|Objective||Building a portfolio of their project works that can serve future plans|
Modern humans are often seen as superior to other animals in a wide range of cognitive and behavioral domains. Researchers have adopted comparative approaches to find out which mechanisms underlying human intelligence, social cognition, communication and other complex behaviors are shared with other species. In this course we will look at studies investigating the behavior of non-human animals and the research methods used to understand it. To what extent can we find parallels for complex human behavior in non-human species? What can we learn about human cognition and behavior from the comparative approach? Issues such as the emergence of culture, social imitation, language, domestication and ethics will be addressed using data on various species including birds, primates and dolphins.
We will read and discuss literature on animal cognition and gain hands-on practice with the design and presentation of a scientific poster, which will be displayed at a poster festival in the last week of the course.
Objective: This course will give an overview of the comparative approach towards an understanding of human and non-human cognition.
Examination: Poster presentation, homework assignments, student participation in class
Starting academic year 2017-2018, this course replaces the course "Web Technology".
|Objective||See course description "Learning Outcomes"|
Language is a major characteristic that makes humans unique as a species. How did we get from the chirps, howls and calls of monkeys and apes to the complex and sophisticated signal of human speech? What is the origin of this unique form of communication? This is a question that has fascinated researchers since long ago. Yet, we do not have a clear picture of how language arose and what it is exactly that gives humans the ability to use it. Until relatively recently it was hard to approach questions on language evolution without resorting to speculation because there is not much obvious tangible evidence to be found in this area. Researchers therefore had to come up with creative methods to tackle questions on the origins of language.
In this research seminar we will take an interdisciplinary journey through the field of language evolution and explore the many creative ways evidence can be gathered to study the origins of this unique human trait. We will look at widely varying theories and review methods and results from research in genetics, computer simulations, field work data on emerging sign languages, laboratory experiments and comparisons with other cultural systems like music. Language can be seen as a complex adaptive dynamical system that evolves and constantly adapts to the humans that are learning and using it. What kind of mechanisms support this process of cultural evolution? How can we study it in a quantitative way? How does all this new data fit with original theories on the origins of language?
We will explore current literature and experiment with computational and in-class simulations of language evolution processes. This course will help create an understanding of the breadth of the field of language evolution and the creative and interdisciplinary approach needed to investigate its questions.
- After successful completion of this course, the learner will be able to:
- Identify and list the many creative ways evidence can be gathered to study the origins of language
- Describe different theories that have been proposed
- Design and implement a computer model to study aspects of language evolution
- Evaluate and draw conclusions from computer modeling work
- Evaluate and judge laboratory experiments that study aspects of language evolution
- Observe, analyze and report on the experimental live emergence of an artificial language
- Summarize how mechanisms of cultural evolution shape language
- Generate ideas for future studies and creative use of data in the field of Language Evolution
More information regarding examinitions, literature, assignments, schedules, etc., can be found on the course's Blackboard page.
Starting academic year 2017-2018, this course replaces the course "Perceptualization".
|Teacher(s)||Marcello Gómez Maureira|
The 'Graduation Lab' is a weekly two-hour session in which students in their graduation phase discuss recent developments, challenges, and successes in their graduation projects. Every research project comes with a multitude of decisions to make and steps that could be taken. In the Graduation Lab, these steps will be discussed as a group with the goal of strengthening both the quality of the individual projects, as well as the analytical skills of their authors.
Meeting regularly with other graduates has proven to be a strong contributor to graduation success and increases the enjoyment of the process. While the lab is specifically aimed at students in their graduation phase, students who still have ample time before starting their projects are welcome to participate.
(image: old pencil sketches and grafitti by Leiden University students awaiting their final exam inside the Academy building; a tradition that is still honoured among Leiden graduates in slightly modified form.)
Research Seminar: Social Technologies
|Objective||Investigating technologies that support social living in the light of human evolution and exploring novel ways in which technology can create, maintain, or extend social ties.|
|Teacher(s)||Max van Duijn|
|Number of Classes||~7|
|Examination||Homework assignments and research project|
What have telling stories around the campfire, playing football, dancing on a festival, and spending time on Facebook in common? If we follow our evolutionary lineage back a few million years, we find a social primate that populated parts of the African continent. This primate lived in small-scale communities of around 40-60 individuals, about the same size as the groups formed by present-day chimpanzees and bonobos. Over time, however, our ancestors started living in social environments of ever increasing size and complexity. With groups growing larger, individuals had to spend more time maintaining their social networks and cognitive processing of social information became more demanding. As a consequence, we had to develop bigger and more powerful brains, and find more efficient ways of forming and maintaining social bonds than how most members of the primate family do this: through grooming.
In this research seminar a fascinating, adventurous hypothesis will be worked out: various “inventions” presumed to be characteristic of early human societies, such as the production of art, story-telling, dance, or ritualistic behaviours, can be viewed as social technologies supporting the formation and maintenance of complex social networks. What is the evidence supporting this hypothesis, and what could lead to its rejection? How does it relate to modern media and communication technologies? How can future technological developments affect the deep primate roots of our social structures? And what can the study of social technologies over millions of years teach us about the possibilities and limitations of social life in modern mass-societies?
Through active engagement with scientific literature and hands-on investigation of how people use present-day social (media) technologies, a rich and diverse perspective on this hypothesis will emerge.
Sciences & Humanities
|Objective||Gaining insight in how the sciences and humanities differ in their research objectives, methods, and approaches to knowledge production, and understanding their distinct roles in modern societies.|
|Teacher(s)||Max van Duijn|
|Number of Classes||~6|
|Examination||Homework assignments and written exam|
Most people know Pythagoras, Copernicus, Darwin, Einstein, or Crick, and are probably able to indicate in a few words what their main discoveries are. But who can do the same for Panini, Scaliger, Whorf, Wittgenstein, Chomsky, Propp, or Foucault? First, this course focuses on discoveries across both the humanities and sciences that have impacted on the way we see the world throughout the ages. What were the methods used by the great minds who made these discoveries, and what were their motives and drivers?
Next, the focus shifts to the current divide in the academic world between scientists and humanists. The “two cultures” will be investigated from a historical and science-philosophical perspective, as well as through hands-on experience. Students with a background in the sciences will engage in a small research project using methods and materials from the humanities, and students with a background in the humanities will take up a small scientific research project. The course concludes with a discussion of opportunities and challenges for “consilience” through multidisciplinary and topic-oriented scholarship.
New Media New Technologies
|Objective||To understand new media and technologies, and to critically reflect upon them|
|Number of Classes||5|
In new media one trend, technology or fad quickly follows the next. For anyone with an interest in media technology it is important to be up to date with the latest and greatest, from augmented reality to social networking, and from three dimensional printing to location aware services. However it is equally important to be able to critically reflect on these trends, to identify what is really novel and what is merely a hype. This course covers a range of the latest new media technologies and concepts, organized by more timeless themes such as new media history, social relationships, space and intelligent perception and action, so that these technologies can be placed into perspective.
The course is a mix of lectures and practical assignments, and students are asked to create a product that incorporates a new technology or concept and motivate why it is not just a gimmick or hype.
Essentials in Art & Music
|Objective||Extend student knowledge about art and to create a foundation to approach their work from an artistic perspective|
|Teacher(s)||Edwin van der Heide, Taco Stolk|
|Number of Classes||5|
|Examination||To be announced in class|
This course focusses on a number of important developments through the history of all art disciplines. This ranges from realized and unrealized artworks to concepts and artistic approaches. These developments will be studied in order to get a better understanding of creative thought in past and present, and to be able to connect those to personal points of view.
The aim of the course is to extend your knowledge about art, to build a foundation to approach your work from an artistic perspective, and to develop your creative research capabilities regarding various cultural contexts.
|Objective||To develop, research and describe a complete scientific project, preferably alone.|
Each student must choose an individual topic or theme on which he/she would like to graduate. To complete the graduation project, a students must formulate her/his own scientific question and setup a research to answer it. Personal inspiration can play a large role in coming up with a research question, and creativity is often required to answer it.
Graduation project output
The research motivation, context, method and outcome are described by the student in a scientific style paper, that in principle could be submitted to a peer-reviewed journal or conference. Such a paper is typically 10-15 pages. However, other thesis formats are allowed, such as books, columns, and popular science works. Most graduation projects create some product to answer the research question: something that can be "experienced" -- seen, smelled, tasted, touched or heard.
Are you planning to graduate?
Then read the detailed Graduation Project Procedures.
Exhibition: Statement to Experience
|Objective||To learn how to develop a concept from a theme, and realize it in an exhibition context. The concept development is by far the most important aspect in this.|
|Teacher(s)||Various scientific staff members|
Throughout every student's third semester in the programme, a project is scheduled in which groups of students work towards realizing an actual product or installation. However, the process of researching while creating the product is as important as the product itself.
Themes and coaches
All projects start from their own theme, and students can also suggest new themes. A coach (scientific staff member) assists every project team. The final product must be experiencable in a public exhibition and critically challenge its audience. It typically includes a media component as well as a technical component.
The project ends with an exhibition in a gallery that is open to the general public, and in which all products are exhibited. This exhibition may be part of a city-wide cultural event. Many interesting projects that resulted from the Media Technology programme were created within the Semester Project.
Language & Text
|Objective||Comprehension of the complexity of language generation and hands-on experience with applications.|
|Number of Classes||10|
|Examination||Assignments and written exam|
Speech and text are very special media because they enable to express relatively complex information. Therefore, the usage of speech and text is a privilege to humans. This course discusses the structure of language and how this structure plays a role in the automatic generating of speech and text. Topics that are dealt with are amongst others state-of-the-art language regenerating systems and their diverse applications.
During lab-time students will experiment with software that automatically generates poems.
|Objective||Enabling students to decide which medium is the most representative for their goal, but is not necessarily the easiest solution.|
|Number of Classes||5|
The creation of a piece of art implies the choice of the medium, which already is an artistic choice. In the Meta Media classes students learn to integrate this choice in the artistic process. To achieve this, a theoretical framework is presented in which (cultural-) philosophy, conceptual art and the possibilities of the new, digital media is discussed. Furthermore, a wide range of old and new, simple and complex, conventional and unusual media is studied from the point of view of applicability for the arts.
Hardware & Physical Computing
|Objective||To understand processors, sensors, and actuators. Having hands-on experience with building a small computer and using this in a physical installation.|
|Teacher(s)||Paul Jansen Klomp, additional class by Maarten Lamers|
|Number of Classes||8|
This course is about connecting computers to the physical world. We are used to connecting ourselves to computers, for example via keyboard, mouse, monitor, and touch screen. However, many creative computing applications require a computer to connect to the physical world via other sensors (buttons, dials, thermometers, distance sensors, gps, pressure sensors, accelerometers, light sensors, ...) and actuators (motors, steppermotors, servo's, leds, lcd's, electrical appliances, ...). Typical application domains where computers sense and act in the physical world are experimental devices, robotics, tactile interaction, home automation and interactive installations.
This course is available ONLY for Media Technology MSc students.
This course introduces physical computing and interfacing via the Arduino open-source hardware platform. Arduino's are inexpensive and popular micro-controller boards. Students learn to build their own Arduino board and must then apply it in a creative computing project — they must build an interactive installation or robot. Read more about Arduino.
The course takes a very hands-on approach. Examination is through project work. Reading materials are supplied in class.
|Objective||Introduction to various basic internet and web technologies and enabling design of alternative technologies/solutions|
|Teacher(s)||Enrique Larios Vargas|
|Number of Classes||8|
|Examination||Assignments and written examination|
Web Technology is a course about several Internet-related technologies. It teaches the basic workings of the web. Why the basic workings? Because understanding them enables students to come up with alternative strategies to solve web-problems and achieve new web-goals. Students will be encouraged to find their own solutions, e.g. come up with alternative and new web-protocols.
internetworking - protocol stacks - IP, TCP, UDP and HTTP protocols - Open Sound Control (OSC) protocol - semantic web - streaming media - MP3 encoding - peer-to-peer file sharing - BitTorrent protocol - TOR Onion Routing - "Is there a future for the world-wide web?"
This course specifically does not cover web-design issues, and does not teach you HTML (those skills are assumed). It is about how the Internet works, how the World Wide Web functions and what you could add to this.
The format is interactive and kaleidoscopic, integrating lectures, guest lectures, and programming demonstrations. Examination is through a final exam. Full class attendance is compulsory. Reading materials are distributed electronically in class.
Sound, Space & Interaction
|Teacher(s)||Edwin van der Heide|
|Number of Classes||7|
|Examination||1 presentation day|
This course will focus on many topics in parallel: basics about sound and timbre, basics about acoustics, communication models incorporating space (and distance) and interaction models based on sound.
The assignment of the course is as follows: students are supposed to make an interactive application that communicates with the audience/participant(s)/user(s) solely by means of sound. In order to achieve this you have to design your own communicating sonic language. The assignment has to be realized with the Pure Data programming environment. Basics about Pure Data will be addressed both in the classes and in the labs.
|Objective||Gaining insight into perceptualization of information via theory, discussion and examples.|
|Teacher(s)||Edwin van der Heide, Maarten Lamers|
|Number of Classes||~7|
|Examination||Homework, projects and presentations|
The term "perceptualization" was coined specifically for this course. It describes the translation of signals and information to modalities that appeal to any of the human senses. As such, it generalizes the terms "visualization" and "sonification" to include all other senses. We study such perceptualizations, with particular focus on how properties of a perception systems can be used to optimally convey information.
In this course, history, theory, practice, and examples of information perceptualization are studied and discussed. Lectures are combined with reading homework, student presentations and a student project. Full attendance is compulsory.
If you have questions, or want to attend the course as a guest student, contact the teachers via firstname.lastname@example.org.
Study Trip to Ars Electronica Festival
|Objective||Offer a source of inspiration and knowledge for new Media Technology students, and a basis for discussion and critical thought|
At the start of each academic year, all new Media Technology students go on a study trip to the Ars Electronica Festival in Linz, Austria. Since 1979 Ars Electronica has been the world's most outstanding forum of electronic art. State-of-the-art works of hundreds of artists from dozens of countries are presented in a festival that consists of exhibitions, demonstrations, performances, lectures, conferences, films, outside events, meetings and parties of all kinds.
Over four days students are faced with many sides of the electronic arts: creative aims, technological means, scientific consequences, artistic qualities, ecological and ethical questions, and the social consequences of the spread of new media. It offers a source of inspiration and knowledge for new Media Technology students, and a basis for discussion with which to start their studies.
Incidently, the study trip is a great way to meet your fellow students. Ask our alumni and second year students about their experiences.
To join us, a minor fee for travel and stay must be paid by students. The Media Technology office arranges travel by bus, stay at a youth hostel, and substantial discount on festival passes. International students must themselves take care of appropriate visa (travel is through Germany and Austria). The visit is shared with new students of the ArtScience program. Students unable to join the study trip can submit a petition to do an alternative course or project instead.
Introduction to Programming
|Objective||To learn computer programming in such a way that technology will not be a holdback for executing a project.|
|Teacher(s)||Marcello A. Gómez Maureira|
|Number of Classes||10|
|Examination||Assignments and a written exam|
The Introduction to Programming course deals with the basic principles of programming: what is programming and how to write a program to achieve a task? The objective of the course is to get familiar with programming technology in order to prepare students for later projects in which computer technology is employed.
The fundamentals of programming are discussed by means of the relatively easy language Processing, that is similar to Java. The Processing language simplifies programming of visual programs, and yields immediate graphical output. It is ideal for understanding the basics of computer programming. Additionally the basics of Pure Data are included in the course.
Small assignments help students apply the topics discussed in class and larger assignments on which they can release their creativity. During lab time there is assistance present to help students with specific aspects of the assignments.
|Objective||To deepen the student's knowledge of specific scientific topics, in preparation of the individual graduation project.|
Part of the curriculum is reserved for elective courses. This enables students to gain deeper insight into scientific topics of their choice and prepare them optimally for the individual graduation project. Elective courses can be for instance in the fields of Computer Science, Psychology, Art History, Linguistics, Philosophy, etcetera.
The Media Technology programme does not compile lists of available courses. Elective courses offered by Leiden University can be found in the E-studyguide. Elective courses may also be followed at other universities.
Students applying for elective courses should carefully read:
How to apply for elective courses, and other rules.
Image & Vision: Embodied Vision
|Objective||Film history (illusionism) and study of film|
|Teacher(s)||Dan North and other lecturers|
|Number of Classes||8|
|Examination||Essay and final project|
The course consists of 8 sessions in total. Four sessions are classical lectures (hoorcollege) by Dan North, collectively discussing a topic.
Three other sessions will be a workshop by Robin de Lange, with the last session as presentations.
All sessions have compulsory attendance.
The connecting threads between the four classes will be special effects and illusionism, either in the service of narrative, spectacle, or affective responses from viewers (as in the 'effects' of experimental cinema), and editing, which can be used to effect a transformation, construct spatiotemporal continuity, or create associative montages. This is thus a set of classes that take an angle on film history (illusionism), and also introduce some of the key concepts underpinning the study of film.
Course work and grading
To successfully complete the course, students must:
1. Attend all sessions (attendance is registered). Failing to attend sessions may affect the final grade.
2. Write an essay about the topic of the 4 collective classes.
3. Complete a project about a topic of the workshops.
Details about the assignments will be communicated by the lecturers during the course. Separate submission dates are scheduled for the essay assignment and project assignment.
Scientific Narration & Visualization
|Number of Classes||10|
|Examination||To be announced in class|
This course focuses on the last part of a scientific project: presenting results and explaining insights. Hence, it can be seen as an extension of the course Creative Research. As that course deals with unconventional scientific questions and research methods, the course Scientific Narration and Visualization deals with unconventional ways of conveying scientific insights. I.e. all forms besides scientific articles and scientific posters. This course is different compared to e.g. data visualization as it deals with conveying understanding instead of data. The main learning goal of this course it to make students aware of the drawbacks and advantages of the various forms, such that they will be able to use the most appropriate form for their case. My goal this year is to get input for a textbook on this matter.
Structure of lessons
Each lesson consists of three parts. In part one we discuss the assignments of the previous week. Starting from lesson IV as only after lesson III the homework assignments start. I will select three works that we will discuss in class. So be prepared to present your assignment. In part two we will discuss the reading material of that week. And in part three, I will present series of examples that illustrate the reading material of that week.
Mode of Instruction
Lectures, self study
There is a weekly assignment running five times, starting after lesson III. And there is a larger assignment to end this course with. Both assignments count for 50% of the final grade. The weekly assignment has the following form: select the form that was discussed in class, and combine that form with a scientific topic, in order to explain (part of) that topic. You can use the suggestions from the following table, but you may also try your own topic, as long as it belongs to the natural sciences. I won’t provide reading material for the underneath topics; it is your responsibility to study the topic of your choice.
- Metaphors we live by, G. Lakoff & M. Johnson (1980), p1-55.
- Understanding by design, G. Wiggins & J. McTighe (2005), p35-55.
- Understanding needs embodiment, K. Niebert, S. Marsch & D. Treagust (2012).
- The Oxford book to modern science writing, R. Dawkins (2008), p232-266.
- Using narratives and storytelling to communicate science with nonexpert audiences, M. Dahlstrom (2014), PNAS, Sep.16, 2014, Vol. 111, p13614-13620, http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1320645111
- Storytelling, M. Krzywinski & A. Cairo (2013), Nature methods, Vol 10, No. 8, p687. Plus comments in the same journal! (Against storytelling & Should scientists tell stories?)
- The Role of Narrative in Communicating Science, L. Avraamidoua & J. Osborne (2009), International Journal of Science Education Vol. 31, No. 12, p1683-1707.
- Aristotle’s ladder, Darwin’s tree, J.D. Archibald (2014), p1-21.
Graphs & infographics:
- Envisioning information, E.R. Tufte (1990), ch4&6.
- The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, E.R. Tufte (2001), p40-43.
- Trees, Maps & Theorems, J-l Doumont (2009).
Film, play & animation :
- Dynamic visualizations and learning, R. Ploetzner et al. (2004), p235-240 & p343-351.
- Animation: can it facilitate? B. Tversky & J.B. Morrison (2002).
Experiments & objects:
- Experiments in science and science teaching, D. Hodson (1988), Educational philosophy and theory, 20:2, p53-66.
- Wandering seminar on scientific objects, S. Vackimes & K. Weltersbach (2007), p19-34 & p129-139.
Via programme coordinator Barbara Visscher-van Grinsven: email@example.com, 071-527 6994
Research Seminar: Artificial Intelligence
|Objective||Goal of the course is to learn studying, processing and presenting scientific material, and to learn about artificial intelligence.|
|Number of Classes||~15|
|Examination||Homework tests, student presentations, attendance.|
Due to the seminar-structure of the course only a limited number of students can be enrolled. Students enrolled in the Media Technology MSc program are automatically enrolled and have priority over other students.
This course studies the topic of artificial intelligence, in its broadest sense. It covers various sexy topics from the field of artificial intelligence, to the level that should enable students to discuss AI comfortably with other scientists. The topics include the question of whether machines can think, evolutionary computation, neural networks, computing with DNA, computers and emotions, biological computations, artificial creativity, and more. The selected topics were chosen to be practically applicable, or to make students think about future directions of artificial intelligence.
Seminar-style imples that presentations are mainly held by the students themselves, with much plenary discussion and interaction. Active participation and full class attendance are required to pass the course. Examination is based on student presentations, homework tests, and attendance. Reading material is distributed electronically in class.
The course is open to students from other programmes and institutes also, insofar as it was not yet filled up, and only with explicit permission from the instructor.
Human Computer Interaction & Information Visualization
|Objective||Knowledge of theory and underlying mechanisms of interface design, combined with hands-on experience.|
|Number of Classes||26|
|Examination||Assignments, final project, paper and written exam|
This course covers theory and underlying mechanisms of human-computer interface design and implementation. The theoretical part deals with topics such as human perception, cognitive processes, limitations of human memory, metaphors, icons, widgets and user-centered design. During lab-time the underlying implementation of interfaces is discussed. Topics covered are (amongst others) object-oriented interface design, basic computer graphics, event handling, windowing systems, toolkits and cut/copy/paste techniques.
The course is very much hands-on oriented; the results of the lab assignments play an important role in the determination of a students’ final result. This course is also being attended by Computer Science students. Media Technology students are expected to actively participate with them.
|Objective||Understanding the principles and organization of science, and understanding the importance and possibilities for being creative in scientific research.|
|Number of Classes||~13|
|Examination||Final project, written paper, presentation, homework assignments, student participation in class, attendance.|
"To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle, requires creative imagination and marks real advances in science." — Albert Einstein
Creativity is an important factor in scientific innovation. In this course, principles and organization of scientific research are presented, and through examples the concept of "creative research" is introduced. With that we mean actual scientific research that was brought about in unconventional or creative ways, in order to come to results that could otherwise not be envisioned or achieved. Topics of the course are principles of science, organization of the scientific world, scientific publication, creative and unconventional research, asking the right questions, finding the right data, and creative scientific output.
Student participation is high, with multiple homework assignments, a final research project and presentations. Class attendance is compulsory. Participants must do a final research project and write a paper about this.
If you have questions, or want to attend the course as a guest student, contact the teacher via firstname.lastname@example.org.


Often books on mythology conveniently forget that myth stories
were once all believed to be "true" (in some sense). The problem
arises when we try to figure out in what sense. For example, most
Greeks probably believed that there was a god in the sky named Zeus, but
did they really believe that this god had all those affairs with mortal
women? Because belief is often so personal and individual, questions
like this are hard to answer. The question of belief is especially
difficult to unravel in polytheistic ["many gods"] systems, because
worshippers often follow personal, family, or local gods rather than bothering
about the pantheon ["all the gods"] as a whole. Also, polytheistic
religions often lack centralized priesthoods and/or central sacred texts
which are considered the word of god(s). In general, polytheistic
systems allow for a greater latitude of belief than monotheistic
["one god"] religions do, if only because these systems offer a greater
variety of deities to worship. In this course, students and the instructor
will respect individual beliefs while also exploring the many ways of reading
and understanding religious stories.
Early philosophers tried to rationalize the fantastic events in myth by claiming that they were distortions of historical fact. One of these fellows was a Greek named Euhemerus (c. 300 BC), who gave his name to any theory that claims that the gods were originally historical heroes who were later deified. While this sort of euhemerism (Zeus seen as an ancient tribal hero who gradually took on attributes of a god, for example) is considered naive by some, theorists still look for historical truths hidden behind mythological stories. For example, (sticking with Zeus for a moment) many scholars see the thunder god's many love affairs with goddesses and mortal women as a reflection of Greek religious history: nomadic, sky-god worshipping invaders from the north came into the Greek peninsula to find an agricultural, goddess-worshipping people. The invaders (and their god, Zeus) took over, but not before adapting aspects of the goddess-worship of the natives. Each "marriage" of Zeus would then signify that the two religious traditions had been combined into one belief-system. (Sky-god marries earth-goddess: see "Gods and Men in Greek Religion" below.)
Since the end of the 19th century, archeologists have searched
for the site of the historical Troy. It is generally agreed now that
a site near Hissarlik, in northwestern Asia Minor (modern Turkey) is the
historical Troy. It is even most likely that the Bronze Age Greeks
went to war with the Trojans: as M. I. Finley puts it, "War was normal
in that world" (40). No one can say for certain, however, whether
a 10-year war was fought over a woman by heroes with names and personalities
like those in Homer. The chief differences between modern historical
interpretation and ancient euhemerism are these: (1) the moderns
are sometimes more cautious in sifting the historical evidence, (2) they
have more evidence, archeological and textual, to sift, and (3) while modern
euhemerists seem quite willing to investigate the historicity of heroes
like Odysseus and Gilgamesh, no one seems willing to state that gods like
Zeus and Prometheus were actually historical figures.
Early philosophers were also disturbed by the seemingly immoral
or amoral actions of their gods. The Greek philosopher Xenophanes
(fl. c. 530 BC) wrote: "Homer and Hesiod have attributed to the gods
all the things that are shameful and scandalous among men: theft,
adultery, and mutual treachery" (quoted in Curtius 204). In
order to rescue myth (and the gods) from charges of immorality, the philosophers
decided that these fantastic stories must be hiding deep truths beneath
their improbable exteriors. This method of interpretation is called
(the story parallels and illustrates the deeper philosophical sense).
Ernst Robert Curtius states that the allegorizing of myth "was in harmony
with one of the basic characteristics of Greek religious thought:
the belief that the gods express themselves in cryptic form--in oracles,
in mysteries" (205). Though some philosophers like the Roman Stoic
Seneca (4 BC-65 AD) ridiculed allegory as "foolishness" (Seznec 85),
still, the method won out. A sixth century Latin work such as the
of Fulgentius interpreted the rape of Leda by Zeus (in the form of a swan)
as the "coupling of Power and Injustice--the fruits of such a union being,
like Helen, inevitable objects of discord and scandal" (Seznec 89).
Most of the time, such allegories are non-historical wishful thinking (people
didn't think of their myths as philosophy, but as a traditional religious
story), but sometimes, the myths themselves invite allegorical interpretation,
as when Zeus swallows Metis ("Wisdom" or "Cunning Intelligence") in order
to become wise (Hesiod 85-86).
Using stories to illustrate a moral was very popular in the Middle
Ages, when writers wanted to tell pagan myths without getting into trouble
with Church authorities. Therefore, they asserted that the
stories illustrated moral truths. For example, one Medieval poem,
Romance of the Rose, by Jean de Meun (1237--1305 AD) uses the story
of Aphrodite (Venus) and Adonis to point up a moral about listening to
one's lover. Venus warns Adonis not to go hunting, but he does anyway
and is killed by a boar. Of course, the moral of the story is "listen
to your lover's advice." This tacking of a moral onto the end of
a story tends to focus interpretation on only one aspect of the tale (Adonis
didn't listen to his lover), while ignoring other important elements (like
Adonis' bizarre conception and birth.)
No one would deny that ancient gods sometimes represent natural phenomena or processes (Zeus, for example, is associated with thunder). However, how are we to understand this connection between gods and nature? Do the actions of the gods "explain" natural events? Are the gods directing nature, or are they in it? Some gods, like Gaia (the Earth) seem to be identical with it. G. S. Kirk has pointed out a further complication: some gods, like Kronos, may have nature-associations when worshipped but not when they appear in mythological stories (44-47). What do you suppose led early peoples to associate the divine with nature?
Many scholars believe there is great difference between gods like
Zeus, who are associated with natural phenomena, and a god like Yahweh
of the Hebrews, who stands outside nature, creating and directing it.
Another difference: most nature myths represent time as a cycle,
a continuous birth, death and rebirth of generations and natural forms.
However, Hebrew and Christian traditions represent time as linear:
time begins with creation and ends with the advent of the Messiah or the
Last Judgement. Seasonal cycles occur within this vast historical
drama of birth and salvation, but they are not as important as this long-term
linear notion of national (Hebrew) and personal (Christian) salvation.
Myths often present themselves as explanations of how nature works
or how a certain benefit or ill came about. For example, Hesiod says
that men burn only the inedible parts of animals (bones and fat) as a sacrifice
for the gods because Prometheus once tried to trick Zeus by giving him
bones covered with succulent-looking fat and giving humans the good parts.
These sorts of "explanations" are called aetiological ("the study
of causes"). However, G. S. Kirk has pointed out that stories which
supposedly give reasons or causes for things really don't explain them
in a scientific way: they present images, not causes (54).
This kind of explanation seems less like scientific cause and effect reasoning
than a kind of logic of association. This logic works by similarity
or contact; it equates a story or image or symbol with "explanation."
This sort of image-thinking is characteristic of non-literate or oral cultures,
which do not develop philosophical modes of thought, but rather store their
wisdom in more easily-remembered stories, proverbs and genealogies.
According to this theory, myths are not primitive gropings for
scientific explanation, but rather belief-systems set up to authorize and
validate current social customs and institutions. Much as the Constitution
provides a charter or fundamental social contract for our society, charter
myths validate the social practices of the societies which produced the
myths. (This approach looks at how a story functions in a society
rather than seeing it as a response to a demand for an explanation.)
The most obvious example of a charter myth we will study this semester
is the Babylonian creation story, the Enuma Elish. In it,
the world, humans, the agricultural system, and the city of Babylon are
created for one purpose: to serve the gods. The myth thus defines
the whole social system and its relation to the gods. However, the
Elish is not only a charter for divine rule. It also tells a
creation story that had a seasonal ritual function, as well as containing
speculations on natural beginnings. We will also read some charter
myths which narrate the founding of cities and the establishment of laws,
customs, and dynasties (royal families). The story of Athena, Cecrops,
and Erechtheus contains charter elements like these.
The Romanian-born theorist of religion Mircea Eliade views myth as an effort to recapture the creative power of the origin of the world. This kind of power is necessary to maintain the divine order of the world and the seasons. This is one way in which myth functions as a charter for a sacred order of the universe and of society. Eliade also notes that since every creation represents or recreates the first creation of the world, then each new creation (the founding of a city, for example) "has its foundation at the center of the world" (Eliade 18). We will see that many peoples regard their cult centers or holy cities as being at the center of the world. For example, the Greeks called Delphi, the seat of their most respected oracle, the omphalos, or "navel" of the world. Most of the myths we will study are predominately local or tribal in character; they concern local city gods or familiar landmarks (the Greek gods live on Mount Olympus). This local focus contrasts sharply with the universal claims made by the "higher" religions, Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism.
The mythologist Joseph Campbell sees myth as metaphors or symbols
of the unknown. This "unknown" is located in two places: in
the spiritual realm and in the depths of the human psyche. Campbell
reasons that even though the divine, or "God," or whatever you call it
(him/her?) is ultimately unknowable by human thought, men still try to
create images of the Godhead. These images and stories may vary from
culture to culture, but they remain valid as metaphors which express our
experience of something beyond the human. Remarkably, many of themes
and motifs in myths reappear in stories told by widely scattered peoples,
which for Campbell means that many of them must be inherent in the human
psyche. Thus, myths can also tell us truths about our own psychology.
(See item # 10 below and the page on "The Hero's Journey,"
where I discuss Campbell's idea of the hero.)
A ritual is an act or series of acts designed to bring men into contact with higher spiritual powers. An early theorist of ritual, Arnold van Gennep, noted that ritual acts can usually be divided into three stages: separation, transition, and incorporation (15-21). For example in the Catholic sacrifice of the Mass, the host (bread) is separated from other pieces of bread by its size and shape and by a series of preparatory rituals. It then undergoes a transition (others would say this transition is symbolic, not real), into the body of Christ, after which it is consumed (incorporated) by the faithful.
For the purposes of this course, we will distinguish four categories of ritual: sacrifice, initiation ("mysteries"), purification, and seasonal renewal. Often, these different kinds of ritual occur together. For example in Christian ritual, baptism is at the same time a purification (a cleansing of original sin) and an initiation (an entry into the Christian faith). Animal sacrifice is probably the most difficult ritual for us to understand. At the simplest level, it is a symbolic way of rendering the fruits of the earth back to the gods. It reaffirms a people's dependence on the gods for their livelihood while at the same time the people consume the gifts of the gods (they have a feast). Animal sacrifice may also contain elements from earlier hunting cultures' magic (rites to ensure that game remained plentiful; symbolic resurrections of the animal, etc.). College students who pledge fraternities or sororities should be quite familiar with initiation rituals. There is a separation (hazing), transition (pledges do the crud work), and finally incorporation, or full membership in the society. Initiations have been defined as "a ritual change of status" (Burkert, Ancient Mystery Cults 8). There are many varieties of such status changes. Perhaps the most common among tribal societies are puberty rites. (A Jewish bar mitzvah is an example of such a rite.) In this course, we will deal with two sorts of initiation: the mystery-rituals of Demeter at Eleusis, in which the person being initiated experienced "a personal change" through emotional rites designed to show him/her aspects of the sacred and the initiation of shamans (sorcerers, medicine men), which can throw some light on a curious text about the Norse god Odin.
In ancient Greek religious thought, the sacred is opposed to the polluted (miasma). One cannot participate in sacred rituals (and in a larger sense, in the life of the community) if one is defiled. Pollution is caused by "more or less grave dislocations of normal life . . . birth, death, and especially murder" (Burkert Greek Religion 78). To remove the stain of miasma, one must undergo rites of purification (catharsis). We shall see that Apollo, the Greek god of purification (among other things) must himself be purified for the crime of murder. Purification rituals are extremely varied. One can be purified by fire, air, or water (all three have cleansing properties). The murderer was usually purified by having the blood of a sacrificial animal sprinkled over him (the stain or miasma is washed away by its likeness--note the Pentecostal phrase for conversion: "washed in the blood of the lamb"). Catholics who dip their hands in holy water and cross themselves before entering church are engaging in a simple ritual of purification.
Often, rituals were performed to insure that the seasons would
continue to follow one another and the earth would continue to produce
its fruits. The granddaddy of all myth and ritual theorists, Sir
James G. Frazer (1854-1941), thought that myths of seasonal renewal could
be traced back to a single pervasive ritual in which a sacred king "dies"
and is replaced by a new, more vigorous king. He posited the following
|1) Sacred year-king guarantees fertility of nature, 2) suffers ritual
3) a new, vigorous king succeeds.
|1) Year-god represents natural vegetative force, 2) dies, or is imprisoned
3) rises again, is reborn.
Most early myth and ritual theorists tended to insist that ritual
came before the myth and thus explained it in some way. Nowadays,
many scholars still believe that myths and rituals are connected, but they
see the relations between the two as more complex than a simple "who came
Because certain images or motifs common in myth would appear in the dreams or psychotic fantasies of his patients, the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) reasoned that many of these motifs or themes must be the products of some sort of "myth-forming structural elements . . . in the unconscious psyche" (Jung 71). These elements he called archetypes (Greek, arkhe, beginning, original + tupos, mold, model). Jung further claimed that myths exhibit these archetypes because in the "primitive" mentality, the "conscious mind is far less developed in scope and intensity" than it is in our supposedly more sophisticated minds. For Jung, "the primitive does not think consciously but . . . thoughts appear" (72). Despite his rather patronizing manner towards "primitives," Jung may have a point here. Recurring themes or motifs in myth can be accounted for in at least two ways: 1) diffusion (someone borrowed the story) or 2) psychology (unconscious ideas or situations often recur among humans).
For Joseph Campbell, hero myths are "a magnification" of van Gennep's initiation scheme of separation, transition, and incorporation. "A hero ventures forth from the world of common day [separation] into a region of supernatural wonder: fabulous forces are then encountered and a decisive victory is won [initiation]: the hero comes back from this mysterious adventure with the power to bestow boons on his fellow man [return]" (Hero 30). Campbell says that in his encounter with this region of wonder, the hero learns about his true inner nature and identity, and about the ultimate reality beyond the physical, i.e., "God." For Campbell, the hero's inner and outer journey symbolizes psychic and religious discoveries that all humans ought to make, and hero myths can function even today as guides for humans through various stages of life.
It's perfectly possible that repetitions of structure or motif
point to some deep-seated human need or conflict. For example, what
could be the psychological reality behind so many myths that tell of fathers
trying to do away with their sons (Ouranos, Kronos) or sons who "accidentally"
do away with their fathers or grandfathers (Oedipus, Theseus, Perseus)?
Since myths are traditional stories, they often exhibit characteristics of other sorts of traditional tales, most notably folktales. For example, the search to find the secret name of Ra (and thus his power) can be seen as similar to a motif in the folktale Rumplestiltskin. (For the differences between myth, legend, and folktale, see "Myth FAQs.") Several psychologists and folklorists have noticed that traditional tales often exhibit the same or similar plot patterns. We will study at least two such lists of plot motifs (by Vladimir Propp and Lord Raglan) later in the semester. For an overview of the patterns caused by oral storytelling, see "Characteristics of Oral Composition."
Besides studying plot motifs and tale types, folklorists also try to discover character types in stories from different cultures. For example, types like hero twins appear in both American Indian and Roman myths. Probably the most widespread character type is the trickster. Trickster figures are quite common in American Indian myths, but they will also appear in the stories we study. As their name suggests, tricksters achieve their goals by trickery or cleverness, not by strength. Often, tricksters are culture-bringers like Prometheus or Enki, but they can also be socially disruptive characters like Loki.
Often called "structuralist," this approach was invented by French
anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss and is probably the most difficult
to summarize in 25 words or less. Basically, Lévi-Strauss
says that myths embody in their structures elementary contradictions or
problems which no society can resolve. (Examples: why is incest
forbidden if we are all descended from one parent [the earth]? Or,
why are humans allowed to cook and eat meat when the gods get only the
smoke from altars?) Since these contradictions cannot be removed,
they are hidden, or encoded in mythical stories. We can read the
code by noticing pairs of opposites like raw vs. cooked (Prometheus and
some Norse tales), high vs. low (sky gods vs. earth gods), male vs. female,
men vs. gods, profane vs. sacred, wild vs. tame, waste vs. cultivated land,
and (most importantly) nature vs. culture. These pairs of opposites
sometimes appear in the tales only in symbolic form. Myths mediate
these oppositions or contradictions, making them acceptable. Often,
a term or image or figure will act as mediator in the myths. For
example, Prometheus could be seen as mediating the gap or conflict between
gods and men. Lévi-Strauss accounts for repetitions and variations
of motifs by saying that the message embodied in myth is redundant, repeated
over and over so that it will get through even if part of the transmission
is lost. (This idea should remind you of theories of oral poetry.)
Since the message appears many times in different stories, Lévi-Strauss
thinks we can ignore the order in which events occur in traditional tales
and look only at the repeated patterns and their structural relations to
each other. Students who want a fuller introduction to structuralist
myth interpretation might wish to consult Edmund Leach's book on Lévi-Strauss.
If we think of myths as true, if we believe in them (way #1), then obviously, we are thinking in religious terms. But belief is also psychological: some say humans need to believe in some power greater than themselves. Others, like Joseph Campbell, see the origins of myth and religion in the psychological response of early man to the trauma of death. Thus, belief in a greater power arises when humans are faced with the mystery of what happens after death.
The earliest efforts to rationalize myth by seeing it as disguised history, as disguised philosophy, or as fables illustrating moral truths (ways 2-4) all proceeded from a desire to make the seemingly irrational and immoral actions of gods and men appear rational and moral. Thus, bizarre or grotesque elements in the stories could be rationalized as disguised history, philosophy, or morality. However, these early rationalizers often ignored elements of the myths which did not fit into their allegorical schemes and made little attempt to look at myths psychologically or symbolically, or to place the them in their proper historical context. (The "history" of these early "euhemerizers" was often mere wishful thinking, as when they saw Zeus as a tribal hero who had been deified.) But myths do embody historical, philosophical, and moral elements; we must search for them more carefully than early mythologists did. Ways 5, 6, and 7 all see myth as an explanation, whether for natural events, for puzzling phenomena, or for local customs and institutions. Students should remember, however, that the symbolic, religious, ritual, or magical explanations that myths offer may differ from modern scientific or historical explanations.
Something as great as God may be quite difficult for limited human minds to comprehend. Joseph Campbell says we can only know God through stories and symbols, or myth (way #8). But our stories are human and limited, and thus cannot, according to Campbell, tell literal truths, but all can and do tell metaphoric and symbolic truths. Ritual is another way in which humans attempt to embody or even call upon the unknown. Ritual patterns may reappear in myths and mythic motifs may be reflected in rituals (way #9). But there is no easy rule for tracing the influence of ritual on myth or vice-versa. Mythologists continue to argue whether the repetitive patterns of motifs and plot seen in many myths stem from ritual patterns (way #9), or from psychological archetypes inherent in humans (way #10), or from the repetition common in oral forms of storytelling (way #11). Probably all three are in some way responsible for the patterns we see in stories, along with diffusion or borrowing. Structuralists assert that the patterns they see (way #12) lie in the stories themselves, and ultimately are the patterns of the culture that produced the stories.
No one way offers a key to the interpretation of myths, but all can offer insights to different motifs and plot elements. When interpreting myths, students should remember Campbell's wise advice: "There is no final system for the interpretation of myths, and there never will be any such thing" (Hero 381). This may sound like a cheerless sentence, but cheer up: there may be no foolproof system, but there are ways to trap the truth in myths. According to Campbell, myths are like the god Proteus (sometimes called the Old Man of the Sea) in the Odyssey who "always speaks the truth" (Homer 52, my emphasis). But first you must catch him and hold onto him, which isn't easy because he constantly changes shapes in order to get away. "He will turn into all sorts of shapes to try you, into all the creatures of that live and move upon the earth, into water, into blazing fire; but you must hold him fast and press him all the harder" (Homer 53). Great advice for any student of myth! Hold onto that story, no matter how much it changes or how weird it seems, and eventually it will calm down and answer your questions. But Proteus only answers the specific questions put to him. So, to get good answers, you have to ask a lot of different questions. That's one reason why there I ask so many questions in class.


What was Druidry?
The Druids were the educated elite of what is now called the “Celtic” race. Many historians and archaeologists now argue that there never was an actual Celtic race but for the sake of clarity and to give a sense of familiarity, I will use the term throughout this booklet. The Celts were a tribal people, with each tribe having its own chieftain. They were often at war with one another, raiding nearby tribal villages and stealing their neighbors’ cattle. They were a warrior race who, in one of those strange historical paradoxes, created the most beautiful art and inspired a religion which had a deep respect for Nature.
The Roman invasion of the Celtic regions was made easier because Celtic society was so fragmented. The Romans systematically conquered one tribe at a time. The only common link between the Celtic tribes was Druidry. The Druids were the prophets, magicians, seers, healers, royal advisors and judges. Druids could move in complete safety between tribes as their murder was punishable by death. Very quickly the Druids began to unite the tribes and give them the focus they needed against the invaders. This move did not go unnoticed and it was in the year 61CE that two crushing blows were dealt against the British. The first was the sacking of Ynys Mon, the Isle of Anglesey, off the north coast of Wales, which was a major centre of Druidic learning. As the Romans conquered Britain, the Druids retreated to Ynys Mon and became trapped. It was written by Tacitus that the Druidesses were like screaming furies who spat curses across the bay at the assembling Roman armies. Although this chilled the blood of the Centurions, they attacked and won the battle. All of the Druid Groves (sacred clearings within the forests) were destroyed and all Druids, Druidesses and their children were slaughtered. The other blow was the defeat of the Iceni Queen Boudicca whose revolt very nearly put an end to the entire Roman occupation. However, the massacre of the Druids did not destroy the religion. It continued in smaller groups and gradually the Druid was seen as little more than a wandering magician. A far cry from the high status previously held.
The ancient Druids consisted of three “castes”, or divisions – Bards, Ovates and Druids.
The Bard learned all of the tales of the chieftain’s victories and the secret lore of sacred poetry. A Bard was an honoured member of the Tribe who was welcome wherever he or she travelled – in a way they were the newspapers of the day. We know from ancient poetry that the Bardic/Ovate crossover was not so defined, and that the Bards were also Shamans. They were trained in the Art of Magic using the power of poetry in either praise or satire. Their Lore supplied the foundation to the religious and magical practice of Druidry, telling the nature of the Gods, the deeds of the Ancestors and the sacred places of the land. Through the power of the sacred word, expressed through poetry, storytelling and song, they invoked the blessings of the Spirit of Place, and of the Gods and ancestors of the people.
As previously mentioned the caste known as Bards had their own Shamanic practices, but it may be that some Bards blended their creative skills with those of the Ovates (or Vates). These were the prophets and seers. They worked with the three realms of past, present and future and entered into trance states, foreseeing the future fortunes of the Tribe. The Ovate was the Druid Shaman.
If the ancient Druids performed sacrifice (there is no hard evidence of this other than Caesar’s account, which could well have been propaganda) then the Ovates would have been the people who oversaw such events. When considering the act of ritual sacrifice we must try to understand that the Celtic tribes lived and died by their crops. If the crops failed, then a hard winter of starvation and disease was inevitable. A whole village could be wiped out through lack of food; therefore, when such a catastrophe occurred, the ancients felt they had to offer a gift to their Gods. The true nature of sacrifice was to give somebody who came willingly. To offer themselves as such placed them with their Gods and the Tribe revered them as heroes.
To view ancient civilizations from the standpoint of modern ethics is a mistake. We have supermarkets and world trade, which keeps us supplied with wonderful food throughout the year. Now imagine growing all of the food you eat yourself, without the use of pesticides to protect the crop from blight and insect diseases. Then imagine your crop fails and you face a winter of unimaginable pain and suffering. Now imagine it happened for a second year….
The third ‘caste’ was the Druid. Much of what we know about the ancient Druids comes from classical writers, and it might be that ‘Druid’ was a collective term that included the Bards and Ovates, we simply don’t know for sure, but either way we do know that they were highly respected members of the tribe – the wise one who had passed through madness and survived. This brought great wisdom and peace; the Druid’s role was therefore that of advisor, teacher and judge. In Celtic mythology tribal chieftains each had their Druid to whom they turned for advice during times of need.
Between 5OOCE and the late middle ages the Druid tradition was kept alive in the tales and songs of the storyteller and wandering minstrel. It is here that we see the blending of two castes, the Bard and Ovate. We see such characters as Merlin and Taliesin emerging as seer-poets, living on the edge of sanity and completely accepted by the spirits of Nature. Much of the modern Druidic teaching stems from the words of the ancient Bardic tales and the poetry of Taliesin and Merlin.
Bardic colleges continued to operate in Wales, Ireland, and Scotland, for many centuries, but eventually the last one was closed in the 17th century. However, the pull of this tradition was too strong and soon poets such as William Blake rediscovered the voice of the Bard. These Bardic revivalists, who revelled in the beauty of nature, met in the quieter rooms of public houses at the end of the 18th century, and thus the thread spins on….
What is Druidry today?
With the growing awareness many people have towards the environment, there is an understandable interest in the Nature, or Pagan, religions. Druidry means different things to different people. There are those who take their spirituality from Druidry and blend it with their own tradition, be that Pagan or Christian. And there are others who try to follow a rediscovered “Druidism”.
To give an insight into modem Druidry we must start with exploring the symbol and Druidic “sacred mantra” known as the Awen.
Central to Druid philosophy is the force known as the Awen. The closest definition of the words Awen is “divine inspiration” or “flowing spirit” and it is this flowing spirit that guides us through the Druid work and, because the force of the Awen is described thus, it can be seen as many different things. The force of divine poetic inspiration, which is held within the three drops of potion brewed in the Cauldron of the Goddess Ceridwen, to the Christian Trinity of Father, Son and Holy Ghost, both could be described as the Awen.
The symbol of the Awen is the “Three Rays of Light” shining from three single points surrounded by three circles. The three points can represent the directions of the sunrises of the Soistices and Equinoxes. On the Summer and Winter Solstices the Sun rises east-north-east and east-south-east respectively, whilst on the Spring and Autumn Equinoxes it rises due east. The Awen also symbolises the three drops of inspiration from the Cauldron of Ceridwen. The three circles represent the three Circles of Creation in Welsh cosmology, ie Abred, Gwynvid and Ceugant. The central area represents the realm of Annwn.
During a Druid ritual, the Awen can be intoned as a single monotone note using three syllables “Ah-oo-en”(some Druid Orders intone the three letters I. A. U. in a similar way). The power held within the Awen mantra can be used in many ways – from initiating poetic inspiration, to drawing down the blessing of the God and Goddess or evoking a change in the atmosphere of a ritual circle.
It is truly a sacred word.
Like many others the Druids honour the eight seasonal festivals of our modern Pagan traditions. These being:
The Solar Cycle
Alban Arthan (Winter Solstice): Alban Arthan means the Light of Arthur. Some Druid Orders believe this means the Light of the hero King Arthur Pendragon who is symbolically reborn as the Sun Child (The Mabon) at the time of the Solstice. Others see the Light belonging to the star constellation known as the Great Bear (or the Plough) – Arthur, or Art, being Gaelic for Bear. This constellation shines out in the sky and can symbolise the rebirth of the Sun. At this point the Sun is at its southernmost point almost disappearing beyond the horizon, and the days are at their shortest. This was a time of dread for the ancient peoples as they saw the days getting shorter and shorter. A great ritual was needed to revert the course of the sun. This was probably calculated by the great circles of stone and burial grounds which are aligned to this festival, such as Newgrange in Co. Meath, Eire. Sure enough, the next day the Sun began to move higher into the sky, showing that it had been reborn.
This time of year is very cold and bleak, which is why so many celebrations are needed to help people get through the Winter months. It is significant that many civilisations welcomed their Solar Gods at the time of greatest darkness – including Mithras (the bull-headed Warrior God), the Egyptian God Horus and, more recently, Jesus Christ.
Alban Eilir (Spring Equinox): Alban Eilir means the Light of the Earth. As the Sun grows warmer so life begins to show through the soil. Small signs at first – the daffodils and crocuses – then more green as the bluebells and wood anemones spread through the woodland. Plants are seen by some as inanimate greenery with no actual feelings and life force. But Druids see life in all living things, from rocks and stones, to rivers and springs, plants and trees – all life is sacred. Have you ever thought about how you recognise the beginning of Spring? Is it the plant life? The weather? How does a plant know when it is time to grow? It cannot tell the time or see a calendar. Yet it knows. If it has senses then it has consciousness, if it has consciousness then it is more than an inanimate life form. So it is the return of life to the Earth that is celebrated at Alban Eilir, the time of balance.
One of the inner mysteries of Druidry is the Druid’s egg. Life-giving, it is the egg protected by the hare, which is the symbol of Alban Eilir – still celebrated by the giving of Easter eggs by the Easter bunny.
Alban Hefin (Summer Solstice): Alban Hefin means the Light of the Shore. Druidry has a great respect and reverence for places that are “in between” worlds. The seashore is one such place, where the three realms of Earth, Sea and Sky meet. There is great power in places such as these. It is the time of greatest light when the Solar God is crowned, by the Goddess, as the King of Summer. It also brings some sadness because from now until Alban Arthan the Sun’s strength is declining and we have entered the waning year. At this time the Dark Twin, or Holly King, is born – he will take his crown at Alban Arthan. Of all the festivals Druidry is mostly associated with Alban Hefin. The wonderful white-robed figures filmed at the dawn rituals at Stonehenge are testament to this. However, to many Druids it is the turning seasons and the cycle of life, death and rebirth – reflected in the Wheel of the Year in its completeness – which are significant.
Alban Elfed (Autumn Equinox): Alban Elfed means the Light of the Water. The Wheel turns and the time of balance returns. Alban Elfed marks the balance of day and night before the darkness overtakes the light. It is also the time of the second harvest, usually of the fruit which has stayed on the trees and plants to ripen under the Summer Sun. It is this final harvest which can take the central theme of the Alban Elfed ceremony. Thanking the Earth, in her full abundance as Mother and Giver, for the great harvest. It is the beginning of Autumn.
The Agricultural Cycle
Imbolc: On or around the 1st February – This is often seen as the first of three Spring festivals. It is hard sometimes to think of Spring in what feels like the depths of Winter. But if we look at the ground we can see the first shoots of green beginning to reach towards the Sun. Imbolc can be celebrated on either the 1st or 2nd February, or more naturally when the Snowdrops cover the ground.
Imbolc by Damh the Bard
As the dark, cold morning gives way to light,
And the world shows its face dazzling in her nakedness,
So the twigs and leaf-bare branches,
Bow to the passing dance
Of old Jack Frost.
His crystal breath on the earth,
And the corners of houses weep icicles of joy.
But where is the Sun’s warmth?
Where is life?
A small flower, delicate and pure-white,
Looks to the earth,
As if talking to the waiting green,
“Not yet,” it seems to whisper.
“When I fall, then you can return.”
And she nods her head,
as the Lady passes by,
Leaving more flowers in Her wake.
Beltane: On of around the 1st May – Beltane is the beginning of Summer, or the height of Spring. It is thought that the ancients only recognised two seasons, these being Summer and Winter. Beltane is the time when the Earth is literally buzzing with fertility. Life springs forth in all of its richness, and the land is covered with beautiful flowers, the freshly opened leaves of the trees are a quality of green that they only show at this time of year. At Beltane the Lady of the Land takes the hand of the Horned God, and together they walk into the forest. Their cries of love bring all life from the Earth. Some celebrate Beltane on the dates given above, whilst others look to the flowers of the May tree as their signal that Beltane had, at last, arrived.
Lughnasadh: On or around the 1st August – Lughnasadh is the first of two harvest festivals, the other being Alban Elfed (the Autumn Equinox). At Lughnasadh we see the fields of corn being cut, and for some this is the true time of the festival. In the fields John Barleycorn, who laid with the Lady in the woods at Beltane, has grown old, and now stands bent and bearded with a crocked cane. He looks to the Sun as he has changed from green to gold, and he known that his time has come. His life will feed the people, and it is this sacrifice that we honour at Lughnasadh.
Samhain: On of around the 31st October – This is a festival of the dead, a festival of remembrance and honouring of our dear departed friends and relations. It is said that, at Samhain, the veil that separates the worlds is at its thinnest. So our world, the world of Faerie, and that of the dead, blend as one. It is no wonder then that this night has become so wrapped in superstition. It is a night of wonder, and magic. On this night the Cailleach (the Crone) comes to strip the leaves from the trees, to quicken the decay of the flesh of the year, so that it may feed the new life to come. We can also ask Her to take the unwanted aspects of our personal year away, so that this too might be transformed. Yet even on the darkest night of Samhain, whilst our minds ponder our mortality, if you listen carefully, you can hear the sound of a new-born child crying for its Mother’s breast, for shortly it will be Alban Arthan, the Winter solstice, and the Wheel will turn once more.
Druid ritual takes many forms and has many functions. Druids draw on various sources for ritual – including mediaeval and later Celtic literature, previous generations of Druid revivalists, archaeology, poetry, and other traditions. But they draw mainly on their own judgement, and experience, of what is right for a given moment. Most rituals begin with the call for peace for, as is said within Druid teaching, “without peace can no work be”. The Druid will approach each quarter and say “May there be peace in the (direction).” Then the Sacred Circle is cast, followed by calls to the Spirits of the four directions. Rituals are frequently composed for a particular combination of time, place and people. They vary from the open celebration of the Bardic Gorsedd to the intimacy of personal Rites of Passage. They may take place anywhere – from great Stone Circles to private rooms. Most take place outdoors, since contact with the Earth, Sea and Sky is very important to the practice of Druidry. Group rituals commonly celebrate the eight major festivals. Rites of Passage include the naming or blessing of children, the onset of puberty, Druid weddings (handfastings), and passing on. Rituals may also be directed towards healing or spiritual growth. Most of the common elements of Druid ritual are those associated with the Bardic tradition. These include the Gorsedd Prayer, written by lolo Morganwg:
Grant, Oh God/dess, thy protection,
And in protection, strength,
And in strength, understanding,
And in understanding, knowledge,
And in knowledge the knowledge of justice,
And in the knowledge of justice, the love of it,
And in that love, the love of all existences,
And in the love of all existences, the love of God/dess and all goodness.
Although this prayer occurs widely in Modern Druidry, there are many who do not use it.
Another widespread element of Druid ritual is the Oath of Peace:
We swear by peace and love to stand,
Heart to heart, and hand in hand,
Mark, 0 Spirit, and hear us now,
Confirming this, our Sacred Vow.
Druid ritual brings the participants into contact with the Spiritual. Thus our lives are touched with the deep sources of inspiration, creativity, wisdom and healing.
Oh that I could see to the Other Realm –
that I could learn the magic of the Ancients.
Oh that the secrets of the Druids
could be whispered in my ears
that I might know their beauty and their power –
that I might love again this land
and hear the voices of the Goddess and the God
in the trees and in the rivers.
For more information about Druidry go to www.druidry.org
For details of open rituals, moots, camps and conferences in Sussex: www.anderidagorsedd.org