Cymru, the nation; Cymry, the people; Cymraeg, the language
Identification. The Britons, a Celtic tribe, who first settled in the area that is now Wales, had already begun to identify themselves as a distinct culture by the sixth century C.E. The word "Cymry," referring to the country, first appeared in a poem dating from 633. By 700 C.E. , the Britons referred to themselves as Cymry, the country as Cymru, and the language as Cymraeg. The words "Wales" and "Welsh" are Saxon in origin and were used by the invading Germanic tribe to denote people who spoke a different language. The Welsh sense of identity has endured despite invasions, absorption into Great Britain, mass immigration, and, more recently, the arrival of non-Welsh residents.
Language has played a significant role in contributing to the sense of unity felt by the Welsh; more than the other Celtic languages, Welsh has maintained a significant number of speakers. During the eighteenth century a literary and cultural rebirth of the language occurred which further helped to solidify national identity and create ethnic pride among the Welsh. Central to Welsh culture is the centuries-old folk tradition of poetry and music which has helped keep the Welsh language alive. Welsh intellectuals in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries wrote extensively on the subject of Welsh culture, promoting the language as the key to preserving national identity. Welsh literature, poetry, and music flourished in the nineteenth century as literacy rates and the availability of printed material increased. Tales that had traditionally been handed down orally were recorded, both in Welsh and English, and a new generation of Welsh writers emerged.
Location and Geography. Wales is a part of the United Kingdom and is located in a wide peninsula in the western portion of the island of Great Britain. The island of Anglesey is also considered a part of Wales and is separated from the mainland by the Menai Strait. Wales is surrounded by water on three sides: to the north, the Irish Sea; to the south, the Bristol Channel; and to the west, Saint George's Channel and Cardigan Bay. The English counties of Cheshire, Shropshire, Hereford, Worcester, and Gloucestershire border Wales on the east. Wales covers an area of 8,020 square miles (20,760 square kilometers) and extends 137 miles (220 kilometers) from its most distant points and varies between 36 and 96 miles (58 and 154 kilometers) in width. The capital, Cardiff, is located in the southeast on the Severn Estuary and is also the most important seaport and shipbuilding center. Wales is very mountainous and has a rocky, irregular coastline with numerous bays, the largest of which is Cardigan Bay to the west. The Cambrian Mountains, the most significant range, run north-south through central Wales. Other mountain ranges include the Brecon Beacons to the southeast and Snowdon in the northwest, which reaches an elevation of 3,560 feet (1,085 meters) and is the highest mountain in Wales and England. The Dee River, with its headwaters in Bala Lake, the largest natural lake in Wales, flows through northern Wales into England. Numerous smaller rivers cover the south, including the Usk, Wye, Teifi, and Towy.
The temperate climate, mild and moist, has ensured the development of an abundance of plant and animal life. Ferns, mosses, and grasslands as well as numerous wooded areas cover Wales. Oak, mountain ash, and coniferous trees are found in mountainous regions under 1,000 feet (300 meters). The pine marten, a small animal similar to a mink, and the polecat, a member of the weasel family, are
Demography. The latest surveys place the population of Wales at 2,921,000 with a density of approximately 364 people per square mile (141 per square kilometers). Almost three-quarters of the Welsh population reside in the mining centers of the south. The popularity of Wales as a vacation destination and weekend retreat, especially near the border with England, has created a new, nonpermanent population.
Linguistic Affiliation. There are approximately 500,000 Welsh speakers today and, due to a renewed interest in the language and culture, this number may increase. Most people in Wales, however, are English-speaking, with Welsh as a second language; in the north and west, many people are Welsh and English bilinguals. English is still the main language of everyday use with both Welsh and English appearing on signs. In some areas, Welsh is used exclusively and the number of Welsh publications is increasing.
Welsh, or Cymraeg, is a Celtic language belonging to the Brythonic group consisting of Breton, Welsh, and the extinct Cornish. Western Celtic tribes first settled in the area during the Iron Age, bringing with them their language which survived both Roman and Anglo-Saxon occupation and influence, although some features of Latin were introduced into the language and have survived in modern Welsh. Welsh epic poetry can be traced back to the sixth century C.E. and represents one of the oldest literary traditions in Europe. The poems of Taliesin and Aneirin dating from the late seventh century C.E. reflect a literary and cultural awareness from an early point in Welsh history. Although there were many factors affecting the Welsh language, especially contact with other language groups, the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries marked a dramatic decline in the number of Welsh speakers, as many non-Welsh people, attracted by the industry that had developed around coal mining in the south and east, moved into the area. At the same time, many Welsh people from rural areas left to find work in London or abroad. This large-scale migration of non-Welsh-speaking workers greatly accelerated the disappearance of Welsh-speaking communities. Even though there were still around forty Welsh-language publications in the mid-nineteenth century, the regular use of Welsh by the majority of the population began to drop. Over time two linguistic groups emerged in Wales; the Welsh-speaking region known as the Y Fro Cymraeg to the north and west, where more than 80 percent of the population speaks Welsh, and the Anglo-Welsh area to the south and east where the number of Welsh speakers is below 10 percent and English is the majority language. Up until 1900, however, almost half the population still spoke Welsh.
In 1967 the Welsh Language Act was passed, recognizing the status of Welsh as an official language. In 1988 the Welsh Language Board was established, helping to ensure the rebirth of Welsh. Throughout Wales there was a serious effort in the second half of the twentieth century to maintain and promote the language. Other efforts to support the language included Welsh-language television programs, bilingual Welsh-English schools, as well
Symbolism. The symbol of Wales, which also appears on the flag, is a red dragon. Supposedly brought to the colony of Britain by the Romans, the dragon was a popular symbol in the ancient world and was used by the Romans, the Saxons, and the Parthians. It became the national symbol of Wales when Henry VII, who became king in 1485 and had used it as his battle flag during the battle of Bosworth Field, decreed that the red dragon should become the official flag of Wales. The leek and the daffodil are also important Welsh symbols. One legend connects the leek to Saint David, the patron saint of Wales, who defeated the pagan Saxons in a victorious battle that supposedly occurred in a field of leeks. It is more likely that leeks were adopted as a national symbol because of their importance to the Welsh diet, particularly during Lent when meat was not allowed. Another, less famous Welsh symbol consists of three ostrich plumes and the motto "Ich Dien" (translation: "I serve") from the Battle of Crecy, France, in 1346. It was probably borrowed from the motto of the King of Bohemia, who led the cavalry charge against the English.
Emergence of the Nation. The earliest evidence of a human presence in Wales dates from the Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age, period almost 200,000 years ago. It was not until the Neolithic and Bronze Age period around 3,000 B.C.E. , however, that a sedentary civilization began to develop. The first tribes to settle in Wales, who probably came from the western coastal areas of the Mediterranean, were people generally referred to as the Iberians. Later migrations from northern and eastern Europe brought the Brythonic Celts and Nordic tribes to the area. At the time of the Roman invasion in 55 B.C.E. , the area was made up of the Iberian and Celtic tribes who referred to themselves as Cymry. The Cymry tribes were eventually subjugated by the Romans in the first century C.E. Anglo-Saxon tribes also settled in Britain during this period, pushing other Celtic tribes into the Welsh mountains where they eventually united with the Cymry already living there. In the first centuries C.E. , Wales was divided into tribal kingdoms, the most important of which were Gwynedd, Gwent, Dyved, and Powys. All of the Welsh kingdoms later united against the Anglo-Saxon invaders, marking the beginning of an official division between England and Wales. This boundary became official with the construction of Offa's Dyke around the middle of the eighth century C.E. Offa's Dyke was at first a ditch constructed by Offa, the king of Mercia, in an attempt to give his territories a well-defined border to the west. The Dyke was later enlarged and fortified, becoming one of the largest human-made boundaries in Europe and covering 150 miles from the northeast coast to the southeast coast of Wales. It remains to this day the line that divides English and Welsh cultures.
When William the Conqueror (William I) and his Norman army conquered England in 1066, the three English earldoms of Chester, Shrewsbury, and Hereford were established on the border with Wales. These areas were used as strong points in attacks against the Welsh and as strategic political centers. Nevertheless, the only Welsh kingdom to fall under Norman control during the reign of William I (1066–1087) was Gwent, in the southeast. By 1100 the Norman lords had expanded their control to include the Welsh areas of Cardigan, Pembroke, Brecon, and Glamorgan. This expansion into Welsh territory led to the establishment of the March of Wales, an area previously ruled by the Welsh kings.
The Welsh continued to fight Norman and Anglo-Saxon control in the first part of the twelfth century. By the last half of the twelfth century the three Welsh kingdoms of Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth were firmly established, providing a permanent base for Welsh statehood. The principal settlements of Aberffraw in Gwynedd, Mathrafal in Powys, and Dinefwr in Deheubarth formed the core of Welsh political and cultural life. Although the Welsh kings were allies, each ruled separate territories swearing loyalty to the king of England. The establishment of the kingdoms marked the beginning of a period of stability and growth. Agriculture flourished, as did scholarship and the Welsh literary tradition. A period of unrest and contested succession followed the deaths of the three Welsh kings as different factions fought for control. The stability provided by the first kings was never restored in Powys and Deheubarth. The kingdom of Gwynedd was successfully united once again under the reign of Llywelyn ap Iorwerth (d. 1240) following a brief power struggle. Viewing Llywelyn as a threat, King John (1167–1216) led a campaign against him which led to Llywelyn's humiliating defeat in 1211. Llywelyn, however, turned this to his advantage and secured the allegiance of other Welsh leaders who feared total subjugation under King John. Llywelyn became the leader of the Welsh forces and, although conflict with King John continued, he successfully united the Welsh politically and eventually minimized the king of England's involvement in Welsh affairs. Dafydd ap Llywelyn, Llywelyn ap Iorwerth's son and heir, attempted to broaden Welsh power before his premature death in 1246. With Dafydd leaving no heirs, succession to the Welsh throne was contested by Dafydd's nephews and in a series of battles between 1255 and 1258 Llwelyn ap Gruffydd (d. 1282), one of the nephews, assumed control of the Welsh throne, crowning himself Prince of Wales. Henry III officially recognized his authority over Wales in 1267 with the Treaty of Montgomery and in turn Llwelyn swore allegiance to the English crown.
Llwelyn succeeded in firmly establishing the Principality of Wales, which consisted of the twelfth century kingdoms of Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth as well as some parts of the March. This period of peace, however, did not last long. Conflict arose between Edward I, who succeeded Henry III, and Llwelyn, culminating in an English invasion of Wales in 1276, followed by war. Llwelyn was forced into a humiliating surrender that included relinquishing control over the eastern part of his territory and an acknowledgment of fealty paid to Edward I annually. In 1282 Llwelyn, aided this time by the Welsh nobility of other regions, rebelled against Edward I only to be killed in combat. The Welsh forces continued to fight but finally capitulated to Edward I in the summer of 1283, marking the beginning of a period of occupation by the English.
Although the Welsh were forced to surrender, the struggle for unity and independence over the previous one hundred years had been crucial in shaping Welsh politics and identity. During the fourteenth century economic and social difficulties prevailed in Wales. Edward I embarked on a program of castle building, both for defensive purposes and to shelter English colonists, which was continued by his heir Edward II. The result of his efforts can still be seen in Wales today, which has more castles per square mile than any other area of Europe.
At the end of the 1300s Henry IV seized the throne from Richard II, provoking a revolt in Wales where support for Richard II was strong. Under the leadership of Owain Glyndwr, Wales united to rebel against the English king. From 1400 to 1407 Wales once again asserted its independence from England. England did not regain control of Wales again until 1416 and the death of Glyndwr, marking the last Welsh uprising. The Welsh submitted to Henry VII (1457–1509), the first king of the house of Tudor, whom they regarded as a countryman. In 1536 Henry VIII declared the Act of Union, incorporating Wales into the English realm. For the first time in its history Wales obtained uniformity in the administration of law and justice, the same political rights as the English, and English common law in the courts. Wales also secured parliamentary representation. Welsh landowners exercised their authority locally, in the name of the king, who granted them their land and property. Wales, although no longer an independent nation, had finally obtained unity, stability, and, most importantly, statehood and recognition as a distinct culture.
National Identity. The different ethnic groups and tribes that settled in ancient Wales gradually merged, politically and culturally, to defend their territory from first, the Romans, and later the Anglo-Saxon and Norman invaders. The sense of national identity was formed over centuries as the people of Wales struggled against being absorbed into neighboring cultures. The heritage of a common Celtic origin was a key factor in shaping Welsh identity and uniting the warring kingdoms. Cut off from other Celtic cultures to the north in Britain and in Ireland, the Welsh tribes united against their non-Celtic enemies. The development and continued use of the Welsh language also played important roles in maintaining and strengthening the national identity. The tradition of handing down poetry and stories orally and the importance of music in daily
Ethnic Relations. With the Act of Union, Wales gained peaceful relations with the English while maintaining their ethnic identity. Until the late eighteenth century Wales was predominantly rural with most of the population living in or near small farming villages; contact with other ethnic groups was minimal. The Welsh gentry, on the other hand, mixed socially and politically with the English and Scottish gentry, producing a very Anglicized upper class. The industry that grew up around coal mining and steel manufacturing attracted immigrants, principally from Ireland and England, to Wales starting in the late eighteenth century. Poor living and working conditions, combined with the arrival of large numbers of immigrants, caused social unrest and frequently led to conflicts—often violent in nature—among different ethnic groups. The decline of heavy industry in the late nineteenth century, however, caused an outward migration of Welsh and the country ceased to attract immigrants. The end of the twentieth century brought renewed industrialization and with it, once again, immigrants from all over the world, although without notable conflicts. The increased standard of living throughout Great Britain has also made Wales a popular vacation and weekend retreat, principally for people from large urban areas in England. This trend is causing significant tension, especially in Welsh-speaking and rural areas, among residents who feel that their way of life is being threatened.
The development of Welsh cities and towns did not begin until industrialization in the late 1700s. Rural areas are characterized by a scattering of isolated farms, typically consisting of the older, traditional whitewashed or stone buildings, usually with slate roofs. Villages evolved from the early settlements of the Celtic tribes who chose particular locations for their agricultural or defensive value. More successful settlements grew and became the political and economic centers, first of the kingdoms, then later the individual regions, in Wales. The Anglo-Norman manorial tradition of buildings clustered on a landowner's property, similar to rural villages in England, was introduced to Wales after the conquest of 1282. The village as a center of rural society, however, became significant only in southern and eastern Wales; other rural areas maintained scattered and more isolated building patterns. Timber-framed houses, originally constructed around a great hall, emerged in the Middle Ages in the north and east, and later throughout Wales. In the late sixteenth century, houses began to vary more in size and refinement, reflecting the growth of a middle class and increasing disparities in wealth. In Glamorgan and Monmouthshire, landowners built brick houses that reflected the vernacular style popular in England at the time as well as their social status. This imitation of English architecture set landowners apart from the rest of Welsh society. After the Norman conquest, urban development began to grow around castles and military camps. The bastide, or castle town, although not large, is still significant to political and administrative life. Industrialization in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries caused an explosion of urban growth in the southeast and in Cardiff. Housing shortages were common and several families, often unrelated, shared dwellings. Economic affluence and a population increase created a demand for new construction in the late twentieth century. Slightly over 70 percent of homes in Wales are owner-occupied.
Food in Daily Life. The importance of agriculture to the Welsh economy as well as the availability of local products has created high food standards and a national diet that is based on fresh, natural food. In coastal areas fishing and seafood are important to both the economy and the local cuisine. The type of food available in Wales is similar to that found in the rest of the United Kingdom and includes a variety of food from other cultures and nations.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Special traditional Welsh dishes include laverbread, a seaweed dish; cawl, a rich broth; bara brith, a traditional cake; and pice ar y maen, Welsh cakes. Traditional dishes are served at special occasions and holidays. Local markets and fairs usually offer regional products and baked goods. Wales is particularly known for its cheeses and meats. Welsh rabbit, also called Welsh rarebit, a dish of melted cheese mixed with ale, beer, milk, and spices served over toast, has been popular since the early eighteenth century.
Basic Economy. Mining, especially of coal, has been the chief economic activity of Wales since the seventeenth century and is still very important to the economy and one of the leading sources of employment. The largest coalfields are in the southeast and today produce about 10 percent of Great Britain's total coal production. Iron, steel, limestone, and slate production are also important industries. Although heavy industry has played a significant role in the Welsh economy and greatly affected Welsh society in the nineteenth century, the country remains largely agricultural with almost 80 percent of the land used for agricultural activities. The raising of livestock, particularly cattle and sheep, is more important than crop farming. The principal crops are barley, oats, potatoes, and hay. Fishing, centered on the Bristol Channel, is another important commercial activity. The economy is integrated with the rest of Great Britain and as such Wales is no longer exclusively dependent on its own production. Although agriculture accounts for much of the economy, only a small segment of the total population actually works in this area and agricultural output is largely destined for sale. Many foreign companies that produce consumer goods, particularly Japanese firms, have opened factories and offices in Wales in recent years, providing employment and encouraging economic growth.
Land Tenure and Property. In ancient Wales land was informally controlled by tribes who fiercely protected their territory. With the rise of the Welsh kingdoms, land ownership was controlled by the kings who granted their subjects tenure. Because of the scattered and relatively small population of Wales, however, most people lived on isolated farms or in small villages. After the Act of Union with England, the king granted land to the nobility and later, with the rise of a middle class, the Welsh gentry had the economic power to purchase small tracts of land. Most Welsh people were peasant farmers who either worked the land for landowners or were tenant farmers, renting small patches of land. The advent of the industrial revolution caused a radical change in the economy and farmworkers left the countryside in large numbers to seek work in urban areas and coal mines. Industrial workers rented living quarters or, sometimes, were provided with factory housing.
Today, land ownership is more evenly distributed throughout the population although there are still large privately owned tracts of land. A new awareness of environmental issues has led to the creation of national parks and protected wildlife zones. The Welsh Forestry Commission has acquired land formerly used for pasture and farming and initiated a program of reforestation.
Major Industries. Heavy industry, such as mining and other activities associated with the port of Cardiff, once the busiest industrial port in the world, declined in the last part of the twentieth century. The Welsh Office and Welsh Development Agency have worked to attract multinational companies to Wales in an effort to restructure the nation's economy. Unemployment, higher on average in the rest of the United Kingdom, is still a concern. Industrial growth in the late twentieth century was concentrated mostly in the area of science and technology. The Royal Mint was relocated to Llantrisant, Wales in 1968, helping create a banking and financial services industry. Manufacturing is still the largest Welsh industry, with financial services in second place, followed by education, health and social services, and wholesale and retail trade. Mining accounts for only 1 percent of the gross domestic product.
Trade. Integrated with the economy of the United Kingdom, Wales has important trade relations with other regions in Britain and with Europe. Agricultural products, electronic equipment, synthetic fibers, pharmaceuticals, and automotive parts are the principal exports. The most important heavy industry is the refining of imported metal ore to produce tin and aluminum sheets.
Government. The Principality of Wales is governed from Whitehall in London, the name of the administrative and political seat of the British government. Increasing pressure from Welsh leaders for more autonomy brought devolution of administration in May 1999, meaning that more political power has been given to the Welsh Office in Cardiff. The position of secretary of state for Wales, a part of the British prime minister's cabinet, was created in 1964. In a 1979 referendum a proposal for the creation of a nonlegislating Welsh Assembly was rejected but in 1997 another referendum passed by a slim margin, leading to the 1998 creation of the National Assembly for Wales. The assembly has sixty members and is responsible for setting policy and creating legislation in areas regarding education, health, agriculture, transportation, and social services. A general reorganization of government throughout the United Kingdom in 1974 included a simplification of Welsh administration with smaller districts regrouped to form larger constituencies for economic and political reasons. Wales was reorganized into eight new counties, from thirteen originally, and within the counties thirty-seven new districts were created.
Leadership and Political Officials. Wales has always had strong left wing and radical political parties and leaders. There is also a strong political awareness throughout Wales and voter turnout at elections is higher on average than in the United Kingdom as a whole. In most of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the Liberal Party dominated Welsh politics with the industrial regions supporting the Socialists. In 1925 the Welsh Nationalist Party, known as Plaid Cymru, was founded with the intention of gaining independence for Wales as a region within the European Economic Community. Between World Wars I and II severe economic depression caused almost 430,000 Welsh to immigrate and a new political activism was born with an emphasis on social and economic reform. After World War II the Labor Party gained a majority of support. During the late 1960s Plaid Cymru and the Conservative Party won seats in parliamentary elections, weakening the Labor Party's traditional
Military Activity. Wales does not have an independent military and its defense falls under the authority of the military of the United Kingdom as a whole. There are, however, three army regiments, the Welsh Guards, the Royal Regiment of Wales, and the Royal Welch Fusiliers, that have historical associations with the country.
Health and social services fall under the administration and responsibility of the secretary of state for Wales. The Welsh Office, which works with the county and district authorities, plans and executes matters relating to housing, health, education, and welfare. Terrible working and living conditions in the nineteenth century brought significant changes and new policies regarding social welfare that continued to be improved upon throughout the twentieth century. Issues regarding health care, housing, education, and working conditions, combined with a high level of political activism, have created an awareness of and demand for social change programs in Wales.
The Relative Status of Women and Men. Historically, women had few rights, although many worked outside the home, and were expected to fulfill the role of wife, mother, and, in the case of unmarried women, caregiver to an extended family. In agricultural areas women worked alongside male family members. When the Welsh economy began to become more industrialized, many women found work in factories that hired an exclusively female workforce for jobs not requiring physical strength. Women and children worked in mines, putting in fourteen-hour days under extremely harsh conditions. Legislation was passed in the mid-nineteenth century limiting the working hours for women and children but it was not until the beginning of the twentieth century that Welsh women began to demand more civil rights. The Women's Institute, which now has chapters throughout the United Kingdom, was founded in Wales, although all of its activities are conducted in English. In the 1960s another organization, similar to the Women's Institute but exclusively Welsh in its goals, was founded. Known as the Merched y Wawr, or Women of the Dawn, it is dedicated to promoting the rights of Welshwomen, the Welsh language and culture, and organizing charitable projects.
Child Rearing and Education. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries children were exploited for labor, sent into mines to work in shafts that were too small for adults. Child and infant mortality rates were high; almost half of all children did not live past the age of five, and only half of those who lived past the age of ten could hope to live to their early twenties. Social reformers and religious organizations, particularly the Methodist Church, advocated for improved public education standards in the mid-nineteenth century. Conditions began to gradually improve for children when working hours were restricted and compulsory education enacted. The Education Act of 1870 passed to enforce basic standards, but also sought to banish Welsh completely from the education system.
Today, primary and nursery schools in areas with a Welsh-speaking majority provide instruction completely in Welsh and schools in areas where English is the first language offer bilingual instruction. The Welsh Language Nursery Schools Movement, Mudiad Ysgolion Meithrin Cymraeg, founded in 1971, has been very successful in creating a network of nursery schools, or Ysgolion Meithrin, particularly in regions where English is used more frequently. Nursery, primary, and secondary schools are under the administration of the education authority of the Welsh Office. Low-cost, quality public education is available throughout Wales for students of all ages.
Higher Education. Most institutions of higher learning are publicly supported, but admission is competitive. The Welsh literary tradition, a high literacy rate, and political and religious factors have all contributed to shaping a culture where higher education is considered important. The principal institute of higher learning is the University of Wales, a public university financed by the Universities Funding Council in London, with six locations in Wales: Aberystwyth, Bangor, Cardiff, Lampeter, Swansea, and the Welsh National School of Medicine in Cardiff. The Welsh Office is responsible for
Religious Beliefs. Religion has played a significant role in the shaping Welsh culture. Protestantism, namely Anglicanism, began to gather more support after Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church. On the eve of the English Civil War in 1642, Puritanism, practiced by Oliver Cromwell and his supporters, was widespread in the border counties of Wales and in Pembrokeshire. Welsh royalists, who supported the king and Anglicanism, were stripped of their property, incurring much resentment among non-Puritan Welsh. In 1650 the Act for the Propagation of the Gospel in Wales was passed, taking over both political and religious life. During the period known as the Interregnum when Cromwell was in power, several non-Anglican, or Dissenting, Protestant congregations were formed which were to have significant influences on modern Welsh life. The most religiously and socially radical of these were the Quakers, who had a strong following in Montgomeryshire and Merioneth, and eventually spread their influence to areas including the Anglican border counties and the Welsh-speaking areas in the north and west. The Quakers, intensely disliked by both other Dissenting churches and the Anglican Church, were severely repressed with the result that large numbers were forced to emigrate to the American colonies. Other churches, such as the Baptist and Congregationalist, which were Calvinist in theology, grew and found many followers in rural communities and small towns. In the latter part of the eighteenth century many Welsh converted to Methodism after a revival movement in 1735. Methodism was supported within the established Anglican Church and was originally organized through local societies governed by a central association. The influence of the original Dissenting churches, combined with the spiritual revival of Methodism, gradually led Welsh society away from Anglicanism. Conflicts in leadership and chronic poverty made church growth difficult, but the popularity of Methodism eventually helped establish it permanently as the most widespread denomination. The Methodist and other Dissenting churches were also responsible for an increase in literacy through church-sponsored schools that promoted education as a way of spreading religious doctrine.
Today, followers of Methodism still constitute the largest religious group. The Anglican Church, or the Church of England, is the second largest sect, followed by the Roman Catholic Church. There are also much smaller numbers of Jews and Muslims. The Dissenting Protestant sects, and religion in general, played very important roles in modern Welsh society but the number of people who regularly participated in religious activities dropped significantly after World War II.
Rituals and Holy Places. The Cathedral of Saint David, in Pembrokeshire, is the most significant national holy place. David, the patron saint of Wales, was a religious crusader who arrived in Wales in the sixth century to spread Christianity and convert the Welsh tribes. He died in 589 on 1 March, now celebrated as Saint David's Day, a national holiday. His remains are buried in the cathedral.
Health care and medicine are government-funded and supported by the National Health Service of the United Kingdom. There is a very high standard of health care in Wales with approximately six medical practitioners per ten thousand people. The Welsh National School of Medicine in Cardiff offers quality medical training and education.
During the nineteenth century, Welsh intellectuals began to promote the national culture and traditions, initiating a revival of Welsh folk culture. Over the last century these celebrations have evolved into major events and Wales now has several internationally important music and literary festivals. The Hay Festival of Literature, from 24 May to 4 June, in the town of Hay-on-Wye, annually attracts thousands, as does the Brecon Jazz Festival from 11 to 13 August. The most important Welsh secular celebration, however, is the Eisteddfod cultural gathering celebrating music, poetry, and storytelling.
The Eisteddfod has its origins in the twelfth century when it was essentially a meeting held by the Welsh bards for the exchange of information. Taking place irregularly and in different locations, the Eisteddfod was attended by poets, musicians and troubadours, all of whom had important roles in medieval Welsh culture. By the eighteenth century the tradition had become less cultural and more social, often degenerating into drunken tavern meetings, but in 1789 the Gwyneddigion Society revived the Eisteddfod as a competitive festival. It was Edward Williams, also known as Iolo Morgannwg, however, who reawakened Welsh interest in the Eisteddfod in the nineteenth century. Williams actively promoted the Eisteddfod among the Welsh community living in London, often giving dramatic speeches about the significance of Welsh culture and the importance of continuing ancient Celtic traditions. The nineteenth century revival of the Eisteddfod and the rise of Welsh nationalism, combined with a romantic image of ancient Welsh history, led to the creation of Welsh ceremonies and rituals that may not have any historical basis.
The Llangollen International Musical Eisteddfod, held from 4 to 9 July, and the Royal National Eisteddfod at Llanelli, which features poetry and Welsh folk arts, held from 5 to 12 August, are the two most important secular celebrations. Other smaller, folk and cultural festivals are held throughout the year.
Support for the Arts. The traditional importance of music and poetry has encouraged a general appreciation of and support for all of the arts. There is strong public support throughout Wales for the arts, which are considered important to the national culture. Financial support is derived from both the private and public sectors. The Welsh Arts Council provides government assistance for literature, art, music, and theater. The council also organizes tours of foreign performance groups in Wales and provides grants to writers for both English- and Welsh-language publications.
Literature. Literature and poetry occupy an important position in Wales for historical and linguistic reasons. Welsh culture was based on an oral tradition of legends, myths, and folktales passed down from generation to generation. The most famous early bardic poets, Taliesin and Aneirin, wrote epic poems about Welsh events and legends around the seventh century. Increasing literacy in the eighteenth century and the concern of Welsh intellectuals for the preservation of the language and culture gave birth to modern written Welsh literature. As industrialization and Anglicization began to threaten traditional Welsh culture, efforts were made to promote the language, preserve Welsh poetry, and encourage Welsh writers. Dylan Thomas, however, the best known twentieth century Welsh poet, wrote in English. Literary festivals and competitions help keep this tradition alive, as does the continued promotion of Welsh, the Celtic language with the largest number of speakers today. Nevertheless, the influence of other cultures combined with the ease of communication through mass media, from both inside the United Kingdom and from other parts of the world, continually undermine efforts to preserve a purely Welsh form of literature.
Performance Arts. Singing is the most important of the performance arts in Wales and has its roots in ancient traditions. Music was both entertainment and a means for telling stories. The Welsh National Opera, supported by the Welsh Arts Council, is one of the leading opera companies in Britain. Wales is famous for its all-male choirs, which have evolved from the religious choral tradition. Traditional instruments, such as the harp, are still widely played and since 1906 the Welsh Folk Song Society has preserved, collected, and published traditional songs. The Welsh Theater Company is critically acclaimed and Wales has produced many internationally famous actors.
Until the last part of the twentieth century, limited professional and economic opportunities caused many Welsh scientists, scholars, and researchers to leave Wales. A changing economy and the investment of multinationals specializing in high technology are encouraging more people to remain in Wales and find work in the private sector. Research in the social and physical sciences is also supported by Welsh universities and colleges.
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—M. C AMERON A RNOLD
S EE A LSO : United Kingdom


1 Key Ideas and Details Anchor 1 / Literature Reading Anchor 1: Read closely to determine what the text says explicitly and to make logical inferences from it; cite specific textual evidence when writing or speaking conclusions drawn from the text. Reading closely Thinking like a detective Grade K Standard With prompting and support, ask, and answer questions about key details key details in a text. Ask and answer questions about key details in a text. Ask and answer such questions as who?, what?, where?, when?, and how? To demonstrate understanding of key details in a text. Ask and answer questions to demonstrate understanding of a text, referring explicitly to the text as the basis for the answers. Essential Skills/ Concepts Ask questions Answer Questions Give details Listening for information Ask questions/answer questions (who, what, when, where, why) Give Details Read for details Ask and answer questions (who, what, where, when, why) Important details Sequence Ask and answer questions ( who, what, where, when, why) Refer to text for answer Synthesize information to answer questions about the text Sequence Academic Vocabulary Details Questions Understanding Sequence Details Questions Ask Answer Information Details Questions Demonstrate Information Details Questions Sequence Information
2 Key Ideas and Details Written Response to Reading Prompts Grade K ( Written and Oral Prompts) Who, what where, when, why questions. What happened in the beginning, middle, and end of the story? Draw a picture of the character, setting, or event. Complete a story map. Who, what, where, when, why questions. Where is the setting? How do you know that is where the story takes place? How does the author describe one of the characters in the text. Complete a story map. Anchor 1 / Literature Teacher-Student Conference Prompts Where is the setting? How do you know that is where the story takes place? Tell me about the different characters. Share a detail from the text about a character. Tell me what happened in the beginning. Share what happened in the middle of the story. Share what happened at the end. Who, what, where, when, why questions. How does knowing where the story takes place help us understand the story? Retell the story. How does the author describe one of the characters in the text? Complete a story map. What was the author trying to tell you? Who are the main characters? Was there a main message in the story? What was it? Reread a passage that helped support what the author was trying to tell you.
3 Key Ideas and Details Anchor 2 / Literature Reading Anchor 2: Determine central ideas or this of a text and analyze their development; summarize the key supporting details and ideas. Central Idea/theme Getting to the point Grade K Standard With prompting and support retell familiar stories, including key details. Essential Skills/ Concepts Academic Vocabulary Identifying the main events of the story Retelling the story Sequencing/Ordering the events of the story Sharing story elements Identifying key details Retell Beginning, middle, end Main events Details Story, problem, character Resolution/solution Sequence Retell stories, including key details, and demonstrate understanding of their central message or lesson. Understand key details Understand sequential order Retell in sequential order Identify and share key details and main events within the story Identify the conflict, problem, and resolution Retell Lesson or moral Beginning, middle, end Details Main event Problem Resolution/solution Sequence Recount stories, including fables and folktales from diverse cultures, and determine their central message, lesson, or moral. Retell stories, fables, and folktales from different cultures Answer questions about the text Determine the big idea Connect the message to other stories or lessons Fables, folktales Central message, moral Beginning, middle, end Problem Solution Sequence Recount stories, including fables, folktales, and myths from diverse cultures; determine the central message, lesson, or moral and explain how it is conveyed through key details in the text Retell stories in sequential order Distinguish different genre: fables, folktale, myths Determine the central message, lesson or moral of a story Explain how the central message, lesson, or moral is conveyed through key details Fable, folktale, myth Central message, lesson, moral Key details Culture Sequence
4 Craft and Structure Written Response to Reading Prompts Draw a picture of what happened in the story. What problem did the character have? What did the character do to solve the problem? Retell what happened in the story. What problems did the characters have? Explain how they solve their problems. What lessons were learned in the story? What is the moral of the story? Tell about the problem in the story and how it is solved. Use a Three Column Chart: retell the story using beginning, middle, and end. Anchor 2/ Literature Teacher-Student Conference Prompts Can you tell me what happened in the story? Tell me about your picture. What was the story about? What is this story mainly about? What happened in the beginning/middle/end of the story? What lesson did the character learn? What could this mean to the reader? Tell me about the story. What happens first? What is the problem or conflict in the story? How is this text similar/different from other stories you know?
5 Key Ideas and Details Reading Anchor 3: Analyze how and why individuals, events, and ideas develop and interact over the course of the test. Anchor 3 / Literature Development of characters, events, and ideas Following the thread Grade K Standard With prompting and support, identify characters, settings, and major events in a story. Describe characters, settings, and major events in a story, using key details. Describe how characters in a story respond to major events and challenges Describe characters in a story (e.g., their traits, motivations, or feelings) and explain how their actions contribute to the sequence of events. Essential Skills/ Concepts Academic Vocabulary Identify characters Identify settings Identify major events Identify problem and solution Characters Setting/place Problem Solution Events Identify characters within the story Identify the main and minor characters in the story Identify key events and details of a story in sequential order Understand the lesson or moral of a story Characters Setting Plot Events Sequence Lesson/moral Problem, solution/resolution Understand sequence of events in a story Identify major and minor events, characters in the story Describe how characters face different events or challenges in the story Identify how characters interact and change throughout the story Event Characters Major/minor Sequence of events Challenges Interaction Understand the sequence of events in a story Identify major/minor characters Describe characters by citing their traits, motivations and emotions Understand and explain how the characters actions contribute to major and minor events in the story Interpretation of characters Character/character traits Emotion (feelings) Sequence of events `Motivation Problem/resolution/solutions
6 Key Ideas and Details Written Response to Reading Prompts Who are the characters in the story? Draw a picture of where the story took place. Where and when did the story take place? Teacher-Student Conference Prompts Anchor 3/ Literature Who is the story about? What is happening in the story? Tell me about the characters. How are they alike? How are they different? Tell about the characters in the story? Who is the main character? What happens at the beginning, middle, and end of the story? Create a story map. Use a Two Column Chart: character: looks like/acts like. Retell the story in sequential order? Explain the main character in the story, and how that character changes through the story. Use a Two Column Chart: tell about the challenges the characters / how they responded to the challenges. How are the characters behaving or feeling in the beginning of the story? Have the characters feelings changed by the end of the story? How do you know how the characters are feeling? Who are the major/main characters in the story? Who are the minor characters? Tell me about what happens in the story. How does this affect the characters? What decision could the characters have responded to differently?
7 Craft and Structure Anchor 4 / Literature Reading Anchor 4: Interpret words and phrases as they are used in a text, including determining technical, connotative, and figurative meanings, and analyze how specific word choices shape meaning or tone. Word meanings Knowing the word Grade K Standard Ask and answer questions about unknown words in a text. Essential Skills/ Concepts Academic Vocabulary Identify a word Ask a question Use cues such as visuals, phonics and semantics to figure our unknown words Unknown word Question/answer Identify words and phrases in stories or poems that suggest feelings or appeal the senses. Identify and understand the difference between words, phrases and sentences Ask and answer questions about story details Understand that words are clues to what characters are thinking Identify words that use the senses: see, hear smell taste, touch Identify words that communicate feelings Word, phrase, sentence Senses Feelings Describe how words and phrases (e.g., regular beats, alliteration, rhymes, repeated lines) supply rhythm and meaning in a story, prom, or song. Distinguish between words and phrases Ability to hear the same /different sounds in words Ability to hear the pattern of the spoken language Know that alliteration means words that start with the same of similar sounds Recognize when authors repeat the same lines for emphasis or effect Words, phrases Rhyme Rhythm Repetition Alliteration Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, distinguishing literal from nonliteral language. Distinguish between words, phrase, and sentences Determine word and phrase meaning through context Distinguish between literal and non-literal language Determine Phrase Literal and non-literal Context clues Distinguish
8 Craft and Structure Written Response to Reading Prompts Is there a part/chunk of that word that you know? Can you get your mouth ready to say the word? Is there something in the picture that can help you? Anchor 4 / Literature Teacher-Student Conference Prompts Point to an unknown word on the page. What was hard about that word? What did you do when you read a word you did not understand? Explain how you could use one of the pictures to help you understand an unknown word or phrase. How does the main character feel? What words does the author use to help you understand the character s feelings? Use a Two Column Chart: 5 senses/words in the story. How does the story or poem make you feel when you read it? Look at the picture; is there something there to help you figure out the word? Reread the sentence; do the other words help you understand? How does the story or poem make you feel when you read it? Can you find a sentence where a lot of the words start with the same letter? What is the sentence? Did the author repeat any words and why? Use a Two Column Chart: rhyming words/sentence where you found the word. Can you identify words that rhyme? What is the difference between a word, phrase or sentence? Can you find a sentence that has words that begin with the same letter?
9 Craft and Structure Anchor 5 / Literature Reading Anchor 5: Analyze the structure of texts, including how specific sentences, paragraphs, and larger portions of the text (e.g., a section, chapter, scene, or stanza) relate to each other and the whole. Text structures Examining how the text is built Grade K Standard With prompting and support, describe the relationship between illustrations and the story in which they appear (e.g., what moment in a story an illustration Use illustrations and details in a story to describe its characters, setting, or events. Use information gained from the illustrations and words in a print or digital text to demonstrate understanding of its characters, setting, or plot. depicts). or setting). Essential Skills/ Concepts Academic Vocabulary Recognize that there are different purposes for writing. Understand that writing is formatted in different ways Know the elements of a story Know the elements of poems Recognize common genres: Fables, narrative, fairytale, poem, rhyme Fiction Poem, rhyme Fable Narrative Information Understand the narrative structure of a story and h Recognize common genres: fables, narrative, fairytale, poem, rhyme. Magazineexpository, fiction/non-fiction Narrative Expository Fiction, non-fiction Information Poem Understand story structure Understand the beginning of a story that introduces the characters and setting Describe the actions that occur at the ending of the story Know that actions in the story help lead to a resolution Drama/play Poem/poetry Paragraph Section Chapter Scene Verse Stanza Explain how specific aspects of a text s illustrations contribute to what is conveyed by the words in story (e.g., create mood, emphasize aspects of a character Understand differences between story, drama, and poem and its parts (chapter, scene, stanza) Use vocabulary particular to each genre when speaking and writing Describe how each part builds upon earlier sections when discussing or writing about story, drama, or poems Drama/play Poem/poetry Scene Verse Stanza
10 Craft and Structure Written Response to Reading Prompts What is this story about? Is this story real or not real? Is this a book that tells a story or gives information? Explain. Explain if it is fiction or non-fiction. What is this book about? What can we learn from this book? Use a Two Column Chart: chapter/key event, Describe the beginning, middle, end. What are the characters problems? How does the character solve the problem? In which part of the story does most of the action occur? Use Two Column Chart: Chapter/key events, description. Teacher-Student Conference Prompts Anchor 5 / Literature Will this book tell us story or help us learn something new? What helps us know that this book is a? Is this a or a? What information can we gather from this book? What are the characters problems? In which part of the story does most of the action occur? What is the genre? How do you know? Read where the character s problem begins to be solved. What is the author trying to tell you? What information does the author include at the beginning of the story that helps you understand the rest of the story? What is the importance of having chapters, stanzas, scenes?
11 Craft and Structure Anchor 6/ Literature Reading Anchor 6: Assess how point of view or purpose shapes the content and style of a text. Point of view Seeing in a different way Grade K Standard With prompting and support, name the author and illustrator of a story and define the role of each in telling the story. Identify who is telling the story at various points in the text. Acknowledge differences in points of view of characters, including by speaking in a different voice for each character when reading dialogue aloud. Distinguish their own point of view from that of the narrator of those of the characters. Essential Skills/ Concepts Identify the name of the author Identify the name of the illustrator Tell what the author does Tell what the illustrator does Understand role of a narrator Understand character Understand concept of dialogue (talking between characters) Understand quotation marks. Identify narrator Identify character s voice Identify dialogue in text Identify speaker Understand and identify point of view Distinguish one character s point of view from another character s Distinguish between characters voices when reading aloud Use different voices for different characters (e.g., high gruff, low excited) Understand point of view Distinguish between one s own point of view and another s Know what is meant by first person, third person Academic Vocabulary Author Illustrator Illustration Written by Illustrated by Title cover Author Narrator Character Dialogue Quotations Point of view Distinguish Opinion Dialogue Contrast Point of view Distinguish Narrator First person Third person
12 Craft and Structure Written Response to Reading Prompts Who wrote this story? Who drew the pictures? Tell me what the book was about? Who is telling the story? What does the narrator of a story do? What does the author do? Draw a picture of a character using details from the author. Use a Two Column Chart: title/who tells the story, record one sentence from narrator. Anchor 6 / Literature Teacher-Student Conference Prompts Can you point to the name of the author? Where can I find the name of the person who wrote this story? Who is talking? How do you know? How many characters are in the story? What are the names of the characters? Describe the3 difference between the two character s points of view. What makes the characters speak or act differently? Draw a picture of a character at a particular point in time, using details from the author. Use Three Column Chart: major problem, what did the character do, what would you have done. Can you change your voice so it sounds like how the character might talk? Why is it important for the author to use dialogue? Who narrates the story? How would things be different if the story were told from a different character s perspective of from your perspective?
13 Integration of Knowledge and Ideas Anchor 7 / Literature Reading Anchor 7: Integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media and formats, including visually and quantitatively, as well as in words. Content in media Putting it together Grade K Standard With prompting and support, describe the relationship between illustrations and the story in which they appear (e.g., what moment in a story an illustration Use illustrations and details in a story to describe its characters, setting, or events. Use information gained from the illustrations and words in a print or digital text to demonstrate understanding of its characters, setting, or plot. depicts). or setting). Essential Skills/ Concepts Academic Vocabulary Recognize different types of illustrations (picture, photo, drawing, sketch, etc.) Understand and follow a story s events and plots Connect the point of the story with illustrations Know that illustrations help you understand more about the story, characters and plot Illustration Illustrator Drawing/picture/photograph Story Understand that illustrations add details to the story Understand that details are specific pieces of information that add meaning to a story Identify the sequence of the main events of a story using details in the illustrations Illustrations Events Details Characters Setting Understand character, plot, and setting Analyze text information and illustrations to understand Deeper meaning of the story Use opportunities to explore stories as digital text Illustration Character Setting Plot Digital text Explain how specific aspects of a text s illustrations contribute to what is conveyed by the words in story (e.g., create mood, emphasize aspects of a character Understand character, plot, setting Recognize how illustrations contribute to a story Explain how illustrations contribute to create mood and describe character or setting Illustrations Aspects Mood
14 Integration of Knowledge and Ideas Written Response to Reading Prompts Why do you think the illustrator drew the picture? Is there anything in the pictures that help you understand the story better? Describe an illustration in the story and why it is important. How do illustrations help us understand the events of the story? Use a Two Column Chart: illustrations (page)/details. Teacher-Student Conference Prompts Anchor 7/ Literature Picture walk through the book. After looking at a picture, what do you think will happen next? Where can we look to find details about the story/characters? What clues does the illustration provide to help you understand the setting/character/plot of the story? Describe an illustration in the story that explains something about the character. Choose an illustration and retell that part of the story. Use a Two Column Chart: description of illustration/clues about important events. How does the illustration relate to what the author tells us about the characters? How does the illustration relate to what the author tells us about the setting? How does the illustration help you understand what the story is about (plot)? Why do you think the author/illustrator included that illustration?
15 Integration of Knowledge and Ideas Anchor 9 / Literature Reading Anchor 9: Analyze how two or more texts address similar themes or topics to build knowledge or to compare the approaches the authors take. Comparing and Weighing the works contrasting Grade K Standard With prompting and support, compare and contrast the adventures and experiences of characters in familiar stories. Compare and contrast the adventures and experiences of characters in stories. Compare and contrast two or more versions of the same story (e.g., Cinderella stories) by different authors or from different cultures. Compare and contrast the treatment of similar themes and topics (e.g. opposition of good and evil) and patterns of events (e.g., the quest) in stories, myths, and traditional literature from Essential Skills/ Concepts Academic Vocabulary Know that compare means looking for things that are alike or the same Know that contrast means looking for difference Identify similarities and differences in the adventures; experiences of characters Understand the who and the what of the story Character Adventure Experiences Compare, similar Contrast, different Identify the characters and make comparisons Understand comparison (similarities), contrast (differences) Understand what an adventure, experience is Identify similarities (comparisons), differences (contrasts) Understand the who and what within stories Compare (similarities) Contrast (differences) Adventures Experiences Compare and contrast the same Story by different authors Compare and contrast two stories that have a similar theme, idea or character Compare, contrast Plot Theme different cultures. Compare and contrast Understand theme, setting and plot Recognize author Recognize how a character remains the same or changes throughout a text or throughout a series Compare and contrast the themes, settings and plots Compare, contrast Theme, plot Setting Character
16 Integration of Knowledge and Ideas Written Response to Reading Prompts Grade K ( Written and Oral Prompts) What adventure did one character have in the story? Does this character remind you of another character? Teacher-Student Conference Prompts Anchor 9/ Literature Can you think of another story that is like this one? How is this story s ending the same as another story you have read? How is this story s ending different as another story you have read? How is the ending of this story the same as another story you have read? How is the ending of this story different as another story you have read? Use a Two Column Chart: main characters( two different books)/compare, contrast. Can you think of another story that is like this one? How is this story s ending the same as another story you have read? How is this story s ending different as another story you have read? Describe the setting of this book and another book you have read. Describe the problem faced by a character in this book and another book you read. Use a Two Column Chart: compare, contrast/two stories. What is the theme and is there another story with the same theme? What is similar about the problem-resolution sequences? Which version of the story do you like better?
17 Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity Anchor 10 Reading Anchor 10: Read and comprehend complex literary and informational texts independently and proficiently. Text complexity Stepping higher Grade K Standard Actively engage in group reading activities with purpose and understanding. Essential Skills/ Concepts Listening intently Asking questions Academic Vocabulary Listen Purpose Understanding Illustrations Events Content Predictions With prompting and support, read prose and poetry of appropriate complexity for grade 1. Recall familiar stories Retell familiar stories Recite poems Make connections between texts such as poems on the same topic Make and confirm predictions about what will happen next in a story Retell Recall Compare Predict Identify By the end of the year, read and comprehend literature, including stories and poetry, in the grades 2-3 text complexity band proficiently, with scaffolding as needed at the high end of the range. Recognize a variety of text (stories, poetry) Read independently and proficiently in grades 2-3 complexity band Comprehend literature read in grades 2-3 complexity band Multiple layers of meaning, figurative language and academic vocabulary Comprehend Independently Literature Proficiently Character Plot Setting By the end of the year, read and comprehend literature, including stories, drama, and poetry, in the grades 2-3 text complexity band independently and proficiently. Recognize genre in literature, including stories, dramas, and poetry Read independently and proficiently at the high end of the 2-3 grade complexity band Comprehend literature read at the high end of the 2-3 grade complexity band Comprehend Independently Literature Proficiently Story Drama Poetry Chart
18 Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity Written Response to Reading Prompts Anchor 10/ Literature Teacher-Student Conference Prompts Grade K ( Written and Oral Prompts) Retell the story to your partner. Can you predict what is going to happen using the pictures or what we have read so far? Do you have any questions about what we are reading? Would you like to read more books by this author? How did you choose this book? Was it a good fit? Do you have any questions about what we are reading? Do you have any questions about what we are reading? How did reading this book improve your reading? Explain. Describe a reading strategy you used in this text. Reread a page. Give feedback (e.g.: fluency). How did you monitor your reading? What can you do if the book is too easy or too difficult? Would you like to read more books by this author? What clues helped you predict what was happening? Reread a page. Give feedback (e.g.: fluency). Would you like to read more books by this author?


A jester, court jester, or fool, was historically an entertainer during the medieval and Renaissance eras who was a member of the household of a nobleman or a monarch employed to entertain him and his guests. A jester was also an itinerant performer who entertained common folk at fairs and markets. Jesters are also modern-day entertainers who resemble their historical counterparts.
Jesters in medieval times are often thought to have worn brightly coloured clothes and eccentric hats in a motley pattern and their modern counterparts usually mimic this costume. Jesters entertained with a wide variety of skills: principal among them were song, music, and storytelling, but many also employed acrobatics, juggling, telling jokes, and magic tricks. Much of the entertainment was performed in a comic style and many jesters made contemporary jokes in word or song about people or events well known to their audiences.
- 1 Etymology
- 2 History
- 3 Political significance
- 4 The jester as a symbol
- 5 Modern usage
- 6 Notable jesters
- 7 See also
- 8 Footnotes
- 9 References
- 10 Further reading
- 11 External links
The modern use of the English word jester did not come into use until the mid-16th century, during Tudor times. This modern term derives from the older form gestour, or jestour, originally from Anglo-Norman (French) meaning story-teller or minstrel. Other earlier terms included fol, disour, and bourder. These terms described entertainers who differed in their skills and performances but who all shared many similarities in their role as comedic performers for their audiences.
Early jesters were popular in Ancient Egypt, and entertained Egyptian pharaohs. The ancient Romans had a tradition of professional jesters, called balatrones. Balatrones were paid for their jests, and the tables of the wealthy were generally open to them for the sake of the amusement they afforded. Jesters were popular with the Aztec people in the 14th to 16th centuries.
English royal court jesters
Many royal courts throughout English royal history employed entertainers and most had professional fools, sometimes called licensed fools. Entertainment included music, storytelling, and physical comedy. It has also been suggested they performed acrobatics and juggling.
During the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I of England, William Shakespeare wrote his plays and performed with his theatre company the Lord Chamberlain's Men (later called the King's Men). Clowns and jesters were featured in Shakespeare's plays, and the company's expert on jesting was Robert Armin, author of the book Fooled upon Foole. In Shakespeare's Twelfth Night, Feste the jester is described as "wise enough to play the fool".
King James VI of Scotland employed a jester called Archibald Armstrong. During his lifetime Armstrong was given great honours at court. He was eventually thrown out of the King's employment when he over-reached and insulted too many influential people. Even after his disgrace, books telling of his jests were sold in London streets. He held some influence at court still in the reign of Charles I and estates of land in Ireland. Charles later employed a jester called Jeffrey Hudson who was very popular and loyal. Jeffrey Hudson had the title of Royal Dwarf because he was short of stature. One of his jests was to be presented hidden in a giant pie from which he would leap out. Hudson fought on the Royalist side in the English Civil War. A third jester associated with Charles I was called Muckle John.
Scholar David Carlyon has cast doubt on the "daring political jester", calling historical tales "apocryphal", and concluding that "popular culture embraces a sentimental image of the clown; writers reproduce that sentimentality in the jester, and academics in the Trickster", but it "falters as analysis".
Jesters could also give bad news to the King that no one else would dare deliver. In 1340, when the French fleet was destroyed at the Battle of Sluys by the English. Phillippe VI's jester told him the English sailors "don't even have the guts to jump into the water like our brave French".
End of tradition
After the Restoration, Charles II did not reinstate the tradition of the court jester, but he did greatly patronize the theatre and proto-music hall entertainments, especially favouring the work of Thomas Killigrew. Though Killigrew was not officially a jester, Samuel Pepys in his famous diary does call Killigrew "The King's fool and jester, with the power to mock and revile even the most prominent without penalty" (12 February 1668). The last British nobles to keep jesters were the Queen Mother's family, the Bowes-Lyons.
In the 18th century, jesters had died out except in Russia, Spain and Germany. In France and Italy, travelling groups of jesters performed plays featuring stylized characters in a form of theatre called the commedia dell'arte. A version of this passed into British folk tradition in the form of a puppet show, Punch and Judy. In France the tradition of the court jester ended with the French Revolution.
In 1968, the Canada Council awarded a $3,500 grant to Joachim Foikis of Vancouver "to revive the ancient and time-honoured tradition of town fool". In the 21st century, the jester is still seen at medieval-style fairs and pageants.
In 2004 English Heritage appointed Nigel Roder ("Kester the Jester") as the State Jester for England, the first since Muckle John 355 years previously. However, following an objection by the National Guild of Jesters, English Heritage accepted they were not authorised to grant such a title. Roder was succeeded as "Heritage Jester" by Pete Cooper ("Peterkin the Fool").
In Germany, Till Eulenspiegel is a folkloric hero dating back to medieval times and ruling each year over Fasching or Carnival time, mocking politicians and public figures of power and authority with political satire like a modern-day court jester. He holds a mirror to make us aware of our times (Zeitgeist), and his sceptre, his "bauble" or marotte, is the symbol of his power.
In 17th century Spain, little people, often with deformities, were employed as buffoons to entertain the king and his family, especially the children. In Velázquez's painting Las Meninas two dwarfs are included: Mari Bárbola a female dwarf from Germany with hydrocephalus, and Nicolasito Portusato from Italy. Mari Bárbola can also be seen in a later portrait of princess Margarita Teresa in mourning by Juan Bautista Martinez del Mazo. There are other paintings by Velázquez that include court dwarves such as Prince Balthasar Charles With a Dwarf.
In Japan from the 13th to 18th centuries, the taikomochi, a kind of male geisha, attended the feudal lords (daimyōs). They entertained mostly through dancing and storytelling, and were at times counted on for strategic advice. By the 16th century they fought alongside their lord in battle in addition to their other duties.
Tonga was the first royal court to appoint a court jester in the 20th century; Taufa'ahau Tupou IV, the King of Tonga, appointed JD Bogdanoff to that role in 1999. Bogdanoff was later embroiled in a financial scandal.
The jester as a symbol
The root of the word "fool" is from the Latin follis, which means "bag of wind" or bellows or that which contains air or breath.
Fool in Tarot
In Tarot, "The Fool" is a card of the Major Arcana. The tarot depiction of the Fool includes a man (or less often, a woman) juggling unconcernedly or otherwise distracted, often with a dog or cat at his heels. The fool is in the act of unknowingly walking off the edge of a cliff, precipice or other high place.
Fool in literature
In literature, the jester is symbolic of common sense and of honesty, notably in King Lear, where the court jester is a character used for insight and advice on the part of the monarch, taking advantage of his license to mock and speak freely to dispense frank observations and highlight the folly of his monarch. This presents a clashing irony as a greater man could dispense the same advice and find himself being detained in the dungeons or even executed. Only as the lowliest member of the court can the jester be the monarch's most useful adviser.
Author Alan Gordon also writes about jesters as advisers to the king, who actually make up a super-secret spy ring that try to keep peace and control the leaders of different countries. The Fool's Guild of these novels is portrayed as a mockery to the church, and they refer to Jesus Christ as "Their Savior, The First Fool".
Shakespearean fools are usually clever peasants or commoners that use their wits to outdo people of higher social standing. In this sense, they are very similar to the real fools, and jesters of the time, but their characteristics are greatly heightened for theatrical effect. The "groundlings" (theatre-goers who were too poor to pay for seats and thus stood on the 'ground' in the front by the stage) that frequented the Globe Theatre were more likely to be drawn to these Shakespearean fools. However they were also favoured by the nobility. Most notably, Queen Elizabeth I was a great admirer of the popular actor who portrayed fools, Richard Tarlton. For Shakespeare himself, however, actor Robert Armin may have proved vital to the cultivation of the fool character in his many plays.
In a similar vein, a buffoon is someone who provides amusement through inappropriate appearance or behavior.
Originally the term was used to describe a ridiculous but amusing person. The term is now frequently used in a derogatory sense to describe someone considered foolish, or someone displaying inappropriately vulgar, bumbling or ridiculous behavior that is a source of general amusement.
Carnival and medieval reenactment
Today, the jester is portrayed in different formats of medieval reenactment and entertainment, including film, stage performance, and carnival. During the Burgundian and the Rhenish carnival, cabaret performances in local dialect are held. In Brabant this person is called a "tonpraoter" or "sauwelaar", and is actually in or on a barrel. In Limburg they are named "buuttereedner" or "buutteredner" and in Zeeland they are called an "ouwoer". They all perform a cabaret speech in dialect, during which many current issues are reviewed. Often there are local situations and celebrities from local and regional politics who are mocked, ridiculed and insulted. The "Tonpraoter" or "Buuttereedner" may be considered successors of the jesters.
- Tom le Fol (c. 13th century) was the 1st resident jester of Conwy, North Wales and personal jester to Edward I.
- Triboulet (1479–1536), court jester of Kings Louis XII and Francis I of France.
- Stańczyk (c. 1480–1560), Polish jester.
- João de Sá Panasco (fl. 1524-1567), African court jester of King John III of Portugal, eventually elevated to gentleman courtier of the Royal Household and Knight of St. James.
- Will Sommers (died 1560), court jester of King Henry VIII of England.
- Chicot (c. 1540–1591), court jester of King Henry III of France.
- Archibald Armstrong (died 1672), jester of King James I of England.
- Jeffrey Hudson (1619–c. 1682), "court dwarf" of Henrietta Maria of France.
- Jamie Fleeman (1713–1778), the Laird of Udny's Fool.
- Perkeo of Heidelberg, 18th century, jester of Prince Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine.
- Jesse Bogdonoff (b. 1955), court jester and financial advisor to King Taufa'ahau Tupou IV of Tonga
- Russel Erwood (b. 1981), known as Erwyd le Fol, is the 2nd official resident jester of Conwy in North Wales replacing the jester of 1295
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|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jesters.|
|Look up jester or buffoon in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.|
|Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Fool.|
- Fooling Around the World (A history of the court jester)
- Foolish Clothing: Depictions of Jesters and Fools in the Middle Ages and Renaissance What 14th-16th century jesters wore and carried, as seen in illustrations and museum collections.
- Costume (Jester Hat), ca. 1890-1920, in the Staten Island Historical Society Online Collection Database