameras, camcorders, answering machines, and other consumer electronics. This move gradually occurred with movies, in production, in distribution, and in cinemas. The 2002 movie Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones was shot digitally, and the 2008 Slumdog Millionaire, filmed in India, was the first digitally-shot movie to win the Academy Award for best cinematography. Cinemas acquired digital projectors, and movies began to be distributed through the Internet and by satellite networks. Digital camcorders, which made it easier and less expensive to make movies, were a boon to independent filmmakers.
Motion pictures began as an electromechanical technology the 1890s. In the course of the 20th century, a wide range of technological advances continually reshaped the medium. Electronic and computer techniques became more and more important, and motion pictures entered the 21st century moving from the analog to the digital realm.
The author would like to thank members of the STARS Editorial Board for review and constructive criticism of this article, and to give special thanks to film historians Kristin Thompson and David Bordwell for helpful comments and suggestions.
- 1834, Invention of the Zoetrope
- 1888, Patent caveat by Thomas Edison for the Kinetoscope
- 1890, Construction of a practical movie camera by Thomas Edison and W. Laurie Dickson
- 1892, Construction of the Kinetoscope, for viewing motion pictures, by Edison and Dickson
- 1894, Opening of a Kinetoscope parlor in New York City
- 1895, Demonstration of film projection by Auguste and Louis Lumière in Paris
- 1903, Release of The Great Train Robbery, a movie that tells a story
- 1923, Demonstration by Lee De Forest of a sound-on-film process
- 1927, Successful showing of the sound movie The Jazz Singer
- 1935, Release of the first full-length color film shot in three-strip Technicolor, Becky Sharp
- 1952, Release of the 3-D movie Bwana Devil
- 1953, Introduction of the wide-screen technology CinemaScope with The Robe
- 1970, Introduction of IMAX films, projected on a much larger screen
- 1982, Use of computer animation in the movie Tron
- 1995, Release of the first full-length movie created entirely on a computer, Toy Story
References of Historical Significance
Thomas Edison. 1888. Patent caveat for the "kinetoscope". Caveat 110, 8 October 1888 (Thomas A. Edison Papers Microfilm Edition, reel 113, frame 236)
References for Further Reading
Geoffrey Nowell-Smith, ed.. 1996. The Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Robert Sklar. 2002. A World History of Film. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.
Kristin Thompson and David Bordwell. 2009. Film History: An Introduction. 3rd edition. New York City: McGraw-Hill
About the Author
Frederik Nebeker received a Ph.D. in history of science and technology from Princeton University. He worked at the American Philosophical Society and at the Center for History of Physics before moving in 1990 to the IEEE History Center at Rutgers University, where he was Senior Research Historian before retiring in 2011. He is author, co-author, or editor of ten books, most recently Dawn of the Electronic Age: Electrical Technologies in the Shaping of the Modern World, 1914 to 1945 (Wiley & Sons, 2009).
- 1 Citation
- 2 Introduction
- 3 Inventing a medium
- 4 Talking pictures and color movies
- 5 CinemaScope and drive-in theaters
- 6 IMAX, videocassettes, and computer-generated imagery
- 7 Home-theater systems and the move to digital
- 8 Acknowledgements
- 9 Timeline
- 10 Bibliography
- 11 About the Author


Our Elementary curriculum emphasizes the development of the whole child, to lay a solid foundation for lifetime learning. This developmental approach recognizes that children are unique in their personal and academic development and learning styles. We use a variety of hands-on activities and help facilitate mastery in computation, reading and writing. The curriculum also employs multi-sensory teaching techniques to further ensure successful learning. A Classroom Resource teacher and an Enrichment teacher are available to support and challenge students during classroom learning.
A DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACH
The educational philosophy of our Elementary school is developmental in its approach to teaching and learning. Children pass through specific stages of development but not necessarily at the same time or with the same outcomes. Therefore, children must be considered within a number of contexts for successful education to occur. Educators consider the child’s chronological age, family background, culture and community, past history and present circumstances when determining the most appropriate educational techniques and programs to use at any particular age. Developmental education approaches children as unique individuals with unique gifts, talents, and abilities academically, socially, physically, emotionally, and spiritually. Some of the major principles of developmental education include:
- Development occurs in an orderly and predictable sequence with ability growing upon ability.
- Each child has a unique pattern and pace of development.
- Early experiences affect future development in all areas – spiritual, academic, social, physical, and emotional.
- There are optimal times of learning in certain areas. For example, the early years of a child’s development provide times of readiness that should be taken advantage of when planning curriculum.
- Play, exploration, and research activities are crucial for learning to take place in the early stages of development.
- Children learn best in an atmosphere of safety and love.
The elementary years represent an explosion in cognitive growth, increased social awareness and empathy. Immanuel Christian School teachers design creativelessons to encourage students to develop reading and writing fluency and critical thinking skills while promoting greater independence in accomplishing academic tasks. Reading is an integral part of the curriculum because it lays the foundation for all other future learning experiences. Children are first introduced to sounds and their relationship to language. As the children move into higher level critical thinking and reasoning skills, they are challenged to use previous knowledge to expand into an understanding of new and more complex academics. Because children learn best from hands-on experiences, math is introduced using manipulatives so children can experience math concepts and thinking – not merely memorize math facts – before moving to the symbolism of math. Creativity, self-expression and camaraderie are all supported through the hands-on curriculum extensions that enhance classroom instruction and meet the needs of diverse learning styles.
Children also develop spiritually. Therefore, children are exposed to godly principles through experience and example. Memorizing God’s Word daily gives to our students a foundation rich in scripture that can be used as the child matures and he/she is called upon to defend his/her faith and meet the demands of daily challenges. Bible stories are taught and reviewed often in order to solidify godly principles and build character. A biblical worldview is integrated throughout the curriculum and students participate in ongoing class service projects.
FIRST GRADE: Experiential and Developmental Learners
In first grade, we emphasize experiential and developmental learning. First graders explore the world around them daily, developing knowledge in core subject areas through tasks that grow in complexity throughout the year. This is a time when students are seeking answers, and the first grade curriculum helps provide insights. First graders learn to apply previous knowledge, observations and critical thinking skills to solve new problems. Additionally, they have numerous opportunities to develop their creative gifts and talents.
Social skills are developed in first grade with exciting activities. Through the following initiatives, students learn the values of exploration, cooperation, sharing and patience.
- Readers’ Theater
- Winter Writing Project
- 100th Day Celebration
- Thanksgiving Feast
- Pumpkin Week Festivities
- Christmas Project
- Theatreworks USA
- National Building Museum
- Pumpkin Patch
- A Bargain for Francis by Tanya Hoban
- Frog and Toad are Friends by Arnold Loebel
- Little Bear by Else Holmelunch Minarik
- Madeline by Ludwig Bemelmans
- The Lighthouse Children by Syd Hoff
- Henry and Mudge: The First Book by Cynthia Rylant
- The Country Mouse and the City Mouse (summer reading)
View our first grade Bible memory verses
SECOND GRADE: Understanding The World Around Them
This is a year when significant advances are made in reading fluency and proficiency. Through reading groups tailored to meet each student’s individual learning profile, they develop skills in a supportive environment. Development in math is also strongly emphasized in second grade. Algebraic concepts are introduced in the curriculum and the practice of basic math operations builds mastery in anticipation of third grade.
- Meet the Author Day
- Heritage Day Festival
- Dinosaur Museum
- Butterfly Release Party
- Theaterworks USA
- Fossil Field Trip to Maryland
- Washington D.C. tour
- A Gift for Mama by Esther Hautzig
- Molly’s Pilgrim by Barbara Cohen
- Josephina’s Story Quilt by Eleanor Cooer
- Nate the Great and the Missing Key by Marjorie Weinman Sharmat
- The Chalk Box Kid by Clyde Robert Bulla
- Lily and Miss Liberty by Carla Stevens
- A Gift for Mama by Esther Hautzig
- Danny and the Dinosaur by Syd Hoff (summer reading)
View our second grade Bible memory verses
THIRD GRADE: Expanding Critical Thinking and Writing Skills
Our teachers encourage third grade students to increase their responsibility for learning new concepts and are constantly devising new classroom strategies that engage all types of learners. Students in third grade are gaining confidence and learning how to be a positive influence in our school community.
- Native American Festival
- Moving West Play
- Native American Museum in Washington, D.C.
- National Colonial Farm
- Green Meadows Native American Trip
- Theatreworks USA
- The Boxcar Children by Gertrude Chandler Warner
- Squanto, Friend to the Pilgrims by Clyde Robert Bulla
- The Courage of Sarah Noble by Alice Dalgliesh
- Eagle Feather by Clyde Robert Bulla
- Little House in the Big Woods by Laura Ingalls Wilder
- Next Spring an Oriole by Gloria Whelan (summer reading)
View our third grade Bible memory verses
FOURTH GRADE: Building Independence
Students will read more challenging books and be expected to identify key elements of plot, setting, and character development. The school year ends with students performing an annual favorite, The Missing Parts of Speech play. Students will be expected to do more independent reading and research and to be able to answer more challenging comprehension questions that require inference and critical thinking.
- Colonial Luncheon
- Missing Parts of Speech Play
- Relief map of Virginia
- Theatreworks USA
- Mount Vernon
- Gadsby’s Tavern
- Virginia Bound by Amy Butler
- Thimble Summer by Elizabeth Enright
- Tuck Everlasting by Natalie Babbitt
- Shiloh by Phyllis Reynolds Naylor
- A Lion to Guard Us by Clyde Robert Bulla (summer reading)
View our fourth grade Bible memory verses
OUR ELEMENTARY CURRICULUM
The Language Arts encompasses reading, writing, and oral language, but teachers recognize that learners progress in acquiring language mastery at their own pace. First grade utilizes scaled reading groups and differentiated language activities to reach each child in his or her individual ability level. Opportunities for growth in language proficiency include phonics-based reading resources and modeled writing using appropriate children’s literature books. Reading units with recognized authors such as Jan Brett, culminate in students writing their own illustrated, published book. Reading and writing skill development takes place through practice in spelling, letter formation, and writing complete sentences.
Students’ concept of community expands as they compare the characteristics of cities and rural settings. A field trip to the National Building Museum provides a hands-on experience in creating a working urban environment. Basic geography studies involve familiarity with the globe, identification of continents, and knowing how to find the United States. First graders begin to develop a sense of history as they explore the world of the Pilgrims and Native Americans. Cooperation between groups is a focus of the annual Pilgrim Feast in which students take on the roles of participants in the first Thanksgiving.
Learning the language of mathematics is a focus of first grade math studies. Students begin to read and write number sentences and discover the inverse relationship between addition and subtraction. Practical math topics include the value of money, distance and volume measurement, learning to tell time, calculating elapsed time and using a calendar. The concept of 100 as well as word and vertical math problems of increasing complexity are included in the math curriculum as our students makes strides in numeric comprehension and computational ability.
The properties and characteristics of objects in nature are organizing concepts of first grade science. With a combination of curriculum from the science carts and teacher-created units, students experiment with classifying objects and identifying them according to their properties. Students examine geological objects such as rocks, soil, wood and seashells as well as living organisms such as plants and guppies. The role of habitat and the purpose of the life cycle are taught in the living organisms unit.
Students learn basic musical terms and singing skills in first grade. Rhythm, tempo, and singing in unison are important performance preparations for the December Christmas musical. In depth examination of a particular composer (Mozart) and various musical instruments accompany singing practice in the second semester.
Art classes integrate with literature units whenever possible. For example, as the children read Eric Carle books in the first grade classroom, they create a collage based on the illustrations of Carle’s books. Color theory and the contrast between warm and cool colors introduce students to the basics of visual art. The warm, bright colors of Vincent Van Gogh, and in particular his masterpiece Sunflowers is the model for sunflowers painted by first graders and displayed in the entrance hallway to the school.
First graders learn about God’s relationship to the world in Bible classes. Themes of God’s plan, promises, and gifts allow students to view the Old Testament and see God at work. Students consider the choices and consequences of Old Testament men such as Adam, Noah, and Abraham and learn about God’s forgiveness and power. The children also discuss how Jesus handled temptation, how he interacted with people, and how he offers new life. Bible verse memorization and recitation in first grade uses verses cued to letters of the alphabet. Participation in bi-weekly elementary chapel emphasizes corporate worship and teaching from the Bible as it relates to individual character.
First graders have weekly classes that focus on acquiring vocabulary, developing listening and inference skills, and speaking basic conversational phrases. The classes combine music, games, and hands-on activities to encourage long-term retention.
Physical fitness and outdoor exercise are a priority for Immanuel students. In first grade, students enjoy cooperative play in their daily recess times. The skills of simple organized sports and the exercise, agility, and endurance necessary for good health are emphasized in twice-weekly PE classes. Sportsmanship, teamwork, respect, and safety are all taught as essential to the enjoyment of sports activities.
Second graders discover characterization, identify conflict and solutions, and observe writer’s technique through the study of Kevin Henkes’ witty and engaging books in addition to a selection of many other grade level books chosen for their readability and relationship to reading skills acquisition. Students begin to construct paragraphs in response to reading. Scaled reading groups that fit the reading level of individual students promote confident oral reading and prepare the students for independent silent reading. Two whole-class literature units expose young readers to various elements of grammar, comprehension and analysis of plot, and traits of creative writing.
Spelling practice, punctuation mini-lessons, and correct sentence composition modeling assists students in their growth as confident writers. In the fourth quarter, students each “author” a story from beginning to end, putting into practice all of the skills acquired throughout the year.
Second grade students advance in the process of recognizing the place of others in society and how people throughout the world contribute to their lives. Following the chain of production for bananas and peanuts demonstrates how many workers are involved in bringing food to their table at home. The Immigration Unit gives the children an appreciation for their personal family heritage and recognition of the multi-cultural composition of America. Each child creates a “Family Book” that explores their family’s traditions and culture. Students also read about and discuss the lives of individuals who have come to our country and made a positive impact, with the objective of making a connection to the students themselves and encouraging them to use their God-given talents and interests for the benefit of others.
Second grade students build on their first grade addition and subtraction skills to compute numbers of greater place value. The study of decimals and fractions expands understanding of the number system. Using the properties of addition, students are introduced to multiplication, and also begin simple division problems. Word problems encourage math reasoning and creative thinking. Hands-on activities using metric measurements expand students’ understanding of quantities and distances. Reasoning and analytical games are used to increase critical thinking and stimulate memory/retrieval skills.
Materials from the science kit provide experimentation in gears and conductivity. Students also study the systems of the human body. Projects and lessons help children identify the body systems and their function, concluding in the construction of a “vest” showing all of the body systems. Springtime brings caterpillars and chrysalises to the classroom, as students observe the stages of butterfly development, culminating in the Butterfly Release Party.
Using the music of Peter and Wolf as a source, students learn about the various instruments in the orchestra, listening for the timbre, tone, and other individual properties that enable identification and enjoyment of string, percussion, horns and woodwind instruments. Instruction and practice in singing in unison and reading music continues in rehearsal for the Christmas musical and other classroom music.
Students work with a variety of media in Art classes, including clay, tissue paper, printmaking materials, paints, and drawing pencils, using each to depict a figure, object, or scene that corresponds with the second grade classroom curriculum.
The freedom found in obedience to God is the focus for second grade as they study the Great Commandments and the Ten Commandments. Through their lessons, students see that, in his kindness, God gave His people rules to follow so that they would not be enslaved to sin. Students memorize verses from the Gospel Hand, Psalm 8, Proverbs 3, and the Ten Commandments. Participation in bi-weekly elementary chapel emphasizes corporate worship and teaching from the Bible as it relates to individual character.
Second graders have weekly classes that focus on acquiring vocabulary, developing listening and inference skills, and speaking basic conversational phrases. The classes combine music, games, and hands-on activities to encourage long-term retention.
Physical fitness and outdoor exercise are a priority for Immanuel students. In second grade, students enjoy cooperative play in their daily recess times. The skills of simple organized sports and the exercise, agility, and endurance necessary for good health are emphasized in twice-weekly PE classes. Sportsmanship, teamwork, respect, and safety are all taught as essential to the enjoyment of sports activities.
Third Grade Language Arts encompasses English, reading, spelling and vocabulary instruction. Students practice the building blocks of good writing through English instruction, which emphasizes familiarity with the parts of speech and the components of paragraph writing.
Whole-class reading books, Little House in the Big Woods, The Courage of Sarah Noble, Eagle Feather, Squanto and The Boxcar Children, integrate with social studies topics and engage young readers while teaching them the habits of proficient readers. Students observe the writer’s craft by identifying descriptive words and apply descriptive language to their own writing. Class discussions examine the character traits of central characters in the novels and make connections between the students’ lives and the actions and attitudes of book characters.
Students begin the year in Social Studies with a study of geography in which they identify the characteristics of land and water. Natural habitat for various plants and animals and sustainability in diverse regions are also discussed. Throughout the remainder of the year, third graders combine their study of geography with history, as they read about Native American tribes in the northwest, plains, and desert regions of the United States. Students study more in-depth about the arrival of the Pilgrims and the government and society they developed. The year concludes with the westward expansion, the effect of railroads on the West, and developing an appreciation for the hardships endured by settlers and their families. These are all depicted in the Moving West play, performed for parents at the end of the fourth quarter.
Math strategies, critical thinking, math facts and their applications are all features of third grade mathematics. Students enhance their understanding of the number system through the study of place value up to one hundred thousand and work with decimals and fractions. Everyday use of math is demonstrated through word problems involving time and money. Students memorize the multiplication table through games such as Math Football and Around the World which track their progress and encourage the learning of math facts. Learning the principle of division allows students to find quotients for three-digit numbers and completes initial instruction in the four basic operations. Using this information, third graders apply their knowledge of operations to word problems.
In their first year in the Elementary Science classroom, third graders review the concepts of plants, animals, living and non-living things, habitats, and the concept of the experiment. Using plants and colored water, students observe how plants absorb nutrients through the soil and gain an appreciation for the delicate balance of the environment. The importance of gathering and notating data is introduced through the observation of aphid and daphnia populations over a period of weeks. Making predictions about plant and animal behavior introduces the method of developing a scientific hypothesis. Electricity, magnets, the properties of liquid solutions, and basic physics experiments complete the units of study for third graders.
Music classes in the first semester prepare third graders for their part in the Grandparents’ Day Christmas musical in December. Third and fourth quarters are devoted to identifying notes on the treble staff, identifying and performing rhythms using eighth, quarter, half and whole notes, and singing folk songs as part of the integration with westward expansion in social studies. Playing recorders for the Moving West play is the culmination of music instruction for the year.
Third graders experiment with line and movement in Art, based on the painting Starry Night by Vincent Van Gogh and use color resist technique to create their own depiction of the painting. The students view and discuss Alexander Calder’s sculptures with emphasis on his mobiles and create an original work based on this genre. In keeping with “modeling with the masters,” students observe the style of Georgia O’Keefe and use pastels to create their own version of Sunflowers.
God’s relationship with His people is seen with examples from scripture of those whom God used to reveal His plan for salvation. In the Old Testament, God offered opportunities and choices to respond to Him in obedience to his laws, through patterns of worship, and the promise of a Savior. The New Testament reveals Jesus’ teaching about God the Father – His love, power and plan for mankind to be saved from their sinful condition. Life application and creative responses to God’s truth are critical parts of the students’ experience in Bible classes. Students memorize and recite verses from the Psalms, I Corinthians, and the Christmas story in Luke 2, which students recite together at the annual Grandparents’ Day assembly in December. Participation in bi-weekly elementary chapel emphasizes corporate worship and teaching from the Bible as it relates to individual character.
Third graders have weekly classes that focus on acquiring vocabulary, developing listening and inference skills, and speaking basic conversational phrases. The classes combine music, games, and hands-on activities to encourage long-term retention.
Physical fitness and outdoor exercise are a priority for Immanuel students. In third grade, students enjoy cooperative play during their recess times. The skills of simple organized sports and the exercise, agility, and endurance necessary for good health are emphasized in twice-weekly PE classes. Sportsmanship, teamwork, respect, and safety are all taught as essential to the enjoyment of sports activities.
As in all the elementary grades, Language Arts instruction includes English, reading, and spelling/vocabulary. Development of writing skills is integrated in each of these areas. Fourth grade readers are acquiring the ability to work with greater independence and the curriculum encourages this developmental milestone. New reading skills include identifying figurative language, making inferences and predictions, identifying cause and effect and interpreting character traits through the conversations, actions, and opinions in the novel characters. Both positive and negative character traits are part of the novel selection at this grade level, creating valuable interpretation and application skills and encouraging critical thinking.
Students in fourth grade begin the research project process at ICS which culminates in the eighth grade formal research paper. At the fourth grade level, students learn the basics of finding relevant information in a non-fiction book, conducting research using an online database, how to incorporate research information into their writing, and correct paragraph formation to include a topic sentence and supporting sentences. Each year, fourth graders enact The Lost Parts of Speech, which concludes grammar studies for the second semester.
Virginia history and early American history from the first explorers to North America through the Civil War are the focus of social studies in fourth grade. Students study and discuss the role of Virginians leading up to and in the Revolutionary War, the First and Second Continental Congresses, and in the development of key documents for the republic. The development of mapping skills, including the creation of a topographical, clay map of the state of Virginia, connects textbook depiction of maps with the actual geographical features of the Commonwealth. Parent volunteers assist in the Colonial Day celebration, in which fourth graders dress in colonial attire and explore a variety of activities common to colonial times. In the fourth quarter, students research books and the Internet in order to create a Publisher brochure that describes a famous Virginian.
Students continue to explore the number system as they compare, round and order numbers through hundred millions. Identification of prime numbers and associative, communicative, and zero properties as well as computation of problems with three, four and five-digit whole numbers stretch students’ math abilities. Collection, organization, and interpretation of data using a variety of graphs allow students to connect mathematics to real world problems. Students employ strategies to choose the correct operation to solve word problems, identify patterns, and estimate products and quotients.
The physics of motion and inertia, measurement of direction and distance, observing the behavior of objects in three dimensions of space, concepts of galaxies and the universe, development of language to describe the properties of constellations, starts, meteor, and the structure of the universe are all covered in fourth grade science. The environment on Earth and factors that influence plant and animal growth are examined. Students observe hermit crabs in a terrarium and determine their response to changes in temperature, light, and moisture.
In music, our fourth grade students practice reading and performance skills in preparation for the Christmas concert. Benjamin Britten’s Young Person’s Guide to the Orchestra is used in second quarter to further acquaint students with orchestral music and to support participation in the ICS Junior Orchestra. Composers studied include Brazilian composer Villa-Lobos, as well as Bach and Handel.
After learning the history of quilt-making from a member of the local quilting guild, students create their own quilt designs and assemble them using paper triangles of various colors. Students study sculpture techniques and use lengths of silver wire to create a human figure and attach it to a display base. Gesture drawings, using the technique of spiral drawing of the human body, prepare students for the sculpture unit and promote understanding of the composition of the human figure.
Fourth grade Bible features Biblical heroes. These character studies allow the children to see people who model traits of faith, obedience, courage, and strength of character. Just as people in Bible times faced problems requiring God’s work in their lives, students recognize their own significance before God. Through Biblical characters such as Elijah, Esther, Nehemiah, and Peter, student learn of God’s promises for those who trust in Him and His word. Students memorize and recite the Books of the Bible, and verses from I John, Philippians, and the Psalms. Participation in bi-weekly elementary chapel emphasizes corporate worship and teaching from the Bible as it relates to individual character.
Fourth graders have weekly classes that focus on acquiring vocabulary, developing listening and inference skills, and speaking basic conversational phrases. The classes combine music, games, and hands-on activities to encourage long-term retention.
Physical fitness and outdoor exercise are a priority for Immanuel students. In fourth grade, students enjoy cooperative play in their recess times. The skills of simple organized sports and the exercise, agility, and endurance necessary for good health are emphasized in twice-weekly PE classes. Sportsmanship, teamwork, respect, and safety are all taught as essential to the enjoyment of sports activities.
TEXTS AND RESOURCES


In our chemistry help section, you'll find a broad range of topics from very basic chemistry all the way through some more advanced organic chemistry topics. Browse our chemistry topics below, or contact one of our chemistry tutors for private help.
Before you get into the other topics, learning HOW to learn chemistry is a great place to start, and this section will help.
The Periodic Table
Almost everyone has heard of the periodic table, but do you know how to read it? This section gives you a thorough history of the periodic table, and explains how elements are divided and grouped in the table.
Take a deep dive on every element on the periodic table.
Mixtures and solutions may seem to have a lot in common, but they're actually very different. Find out more here.
States of Matter
Matter has a variety of different states, ranging from gases to solids. Learn more about them in this section.
What are the different bonds and how do you create a compound? Get some clarity in this thorough section.
Let's learn more about writing simple chemical equations and types of reactions. We cover a lot of ground here.
Moles and Percents
What are moles and why do we need them? No, not the animal - although those are great too!
What is stoichiometry and what forms does it take? This section goes into detail.
What are gases and the laws that govern them? We take a look here.
Acids and Bases
What makes an acid or a base weak or strong? What are acids and bases in the first place? Let's dig in.
Polyatomic ions are ions with many atoms; they contain more than one element. They are charged just like regular ions; for example, an ion looks like this: Cl-, while a polyatomic ion looks like this: ClO3-. While the chloride ion only contains one element - chlorine - the chlorate ion contains both chlorine and oxygen. Read this lesson for examples of other commonly known polyatomic ions.
Electronegativity is a property of atoms that has to do with the tendency to attract electrons from another atom to form an ionic bond. Electronegativity is measured using the Pauling scale, which was instated by Linus Pauling. Read this lesson to find out all about electronegativity!
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
All reactions can be classified as endothermic (storing energy) or exothermic (releasing energy). This lesson reviews the ways in which reactions store and give off energy, including items like heat, light, and mechanical energy. Once you've read this lesson, test yourself with a quick practice quiz to review the endothermic and exothermic concepts.
Hydrolysis occurs when one adds water to a compound, which causes the compound to break apart into a cation and an anion. Then, water can bond chemically with the substance, changing its chemical form.These reactions often take place when ionic compounds dissolve in water. Read on to learn more about the process of hydrolysis!
When a reaction is in a state of dynamic equilibrium, the reaction is reversible. This means that, to maintain equilibrium, the products break apart to form the reactants. Read this lesson for more information on dynamic equilibrium!
Enthalpy is a state function that is measured in kilojoules per mole. Enthalpy is abbreviated as H in the Gibbs free energy equation: G = H - TS. Enthalpy can help an observer discern whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic based on the enthalpy having a positive or negative value. Read on to find out more about enthalpy!
Like enthalpy, entropy is also a state function that is defined as ΔS, or Sf - Si. It is a spontaneous reaction that occurs naturally. Entropy measures the disorder of a system. Read this lesson to learn more about entropy!
Mass spectrometry is used to experimentally determine the molecular weight of a sample by ionizing a molecule and passing it through electrical and magnetic fields. The observer would then note how the ionized compound responds, which correlates with the molecular weight in a quantifiable way. Read on to learn more about the intricate process of mass spectrometry!
Hess's law is much like solving a puzzle using the change in entropy of a reaction. The result is that one can tell the change in energy (in kJ/mol) of a reaction. Hess's law requires a balanced equation with proper coefficients. Read on for more advice on implementing Hess's law!
The Born-Haber cycle is a series of chemical processes that are used to calculate the lattice energy of ionic solids. The Born-Haber cycle can be thought of as a special case of Hess's law. Read on for a definition of lattice energy as well as examples of how the Born-Haber cycle is used to calculate lattice energy.
This page identifies different types of bonds, including covalent, polar covalent, ionic, and hydrogen. It explains how to draw compound structures by counting electrons and placing bonds accordingly. The Octet and Duet rules are also explained here.
This page details how electrons are arranged in an atom, including information about the orbitals (s, p, d, and f) and how to easily tell which orbital an electron is in. You’ll also learn about the diagonal rule and electron spin.
Electron delocalization can be really confusing! In order to understand this concept, one must learn about resonance, bonding, and aromaticity. Read on for more information about electron delocalization!
The Aufbau principle describes how electrons fill energy levels in an atom. In order to write the electron configuration of an atom, one must know how the subshells fill. Using the diagonal rule will certainly help with this process. Read on for more information about the Aufbau principle.
Hybridization occurs when two atomic orbitals combine to form one hybrid orbital. One of the more common types of hybridization is sp3 hybridization, which is described in detail in this lesson. Read on for more detailed information on the intricacies of electron orbitals.
Electrolysis occurs in electrolytic cells when an electrical current causes a nonspontaneous oxidation-reduction reaction. This lesson describes how electrolysis is used, including extracting pure metals from the Earth's crust. Read on for more information on the process of electrolysis!
Voltaic cells use chemical energy to do electrical work. A redox reaction occurs, and the electrons are forced through an electrical circuit. Read on to find out the specifics on how voltaic cells power electrical processes!
The study of nuclear reactions is called radiation chemistry. A nuclear reaction involves the nucleus of an atom. These types of processes were first discovered by Marie Curie in the late 1800s. Read on for more details about radiation chemistry!
Introduction to Organic Chemistry
Introduces carbon structures and interactions between molecules. Basic vocabulary and ideas are introduced concerning alcohols and hydrocarbons. Combustion of a hydrocarbon is also discussed briefly.
Alkanes and Alkenes
Alkanes and alkenes are both hydrocarbons that follow the standard nomenclature procedures. Learn whether alkanes and alkenes are saturated or unsaturated, which is more reactive, and how to name a compound by looking at its structure in this lesson.
Aromatic Electrophilic Substitutions (EArS Reactions)
When aromatic compounds undergo reactions with electrophiles, a substitution reaction occurs. This reaction is known as an electrophilic aromatic substitution (EArS or EAS) reaction. Read on for an in-depth description of how these reactions occur!
Halogenoalkanes are exciting because, compared to alkanes, they are very highly reactive when paired with nucleophiles or bases. Halogenoalkanes are also SP3 hybridized. Read this lesson to find out more information on halogenoalkanes!
Carbonyl Condensation Reactions
A carbonyl condensation reaction occurs between two carbonyl partners and involve nucleophilic addition and α substitution. This lesson also covers aldol condensation as well as the Robinson annulation reaction. Read on for more details about these chemical processes.
An elimination reaction occurs when a starting product breaks down into two new products that contain all the atoms of the original reactant. There are two types: E1 and E2. Read this lesson for more information about elimination reactions.
Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
Nucleophilic substitution reactions occur when a nucleophile interacts with an electrophile. Read this lesson for a step by step explanation of what happens during a nucleophilic substitution reaction.
This lesson also covers nucleophilic substitution including the SN1 and SN2 mechanisms. Effects on kinetic rate, alkyl group, and more are discussed in this lesson.
Because many students cannot and do not draw organic structures correctly, one of our most prominent chemistry tutors took the time to explain how to draw cyclohexane rings in great detail. She even shows more than one way to get a perfect drawing of this ring. Read the lesson to find out how to draw these rings correctly!
Stereoisomers are a category of isomers. Learn about the different categories of isomers in this lesson, and how you will study stereoisomers in chemistry and biochemistry.
Content in this section of Wyzant Lessons has been curated by tutors, as well as by Chemtutor.com creator David Wilner.
David Wilner is a native of Georgia, USA, born just before the end of WWII. Mr. Wilner is happiest when he is explaining things in science (pontificating), so it is natural that he has been a science teacher in high school and a teacher of chemistry at Georgia Perimeter College.
Still need help after using our chemistry resources? Use our service to find a chemistry tutor.
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