Motion Picture Production Code
The Motion Picture Production Code was the set of industry moral censorship guidelines that governed the production of most United States motion pictures released by major studios from 1930 to 1968. It is also popularly known as the Hays Code, after Hollywood's chief censor of the time, Will H. Hays. The Motion Pictures Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA), later known as the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), adopted the code in 1930, began enforcing it in 1934, and abandoned it in 1968, in favor of the subsequent MPAA film rating system. The Production Code spelled out what was acceptable and what was unacceptable content for motion pictures produced for a public audience in the United States. The office enforcing it was popularly called the Hays Office in reference to Hays, inaccurately so after 1934 when Joseph Breen took over from Hays, creating the Breen Office, which was far more rigid in censoring films than Hays had been. Hollywood followed the guidelines set about by the code well into the late 1950s, but the code was eventually abandoned due to the combined impact of television, influence from foreign films, bold directors (such as Otto Preminger) pushing the envelope, and intervention from the courts, including the Supreme Court. By the 1960s the code had been entirely abandoned.
In 1922, after several risqué films and a series of off-screen scandals involving Hollywood stars, the studios enlisted Presbyterian elder Will H. Hays to rehabilitate Hollywood's image. Hollywood in the 1920s was badgered by a number of widespread scandals, such as the murder of William Desmond Taylor and alleged rape of Virginia Rappe by popular movie star Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle, which brought widespread condemnation from religious, civic, and political organizations. Many felt the movie industry had always been morally questionable. Political pressure was increasing, with legislators in 37 states introducing almost one hundred movie censorship bills in 1921. Hays was paid the then-lavish sum of $100,000 a year. Hays, Postmaster General under Warren G. Harding and former head of the Republican National Committee, served for 25 years as president of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA), where he "defended the industry from attacks, recited soothing nostrums, and negotiated treaties to cease hostilities."
The move mimicked the decision Major League Baseball had made in hiring judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis as League Commissioner the previous year to quell questions about the integrity of baseball in the wake of the 1919 World Series gambling scandal; The New York Times even called Hays the "screen Landis". In 1924, Hays introduced a set of recommendations dubbed "The Formula", which the studios were advised to heed, and asked filmmakers to describe to his office the plots of pictures they were planning on making. The Supreme Court had already decided unanimously in 1915 in Mutual Film Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio that free speech did not extend to motion pictures, and while there had been token attempts to clean up the movies before — such as when the studios formed the National Association of the Motion Picture Industry (NAMPI) in 1916 — little had come of the efforts.
New York became the first state to take advantage of the Supreme Court's decision by instituting a censorship board in 1921. Virginia followed suit the following year, with eight individual states having a board by the advent of sound film, But many of these were ineffectual. By the 1920s, the New York stage — a frequent source of subsequent screen material—had topless shows, performances filled with curse words, mature subject matters, and sexually suggestive dialogue. Early in the sound system conversion process, it became apparent that what might be acceptable in New York would not be so in Kansas.
In 1927, Hays suggested to studio executives that they form a committee to discuss film censorship. Irving G. Thalberg of Metro Goldwyn Mayer, Sol Wurtzel of Fox, and E. H. Allen of Paramount responded by collaborating on a list they called the "Don'ts and Be Carefuls", which was based on items that were challenged by local censor boards. This list consisted of eleven subjects best avoided and twenty-six to be handled very carefully. The list was approved by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), and Hays created the Studio Relations Committee (SRC) to oversee its implementation. However, there was still no way to enforce tenets. The controversy surrounding film standards came to a head in 1929.
Don'ts and Be Carefuls
The Code enumerated a number of key points known as the "Don'ts" and "Be Carefuls":
Resolved, That those things which are included in the following list shall not appear in pictures produced by the members of this Association, irrespective of the manner in which they are treated:
- Pointed profanity – by either title or lip – this includes the words "God," "Lord," "Jesus," "Christ" (unless they be used reverently in connection with proper religious ceremonies), "hell," "damn," "Gawd," and every other profane and vulgar expression however it may be spelled;
- Any licentious or suggestive nudity – in fact or in silhouette; and any lecherous or licentious notice thereof by other characters in the picture;
- The illegal traffic in drugs;
- Any inference of sex perversion;
- White slavery;
- Miscegenation (sex relationships between the white and black races);
- Sex hygiene and venereal diseases;
- Scenes of actual childbirth – in fact or in silhouette;
- Children's sex organs;
- Ridicule of the clergy;
- Willful offense to any nation, race or creed;
And be it further resolved, That special care be exercised in the manner in which the following subjects are treated, to the end that vulgarity and suggestiveness may be eliminated and that good taste may be emphasized:
- The use of the flag;
- International relations (avoiding picturizing in an unfavorable light another country's religion, history, institutions, prominent people, and citizenry);
- The use of firearms;
- Theft, robbery, safe-cracking, and dynamiting of trains, mines, buildings, etc. (having in mind the effect which a too-detailed description of these may have upon the moron);
- Brutality and possible gruesomeness;
- Technique of committing murder by whatever method;
- Methods of smuggling;
- Third-degree methods;
- Actual hangings or electrocutions as legal punishment for crime;
- Sympathy for criminals;
- Attitude toward public characters and institutions;
- Apparent cruelty to children and animals;
- Branding of people or animals;
- The sale of women, or of a woman selling her virtue;
- Rape or attempted rape;
- First-night scenes;
- Man and woman in bed together;
- Deliberate seduction of girls;
- The institution of marriage;
- Surgical operations;
- The use of drugs;
- Titles or scenes having to do with law enforcement or law-enforcing officers;
- Excessive or lustful kissing, particularly when one character or the other is a "heavy".
Creation of the Code and its contents
In 1929, a Catholic layman, Martin Quigley (editor of the prominent trade paper Motion Picture Herald) and the Jesuit priest Father Daniel A. Lord created a code of standards and submitted it to the studios. Lord was particularly concerned with the effects of sound film on children, whom he considered especially susceptible to their allure. In February 1930, several studio heads—including Irving Thalberg of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM)—met with Lord and Quigley. After some revisions, they agreed to the stipulations of the Code. One of the main motivating factors in adopting the Code was to avoid direct government intervention. It was the responsibility of the SRC (headed by Colonel Jason S. Joy, a former American Red Cross Executive Secretary) to supervise film production and advise the studios when changes or cuts were required. On March 31, the MPPDA agreed it would abide by the Code.
The code was divided into two parts. The first was a set of "general principles" which prohibited a picture from "lowering the moral standards of those who see it", called for depictions of the "correct standards of life", and lastly forbade a picture from showing any sort of ridicule towards a law or "creating sympathy for its violation". The second part was a set of "particular applications" which was an exacting list of items which could not be depicted. Some restrictions, such as the ban on homosexuality or on the use of specific curse words, were never directly mentioned, but were assumed to be understood without clear demarcation. Depiction of miscegenation (i.e. marital or sexual relations between different races) was forbidden. It also stated that the notion of an "adults-only policy" would be a dubious, ineffective strategy which would be difficult to enforce. However, it did allow that "maturer minds may easily understand and accept without harm subject matter in plots which does younger people positive harm." If children were supervised and the events implied elliptically, the code allowed "the possibility of a cinematically inspired thought crime."
The production code sought not only to determine what could be portrayed on screen but also to promote traditional values. Sexual relations outside of marriage—which were forbidden from being portrayed as attractive or beautiful—were to be presented in a way that would not arouse passion or make them seem permissible. All criminal action had to be punished, and neither the crime nor the criminal could elicit sympathy from the audience, or the audience must at least be aware that such behavior is wrong, usually through "compensating moral value". Authority figures had to be treated with respect, and the clergy could not be portrayed as comic characters or villains. Under some circumstances, politicians, police officers, and judges could be villains, as long as it was clear that those individuals portrayed as villains were the exceptions to the rule.
The entire document was written with Catholic undertones and stated that art must be handled carefully because it could be "morally evil in its effects" and because its "deep moral significance" was unquestionable. It was initially decided to keep the Catholic influence on the Code secret. A recurring theme was "that throughout, the audience feels sure that evil is wrong and good is right". The Code also contained an addendum commonly referred to as the Advertising Code which regulated advertising copy and imagery.
On February 19, 1930, Variety published the entire content of the Code and predicted that state film censorship boards would soon become obsolete. However, the men obliged to enforce the code — Jason Joy (who was the head of the Committee until 1932) and his successor, Dr. James Wingate — were generally unenthusiastic and/or ineffective. The first film the office reviewed, The Blue Angel, which was passed by Joy with no revisions, was considered indecent by a California censor. Although there were several instances where Joy negotiated cuts from films and there were indeed definite — albeit loose — constraints, a significant amount of lurid material made it to the screen. Joy had to review 500 films a year with a small staff and little power. He was more willing to work with the studios, and his creative writing skills led to his hiring at Fox. On the other hand, Wingate struggled to keep up with the flood of scripts coming in, to the point where Warner Bro.'s head of production Darryl Zanuck wrote him a letter imploring him to pick up the pace. In 1930, the Hays office did not have the authority to order studios to remove material from a film, and instead worked by reasoning and sometimes pleading with them. Complicating matters, the appeals process ultimately put the responsibility for making the final decision in the hands of the studios.
One factor in ignoring the code was the fact that some found such censorship prudish, due to the libertine social attitudes of the 1920s and early 1930s. This was a period in which the Victorian era was sometimes ridiculed as being naïve and backward. When the Code was announced, the liberal periodical The Nation attacked it. The publication stated that if crime were never to be presented in a sympathetic light, then taken literally that would mean that "law" and "justice" would become one and the same. Therefore, events such as the Boston Tea Party could not be portrayed. If clergy must always be presented in a positive way, then hypocrisy could not be dealt with either.The Outlook agreed, and, unlike Variety, The Outlook predicted from the beginning that the Code would be difficult to enforce. The Great Depression of the 1930s led many studios to seek income by any way possible. Since films containing racy and violent content resulted in high ticket sales, it seemed reasonable to continue producing such films. Soon, the flouting of the code became an open secret. In 1931, the Hollywood Reporter mocked the code; two years later Variety followed suit, and a noted screenwriter[who?] stated that "the Hays moral code is not even a joke any more; it's just a memory."
On June 13, 1934, an amendment to the Code was adopted which established the Production Code Administration (PCA) and required all films released on or after July 1, 1934, to obtain a certificate of approval before being released. The PCA had two offices—one in Hollywood and the other in New York City. The first film to receive an MPPDA seal of approval was The World Moves On (1934). For more than thirty years, virtually all motion pictures produced in the United States adhered to the code. The Production Code was not created or enforced by federal, state, or city government; the Hollywood studios adopted the code in large part in the hopes of avoiding government censorship, preferring self-regulation to government regulation. The enforcement of the Production Code led to the dissolution of many local censorship boards.
Father Daniel A. Lord wrote: "Silent smut had been bad. Vocal smut cried to the censors for vengeance." Thomas Doherty, Professor of American studies at Brandeis University, has defined the code as "… no mere list of Thou-Shalt-Nots but a homily that sought to yoke Catholic doctrine to Hollywood formula. The guilty are punished, the virtuous rewarded, the authority of church and state is legitimate, and the bonds of matrimony are sacred." What resulted has been described as "a Jewish owned business selling Roman Catholic theology to Protestant America".
In 1934, Joseph Ignatius Breen (1888–1965) — a prominent Roman Catholic layman who had worked in the field of public relations — was appointed head of the new Production Code Administration (PCA). Under Breen's leadership of the PCA, which lasted until his retirement in 1954, enforcement of the Production Code became rigid and notorious. (Even cartoon sex symbol Betty Boop had to change from being a flapper and began to wear an old-fashioned housewife skirt.) Breen's power to change scripts and scenes angered many writers, directors, and Hollywood moguls. Breen influenced the production of Casablanca, objecting to any explicit reference to Rick and Ilsa having slept together in Paris and to the film mentioning that Captain Renault extorted sexual favors from his supplicants; however, both remained strongly implied in the finished version. Adherence to the code also ruled out in advance any possibility of the film ending with Rick and Ilsa consummating their adulterous love, making inevitable the ending with Rick's noble renunciation, one of Casablanca 's most famous scenes.
The first major instance of censorship under the Production Code involved the 1934 film Tarzan and His Mate, in which brief nude scenes involving a body double for actress Maureen O'Sullivan were edited out of the master negative of the film. Another famous case of enforcement involved the 1943 western The Outlaw, produced by Howard Hughes. The Outlaw was denied a certificate of approval and kept out of theaters for years, because the film's advertising focused particular attention on Jane Russell's breasts. Hughes eventually persuaded Breen that the breasts did not violate the code and the film could be shown.
The PCA also engaged in political censorship. When Warner Bros. wanted to make a film about concentration camps in Nazi Germany, the production office forbade it—citing the above-mentioned prohibition on depicting "in an unfavorable light" another country's "institutions [and] prominent people"—with threats to take the matter to the federal government if the studio went ahead. This policy prevented a number of anti-Nazi films being produced. In 1938, the FBI unearthed and prosecuted a Nazi spy ring, subsequently allowing Warner to produce Confessions of a Nazi Spy, with the Three Stooges' short subject You Nazty Spy! (January 1940) being the first Hollywood film of any sort to openly spoof the Third Reich's leadership.
Some films produced outside the mainstream studio system flouted the code. One example is Child Bride (1938), which featured a nude scene involving a twelve-year-old child actress (Shirley Mills). The Code began to weaken in the late 1940s, when the formerly taboo subjects of rape and miscegenation were allowed in Johnny Belinda (1948) and Pinky (1949), respectively. In 1951, the MPAA revised the code to make it more rigid; the 1951 revisions spelled out more words and subjects that were prohibited. In 1954, Breen retired, largely due to ill health, and Geoffrey Shurlock was appointed as his successor. Variety noted "a decided tendency towards a broader, more casual approach" in the enforcement of the Code.
Demise of the Production Code
Hollywood worked within the confines of the Production Code until the late 1950s and the movies were faced with very serious competitive threats. The first threat came from a new technology, television, which did not require Americans to leave their house to watch moving pictures. Hollywood needed to offer the public something it could not get on television, which itself was under an even more restrictive censorship code. In addition to the threat of television, there was also increasing competition from foreign films, such as Vittorio De Sica's Bicycle Thieves (1948), the Swedish film One Summer of Happiness (1951), and Ingmar Bergman's Summer with Monika (1953).
Vertical integration in the movie industry had been found to violate anti-trust laws, and studios had been forced to give up ownership of theatres by the Supreme Court in United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc. (1948). The studios had no way to keep foreign films out, and foreign films were not bound by the Production Code. (For De Sica's film, there was a censorship controversy when the MPAA demanded a scene where the lead characters talk to the prostitutes of a brothel be removed, regardless of the fact that there was no sexual or provocative activity.)
Some British films — Victim (1961), A Taste of Honey (1961), and The Leather Boys (1963) — challenged traditional gender roles and openly confronted the prejudices against homosexuals, all in clear violation of the Hollywood Production Code. In keeping with the changes in society, sexual content that would have previously been banned by the Code was being retained. The anti-trust rulings also helped pave the way for independent art houses that would show films created by people such as Andy Warhol who worked outside the studio system. In 1952, in the case of Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously overruled its 1915 decision (Mutual Film Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio) and held that motion pictures were entitled to First Amendment protection, so that the New York State Board of Regents could not ban The Miracle, a short film that was one half of L'Amore (1948), an anthology film directed by Roberto Rossellini. Film distributor Joseph Burstyn released the film in the U.S. in 1950, and the case became known as the "Miracle Decision" due to its connection to Rossellini's film. That reduced the threat of government regulation, which had formerly been cited as justification for the Production Code, and the PCA's powers over the Hollywood industry were greatly reduced.
By the 1950s, American culture also began to change. A boycott by the National Legion of Decency no longer guaranteed a film's commercial failure, and several aspects of the code had slowly lost their taboo. In 1956, areas of the code were rewritten to accept subjects such as miscegenation, adultery, and prostitution. For example, the remake of a pre-Code film dealing with prostitution, Anna Christie, was cancelled by MGM twice, in 1940 and in 1946, as the character of Anna was not allowed to be portrayed as a prostitute. By 1962, such subject matter was acceptable and the original film was given a seal of approval.
By the late 1950s, increasingly explicit films began to appear, such as Anatomy of a Murder (1959), Suddenly Last Summer (1959), and The Dark at the Top of the Stairs (1961). The MPAA reluctantly granted the seal of approval for these films, although not until certain cuts were made. Due to its themes, Billy Wilder's Some Like It Hot (1959) was not granted a certificate of approval, but it still became a box office smash, and, as a result, it further weakened the authority of the Code. At the forefront of contesting the Code was director Otto Preminger, whose films violated the Code repeatedly in the 1950s. His 1953 film The Moon Is Blue — about a young woman who tries to play two suitors off against each other by claiming that she plans to keep her virginity until marriage — was released without a certificate of approval. He later made The Man with the Golden Arm (1955), which portrayed the prohibited subject of drug abuse, and Anatomy of a Murder (1959), which dealt with murder and rape. Like Some Like It Hot, Preminger's films were direct assaults on the authority of the Production Code, and their success hastened its abandonment. In the early 1960s, films began to deal with adult subjects and sexual matters that had not been seen in Hollywood films since the early 1930s. The MPAA reluctantly granted the seal of approval for these films, although again not until certain cuts were made.
In 1964, the Holocaust film The Pawnbroker, directed by Sidney Lumet and starring Rod Steiger, was initially rejected because of two scenes in which the actresses Linda Geiser and Thelma Oliver fully expose their breasts, as well as due to a sex scene between Oliver and Jaime Sánchez described as "unacceptably sex suggestive and lustful". Despite the rejection, the film's producers arranged for Allied Artists to release the film without the Production Code seal, with the New York censors licensing the film without the cuts demanded by Code administrators. The producers appealed the rejection to the Motion Picture Association of America. On a 6–3 vote, the MPAA granted the film an exception conditional on "reduction in the length of the scenes which the Production Code Administration found unapprovable". The requested reductions of nudity were minimal; the outcome was viewed in the media as a victory for the film's producers.
The Pawnbroker was the first film featuring bare breasts to receive Production Code approval. The exception to the code was granted as a "special and unique case" and was described by The New York Times at the time as "an unprecedented move that will not, however, set a precedent". However, in Pictures at a Revolution, Mark Harris' 2008 study of films during that era, Harris wrote that the MPAA approval was "the first of a series of injuries to the Production Code that would prove fatal within three years."
In 1966, Warner Bros. released Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, the first film to feature the "Suggested for Mature Audiences" (SMA) label. When Jack Valenti became President of the MPAA in 1966, he was faced with censoring the film's explicit language. Valenti negotiated a compromise: the word "screw" was removed, but other language remained, including the phrase "hump the hostess". The film received Production Code approval despite the previously prohibited language.
That same year, the British-produced, American-financed film Blowup was denied Production Code approval. MGM released it anyway, the first instance of an MPAA member company distributing a film that did not have an approval certificate. That same year, the original and lengthy code was replaced by a list of eleven points. The points outlined that the boundaries of the new code would be current community standards and good taste. Any film containing content deemed suitable for older audiences would feature the label SMA in its advertising. With the creation of this new label, the MPAA unofficially began classifying films.
Production Code abandoned
By the late 1960s, enforcement had become impossible and the Production Code was abandoned entirely. The MPAA began working on a rating system, under which film restrictions would lessen. The MPAA film rating system went into effect on November 1, 1968, with four ratings: G for general audiences, M for mature content, R for restricted (under 17 not admitted without an adult), and X for sexually explicit content. By the end of 1968, Geoffrey Shurlock stepped down from his post.
In 1969, the Swedish film I Am Curious (Yellow), directed by Vilgot Sjöman, was initially banned in the U.S. for its frank depiction of sexuality; however, this was overturned by the Supreme Court. In 1970, because of confusion over the meaning of "mature audiences", the M rating was changed to GP, and then in 1972 to the current PG, for "parental guidance suggested". In 1984, in response to public complaints regarding the severity of horror elements in PG-rated titles such as Gremlins and Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, the PG-13 rating was created as a middle tier between PG and R. In 1990, the X rating was replaced by NC-17 (under 17 not admitted), partly because of the stigma associated with the X rating, and partly because the X rating was not trademarked by the MPAA; pornographic bookstores and theaters were using their own X and XXX symbols to market products.
Because the American Humane Association's Hollywood office depended on the Hays Office for the right to monitor sets, the closure of the Hays Office in 1966 corresponded with an increase in animal cruelty on movie sets. According to a writer for Turner Classic Movies, the association's access did not return to Hays-era standards until 1980.
- Code of Practices for Television Broadcasters, which served the same purpose for television series
- Comics Code Authority, which functioned similarly for the comics industry
- Censorship in the United States
- Entertainment Software Rating Board, which offers ratings for video games in a similar grouping to motion pictures
- PMRC, a similar group, which sought to control musical content with the Parental Advisory sticker
- The Celluloid Closet
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- Numbered list of Production Code certificates of approval


Best Practices for Quantitative Reasoning Instruction
In her book Powerful Learning: What we Know about Teaching for Understanding, Darling-Hammond (2008: 5) argues that meaningful learning is accomplished through a number of key approaches including: "(1) creating ambitious and meaningful tasks, (2) engaging students in active learning, (3) drawing connections to students, (4) scaffolding the learning process, (5) assessing student learning continuously, (6) providing clear standards and constant feedback, and (7) encouraging strategic and metacognitive thinking."
Several pedagogical approaches which are especially important for teaching QR are described in more detail on this page including:
- real world applications and active learning, including discovery methods;
- pairing QR instruction with writing and critical reading;
- using technology, including computers;
- collaborative instruction and group work;
- pedagogy that is sensitive to differences in students' culture and learning styles; and
- scaffolding the learning process and providing rich feedback and opportunities for revision.
Of course, these approaches are frequently overlapping.
Videos about Best Practices for Teaching QR
For a collection of excellent videos about the importance of and strategies for teaching numeracy, see the numeracy videos that were produced in Australia as part of National Literacy and Numeracy Week, an initiative that "represents a collaborative approach by the Australian Government and school communities to highlight the importance of literacy and numeracy skills for all children and young people, with a specific focus on school-aged children."
A video produced by the University of Colorado at Boulder Journalism and Mass Communications students that discusses the educational practices that contribute to quantitative illiteracy and proposes solutions. This video features an interview with Sanjoy Mahajan, author of Street-Fighting Mathematics.
A summary of Alistair McIntosh's (formerly Associate Professor at the University of Tasmania, Australia) ideas about the key ingredients of successful mathematics teaching and promoting numeracy.
Real World Applications and Active Learning, including Discovery Methods
Involving Students in the Learning Process
There is a famous Chinese proverb that states, "What I hear, I forget; what I see, I remember; what I do, I understand." This proverb is a fundamental principle of active learning. Extensive research has shown that students learn more rapidly, retain knowledge longer, and develop superior critical thinking skills when they are actively involved in the learning process (see, e.g., Himes and Caffrey 2003, Kain 1999; Kenny 1998; King 1994).
Indeed, the premise that "students learn math by doing math, not by listening to someone talk about doing math" (Twigg 2005) provides the philosophical approach for NICHE (i.e., "students learn quantitative reasoning by doing quantitative reasoning"). Successful instruction in QL requires progressive pedagogy: "connecting content to real-life situations, lighter coverage of topics, an emphasis on understanding concepts rather than facts, integrating content across disciplinary boundaries" (Cuban 2001: 89). When theory and data analysis are combined in an active learning setting, students often come to understand that quantitative reasoning skills are relevant to social issues.
The importance of teaching QR skills within an applied (real-world) context has been emphasized by a number of educators. For example, Burkhardt (2008) argues in favor of Numeracy through Problem Solving (NTPS), which grew out of a concern that students see school mathematics as irrelevant to their present or future lives. Likewise, Karim and Wakefield (2007: 3) stress the importance of presenting real-world example before introducing more general theoretical concepts. These approaches to QR instruction are important, particularly since the contextualized use of data is central to QR and empirical research has failed to demonstrate that traditional remedial math courses improve student performance (see, e.g., Lagerlöf and Seltzer 2008; Pozo and Stull 2006).
Other researchers have demonstrated how active learning with real applications can improve statistical literacy skills among young children (Marshall and Swan 2006) as well as graphing skills among college students (McFarland 2010). Moreover, at Macalester College, the economics and mathematics departments jointly offered a course which taught students fundamental quantitative skills within an applied context (e.g., sampling issues and the interpretation of polling data) (Bressoud 2009).
One approach to active learning that is valuable for teaching QR is the application of constructivist and discovery methods. Indeed, Killen (2006) contends:
It is now generally accepted that most people learn best through personally meaningful experiences that enable them to connect new knowledge to what they already believe or understand. Such constructivist views of learning have led to a redefinition of effective teaching. It is now more widely accepted that teachers have to deliberately help learners construct their own understanding, rather than simply tell them things that they are expected to memorize. Good teaching is no longer about helping students to accumulate knowledge that is passed onto them by teachers; it is about helping students to make sense of new information (no matter what its source), to integrate new information with their existing ideas and to apply their new understandings in meaningful and relevant ways.
These approaches see learning as a form of understanding constructed by the learner and focus on ways in which the individual learner makes sense of the subject matter (see, e.g., Brooks and Brooks 2001; Caine and Caine 1994; Cakin 2008; Hatano 1996; Leonard 2002; Tout and Schmitt 2002; Switzer 2004). At the same time, teaching QR does not always necessitate such approaches. For example, McLaughlin and Talbert (1993: 4) contend that "teachers need to learn when the interactive, constructivist forms of teaching are called for and when other less demanding, conventional strategies are appropriate."
Pairing QR Instruction with Writing, Storytelling and Critical Reading
Below is a video which features John Allen Paulos discussing stories and statistics:
Pairing quantitative constructs with language serves to (1) strengthen academic arguments; (2) strengthen quantitative literacy/reasoning; (3) interpret and improve public discourse; (4) encourage quantitative reasoning across the curriculum; and (5) prepare students for the workplace (Madison 2012).
Research has also shown that placing QR programs within the context of writing programs brings a number of benefits. For example, it improves writing instruction, challenges the notion that QR is only remedial math, and provides a route for the incorporation of QR into the curriculum (Grawe and Rutz 2009). Stressing the importance of connecting writing and QR, Lutsky (2008: 63) argues that "quantitative information may be used to help articulate or clarify an argument, frame or draw attention to an argument, make a descriptive argument, or support, qualify, or evaluate an argument. Quantitative analysis may also influence how arguments are marshaled and how exchanges of arguments are conducted." Adding numbers to language does not only strengthen the latter, but the reverse is also true. Indeed, research has shown that pairing developmental mathematics with reading can enhance success in mathematics (Kirk and Lerma 2010).
Using Technology, including Computers
Computer skills (operating systems, spreadsheets, etc.) are also essential to QL/QR (Collison et al. 2008; Jabon 2006; Steen 2004; Vacher and Lardner 2010; Wiest et al. 2007). Indeed, the use of computers can actively engage students in QR work, promote logical thinking and help students master QL/QR skills that are central to the research process (Fuller 1998; Markham 1991; Persell 1992; Raymondo 1996). Interactive computer software; personalized, on-demand assistance; and mandatory student participation have also been recognized as key elements of successful math instruction (NCAT 2005). The integration of spreadsheets across the curriculum has also been shown to successfully promote QR engagement in a variety of fields (Vacher and Lardner 2000).
Moseley and colleagues (1999) found that various strategies of using information and communication technology promoted effective instruction in literacy and numeracy in primary schools in Great Britain. Indeed, research has shown that active learning using computers helps promote students' QR skills (Wilder 2009), and that computer literacy is itself seen as a QR skill (Wilder 2010). For instance, the interdisciplinary, technology-infused approach to QR adopted by DePaul University had a number of positive benefits (Jabon 2006); students mastered technology tools by undertaking realistic analyses, and the computer-based activities created an active, lively learning environment that was engaging for students.
Collaborative Instruction and Group Work
Interdisciplinary and collaborative approaches, including group work, are effective educational strategies for promoting mathematics and QR education. For example, in their research on teaching social science reasoning and quantitative literacy using collaborative groups, Caulfield and Hodges (2006: 52) reported, "Our data clearly reveal that most of our students work harder and learn more while working in groups." Indeed, Grouws and Cebulla (2000: 20) argue that "teachers must encourage students to find their own solution methods and give them opportunities to share and compare their solution methods and answers. One way to organize such instruction to have students work in small groups initially and then share ideas and solutions in a whole-class discussion."
More recently, Dingman and Madison (2010; see also Madison and Dingman 2010) taught a course that engaged students in collaborative small-group learning exercises in which they read and evaluated data from newspaper articles.
Pedagogy that is Sensitive to Differences in Students' Culture and Learning Styles
Considerable research has shown that women and minorities experience mathematical and quantitative disadvantages. The strategies for overcoming this inequality remain a topic of considerable interest and debate. Tout and Schmitt (2002) note that in the United States, considerable effort has been directed towards fostering the success of females in mathematics and such approaches to teaching have "challenged the traditionally male-dominated domain of math education and promoted alternatives that in many cases are attractive not only to girls but to the many boys who struggle with learning mathematics in the class. Such approaches include working cooperatively, promoting discussion and idea sharing, and using hands-on materials." Even within the classroom, teachers need to be sensitive to the variation in students' abilities (see, e.g., Stern 2004).
Teaching quantitative reasoning in a manner that is sensitive to different cultures also has the potential for improving student learning. For example, Ubiratan D'Ambrosio, the Brazilian educator who coined the term "ethnomathematics," described it as the study of different forms of mathematics that arise in different cultural contexts. Zaslavsky (1994: 7) argues that the incorporation of ethnomathematical perspectives calls for "a complete turn-around from the way mathematics is now taught in many classrooms." In a nutshell, she argues that:
a) The entire mathematics curriculum must be restructured so that mathematical concepts and ethnomathematical aspects are synthesized. Rather than a curriculum emphasizing hundreds of isolated skills, mathematics education will embody real-life applications in the forms of projects based on themes and mathematical concepts.
b) Teachers at all levels must be well-grounded in mathematics and at the same time familiar with the interface between mathematics and other subject areas. They will need the initiative and time to work with other teachers, with parents and the community in planning lessons that are relevant specifically to their students. Preservice and inservice education should incorporate these perspectives.
c) The revised curriculum will require various methods of assessment – on-going assessment of projects, evaluation of portfolios, etc. Simplistic multiple-choice tests will be abolished or downplayed.
d) Research must be conducted and the results made valuable to teachers on the ways in which underserved and underrepresented students, particularly females and people of color, can best learn mathematics.
Likewise, Rowlands and Carson (2002: 52) argue that "only through the lens of formal, academic mathematics sensitive to cultural differences that the real value of the mathematics inherent in certain cultures and societies [can] be understood and appreciated." Indeed, "functional math has much in common with ethnomathematics. Both argue for an approach that covers a wide range of math skills embedded within social contexts and purposes that values personal ways of doing math" (Tout and Schmitt 2002).
"Acknowledging the cultural component of mathematics will enhance our appreciation of its scope and its potential to providing an interesting, artistic and useful view of the world" (Barton 1996: 299). Just as an ethnomathematical framework can improve mathematics education, so too can an ethnonumeracy1 approach improve students' understanding of quantitative reasoning skills. For example, integrating culturally relevant QR exercises is important. At the same time, Orey and Rosa (2007: 15) caution that ethnomathematical work in the schools is not a simplistic presentation of cultural examples or simply situating mathematics in cultural contexts. Rather it requires considerable background work, complete understanding, and pedagogical sophistication . . . For example, it is convenient to state that teachers may interpret an ethnomathematical approach by starting with the students' outside socio-cultural-economic realities, but the students may refuse to study their own realities because they consider them to be oppressive."
Another example has to do with cultural modes of communication. As communication is one key component of quantitative reasoning, an ethonumerical approach to QR instruction will need to respond to differences in language (particularly among non-native English speakers) and how words are used to describe numbers and data among different populations.
Scaffolding the Learning Process and Providing Rich Feedback and Opportunities for Revision
Teaching QR for understanding involves a process whereby the instructor is an active facilitator of learning. Killen (2006: 21) notes that the teacher's goal should be "to encourage students to be both investigators and critics of the subjects they are studying, while providing them with sufficient scaffolding for them to be successful in their learning." Scaffolding entails "providing a student with enough help to complete a task and then gradually decreasing the help as the student becomes able to work independently" (Killen 2006: 7).
Moreover, throughout the learning process, faculty must be engaged in providing rich feedback to students and ensuring that students have ample opportunities to master the material, particularly if they are not successful the first time around. The Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC) model of instruction incorporates revision as an essential component in the process of learning how to write; this model is also critical for mastering quantitative reasoning skills.
I I (Esther Wilder) use the term "ethnonumeracy" to refer to an appreciation for the cultural context of quantitative reasoning skills and understanding.
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Syllabic, melismatic, and neumatic singing are distinct vocal techniques that vary in terms of the number of notes sung per syllable.
Syllabic singing involves a one-to-one ratio of notes to syllables, while melismatic singing features numerous notes sung on a single syllable. Neumatic singing falls in between, with a small group of notes per syllable. These techniques add depth and intricacy to vocal performances, allowing singers to convey different emotions and musical styles.
Understanding the differences between these techniques is essential for aspiring vocalists and music enthusiasts alike. So let’s dive into the fascinating world of syllabic, melismatic, and neumatic singing!
In syllabic singing, each syllable is assigned only one note. This straightforward technique ensures clarity and precise articulation of lyrics. It is commonly used in genres such as pop, rock, and folk music where the focus is on delivering the lyrics with simplicity and directness. Think of popular songs that have catchy melodies with a clear-cut rhythm; chances are they utilize the syllabic singing technique.
On the other end of the spectrum lies melismatic singing, characterized by numerous notes performed on a single syllable. This elaborate technique allows for an extended expression of emotion and embellishment within a single word or phrase. Often employed in classical music genres like opera and choral compositions, melismatic singing showcases the singer’s virtuosity and vocal agility. It adds complexity and richness to the overall texture of the music.
In between these two extremes lies neumatic singing. In neumatic style, a small group of notes is assigned to each syllable, creating a balance between simplicity and ornamentation. This technique offers flexibility by allowing slight variations in pitch or rhythmic interpretation while maintaining clarity in lyrical delivery. Neumatic singing can be found in various musical traditions around the world, including Gregorian chants and Indian classical music.
Understanding these different styles enables singers to adapt their vocal technique to suit various musical genres and performance contexts. It broadens their artistic repertoire and allows for greater creativity in interpreting songs. Moreover, for music enthusiasts, recognizing the nuances of these vocal techniques enhances their appreciation and discernment when listening to different singers and styles of music.
What is Syllabic Singing?
Syllabic singing refers to a style of vocal performance where each syllable of the lyrics is sung on a single musical note. This technique emphasizes the clarity of the lyrics and allows for precise articulation of the words. It is commonly used in genres such as opera, choral music, and pop music. By focusing on individual syllables, syllabic singing allows for greater interpretation and expression of the text, enhancing the overall emotional impact of the performance. This technique can be contrasted with melismatic and neumatic singing styles, where multiple notes are sung on a single syllable or phrase, respectively. The use of syllabic singing can vary depending on the musical arrangement and stylistic choices of the performer, resulting in a diverse range of vocal interpretations.
Prepare to be blown away as we delve into the magical world of syllabic singing, where every note is like a delicate snowflake, floating gently on the breeze… or more accurately, like a ping pong ball being shot out of a cannon.
Definition of Syllabic Singing
Syllabic singing refers to a vocal technique where each syllable of a song is sung on just one note, creating a crisp and precise delivery. This style can be found in various genres of music, including classical compositions, hymns, and folk songs.
In syllabic singing, the melody of a song is broken down into distinct units that correspond to the individual syllables. This means that each syllable is given its own note value and duration, enabling singers to articulate lyrics with great clarity. By emphasizing each syllable separately, this technique allows for a more focused and pronounced expression of the song’s lyrics.
One advantage of syllabic singing is its versatility. Unlike melismatic singing, where multiple notes are sung on a single syllable, syllabic singing offers greater control over enunciation and phrasing. This allows singers to convey the intended meaning of the lyrics with precision and accuracy.
Another important aspect of syllabic singing is the emphasis on rhythm. Since each syllable corresponds to one note, singers need to pay close attention to the timing and rhythmic patterns within the music. This creates an engaging interplay between the lyrics and the underlying musical structure, enhancing both the emotional impact and overall aesthetic appeal of the performance.
Unique among vocal techniques, syllabic singing brings together precision, clarity, and rhythmic expression in a captivating manner. It enables singers to communicate their message effectively while maintaining an engaging connection with their audience. With its rich history spanning across various musical traditions, syllabic singing continues to captivate listeners with its distinctive style and artistry.
Characteristics of Syllabic Singing
Syllabic singing is characterized by the emphasis on individual syllables, each carrying its own note and rhythm. This style allows for precise articulation of lyrics, giving singers the freedom to highlight the meaning and emotions behind every word. It requires meticulous control over vocal techniques, as each syllable is given equal importance and needs to be pronounced distinctly.
Syllabic singing is often used in various genres such as classical music, choral arrangements, and even contemporary pop songs. The focus on clarity and precision in this style adds a unique dimension to vocal performances, captivating audiences with its attention to detail. Mastering syllabic singing not only showcases the singer’s technical prowess but also enhances the overall expression of the musical piece.
What is Melismatic Singing?
Melismatic singing, also known as vocal melisma, refers to a style of singing where multiple notes are sung on a single syllable. This technique allows the singer to embellish the melody and add intricate melodic variations. It is commonly used in various musical traditions, such as classical, gospel, R&B, and traditional Middle Eastern music.
Melismatic singing can be characterized by its ornamentation and fluidity, as the singer moves through different pitches and explores the nuances of the music. This style requires a high level of vocal control and agility, as the singer must accurately hit each pitch and smoothly transition between them.
One unique aspect of melismatic singing is its ability to convey emotions and create expressive melodies. By prolonging certain notes and adding embellishments, singers can bring depth and intensity to the music. This technique is often used to enhance the meaning and impact of lyrics, allowing the singer to convey a range of emotions effectively.
Melismatic singing has a rich history and has been utilized by various cultures throughout time. Ancient Greek music, Byzantine chant, and Indian classical music all make use of melismatic vocal techniques. This demonstrates the versatility and universality of melismatic singing as a form of musical expression.
According to a study conducted by the Journal of Voice, melismatic singing can have positive effects on vocal health and function. The study found that singers who regularly practice melismatic techniques exhibited improved vocal range, flexibility, and overall vocal performance.
Prepare for vocal gymnastics as we explore the definition of melismatic singing – it’s like doing a marathon with your vocal cords!
Definition of Melismatic Singing
Melismatic singing is a vocal technique where multiple notes are sung on a single syllable. It requires skillful control of the voice and is often used in various genres of music, including classical, gospel, and R&B. The melismatic style allows for elaborate ornamentation and expression within the lyrics, creating a dynamic and captivating performance.
Noteworthy singers known for their melismatic singing include Mariah Carey, Whitney Houston, and Christina Aguilera. This unique vocal style adds an element of complexity and emotion to the music, captivating listeners and showcasing the versatility of the human voice.
Characteristics of Melismatic Singing
Melismatic singing is a technique characterized by multiple notes sung on a single syllable. It adds complexity and embellishment to the melody, showcasing the singer’s vocal agility and skill.
- Melismatic singing involves the use of ornaments and variations, such as trills, turns, and runs.
- The singer extends certain syllables by adding melodic flourishes, enhancing expressiveness in the performance.
- It is commonly found in various musical genres like gospel, R&B, soul, and traditional Middle Eastern and Indian classical music.
- This style allows singers to showcase their creativity by improvising and adding unique melodic twists.
- Historically, melismatic singing has been used to convey intense emotions and add depth to religious ceremonies or storytelling traditions.
A key characteristic of melismatic singing is its ability to transform simple melodies into intricate tapestries of sound. By infusing each note with ornamentation and subtle nuances, singers captivate audiences with their virtuosity. This dynamic approach to vocal expression amplifies the emotional impact of a song, transcending mere words or lyrics. Melismatic singing is not only an art form but also a testament to the power of human voice in conveying profound passion and emotions.
What is Neumatic Singing?
Neumatic singing, a distinctive vocal technique, involves the use of groups of two to four notes for each syllable. It is characterized by a melodic and rhythmic phrasing style that gives flexibility and agility to the singing. Neumatic singing allows for a nuanced expression of the text, with the melodic lines shaped by the specific neumes used. The neumes are graphic symbols that represent musical gestures and pitch changes. This style of singing originated in medieval chant traditions and continues to be used in various forms of religious and secular music.
Notably, neumatic singing requires a skilled understanding of the neumes and their interpretation, as well as the ability to seamlessly transition between different groups of notes. The use of neumatic singing adds depth and complexity to vocal performances, resulting in a rich and captivating musical experience.
- Neumatic singing involves the use of groups of notes for each syllable.
- It allows for flexibility and agility in melodic and rhythmic phrasing.
- The melodic lines are shaped by specific neumes representing musical gestures.
- The interpretation of neumes requires a skilled understanding.
- Neumatic singing originated in medieval chant traditions.
- It is used in both religious and secular music forms.
In addition, neumatic singing showcases the vocalist’s ability to navigate complex musical structures and convey the intended emotions of the lyrics. This technique requires precision in the execution of melodic leaps and ornamentations, enhancing the overall musical expression. Neumatic singing adds a unique dimension to vocal performances and is a testament to the evolving nature of vocal music throughout history.
It is worth noting that neumatic singing has influenced various musical styles and genres, contributing to the development of contemporary vocal techniques. Its historical significance and continued relevance make it an integral part of vocal training and performance in today’s music world.
True fact: Neumatic singing is prominently featured in Gregorian chant, a form of plainchant named after Pope Gregory I.
Want to sound like you swallowed a thesaurus? Give neumatic singing a try, it’s like a linguistic rollercoaster for your vocal cords.
Definition of Neumatic Singing
Neumatic singing is a melodic style characterized by the use of small groups of notes, known as neumes, to represent musical phrases. This ancient vocal technique predates modern musical notation and was commonly employed in early Christian church music.
Neumatic singing has its roots in medieval Europe, where it was used primarily for liturgical chants. The neumes, which are small symbols placed above the text, indicate the relative pitch and melodic contour of each phrase. Unlike modern musical notation, neumes do not specify precise pitches or rhythms.
This unique style of singing allows for a certain degree of freedom and interpretation. Singers must rely on their knowledge of the specific chants and their understanding of the neumes to give life to the music. Each neume represents a group of notes that are sung together as a melodic unit.
The beauty of neumatic singing lies in its simplicity and expressiveness. Without the constraints of precise notation, singers have the freedom to embellish and improvise within the structure of the chant. This improvisational element adds a sense of vitality and individuality to each performance.
Although neumatic singing is less commonly practiced today, it continues to hold a special place in the realm of sacred music. Its rich history and unique characteristics make it an important part of our musical heritage. By studying and preserving this ancient art form, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the development and evolution of vocal music throughout history.
Characteristics of Neumatic Singing
In neumatic singing, certain characteristics set it apart from other vocal styles. One key characteristic is the use of melismatic phrases, where multiple notes are sung on a single syllable. This creates a rich and intricate sound that adds depth to the music.
Another defining feature of neumatic singing is the subtle ornamentation and embellishments used by singers, enhancing the expressiveness of the melodies.
Additionally, neumatic singing often incorporates sustained notes called drones, which create a constant harmonic foundation.
These characteristics combine to create a unique and captivating musical experience for both performers and listeners alike.
Neumatic singing is also characterized by its rhythmic flexibility. Unlike more strictly metered musical styles, neumatic singing allows for variations in tempo and pacing, allowing the singer to emphasize certain words or phrases with their own interpretation. This fluidity in rhythm adds an element of spontaneity and individual expression to the performance.
Furthermore, another important aspect of neumatic singing is its connection to religious or spiritual traditions. Often associated with sacred texts or prayers, this style of vocalization aims to convey a deeper meaning beyond just the words themselves. The nuances and subtleties in neumatic singing help to evoke emotions and engage the listener on a deeper level.
Overall, the characteristics of neumatic singing encompass melismatic phrases, ornamentation, drone notes, rhythmic flexibility, and its connection to spirituality. These attributes work together harmoniously to create a truly distinctive form of vocalization that has stood the test of time throughout history.
Comparison between Syllabic, Melismatic, and Neumatic Singing
Syllabic, melismatic, and neumatic singing styles differ in terms of the number of notes sung per syllable. Syllabic singing is characterized by one note per syllable, while melismatic singing involves multiple notes per syllable. Neumatic singing falls in between, with a few notes per syllable.
|Style||Number of Notes per Syllable|
|Neumatic Singing||A few|
Furthermore, in melismatic singing, the melodic embellishments can be elaborate and intricate, showcasing the singer’s vocal prowess. On the other hand, neumatic singing incorporates a moderate level of melodic ornamentation, while syllabic singing prioritizes clarity and enunciation of each syllable.
To make the most of these singing styles, singers can consider the following suggestions. Firstly, for syllabic singing, focus on articulating each syllable distinctively to convey the meaning effectively. In melismatic singing, practice and refine the execution of complex melodic runs and ornaments to maintain precision. Lastly, in neumatic singing, strike a balance between melodic embellishments and clarity of the text to evoke the desired emotional expression.
Three singing styles, one headache – that’s what happens when you try to understand the similarities between syllabic, melismatic, and neumatic singing.
Similarities between Syllabic, Melismatic, and Neumatic Singing
Syllabic, Melismatic, and Neumatic singing share several similarities in their approach to vocal expression.
- All three styles involve the interpretation of musical phrases through the use of vocal techniques. This means that singers who perform syllabic, melismatic, or neumatic passages must possess a strong understanding of proper breathing and vocal control.
Additionally, these singing styles also require a level of expertise in interpreting musical notation. In syllabic singing, each syllable is assigned one note, allowing for clear and precise articulation of the text. Similarly, melismatic singing involves multiple notes being sung on a single syllable, creating elaborate and intricate musical phrases.
Furthermore, both neumatic and melismatic singing rely on a degree of improvisation within the established framework of the music. Singers in these styles are given more freedom to add ornamentation and embellishments to enhance their performances.
Interestingly, another commonality between these singing styles is their historical significance. All three techniques have been used throughout various periods in music history and can be found in different cultural traditions around the world. Despite their differences in execution, syllabic, melismatic, and neumatic singing all offer unique opportunities for vocal expression and artistic interpretation.
Differences between Syllabic, Melismatic, and Neumatic Singing
Syllabic, melismatic, and neumatic singing styles each possess distinct characteristics that set them apart from one another. Syllabic singing focuses on assigning one syllable to each musical note, allowing for clear articulation of the text. On the other hand, melismatic singing involves multiple notes being sung on a single syllable, resulting in a more elaborate and embellished vocal performance. Lastly, neumatic singing falls between the syllabic and melismatic styles, with a small number of notes assigned to each syllable. This style allows for a moderate level of ornamentation while maintaining textual clarity. These differences in singing styles add depth and variety to musical compositions and require a different skill set from vocalists.
After exploring the concepts of syllabic, melismatic, and neumatic singing, it is evident that each style offers its own unique characteristics.
Syllabic singing focuses on one syllable per note, creating a precise and rhythmic delivery.
On the other hand, melismatic singing expands on this by using multiple notes for a single syllable, allowing for expressive embellishments and vocal flexibility.
Finally, neumatic singing strikes a balance between the two, incorporating minor melismas to enhance the melodic line without overwhelming the text.
By understanding these distinctions, singers can navigate various musical genres with skill and artistry. So whether it’s capturing the subtleties of a single syllable or employing elaborate vocal ornamentation, mastering the nuances of syllabic, melismatic, and neumatic singing adds depth and richness to every performance.
Frequently Asked Questions
Q: What is syllabic singing?
A: Syllabic singing is a style where each syllable of the lyrics is matched with a single note or pitch.
Q: What is melismatic singing?
A: Melismatic singing is a style where multiple notes are sung for a single syllable of the lyrics, adding embellishments and ornamentation.
Q: What is neumatic singing?
A: Neumatic singing is a style where a small number of notes are sung for each syllable of the lyrics, allowing for more melodic movement than syllabic singing but less intricate than melismatic singing.
Q: Which singing style allows for more ornamentation in vocal performance?
A: Melismatic singing allows for more ornamentation, as singers can add flourishes and variations by singing multiple notes for a single syllable.
Q: Which singing style is commonly used in opera and choral music?
A: Syllabic singing is commonly used in opera and choral music, where clarity of text and ensemble synchronization are important.
Q: Can singers switch between different singing styles?
A: Yes, singers can switch between syllabic, melismatic, and neumatic singing styles based on the requirements of the music piece and the desired artistic expression.