How to Study Narrative Literature
Facts to Consider in Interpreting Narrative Literature in the Bible
I. There are five major types of literature in the Bible:
II. The major narrative sections of the Bible are as follows:
A. Old Testament History
III. The most frequent uses Bible students make of narrative are the following:
A. Storytelling without pointing out principles and contemporary application.
B. Allegorizing (spiritualizing, theologizing, and moralizing by importing meanings from other passages, human needs, human experiences, contemporary human thought, men’s favorite ideas, theological tradition, and culture.
C. Illustrations for sermons.
IV. Following are some proper uses of narratives:
A. It points out eternal truths and permanent principles.
B. Make appropriate application to contemporary problems and needs.
C. Illustrate points in sermons reflected in the narrative, as NT writers did.
D. Narrative serves as proof of claims made in more direct teachings in the Bible and in sermons.
E. Biblical writers used these stories, historical narratives, to prove their theological claims about God, Christ, etc.
V. The following are some appropriate ways to approach narratives:
A. Understand what narrative is.
1. Narrative tells us about things that happened when characters acted and reacted to given circumstances.
2. Biblical narrative is designed to show us God at work under given circumstances.
3. Biblical narrative glorifies God.
4. Biblical narratives tell of God’s nature.
5. Biblical narratives tell us about God’s providence and protection.
6. Biblical narratives tell God’s attitude toward sin and disobedience.
B. Analysis must consider the following when interpreting narrative:
1. The circumstances.
2. What is done?
3. What is said?
4. What is God’s response to what is done and said?
5. The theme of the writer and how the events support it.
6. The question or situation dealt with.
7. The main conflict and how it works out.
8. How the various kinds of characters support the main point of the text.
C. Study the Two Contexts
1. Context of the event
2. Content of the writer
D. Study by story and episodes.
1. When studying epistles, we study by paragraphs, sections, and document to see how a text fits into the logical flow of a document–establish logical (i.e., book) context.
2. We should study narrative literature by episodes, stories, and document to see how a text fits into the logical context or logical flow of the document.
3. This is very important when performing a structural analysis of narrative literature. In this case we treat the episode like we treat a paragraph in epistles, the story like a section, and the document as a document.ß
VI. Consider the following principles for interpreting narrative (Fee and Stuart 78).
A. Biblical narratives does not usually directly teach doctrine.
B. Biblical narratives usually illustrate doctrine taught elsewhere directly.
C. Biblical narratives record what happened, not always what should have happened or ought to happen every time.
D. Biblical narratives do not necessarily give a good example.
E. In biblical narratives, characters are usually far from perfect.
F. Biblical narratives do not always tell if what happened was bad or good, except by implication.
G. Biblical narratives are selective and incomplete–do not tell us every small event in any story or historical account.
H. Biblical narratives are not written to answer all of our theological questions.
I. Biblical narratives may teach explicitly or implicitly.
J. God is the hero of all biblical narrative.
K. The writers of biblical narrative are not writing as primarily historians, but are writing as theologians developing and supporting their theological claims with stories of God’s dealings with people–his actions and reactions in response to them; their actions and reactions in response to him, and their actions and reactions in response to each other.
VII. Principalization is a homiletic device to use in interpreting and teaching (preaching) narrative literature.
A. Principalization is a method of establishing and pointing out the abidingmeaning and continuing significance of narrative for all men of all times.
B. In principalization, the point of the message is derived directly from the text beingexamined.
C. It seeks to derive its message from the text through an understanding of it, rather than importing the meaning into the text from some other source: other scripture, contemporary thought, personal biases, human need, or known human experience.
D. Principalization discovers and sets forth the enduring doctrinal, spiritual, ethical, and moral truths or principles illustrated in narrative accounts or explicitly stated in didactic literature.
E. Principalization involves a system of homiletic analysis.
F. It is a syntactical–theological method of exegesis as well as the grammatico-historical method.
G. Principalizing ascertains propositions and supporting principles from Scripture.
H. The following general steps are involved in principalizing:
1. Ascertain the main truth-intent or main idea of the text.
2. Ascertain the main supporting principles that develop the main idea of the passage.
3. Ascertain the supporting materials that explain, prove, and illustrate the supporting principles.
4. Make application of the lessons to an appropriate situation (like the one in the biblical context)–contextualize it, (i.e., delineate the principles applied to the biblical culture and situation and apply them to your culture and like situation) and state it in contemporary (not historical) terms.
I. In principalizing, make special notes of the following: the main truth intent, the supporting principles, and incidental truths expressed or implied.
VIII. Remember that biblical narrative is not about only a historical God, but about a contemporary (i.e., present-day) God; God is not only a God of yesterday, but is also a God of today.
IX. New Testament narrative can establish authoritative, universal and permanent principles.
A. The Bible authorizes in three ways.
1. An expressed statement may establish a principle.
2. When an expressed statement necessarily implies something not expressed, the necessary implication may establish a principle of faith and practice. That is, a generalization implies specifics within the generalization, or a broad cagegory implies particulars within the category.
3. An approved account of action may establish a principle.
B. A narrative or account of action that doesn’t illustrate a requirement gives permission for an action but doesn’t require it, i.e., doesn’t establish a binding principle.
C. A narrative or account of action establishes a principle in the following cases:
1. When a narrative illustrates or expresses antecedent theology (or a background command), it establishes a principle.
(a) The principle may be theological and establish a belief.
(b) The principle may be a moral imperative and require a certain conduct.
2. When the narrative illustrates an antecedent theology (or a background command that is necessarily implied), it establishes a principle.
3. When a narrative account of action gives evidence that the action was required, it establishes a principle or imperative.
D. A principle may be local and temporary, or it may be universal and permanent.
1. When the narrative itself or a background teaching expressly limits the time and subjects of the principle, it is local and temporary.
2. When a narrative or its context implies that it was limited in scope, its authority is local and temporary.
3. Subsequent revelation might limit the time and scope of a principle.
4. Without these limitations, a principle is universal and permanent.
X. Old Testament narrative also establishes universal and permanent principles.
A. The Old Testament reveals many great truths:
1. The eternal nature of God
2. The eternal moral character of God
3. God’s loving care for man
4. God’s attitude toward sin
5. Regulation of man’s religious activity
6. Laws governing human relationships
7. Moral imperatives.
B. There are several present-day uses of the Old Testament.
1. It points us to Christ (John 5:39; John 12:41; Heb. 2:11-15; Acts 8:7-35; et. al.).
2. It is profitable for doctrine, reproof, correction, and instruction in righteousness (2 Tim. 3:15-17).
3. It provides examples of true faith (Heb. 11 and 12).
4. It warns against disobedience (Heb. 2:1-4; I Cor. 10:1-11).
5. It reveals the nature of God.
C. Some Old Testament principles are universal and permanent.
1. Principles rooted in and reflecting the eternal nature of God and Christ are permanent theological principles, because God’s nature does not change.
2. Imperatives that are rooted in and reflect the moral character of God and Christ are permanent moral law.
3. Old Testament principles perpetuated by New Testament teaching are permanent.
4. Ceremonial regulations and requirements that are related to and rooted in temporary situations of individuals and groups are local and temporary.
5. Any requirements that are limited by subsequent teaching (e.g., later New Testament teachings) are consequently limited in scope and time.
D. Any Old Testament imperative that is rooted in and reflects the moral character of God is a universal and permanent principle: The ultimate standard of good is God, and God’s written moral code reflects His moral character. For example, God is love. He tells us to love him and our neighbor. Love does no harm to others (Rom. 13:9-10). The moral and ethical code of God reflects his nature, love. These rules show us how to love God and one another, how do good and no harm to one another.
1. When God revealed himself in the creation, before written law was given, this left the Gentiles without excuse for their moral decay or immoral conduct (Rom. 1:18-32).
2. When men come short of the glory of God (i.e., his moral character), they sin (Rom. 3:23).
3. Since man is made in the image of God and also can see God revealed in the creation (Gen. 1:26; Rom. 1:19-21), they, being without the law (in written form), can do by nature the things contained in the law (Rom. 2:14, 15).
4. Before men sinned by breaking explicit laws as Adam did, sin was in the world and death reigned. Since sin is not counted when there is no law, the law was present, implicit in the moral character of God, before it was written (Rom. 5:13, 14).
5. The message (i.e., Word) existed in the Divine Nature (Christ) before the world was created (John 1:1,2, 14).
6. To know the glory of God is to be exposed to the power that can change our lives and make us share in the glory of God (2 Cor. 3:18).
7. God is love, and the whole law of God is summed up in the command to love one another (I John 4:7, 8; Rom. 13:9, 10).
XI. We should consider the following when studying narrative literature:
A. Ask the following when studying Old Testament narratives:
1. What was the situation of the action or saying?
2. Was the action approved by God (by the inspired writer)?
3. Was what was said spoken by an inspired or uninspired person?
4. What does the incident tell us about God?
5. Is the principle involved approved but optional or is it required?
6. Is the principle established universal and permanent, or is it part of the situational and temporary part of the Old Testament?
B. Ask the following when studying the gospel accounts.
1. What was the situation that elicited what was said and done?
2. Was the action or saying approved or not approved?
3. What was the situation to which the gospel writer applied the saying or action?
4. What does the recorded actions of Christ tell us about God: his character, his power, his will for us, his concern for us, and his response to us?
5. What does the incident tell us about what God expects of us?
6. What does the incident tell us about God’s response to obedience and disobedience?
7. Does this establish a principle limited to the Old Testament period, the New Testament period, or extend to all men of all times?
8. Is this related to beliefs and actions that are approved but optional or is it a required belief and action?
C. Ask the following when studying Acts:
1. What was the situation which elicited the action or saying?
2. Is the action approved or not approved?
3. Is the statement made by an inspired or uninspired person?
4. What does the incident or account tell us about God?
5. Is the example binding or optional (i.e., backed by a background command or not)?
6. Is the principle local and temporary or universal and permanent?
Practical Considerations for Interpreting Narrative Literature in the Bible
I. If the author explicitly states the meaning or significance of a narrative, this interpretation must be accepted as the only intended meaning.
II. You need to consider the occasion of what you are reading. In narrative, there are two occasional contexts: the context of the event recorded and the context of the writer and first readers.
A. Probe the text and its context with the question “What was going on in this narrative?”
1. What question was being dealt with?
2. What problem was being dealt with?
a. The problem might be doctrinal.
b. The problem might be behavioral.
B. Also probe the text and its surrounding context to find out what was going on in the writer’s situation that caused him to write this narrative. Ask, “What was he trying to refute, prove, clarify, or make practical by telling this story?”
1. What question was being dealt with?
2. What problem was being dealt with?
a. The problem might be doctrinal.
b. The problem might be behavioral.
II. Consider what the characters indicate about the main issue or central idea of the narrative.
A. Some of what you can know about characters is revealed explicitly by what the author or other characters say about them and even by what they say about themselves.
B. Most of what you learn about characters will be implied by their actions.
C. Characters sometimes make explicit statements about the issue under consideration. Be sure that you don’t use advice from the wrong characters.
D. Usually, information about the idea supported by a narrative will be implied by the actions and attitudes of the characters and by which character is on what side of the issue.
E. Narrative usually has a protagonist and an antagonist. In biblical narrative, the protagonist is the “good guy” and the antagonist is the “bad guy.” In some modern literature, and even in the Bible, the protagonist and antagonist might both be good. When both are good, it is difficult to decide which one is right. In such cases the writer usually tells us what is right.
III. The plot will help in determining the concept the narrative is intended to convey. The plot consists of the actions and reactions of characters in their specific circumstances. In the plot, look for the following four elements.
A. Exposition–The exposition introduces a narrative. For example, in the story of the temptation of Jesus, the first two verses serve as the exposition (Matt. 4:1-2)
B. Conflict–Conflict consists of factors that complicate the plot. The conflicts cause tension that heightens interest and points toward or emphasizes the point or central idea of the narrative. The conflict usually clearly defines both sides of an issue or a problem. As Satan tempts Jesus, the conflicts complicate the plot and make the difference in the two characters very clear. These conflicts cause the first-time reader to wonder if and when Jesus will yield to the pressure (Matt. 4:3-10). In some narratives, the conflict is between a person and a situation or even between different ideas. In the story of Jesus turning water into wine, the antagonist is a situation, the wine running out (Jn. 2:1-11). A deeper conflict is between Jesus’ claim to being the Son of God and a lack of confidence on the part of the disciples. The interpretation of the narrative is made clear in this case (v. 11).
C. Climax–The climax is the turning point in the narrative when the complicating factors begin to be resolved. The climax usually makes the point the narrator is making clear. In the story of the temptations, the turning point (i.e., climax) comes when Jesus sends the devil away and angels attend Jesus (Matt. 4:10-11). In the story of Jesus turning water into wine, the climax makes the main idea clear by explicitly stating it (Jn. 2:11).
D. Denouement–After the climax (i.e., turning point) in the narrative, the denouement is the quick resolution or movement to the end of the story. The elements of the story of the temptation of Jesus lead to the conclusion that Jesus has greater moral power than Satan. This is significant as an assurance that, in a moral conflict with Satan, we can win a moral victory by the power of Jesus. The story of the first sign, i.e., the story of Jesus turning water into wine, supports the conclusion that Jesus is who He claims to be, the Son of God.
IV. Symbolism sheds light on the point of the narrative. The mustard seed symbolizes little things and represents the power of little, seemingly insignificant things and people when used by God. The tares (or weeds) symbolize that which is undesirable and unacceptable. Good soil symbolizes good hearts.
V. What is said about the way the conflict turns out explicitly states the point of the story. In the case of Jesus turning water into wine, the final comment makes the point of the story clear (Jn. 2:11).
Conclusion: Through principalization, a Bible student can see that the message of narrative is exciting, relevant, and powerful.
For more on the use of narrative literature, principalizing, and the uses of the Old Testament, see the following books:
Fee, Gordon and Douglas Stuart. How To Read the Bible For All Its Worth. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1981, 1993.
Ferguson, Everett. “Christian Use of the Old Testament.” The World and Literature of the Old Testament. ed. John T. Willis. The Living World Commentary, 12 Vol., Austin, Texas: Sweet Publishing Company, 1979.
Kaiser, Walter C., Jr. Toward An Exegetical Theology. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1981.
Warren, Thomas B. When Is An Example Binding? Jonesboro, Arkansas: National Christian Press, 1975.
© Dr. William T. (Bill) Lambert, 05
Professor Emeritus, College of Bible and Religion
Searcy, AR 72149-0001


Seventh grade teacher Elizabeth Delmatoff piloted a social media program in her Portland, Oregon classroom. By the end of the year, 20% of students school-wide were completing additional assignments for no credit, grades increased more than 50%, and chronic absenteeism reduced by at least 30%. This school, for the first time in its history, met its adequate yearly progress goal for absenteeism. (Kessler, 2010)
This We Believe
- Educators use multiple learning and teaching approaches.
Middle level educators continuously seek practices to enhance learning and increase achievement of middle level students. Thus, many teachers are integrating technology with instruction especially since young adolescents are frequent computer users and find technology very engaging (Simpson & Clem, 2008). Downes and Bishop (2010), in their four year study on technology integration in middle level education, found that teachers and students feel strongly that technology is an essential learning component because it assists with engagement, makes education relevant to students' lives, and serves as an inspiring force (p. 31).
One type of technology teachers are adopting is the use of social media. Social media are web-based, highly interactive platforms that provide space for creating online communities of people with similar interests and activities where individuals and communities share, co-create, discuss, and modify user-generated content (Kietzmann & Hermkens, 2011; Lamphere, 2012). While most AMLE research summaries tend to report on empirical research, this summary provides current information from a combination of empirical studies and conversation driven by opinion, emotion, and experience. Due to the newness of social media, particularly its use as an instructional tool in education, sharing perspectives—often found on blogs—of those presently using social media in middle level classrooms can help inform educators considering this curricular approach.
As emphasized in This We Believe: Keys to Educating Young Adolescents (National Middle School Association [NMSA], 2010), engaging students in "active, purposeful learning" is one of the hallmarks of successful middle level schools. "Additionally, learning experiences are greatly enhanced when all students have the technology to access rich content, communicate with others, write for authentic audiences, and collaborate with other learners next door or across the globe" (p. 16). Incorporating social media as an instructional tool can provide potential benefits for students and teachers (Krutka, 2014a). In 2010, the Pew Internet and American Life Project found that 73% of teens between the ages of 12 and 17 use social media (Lenhart, Purcell, Aaron, & Zickuhr, 2010).
Since then, the percentage has probably increased. Integration of social media has the engagement factor teachers and students seek while enabling students to gain a variety of academic and social skills (Richardson, 2011). Many educators are using social media to help bridge the gap between schools and the outside world by finding innovative ways to engage and extend student learning (Storz & Hoffman, 2013; Varlas, 2011). Due to these features, social media has enormous potential in middle school classrooms.
Though social media use by students and teachers is increasingly popular, debate exists on how to best use the medium and how to protect users and ensure ethical use (Kepple, Campbell, Hartshorne, & Herlihy, 2015; Weathersbee, 2008). This research summary provides an overview of social media types, addresses benefits and challenges with incorporating social media into student learning, and offers suggestions for practice. Resources for teaching and learning are also included.
Social Media Types
Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) identify seven types of social media:
- collaborative projects (e.g., Wikipedia)
- blogs and microblogs (e.g., Twitter, Kidblog.org)
- social news networking sites (e.g., Digg and Leakernet)
- content communities (e.g., YouTube and DailyMotion)
- social networking sites (e.g., Facebook)
- virtual game-worlds (e.g., Minecraft, World of Warcraft)
- virtual social worlds (e.g., Second Life)
Other common social media sites include FourSquare, LinkedIn, Flickr, edmodo, Pinterest, and YouTube. Some social media are a combination of two or more of the types Kaplan and Haenlein outlined. For example, Shi, Rui and Whinston (2014) explain that Twitter is a blend of broadcasting service and social networking. Many social media sites can be accessed through mobile applications (e.g., iPhone, Blackberry) as well as desktops and laptops.
Benefits of Incorporating Social Media in Middle Schools
Increased Student Engagement, Learning, and Citizenship Education
Social media sites provide a forum for extending the traditional classroom with an array of benefits that fit This We Believe (2010) tenets by capitalizing on students' personal backgrounds and cultural experiences to further learning. Increased student engagement and learning and citizenship education are benefits related to social media use in school. For example, middle grades students can discover how technology-assisted writing can foster innovation, global communication and participation, and creative problem solving with a broader community. Purposeful use of social media can help develop responsible, productive digital citizens whose natural love of learning will travel with them throughout their lives. Ramsay's Can We Skip Lunch and Keep Writing? Collaborating in Class and Online (2011) shares reflections on the integrated collaborative technology writing activities she incorporated in her classroom to advance students' learning experiences. She found that her students engaged for longer periods of time in writing tasks due to online collaboration. Further, Ramsay purports that technology-assisted writing can nurture student creativity, communication, and problem solving skills while developing digital citizens.
Social media provides students with options for creating authentic, creative products through tools such as blogs, YouTube, and podcasts (Frye et al., 2010; Lamb & Johnson, 2010). Students can also use social media to research content material in order to develop new knowledge (Frye et al., 2010; Lamb & Johnson, 2010). Additionally, social media helps facilitate differentiation by allowing the needs of creative learners to be met through a cooperative learning environment. Students are better able to balance their individualism with the need for contact with others, allowing new ideas to flourish (Garrett, 2011; Shoshani & Rose Braun, 2007).
Collaboration and Relationship Building
Social media can help adolescents develop and strengthen collaboration skills as they share knowledge, learn with and from others, and are active in the learning process (Fewkes & McCabe, 2012; Jackson, 2011; Liu, Liu, Chen, Lin & Chen, 2011;Yu, Tian, Vogel, & Kwok, 2010). Further, through collaboration on social media platforms, constructive and meaningful teacher and student relationships can develop (Connolly, 2011). Social media outlets, such as Twitter, are being utilized by teachers for informal professional development as educators worldwide share resources and best practices (Krutka & Milton, 2013).
Bridge the Digital Divide and Increase Access and Equity
The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) states that digital skills are essential for "students to work, live and contribute to the social and civic fabric of their communities" (2014, para 2). Further, ISTE purports that equitable access to technology-integrated learning opportunities is vital to bridge the digital divide and increase students' chances for success (2014). However, as the National Center for Education Statistics shared (2012), the digital divide is increasing and, thus, children without access to technology can be left further behind. Therefore, inclusion of social media in education activities is necessary to help increase equity among students of different racial and socioeconomic backgrounds by increasing access to information and information technology (Darling-Hammond, Zielezinski, & Goldman, 2014; Grinager, 2006).
Darling-Hammond et al. (2014) recommend the following practices to promote optimal learning opportunities for all students: (a) technology access policies should aim for 1:1 computer access and ensure that speedy internet connections are available, (b) policies and practices should favor technology that promotes high levels of interactivity and engagement and that allows for varying learning choices and opportunities, (c) instructional opportunities should enable students to use technology to create content as well as learn material, and (d) learning environments that provide significant and varied levels of teacher support and opportunities for interactions among students as companions to technology use (p. 14-15).
Challenges Related to Incorporating Social Media in Middle Schools
There are a variety of challenges middle level educators must consider when incorporating social media in young adolescent classrooms. The first issue many educators currently face is equitable access for students and teachers. Further, uncertainty exists on the type and frequency of professional development for middle level educators that addresses ethical and appropriate use of social networking. Additionally, educators must learn how best to help students navigate safely and monitor students in a virtual environment. Lastly, educators must recognize the possibility for distractions and overstimulation that is often linked to certain types of social media and networking activities (Chen & Bryer, 2012).
Access to technology for students and teachers has tremendous benefits particularly if accompanied with appropriate learning opportunities. However, gaining consistent and equitable access remains a challenge for all levels of learners; therefore, making technology available to all students should be a priority among educators (NMSA, 2010; U.S. Department of Education, 2010). Educators and policymakers need to provide the appropriate technology funding and related professional development so students and teachers have the equipment, knowledge, and skills necessary for taking full advantage of what technology can offer.
It is imperative for educators to have professional development opportunities that enable them to learn developmentally appropriate best practices for preparing students (NMSA, 2010). This includes how to utilize all that social networking has to offer. For teachers to understand the features, benefits, and limitations to social media sites, they need appropriate and sustained training, time to practice newly learned skills, and time for collaboration with colleagues to hone teaching practices (Boss & Krauss, 2007). As teachers have different levels of technology use knowledge and interests, department and grade-level conversations should occur to identify specific needs.
Monitoring, Safety, and Ethical Use of Social Networking
AMLE (NMSA, 2010) believes that middle schools must provide adult advocates to middle school students to guide academic and personal development in an inviting, safe, inclusive, and supportive school environment (p. 35). This can be challenging in a face-to-face environment and even more difficult in a virtual environment (Schmitz, Sigler Hoffmann, & Bickford, 2012). Kessler (2010) purports on the blog, www.mashable.com, that the best way to keep young users safe is to teach them how to be safe. Students need to learn how to make great choices about what they share and what are appropriate actions with others, and always review and manage their online reputations in light of others' ability to contribute to that reputation either positively or negatively with a few clicks of the mouse (Richardson, 2011).
Protecting students in all learning environments is essential. Having explicit and consistent conversations and policies about how to do this ethically, legally, and effectively must occur before and during use of social media and involve input from key stakeholders. Edutopia.com, a website published by the George Lucas Educational Foundation and highly regarded by the educational community, provides thoughtful resources on creating social media guidelines for schools. A useful handbook found on Edutopia.com was created by Anderson, in collaboration with Facebook (n.d.), on How to Create Social Media Guidelines for Your School.
Plagiarism is a challenge many face when incorporating social media activities. Vise (2011) shared that "one-third of all unoriginal content in student papers came from social networks, including Facebook and all of the various 'content-sharing' sites where users post and share information" (para 5). However, using plagiarism checking software like Anti-Plagiarism, DupliChecker, PaperRater, or Plagiarismdetector, can ensure that work presented is the creation of the author with credit provided to sources. In tandem, teachers must continue to address the issue of plagiarism including how to determine if sources are credible and having clear and consistent plagiarism policies regularly disseminated to students and parents.
Classroom Strategies for the Inclusion of Social Media in Learning
Research suggests that discussions and collaborations are the most common social media classroom strategies (Chen & Bryer, 2012). Frye, Trathen, and Koppenhaver (2010) proclaim that blogs offer students the ability to publish work and comment on others' writing, which increases motivation. At the middle level, Wilson, Wright, Inman, & Matherson (2011) provide examples demonstrating best practices of how students use blogs successfully to study current events and respond to textual material and a variety of other assignments. Manfra and Lee's (2011) qualitative case study used audio and video recordings of classroom sessions, student blog comments, and semi-structured interviews to demonstrate the potential of using blogs to differentiate instruction and meet learning goals of at-risk learners. Smith and Throne (2009) also speaks to the value of social media in serving as a tool for differentiation.
Holcomb, Beal, and Lee (2011) present two instructional projects and two instructional tools as examples that suggest Web 2.0 tools can enhance and maximize curricula by giving students the means to "take on real world problems, engage in intensive research using methods suited to their style of learning and share their findings with their collaborators and colleagues" (p. 103). Carano and Stuckart's (2013) qualitative study examined the impact of social media activities between US students and Peace Corps Volunteers in Swaziland and between US students and Malaysian high school students. Findings demonstrate how social media sites can be used to connect classrooms and cultures across the globe while providing students with increased intercultural awareness and student learning.
Cabiness, Donovan, and Green's (2013) middle school case study of students using wikis in a world history class demonstrated that a classroom wiki had many benefits. The flexible environment of the wiki supported collaborative learning allowing for extended learning and opportunities to go in-depth into concepts that may not have been allowed due to regular class time restrictions. Further, higher order thinking skills were evident in the student posts. Additionally, the wiki environment created a learning community that went beyond the regular classroom walls enabling students to collaborate with all six classes of students enrolled in the campus world history courses.
Another classroom strategy has enabled students to instant-message (IM) teachers and peers with homework questions via smartphones (Davis, 2010). Twitter, an online social networking service, provides an IM outlet used to encourage students to engage in class activities through a variety of activities such as centering on primary documents or analytical questions and bringing in outside expert perspectives (Krutka & Milton, 2013). Krutka (2014b) and his 20 social studies methods students examined the pedagogical possibilities for social media use in middle and high school classrooms. Surveys, reflective journals, and field notes indicated that Twitter was the most beneficial social media site to use in the class because of its many possibilities. Dunlap and Lowenthal (2009) suggest that the medium is useful for encouraging concise writing.
Further, Elavsky, Mislan, and Elavsky (2011) employed mixed-methods research to examine student outcomes produced by using Twitter. Using descriptive statistical analysis of tweets and surveys, Elavsky et al. found using Twitter to "back channel,'"—an activity that allows students to maintain a dialogue or ask questions about an activity that is happening concurrently—can expand students' understanding of key class concepts. Finally, the literature indicates that Twitter can also be used as a sharing resource (Matteson, 2010), as a means for historical perspective-taking and reenactment (Krutka & Milton, 2013; Lee, Shelton, Walker, Caswell, & Jensen, 2012), and even as a source for, and subject of, media study (Rinaldo, Tapp, & Laverie, 2011).
Social media is an increasingly popular technology medium for educators and students alike. Research shows that social media can increase student learning and engage students who otherwise may be disinterested in the classroom (Darling-Hammond, Zielinski, & Goldman, 2014). Richardson (2011) states:
Social media afford[s] the opportunity for all children with online access to contribute to the world in meaningful ways, do real work for real audiences for real purposes, find great teachers and collaborators from around the world, and become great teachers in their own right. (p. 3)
This real-time communication can increase student accountability, build relationships, allow for differentiation, and expand understanding and skills.
Of course, there are drawbacks for students including security risks or privacy concerns. Some students may find social media activities distracting and lack supervision from an administrator. Yet, these drawbacks can be addressed by thoughtful selection and expectations of activities, set-up, and monitoring of students, process, and outcomes. Used prudently, social media can be a valuable tool in educational settings so middle level learners are provided engaging, relevant, and interconnected learning opportunities (Connolly, 2011).
Anderson, S. (n.d.). How to create social media guidelines for your school. Edutopia. Retrieved from http://www.edutopia.org/pdfs/edutopia-anderson-social-media-guidelines.pdf.
Cabiness, C., Donovan, L., & Green, T. D. (2013). Integrating wikis in the support and practice of historical analysis skills. TechTrends, 57(6), 38-48.
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Annotated Reference List
Lamphere, N. (2012). Introduction to social media. Retrieved from http://prezi.com/xjetcvfh-chj/introduction-to-social-media/
This hands-on workshop provides an introduction to the social web and current, popular tools and topics. Definition of terms with related videos are presented as well as resources for publishing, communicating, and sharing images, videos, and bookmarks.
Schmitz, M., Sigler Hoffmann, M., & Bickford, J.H. (2012). Identifying cyberbullying, connecting with students: The promising possibilities of teacher-student social networking. Eastern Education Journal, 41
(1), p. 16–30.
This article provides suggestions of how teachers can productively use social networking to connect with students socially and to identify and supervise cyberbullying. Additionally, a range of school districts' policies on social networking sites are examined with many addressing teacher and student abuses and misuses. Also included are reflections on social media use and cyberbullying as well as implications for providing a safe, inclusive, and supportive school environment.
Smith, G. E. & Throne, S. (2009). Differentiating instruction with technology in middle school classrooms. Eugene, OR: International Society for Technology in Education
This book explains the benefits of combining differentiated instruction (DI) with technology, encouraging teachers to "re-engage students by bringing lessons out of the past and into the student-centered reality of digital-age learning." Resources are offered that can help make DI a reality in the middle school classroom. Also included are sample activities for incorporating DI in a variety of core subjects and areas.
Commoncraft, (https://www.commoncraft.com/) is a website that contains engaging, informative short videos for introducing various topics to teachers and students. The topics include money, politics, history, society, safety, with a majority of topics on technology. Specifically, there are videos addressing social media that include Twitter, online photosharing, social bookmarking, wikis, and many others that would be of interest and use to middle school students and teachers.
Traffikd, (http://traffikd.com/social-media-websites/) contains a list of social media and social networking sites that is updated frequently. The range of categories shows the potential in a wide variety of classes and learning experiences for middle level learners.
Onlineuniversities.com offers 100 ways to use social media in classrooms, http://www.onlineuniversities.com/blog/2010/05/100-inspiring-ways-to-use-social-media-in-the-classroom/. Ideas for the K-12 classroom and university level are provided including class projects and ways to increase collaboration and communication between peers and between students and teachers and for preparing students for life outside of the classroom.
Edudemic: Edudemic, http://www.edudemic.com/guides/, connects education and technology providing many useful and popular resources and teaching guides for using "some of the best and most popular resources available today" including Twitter, flipping classrooms, keeping students safe online, choosing the best digital content for students, and others added frequently. Edudemic offers dozens of articles with resources and "how to" information for using social media in ways that foster student learning.
Edmodo: Located at https://www.edmodo.com/, Edmodo is a free social networking platform that has been referred to as the Facebook for schools and is a safe and teacher-controlled environment in which students must be provided an access code to join and anonymous posting is not possible. Edmodo is primarily a tool for within-class communication, but it also provides several ways for classrooms to connect with other classrooms. There are many features and ways to use Edmodo. A few classroom examples include sharing files and resources with students and other classrooms in real time, creating polls for students to vote online, writing short summaries of lessons for absent students, and posting homework information.
#edchat: An ongoing Twitter (https://twitter.com/) discussion that serves as informal professional development for educators by allowing participants to join to discuss and learn about current teaching trends, how to integrate technology, transform their teaching, and connect with inspiring educators worldwide. Moderated topical chats are held at noon and 7 p.m. (EST) each Tuesday with different topics.
Alicia Wenzel is an associate professor of education specializing in curriculum, instruction, and assessment at Western Oregon University. Much of her research has focused on curriculum, assessment, and middle level education.
Kenneth T. Carano is an associate professor of social studies education at Western Oregon University. His research interests include using technology to teach from a social justice framework in an increasingly interconnected world.
Wenzel, A., & Carano, K.T. (2015). Research summary: Social media for middle level classrooms. Retrieved [date] from http://www.amle.org/TabId/270/artmid/888/articleid/553/Social-Media-for-Middle-Level-Classrooms.aspx


Writing is a medium of human communication that represents language and emotion with signs and symbols. In most languages, writing is a complement to speech or spoken language. Writing is not a language, but a tool used to make languages be read. Within a language system, writing relies on many of the same structures as speech, such as vocabulary, grammar, and semantics, with the added dependency of a system of signs or symbols. The result of writing is called text, and the recipient of text is called a reader. Motivations for writing include publication, storytelling, correspondence, record keeping and diary. Writing has been instrumental in keeping history, maintaining culture, dissemination of knowledge through the media and the formation of legal systems.
As human societies emerged, the development of writing was driven by pragmatic exigencies such as exchanging information, maintaining financial accounts, codifying laws and recording history. Around the 4th millennium BCE, the complexity of trade and administration in Mesopotamia outgrew human memory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form. In both ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica, writing may have evolved through calendric and a political necessity for recording historical and environmental events.
H.G. Wells argued that writing has the ability to "put agreements, laws, commandments on record. It made the growth of states larger than the old city states possible. It made a continuous historical consciousness possible. The command of the priest or king and his seal could go far beyond his sight and voice and could survive his death".
The major writing systems--methods of inscription--broadly fall into five categories: logographic, syllabic, alphabetic, featural, and ideographic (symbols for ideas). A sixth category, pictographic, is insufficient to represent language on its own, but often forms the core of logographies.
A logogram is a written character which represents a word or morpheme. A vast number of logograms are needed to write Chinese characters, cuneiform, and Mayan, where a glyph may stand for a morpheme, a syllable, or both--("logoconsonantal" in the case of hieroglyphs). Many logograms have an ideographic component (Chinese "radicals", hieroglyphic "determiners"). For example, in Mayan, the glyph for "fin", pronounced "ka", was also used to represent the syllable "ka" whenever the pronunciation of a logogram needed to be indicated, or when there was no logogram. In Chinese, about 90% of characters are compounds of a semantic (meaning) element called a radical with an existing character to indicate the pronunciation, called a phonetic. However, such phonetic elements complement the logographic elements, rather than vice versa.
The main logographic system in use today is Chinese characters, used with some modification for the various languages or dialects of China, Japan, and sometimes in Korean despite the fact that in South and North Korea, the phonetic Hangul system is mainly used.
A syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent (or approximate) syllables. A glyph in a syllabary typically represents a consonant followed by a vowel, or just a vowel alone, though in some scripts more complex syllables (such as consonant-vowel-consonant, or consonant-consonant-vowel) may have dedicated glyphs. Phonetically related syllables are not so indicated in the script. For instance, the syllable "ka" may look nothing like the syllable "ki", nor will syllables with the same vowels be similar.
Syllabaries are best suited to languages with a relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. Other languages that use syllabic writing include the Linear B script for Mycenaean Greek; Cherokee; Ndjuka, an English-based creole language of Surinam; and the Vai script of Liberia. Most logographic systems have a strong syllabic component. Ethiopic, though technically an abugida, has fused consonants and vowels together to the point where it is learned as if it were a syllabary.
An alphabet is a set of symbols, each of which represents or historically represented a phoneme of the language. In a perfectly phonological alphabet, the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions: a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling.
As languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language.
In most of the writing systems of the Middle East, it is usually only the consonants of a word that are written, although vowels may be indicated by the addition of various diacritical marks. Writing systems based primarily on marking the consonant phonemes alone date back to the hieroglyphics of ancient Egypt. Such systems are called abjads, derived from the Arabic word for "alphabet".
In most of the alphabets of India and Southeast Asia, vowels are indicated through diacritics or modification of the shape of the consonant. These are called abugidas. Some abugidas, such as Ethiopic and Cree, are learned by children as syllabaries, and so are often called "syllabics". However, unlike true syllabaries, there is not an independent glyph for each syllable.
Sometimes the term "alphabet" is restricted to systems with separate letters for consonants and vowels, such as the Latin alphabet, although abugidas and abjads may also be accepted as alphabets. Because of this use, Greek is often considered to be the first alphabet.
A featural script notates the building blocks of the phonemes that make up a language. For instance, all sounds pronounced with the lips ("labial" sounds) may have some element in common. In the Latin alphabet, this is accidentally the case with the letters "b" and "p"; however, labial "m" is completely dissimilar, and the similar-looking "q" and "d" are not labial. In Korean hangul, however, all four labial consonants are based on the same basic element, but in practice, Korean is learned by children as an ordinary alphabet, and the featural elements tend to pass unnoticed.
Another featural script is SignWriting, the most popular writing system for many sign languages, where the shapes and movements of the hands and face are represented iconically. Featural scripts are also common in fictional or invented systems, such as J.R.R. Tolkien's Tengwar.
Historians draw a sharp distinction between prehistory and history, with history defined by the advent of writing. The cave paintings and petroglyphs of prehistoric peoples can be considered precursors of writing, but they are not considered true writing because they did not represent language directly.
Writing systems develop and change based on the needs of the people who use them. Sometimes the shape, orientation, and meaning of individual signs changes over time. By tracing the development of a script, it is possible to learn about the needs of the people who used the script as well as how the script changed over time.
The many tools and writing materials used throughout history include stone tablets, clay tablets, bamboo slats, papyrus, wax tablets, vellum, parchment, paper, copperplate, styluses, quills, ink brushes, pencils, pens, and many styles of lithography. It is speculated that the Incas might have employed knotted cords known as quipu (or khipu) as a writing system.
The typewriter and various forms of word processors have subsequently become widespread writing tools, and various studies have compared the ways in which writers have framed the experience of writing with such tools as compared with the pen or pencil.
By definition, the modern practice of history begins with written records. Evidence of human culture without writing is the realm of prehistory. The Dispilio Tablet (Greece) and T?rt?ria tablets (Romania), which have been carbon dated to the 6th millennium BC, are recent discoveries of the earliest known neolithic writings.
While neolithic writing is a current research topic, conventional history assumes that the writing process first evolved from economic necessity in the ancient Near East. Writing most likely began as a consequence of political expansion in ancient cultures, which needed reliable means for transmitting information, maintaining financial accounts, keeping historical records, and similar activities. Around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration outgrew the power of memory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form.
Archaeologist Denise Schmandt-Besserat determined the link between previously uncategorized clay "tokens", the oldest of which have been found in the Zagros region of Iran, and the first known writing, Mesopotamian cuneiform. In approximately 8000 BC, the Mesopotamians began using clay tokens to count their agricultural and manufactured goods. Later they began placing these tokens inside large, hollow clay containers (bulla, or globular envelopes) which were then sealed. The quantity of tokens in each container came to be expressed by impressing, on the container's surface, one picture for each instance of the token inside. They next dispensed with the tokens, relying solely on symbols for the tokens, drawn on clay surfaces. To avoid making a picture for each instance of the same object (for example: 100 pictures of a hat to represent 100 hats), they 'counted' the objects by using various small marks. In this way the Sumerians added "a system for enumerating objects to their incipient system of symbols".
The original Mesopotamian writing system (believed to be the world's oldest) was derived around 3600 BC from this method of keeping accounts. By the end of the 4th millennium BC, the Mesopotamians were using a triangular-shaped stylus pressed into soft clay to record numbers. This system was gradually augmented with using a sharp stylus to indicate what was being counted by means of pictographs. Round-stylus and sharp-stylus writing was gradually replaced by writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the term cuneiform), at first only for logograms, but by the 29th century BC also for phonetic elements. Around 2700 BC, cuneiform began to represent syllables of spoken Sumerian. About that time, Mesopotamian cuneiform became a general purpose writing system for logograms, syllables, and numbers. This script was adapted to another Mesopotamian language, the East Semitic Akkadian (Assyrian and Babylonian) around 2600 BC, and then to others such as Elamite, Hattian, Hurrian and Hittite. Scripts similar in appearance to this writing system include those for Ugaritic and Old Persian. With the adoption of Aramaic as the 'lingua franca' of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911-609 BC), Old Aramaic was also adapted to Mesopotamian cuneiform. The last cuneiform scripts in Akkadian discovered thus far date from the 1st century AD.
Over the centuries, three distinct Elamite scripts developed. Proto-Elamite is the oldest known writing system from Iran. In use only for a brief time (c. 3200-2900 BC), clay tablets with Proto-Elamite writing have been found at different sites across Iran. The Proto-Elamite script is thought to have developed from early cuneiform (proto-cuneiform). The Proto-Elamite script consists of more than 1,000 signs and is thought to be partly logographic.
Linear Elamite is a writing system attested in a few monumental inscriptions in Iran. It was used for a very brief period during the last quarter of the 3rd millennium BC. It is often claimed that Linear Elamite is a syllabic writing system derived from Proto-Elamite, although this cannot be proven since Linear-Elamite has not been deciphered. Several scholars have attempted to decipher the script, most notably Walther Hinz and Piero Meriggi.
The Elamite cuneiform script was used from about 2500 to 331 BC, and was adapted from the Akkadian cuneiform. The Elamite cuneiform script consisted of about 130 symbols, far fewer than most other cuneiform scripts.
Cretan hieroglyphs are found on artifacts of Crete (early-to-mid-2nd millennium BC, MM I to MM III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at the earliest). Linear B, the writing system of the Mycenaean Greeks, has been deciphered while Linear A has yet to be deciphered. The sequence and the geographical spread of the three overlapping, but distinct writing systems can be summarized as follows:[A 1] Cretan hieroglyphs were used in Crete from c. 1625 to 1500 BC; Linear A was used in the Aegean Islands (Kea, Kythera, Melos, Thera), and the Greek mainland (Laconia) from c. 18th century to 1450 BC; and Linear B was used in Crete (Knossos), and mainland (Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns) from c. 1375 to 1200 BC.
The earliest surviving examples of writing in China--inscriptions on so-called "oracle bones", tortoise plastrons and ox scapulae used for divination--date from around 1200 BC in the late Shang dynasty. A small number of bronze inscriptions from the same period have also survived. Historians have found that the type of media used had an effect on what the writing was documenting and how it was used.
In 2003, archaeologists reported discoveries of isolated tortoise-shell carvings dating back to the 7th millennium BC, but whether or not these symbols are related to the characters of the later oracle-bone script is disputed.
The earliest known hieroglyphic inscriptions are the Narmer Palette, dating to c. 3200 BC, and several recent discoveries that may be slightly older, though these glyphs were based on a much older artistic rather than written tradition. The hieroglyphic script was logographic with phonetic adjuncts that included an effective alphabet.
Writing was very important in maintaining the Egyptian empire, and literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of scribes. Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train to become scribes, in the service of temple, pharaonic, and military authorities. The hieroglyph system was always difficult to learn, but in later centuries was purposely made even more so, as this preserved the scribes' status.
The world's oldest known alphabet appears to have been developed by Canaanite turquoise miners in the Sinai desert around the mid-19th century BC. Around 30 crude inscriptions have been found at a mountainous Egyptian mining site known as Serabit el-Khadem. This site was also home to a temple of Hathor, the "Mistress of turquoise". A later, two line inscription has also been found at Wadi el-Hol in Central Egypt. Based on hieroglyphic prototypes, but also including entirely new symbols, each sign apparently stood for a consonant rather than a word: the basis of an alphabetic system. It was not until the 12th to 9th centuries, however, that the alphabet took hold and became widely used.
Indus script refers to short strings of symbols associated with the Indus Valley Civilization (which spanned modern-day Pakistan and North India) used between 2600 and 1900 BC. In spite of many attempts at decipherments and claims, it is as yet undeciphered. The term 'Indus script' is mainly applied to that used in the mature Harappan phase, which perhaps evolved from a few signs found in early Harappa after 3500 BC, and was followed by the mature Harappan script. The script is written from right to left, and sometimes follows a boustrophedonic style. Since the number of principal signs is about 400-600, midway between typical logographic and syllabic scripts, many scholars accept the script to be logo-syllabic (typically syllabic scripts have about 50-100 signs whereas logographic scripts have a very large number of principal signs). Several scholars maintain that structural analysis indicates that an agglutinative language underlies the script.
Archaeologists have recently discovered that there was a civilization in Central Asia using writing c. 2000 BC. An excavation near Ashgabat, the capital of Turkmenistan, revealed an inscription on a piece of stone that was used as a stamp seal.
The Proto-Sinaitic script in which Proto-Canaanite is believed to have been first written, is attested as far back as the 19th century BC. The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script sometime before the 14th century BC, which in turn borrowed principles of representing phonetic information from Hieratic, Cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphics. This writing system was an odd sort of syllabary in which only consonants are represented. This script was adapted by the Greeks, who adapted certain consonantal signs to represent their vowels. The Cumae alphabet, a variant of the early Greek alphabet, gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet, and its own descendants, such as the Latin alphabet and Runes. Other descendants from the Greek alphabet include Cyrillic, used to write Bulgarian, Russian and Serbian among others. The Phoenician system was also adapted into the Aramaic script, from which the Hebrew script and also that of Arabic are descended.
The Tifinagh script (Berber languages) is descended from the Libyco-Berber script which is assumed to be of Phoenician origin.
A stone slab with 3,000-year-old writing, known as the Cascajal Block, was discovered in the Mexican state of Veracruz and is an example of the oldest script in the Western Hemisphere, preceding the oldest Zapotec writing by approximately 500 years. It is thought to be Olmec.
Of several pre-Columbian scripts in Mesoamerica, the one that appears to have been best developed, and the only one to be deciphered, is the Maya script. The earliest inscriptions which is identified, Maya dates to the 3rd century BC. Maya writing used logograms complemented by a set of syllabic glyphs, somewhat similar in function to modern Japanese writing.
The Incas had no known script. Their quipu system of recording information--based on knots tied along one or many linked cords--was apparently used for inventory and accountancy purposes and could not encode textual information.
Three stone slabs were found by Romanian archaeologist Nicolae Vlassa, in the mid-20th century (1961) in T?rt?ria (present-day Alba County, Transylvania), Romania, ancient land of Dacia, inhabited by Dacians, which were a population who may have been related to the Getaes and Thracians. One of the slabs contains 4 groups of pictographs divided by lines. Some of the characters are also found in Ancient Greek, as well as in Phoenician, Etruscan, Old Italic and Iberian. The origin and the timing of the writings are disputed, because there are no precise evidence in situ, the slabs cannot be carbon dated, because of the bad treatment of the Cluj museum. There are indirect carbon dates found on a skeleton discovered near the slabs, that certifies the 5300-5500 BC period.
In the 21st century, writing has become an important part of daily life as technology has connected individuals from across the globe through systems such as e-mail and social media. Literacy has grown in importance as a factor for success in the modern world. In the United States, the ability to read and write are necessary for most jobs, and multiple programs are in place to aid both children and adults in improving their literacy skills. For example, the emergence of the writing center and community-wide literacy councils aim to help students and community members sharpen their writing skills. These resources, and many more, span across different age groups in order to offer each individual a better understanding of their language and how to express themselves via writing in order to perhaps improve their socioeconomic status.
Other parts of the world have seen an increase in writing abilities as a result of programs such as the World Literacy Foundation and International Literacy Foundation, as well as a general push for increased global communication.
Signs carved into 8,600-year-old tortoise shells found in China may be the earliest written words, say archaeologists
A previously unknown civilisation was using writing in Central Asia 4,000 years ago, hundreds of years before Chinese writing developed, archaeologists have discovered. An excavation near Ashgabat, the capital of Turkmenistan, revealed an inscription on a piece of stone that seems to have been used as a stamp seal.
A stone slab bearing 3,000-year-old writing previously unknown to scholars has been found in the Mexican state of Veracruz, and archaeologists say it is an example of the oldest script ever discovered in the Western Hemisphere.
Ancient civilisations in Mexico developed a writing system as early as 900 BC, new evidence suggests.
A block with a hitherto unknown system of writing has been found in the Olmec heartland of Veracruz, Mexico. Stylistic and other dating of the block places it in the early first millennium before the common era, the oldest writing in the New World, with features that firmly assign this pivotal development to the Olmec civilization of Mesoamerica.


Wednesday, April 28, 2010
You could get the most out of this if you've already talked to students about film terms like camera angles, camera movements, lighting, etc. Even if your class hasn't covered those yet (or don't intend to) you can still use basic terms students already know based on their casual film-watching (close-up, soundtrack, low lighting, zoom in/out).
OK, so here's the idea. Somewhere in your standards, you need to have students dissect visual media for mood/tone/conflict/theme, right? So, take it one step further and have them put it back together again! Here's the basic setup for a storyboard:
...and repeat! The box includes a rough sketch of the scene. Above the box, identify which shot it is - is it the beginning of the movie, shot #1, or is it towards the middle and #23? Sound includes any sounds of the scene like traffic, people talking, etc. or the soundtrack. Encourage students to describe the soundtrack - is it low, quiet, tense strings or is it loud, exciting rock music? The lighting - is it a natural, sunny day or dark, low candlelight? Camera movement - does the camera zoom in/out or sweep over the landscape? It may remain still, too. That's okay. All of those different items are going to contribute to the mood/tone/conflict/theme. It's difficult to express a sinister mood with bright, natural sunshine. Students have probably seen many films - tell them to follow their instincts!
You have a blank storyboard, ready to go. Choose one of the Harris Burdick pictures
and inform students that this is the illustration of one of their storyboards.
Model how to complete the storyboard by completing this together as a class. Ask students to (roughly) copy the picture into a box (give them a nice big box to work with), reminding them that you aren't expecting Leonardo da Vinci here. Once they complete that, flesh out the scene a little more. Start first with sounds of the scene (water lapping pier, roar of engines, etc.) and then invite students to come up with a soundtrack. Move on to lighting - Dark and shadowy? Bright and open? Where/what is the light source? Is it clear light, yellow, red, blue? What about camera movement? Do they want the camera to zoom in/out from here, scan the landscape or remain still?
Once you have satisfactorily completed the first installment of the storyboard, set them free to now take the next step. Tell them to number the scene you just did as a class, but they can all have different numbers. If Susie wants this scene to start her movie, she would assign it #1. If Chris thinks this occurs towards the middle, he might number it #23. Now they get to create a new storyboard. They can choose the scene just before or after and number it appropriately. (Susie's would be #2; Chris's might do #22 or #24) Give them about 15-20 minutes to create, and then share!
From here, see if you can get students into groups and blend or combine their practice storyboards into about 5-10 scenes for a short film.
As a closing activity, ask them to look at their storyboards and briefly explain how they think the sound/lighting/movement create a mood/tone/conflict/theme, challenging them to draw out those abstract ideas from the media.
Extra Credit: Here's an explanatory video about storyboarding. It's a bit long, so perhaps you could just show a portion. And if you want a little bit more background for your teaching purposes, check the Wikipedia page on Storyboards.
There might be a lot to tackle in one lesson, but let's give it a shot.
If you can, find a picture of a traffic accident, preferably a basic fender bender that depicts a police officer. If you can't find one that works for you, set the stage with your words. Ask students about the different perceptions of the accident (and my sophomores who are just starting to drive usually have strong opinions about driving and other people on the road!). Who is at fault? What do you think Blue SUV driver would say happened? What would red sedan driver say? Let's pretend the policeman was across the street and saw what happened - what might HIS perspective be? What about someone in an apartment building, looking down at the street?
If it works for your classroom: act it out! Have someone stand on a desk/table to be the guy in the apartment building, let a few kids mime the drivers, have another stand off to the side as the policeman (giving someone a ticket? grabbing coffee?). This might help some of the kinesthetic learners. It might also help encourage students to create a dichotomy between the drivers; it seems there's usually there are some disagreements over whose fault it is.
Angle, attitude, and personal knowledge all factor into a perspective. The police man's explanation of what happened would be very specific and legal, because that is his personal background. The two drivers will probably have different opinions on whose fault it is. The joe-schmo in the apartment building saw things from above and since they were observing more of the whole picture, s/he may have even seen something else outside of the two cars that influenced the accident. Once you can differentiate between the different attitudes, see if students can translate this accident into literary perspectives. Who might be first person? Third person limited? Third person omniscient?
You knew this was coming, right? Break 'em into groups or let them do this independently. Assign groups/individuals a certain perspective: write a short paragraph telling the story of this accident in first person, third person ltd, third person omniscient, or (if you're brave) second person. Break down the first person into first person SUV driver, first person cop, first person sedan driver. Give them just a few minutes to write (3-5) and then...read aloud!
When you get to the first person perspectives, take a moment to talk about unreliable narrators. At this point, you'll be able to talk about the potential "believability" problems with perspective. Could both drivers experience the same event and tell it differently? What motivation might they have for telling the story the way they do? Remind students to think about a fight they've had with a sibling. When retelling the event to a parent, did your story (or your sibling's story) reflect the ABSOLUTE TRUTH of the event? Was there some disagreement over who started it? Why is that?
Remind them that characters in a novel - even our narrator - can be the same way. We have to be careful to evaluate the reliability of the narrator. What motivation would s/he have to hide or avoid the whole truth? You could pull out a short excerpt here from an unreliable narrator if you want to focus on that more. Or you could leave it at that, let it simmer, and return to it later.
OK, so you've talked about perspective, even hit upon unreliable narrators, now what? Harris Burdick, welcome back. Select one of the pictures (or let class choose), and break students into groups (if they aren't already). Actually, at this point, I would do the opposite of whatever I did with Application - if they were independent before, break into groups; if they were in groups before, go back to independent writing. Assign each group/individual a certain perspective and ask that they write a story about that picture using that assigned perspective. Give them time to write...and then read aloud! See if the class can determine which perspective it was, identifying aspects of the narration that told them so.
Tuesday, April 27, 2010
What do you want to do today? How about genre writing?
Now, most of my 10th graders already come to me with a basic knowledge of genres, so a genre-based lesson might be best for middle (5-8) levels. Still, the great thing about writing workshop, though, is that it can be laid-back and FUN. You could still use this lesson as a fun (if you find it so) refresher on genres, without having to beat them over the head with loads of notes and definitions about genres, since the upper level kiddos have a handle on it.
We're going to skip any introduction because we're going to assume the kids already have working definitions of genres.
As a class, create a list of possible genres. You can keep them modern-library-categories like fiction/sci-fi/fantasy/historical fiction/mystery or get even more specific or challenging with persuasive, poem, nonfiction, drama, fable, etc. Break students up into groups - recommended for groups 2-4 (no more). Give each group one of the portfolio pictures. As a class, choose one genre; everyone will write a short blurb (or start a story) for their portfolio using the chosen genre.
After your assigned time is up (10-15 minutes?) read the stories aloud, and as a class, ask Were there any similarities that recurred throughout all the stories that we could identify as a characteristic of the genre?
This is basically just the opposite of Option 1. Once you've broken students up into groups, choose (at random or via class vote) one of the Harris Burdick pictures. Then, assign each group a different genre; they must use this genre to generate a story from that picture.
After your assigned time is up (10-15 minutes?) read the stories aloud, and as a class ask, How did you know the genre? What techniques are common to the genre that make it identifiable?
You can give these options as much or as little time as you want, really. If it were my classroom, I would probably do Option 2 twice. The first time, I would assign genres, so that kids are forced to challenge themselves a bit. Second time, I would probably change the picture and then let groups choose their own genres. And, of course, read aloud and talk about genre characteristics.
Extra Credit: I found this thread where teachers swapped ideas on teaching genre studies, especially in the middle levels. Thought it had too many fun ideas not to share!
Source: inspired by Classroom Poster - Literary Genres
Monday, April 26, 2010
You and your students are working on writing, be it creative, descriptive, or otherwise. You get a lot of this:
He was hungry. He wanted a sandwich. He was full after he ate the sandwich.
You can hear the Charlie Brown "wah wah" from here, can't you? You thirst for adjectives; you starve for lively verbs! You have a hunger that can only be quenched through the satiating string of vivid descriptors, variable clauses, and dynamic syntax!
So I will give you the ingredients for your students, so they can whip up a tasty meal. I call this my "Show, Don't Tell" lesson.
You might want to start by explaining how we've turned the phrase "Show, Don't Tell" from the common, elementary school activity "Show & Tell." Good tales let the words show us the story. We can see it/smell it/taste it/hear it/feel it when we read. We're right there in the story.
Pull up the Show, Don't Tell powerpoint. In this writing lesson I focus on two elements: character & setting. We've already talking about direct characterization versus indirect (good time to talk about inferences there), so we bring that up again. If actions speak louder than words (you could incorporate this phrase & its truth into the introduction discussion), then we can best get to know our characters by seeing them act. Similarly, how does the author establish a clear setting? Is it just by telling us the weather and color of the landscape?
Notes & Checks for Understanding
Follow through the powerpoint, looking at models of good "Show" examples, talking about why they're good & what they reveal. Stop before slide 5 and handout some sample paragraphs students can keep for themselves. Have them read over the three paragraphs in the table at the top of the page. Take a quick poll on which one they think is "Okay," "Better," and "Best." Continue on, talking through the examples on the screen, asking students to identify the elements that make the writing stronger, more vivid. Try to get them to use the parts of speech (verb/adjectives/clasuses) when they talk about the examples.
Finally, slide 11, stop and have students look again at the paragraphs at the bottom of their pages. Have them read and decide (think/pair/share or independently) which is which. If there's any confusion, here's the chance to slow it down and go back over any examples as necessary. Assuming all goes well (and it will, because your kids rock), take your first step towards application.
The last slide asks students to take a "tell" sentence and turn it into a "show," by expanding it to three sentences. You could ask students to do this independently or in pairs. Don't give them too much time - 5 minutes, tops. When time's up, share! See if classmates can identify which "tell" sentence was originally chosen. Talk about how they knew which one it was.
And here returns Mr. Burdick again. Choose one of the portfolio pictures (via teacher vote or class vote) and put it in front of them. Tell them you want them to apply what they've learned now about creating a picture through their writing. You'll give them about 20-30 minutes to "show, don't tell" what's going on in that picture.
Afterward, have students get in groups and share their "showings." You could even tweak the last part so that you could let students choose which picture they want to use, and then see if classmates can determine it.
Materials: Show Don't Tell ppt, Show Don't Tell Student Notes
Source: Gateway Institute workshop; excerpts of examples given credit where I can remember
Saturday, April 24, 2010
Friday, April 23, 2010
What else can you do with Harris Burdick? Let's talk about writing for an audience.
Start with a whole class discussion on the idea behind audience. Why would an author need to be mindful of his/her intended audience? And why (or how much) do we, as readers, need to be mindful of that audience as well?
Questioning for discussion
As for modeling, I might start with a simple picture or anecdote. How would students describe/relate the picture or anecdote if they were talking to their friends? How might they change that language for Mr. Principal? What about their parents? Their bosses? Younger siblings?
What about writing it? How would your language change from Facebook to a text to a (personal) journal entry to an online blog to a school essay?
You'll probably get that stubborn kid who insists he wouldn't change for anyone. Who cares? He uses the same language to talk to his friends as he does to his ma (and oh, doesn't it show?). But I think with proper thought about different audiences, students will be aware of their language. Breakout for Application: In fact, it might be a good idea to not only question students but also ask for a few to come up and give a little skit. Or even call for a quick breakout for pairs to create a dialogue based on a given audience - just two or three minutes.
Now that they've had a chance to think about the impact of audience, turn your attention back to writing. Let the pictures speak to the students and inspire a story. As before, you have two options:
- present all the pictures to students and let them each choose their own picture; or
- choose (or student vote) one picture for the class
- Let students choose an audience. After writing, ask or select students to read aloud. Have classmates speculate on who the audience is meant to be, and how they knew that.
- Assign each student a different audience. After writing, ask/select students to read aloud. Have class talk about how they know it meets its audience.
Ok, to be fair, you could really do this activity with any picture or set of pictures (in fact, one great resource for powerful pictures is Boston Globe's The Big Picture). But the Burdick ones are just so incredibly intriguing.
Thursday, April 22, 2010
The great thing about those pictures is that they almost all have some sort of latent action - something JUST ABOUT to happen or in motion. They also almost all have some kind of little detail that adds meaning (or confusion).
What can we do with these? I recommend purchasing a set of the portfolio (also available in book form), so you can take each picture and laminate it.
I'm going to challenge myself to come up with 5 different ways you can use these pictures.
The first way you can use these is probably the most obvious:
Creative writing - present students with the image and see where they take it. Have them create their own plot and complete the story. Don't give them any limitations or any certain focus - just ask them to let this inspire their writing. They can tell the what-happened-next or what-led-to-this. Let the creative juices run!
Options for working independently:
- Put up all the pictures and let students choose which speaks to them
- Put up one picture and ask each student to write his/her own story
Options for working in groups/as class:
- Present one picture and ask each student to write one sentence, then pass it on. Each person adds a line to the story.
- Present each group with a picture and ask them to jointly create a story, letting them decide how they want to do it (conjointly, one line/section per person, etc)
Wednesday, April 21, 2010
If the answer is "No," as it was for me my first year of teaching, you are in for a fabulous treat.
The Mysteries of Harris Burdick is a collection of black-and-white drawings with a fantastic story. According to Chris Van Allsburg (who you might know as the author of Jumanjii or Polar Express) and his introduction to the portfolio of work, a man calling himself Harris Burdick arrived in the office of Peter Wenders, a children's book publisher, in 1954. He brought with him a collection of fourteen drawings he had done for fourteen different tales, one picture for each story. Each picture was accompanied by a title and caption; Peter Wenders, like anyone who sees these drawings, was captivated and agreed that he would love to see the fourteen stories (and other drawings) that accompanied his art. Burdick left the original fourteen with Wenders...and was never seen again.
BUM BUM BUMMMMMMMM
They have since all been published as the collection known as The Mysteries of Harris Burdick, and I think you'll agree that the pictures evoke a strong sense of curiosity. Burdick (if he in fact existed in any form) chose these pictures wisely in trying to sell his tales. They are perfect for yarn-spinning.
I encourage you to Google this Harris Burdick and see what you can find of the images online, then return here and let's talk about the possibilities.
p.s. if your answer to my question was "yes," please pass along my admiration to Mr. Burdick. I'd ask to hear his original stories, but then again...I think it's best left undone, eh?
Friday, April 16, 2010
Wednesday, April 14, 2010
And sometimes, The Powers That Be make it easy for us; all we have to do is order the poster.
Have you seen this? It's full of hilarious, ridiculous cartoons...and INTELLIGENCE. The creator, Matt Inman, has three grammar-based cartoons:
How to use a Semicolon
How to Use an Apostrophe
10 Words You Need to Stop Misspelling
Now, I will make the disclaimer. On the 10 Words poster, he uses the phrase "a-hole" and refers to an inebriated panda bear. In some schools, this could fly. At my previous employer, I think I would have gotten more flack over the inebriated panda, honestly. Really, neither one would have been fabulous, but well...rural Bible Belt. You get the idea. The point is: know your school.
They include hilarious graphics and cartoon additions to nearly each example. The sentences and examples are seemingly random and unusual, which makes them perfect to fuse with those young neurons. Check 'em out!
Monday, April 12, 2010
The main reason I haven't been sharing has been that my external hard drive with all my powerpoints or worksheets is still packed away, in a manner of speaking. I currently have no desk; the desk I had in TN was particle board and had already suffered one move and was showing signs of wear. The mover representative advised us that it wouldn't survive the move, and I agreed. We pitched it and now all my desk contents are organized against the wall in our office where I want to put my eventual desk. I've been living with my computer on the floor in the office or more often in my lap in the family room when actually in use. It's too hard to lug the external hard drive around with the laptop, so I've left it in the organized pile. Guess I'll need to work out something soon, though.
Tuesday, April 6, 2010
A fellow EduBlogger, Hedgetoad shared a link to a great website devoted to captivating young male readers. It's called, obviously enough, GuysRead.com
They seem to focus mainly on providing suggestions for books that appeal to the XY chromosome, categorized from "sports" to "people being transformed into animals." The website has a bold, simplistic style infused with the humor of Jon Scieszka. This is definitely worth bookmarking (I'm adding it to my portaportal as soon as I finish here. That's how important you are, Reader. I must tell you about this before saving it myself).
Poke around, and happy hunting!
Friday, April 2, 2010
A month after the pampered pooch's birthday bash, Ravelo, a recent college-grad from UC-San Diego, posted the photo on Facebook to give her friends a good laugh.Cute, right? That "smile" is undeniable and simultaneously cute and creepy. Show it to your class and have a good laugh over that.
"I thought it was the funniest picture I've ever seen," she tells PEOPLEPets.com.
That day, John Lipari, a friend of Ravelo's, saw the hilarious photo online during an evening class, posted it on Reddit.com, and catapulted Riley into overnight viral superstardom. Countless blogs and Web sites, including The Huffington Post, caught on to Riley's winning grin, branding the Bichon Frise-poodle mix as "The Birthday Dog," "Smiley Riley," and the "Stoner Dog." One Web site even Photoshopped the smiling puppy into the arms of President Obama.
And then, some food for discussion: where did this photo originate? Let's look at that again...
A month after the pampered pooch's birthday bash, Ravelo, a recent college-grad from UC-San Diego, posted the photo on Facebook...
Teachable moment alert. She posted something on her own Facebook page for her friends or family to see. Even if her photo album security was set to "Only Friends" (most people's are actually set to "Everyone" and they don't even know it. Use Facebook but know what you're using!), this could have still happened. Why? Because a friend saw it and cross-posted/copied it to an entirely different website. He took her photo and posted it somewhere else, in a more public forum, making it accessible to international. I'm not trying to beat this guy up because clearly, it's a cute/harmless/adorable picture.
My point here is: what if it wasn't? What if it was, say, a child? I would feel comfortable sharing pictures of my child with friends, but I would not be happy with that picture getting shared with the entire Web. What if it were a potentially embarrassing picture? Again, something you wouldn't mind sharing with friends/family, but wouldn't want to expose to say, your boss, potential employers, clients, or in-laws. It happens, even from well-meaning friends.
I think that latter part is what might speak to teens. With the recent hot-button issue of sexting and other incriminating-photo-sharing, teens think: "Well, if I send it to my BF or GF, I can trust him/her because s/he's my boo." They don't entertain the possibility of "What if we break up? Will I want him/her to still have that?" because they never get past the former question (oh, but we won't!). This story is an excellent example of a well-meaning friend who shares your personal life with the Web at large.
Maybe kids wouldn't get this one, either. But it just really struck me as a teachable moment, and I think it's a good reminder for teachers and students alike to just be aware that what you post online always has the potential to be exposed to the world at large.