By Kindergarten Teacher Christine Pierce Inglis
Our early childhood program lays a foundation for writing and reading but does not begin formal instruction until the children are in first grade. What do we do in the kindergarten to prepare our children and what practical things can you do at home to further this process? Let’s take a look at some of the important skills and abilities involved in the process of learning to write and read:
Language Skills, including Speech Proficiency
Physical and Sensory Development
Social and Emotional Intelligence
The richer and more varied the child’s vocabulary, the more clearly he differentiates sounds and words, the better foundation he will have when he needs to translate these sounds into symbols. We immerse the children in poetry and songs everyday at circle time and we use the important element of repetition to reinforce the learning. It is well known to linguists that a child needs constant repetition of new sounds and words before he is able to reproduce them himself. Unlike physical objects which the child is free to pick up and examine at will, as often as he likes, a sound or word is transitory; it is there for a brief moment in time and then gone again. If it is not repeated enough, the child has no way to grasp it and learn about it.
For this reason we continue for several weeks with certain poems and songs at circle time, and we repeat our stories and puppet shows many times in a row, to familiarize the children with the language, imagery and concepts. As teachers we have many techniques to ensure that the circles do not grow stale or over-familiar while at the same time keeping the repetition of the words. We can expand and add new gestures or imagery, add costumes or turn the song or poem into a game. And as teachers we know the importance of delving deeply into the imagery and meaning of the fairy tales and stories for ourselves to keep them interesting and fresh for us, which is the key to keeping them alive for the children.
Experience has shown that the child must have reached a point of maturity with regard to oral language before beginning to read. This is known as the “speech age” of the child and is determined by the child’s use of phonemes and his ability or inability to form a particular sound. It has been estimated that by the age of seven the average child is able to correctly articulate the consonants and consonant blends ninety percent of the time. The learning of the alphabet of sound is an important prerequisite to learning the alphabet of letters.
Children with reading difficulties frequently have problems in speech. Therefore, by helping children to overcome their speech defects one can assist them in their association of sound and letter/word, and their capacity for oral reading. The best situation would be to help the child to learn to form his speech correctly before he begins to write and read.
In a study made by Sonenberg and Glass, forty children with reading problems were tested for speech and auditory defects. All but two of the children had speech problems and nearly half had problems with auditory discrimination. The children with difficulties in auditory discrimination frequently made the following sound reversals: K to G, P to D, W to WH, F to T, T to L, P to M, P to G, B to D, T to K, M to S, D to T, T to unvoiced TH, F to unvoiced TH, F to V. These substitutions often show up as reading reversals.
Van Riper and Butler have set outlines for phoneme teaching that stress the importance of identifying each sound with a sound in the child’s environment, giving the sound a name, and identifying the sound with a picture. For example, “S” is described as the whistling sound of the teakettle. For our young children, it is enough to identify the sound without naming it; although on occasion I make an exception (Pattacake, or the folk song BINGO).
Speech Proficiency Tip:
Sing to your child! Sing songs that you remember from your childhood. When choosing a fairy tale or story for your child, think about the complexity of the conflict in the story. For a preschool child, a simple story about a child searching for, and finding, her cat can be enough of a conflict and resolution. For older kindergarten children, a story with more complex tasks or difficulties to overcome (such as three tasks to be performed to break the enchantment) can be considered. Always look at the level of conflict and tension within the story to guide you.
Three to four year old children are still coming to terms with their own bodies and the everyday life and world of objects and nature. (Also a primitive “animism” is still alive in the child, and there are many delightful folk tales that reflect this…the door speaks, the table speaks, etc.) Putting on boots and mittens, walking in the woods, helping mother knead bread dough or sweep the kitchen floor; these everyday activities are special events for the young child, and opportunities for learning. Watching the postman or the farmer at work, observing how grown-ups do things, are all very important at this age. Therefore stories which center around daily life, home or work activities are well-loved, and at circle time young children love to mime these activities in connection with the poems or songs. Try singing “Here we go ‘round the mulberry bush” with its endless verses of “this is the way we wash our hands” (or brush our teeth, or put on our boots) when you are doing these activities with your child. It is a great way to get happy compliance! Nursery rhymes are also wonderful and you can use them to accompany certain routine activities. Everyday when the children come in for lunch I stand at the door, holding it open and making a sort of bridge with my arm that they walk under, and I often sing “London Bridges”. Or when I pour the water into each of their cups at lunch it reminds me of “Jack and Jill” who went to fetch a pail of water and I sing that song each day as I pour the water. It is a simple little ritual but the children often like to join in, and the repetition gives them a chance to become very familiar with the sounds and rhythms.
At age five and six the children have developed to a different stage and their drawings are indicative of their awakening consciousness. The sky and the earth are now often separated on the page, the child is no longer living completely “at one” with the world but is beginning to connect to the concept of separation in a new way. This shows his readiness for slightly more complicated plots, such as some of the Grimm’s Fairy Tales. These creative pictures feed his imagination developing a capacity for rich imagery. The children are now less dependent on the visual props of the puppet show (we do mostly puppet shows with the younger nursery children) and can listen and independently picture the happenings in the story.
Speech Proficiency Tip:
All children love to hear stories about what their parents did as little children. Try to remember some – it doesn’t matter how mundane they are, your children will be delighted! Also, it is great to observe something in nature and share it with your child at mealtimes. I store up memories of things that I have seen on the way to school that morning, for example, a cardinal flying across the road, or a bunny hopping into the bushes, and of course endless stories about my cat, Kippy, which children love. (“Tell us about Kippy!”). Once I have shared a short story/observation from my day, the children quite naturally follow my lead and often will take turns telling things that they have seen. It is a nice way to begin a mealtime conversation, and these conversations are a great place for the children to practice their language skills.
The eye becomes structurally complete at about eight years of age. Before that time, the eyes are still in a process of development. The unnatural hand and eye movements required for writing and reading must be learned. In writing, the hand must be able to move across the page from left to right in a controlled manner. In reading, the eyes must be able to make this same movement, over and over. In daily life, one would rarely (if ever) move one’s eyes in such a way for any length of time. Instead, the eyes would be constantly moving back and forth, up and down, near and far, in a very different pattern. Emerald Dechant (author of “Improving the Teaching of Reading”) asserts that the child of six is usually too farsighted to see objects as small as a word clearly and with ease. Some authorities have even suggested that children are made myopic (nearsighted) through premature attempts to adapt to the demand of close vision.
Visual Proficiency Tip:
At the end of clean-up time I ask the children, one at a time, to use their “eagle eyes” and find anything that is out of place. You can do the same at home, and make a little game of it.
Unless the child is able to differentiate the sounds that make up a word, he will not be able to form the proper association of spoken sound to graphic symbol. In fact, it has been found that listening is generally more effective than reading as a learning device for children under eight years.
Listening is the first language art that the child develops. This power of mastering new sound discriminations decreases as one grows older. A baby will easily pick up the language with which he is surrounded and imitate the precise intonations necessary. Contrast this with the adult trying to learn a foreign language; it is much more difficult for him to master, partly due to a fixation of the speech organism, but also in a large part due to an inability to distinguish sounds. Often an adult retains an “accent” in the foreign language because he doesn’t perceive the subtle difference in the phonetics or cadences of the new language as compared to his native tongue.
Research has shown that good listeners rated higher than poor listeners in intelligence, reading, socioeconomic status, and achievement, but not on a hearing test. This indicates that the activity of listening is not necessarily bound up with a person’s physical, auditory acuity. Listening occurs only when the child organizes and remembers what is heard. It requires the active engagement of one’s thinking processes. Obviously, a hearing impairment would create difficulties for a child, but clearly, the physical capacity only provides the basis for the activity of listening to take place.
The ability to listen is basic to the learning of reading. It is generally recognized that this ability must be consciously fostered, as children enter school with quite varied degrees of listening ability. Dechant names several ways in which listening can be taught: through storytelling, conversation, dramatization, singing of songs, reading of poems and reading or speaking rhymes. Some schools have so-called “listening centers” with pupil-operated devices consisting of a CD player, earphones and response sheets which are filled in by the pupil. It has been noted that the listening center equipment does little to improve empathic listening, reactive listening, projective listening or interpretative listening which seem to be better fostered in face-to-face situations, which is what we emphasize in Waldorf Schools.
Auditory Proficiency Tip:
Find a stringed instrument such as a lyre or guitar, or a chime bar or xylophone that rings. Play one tone (by plucking the string or chiming one bar) and have your child tell you when they can no longer hear it. Or get a big conch shell and hold it to their ears to see if they can “hear the ocean” in it. Or go outside in the woods and listen for the birds calling. And when you despair that you have to call them at least ten times before they come, start training them to come the first time you call them (let them know that you are going to call them and you will only say their name once – then go get them silently and take their hand if they weren’t listening. Eventually they will get it, and then you can give them a lot of praise!)
Physical and Sensory Development
In addition to what has already been mentioned in the way of physical development, there is a great deal of new information available in the area of brain research. As Carla Hannaford, Phd., says in her book “Smart Moves: Why Learning Is Not All In Your Head”: “The notion that intellectual activity can somehow exist apart from our bodies is deeply rooted in our culture. It is related to the attitude that the things we do with our bodies, and the bodily functions, sensations, and emotions that sustain life, are lower, less distinctly human…Thinking and learning are not all in our head. On the contrary, the body plays an integral part in all our intellectual processes from our earliest moments right through to old age. It is our body’s senses that feed the brain environmental information with which to form an understanding of the world… And it is our movements that express knowledge and facilitate greater cognitive function as they increase in complexi…”
Einstein once said: “Learning is experience. Everything else is just information.” So much of what we learn is taken in through our senses, especially as young children. The more we can give our children hands-on learning, the more we are allowing them to learn through experience. If we are constantly talking at them, and explaining, we are robbing them of the possibility of learning through observation.
Physical and Sensory Development Tip:
Children often ask: “What are you doing?” or “What are we going to do now?” or “What are you going to use that for?” Often adults feel that they are obligated to explain what they are doing. Try saying: “Watch and you will see.” And then carry on with your work. When the child sees that you are not going to tell him, he starts to pay attention and his interest shifts to a whole new level. It is very satisfying for him when he figures out what is going on through his own observation. Sometimes a child will ask “what are we having for snack?” I might say “what do you smell?” or “what did we chop together this morning?” If I just quickly answered “bread” or “soup” they haven’t been encouraged to pay attention to their own senses. When we quickly provide very detailed and complete answers to all of their questions we are training them to be inactive and always look to someone else, rather than trying to find their own answers. Of course, there are certainly times when you want to use the “teachable moment” to explain something; but don’t be too quick to jump in or too detailed at first. They need time to take it in and process the information. Start with simple, pictorial explanations. The child will continue to mull it over and think about it more if you leave something for them to discover.
Physical and Sensory Development Tip:
Since children don’t get to move as much as they used to (it is popular and sometimes easier to take them everywhere in the stroller or the car) give them as much time walking as possible. And if your child missed or hurried through the crawling phase, play crawling games with them! (Mama Bear and Baby Bear, or Papa Turtle and Baby Turtle, etc.) Walking over varied ground (such as hikes in the woods) is fantastic. Go to the beach in the summer and let them experience walking barefoot on the sand.
Physical and Sensory Development Tip:
Games to play for developing sensory awareness…Place three familiar objects under a cloth. Ask your child to reach under the cloth and identify the objects through touch alone. (This is a great game to play when you are waiting – in a doctor’s office, or a restaurant, or an airport.) Another game for the sense of hearing is to have your child close his eyes and then you play different instruments (for example a flute, or bell, or drum) and have the child identify the different instruments. Another game for the sense of smell is to put three pungent substances in three containers and (with eyes closed) have your child identify them (for example, lemon, ginger, cinnamon). You can keep the same objects and do them over and over, every time you play the game, so that your child can get confident in the identification. They love repetition! When you have done it many times you can change to new objects. Just remember to keep these games light and playful rather than “instructional”.
Physical and Sensory Development Tip:
Any songs or games with “body geography” are helpful, such as “Heads, shoulders, knees and toes” or the finger game “Two Fat Gentlemen”.
Social and Emotional Intelligence
Although research has shown that a mental age of six and a half years is the optimal age for beginning reading, intelligence is not the only factor that should be considered. Emotional and social maturity is also important. Mason and Prater found that: “…younger children make less progress than older ones of the same intelligence when they are exposed to the same program…” Although many studies have shown that it is possible to teach children under the age of five to read, it is important to consider whether this is desirable. Research has shown that the teaching of reading in the kindergarten tended to increase negative social behavior among the boys, and that learning was a much slower process than with first grade children.
It would therefore seem unwise to push children beyond their emotional or social maturational level, since reading disability is often caused by starting a child in a reading program before he is ready. As Dechant asserts: “Such a child cannot handle the day by day learning tasks and finds himself farther and farther behind as time goes by. He becomes frustrated and develops antipathy toward reading. He actually learns not to read.”
The relationship between reading disability and emotional and social maladjustment is often a “vicious circle”. If the child has difficulty reading this leads to a loss of self-esteem and a stigmatization which can become a tremendous social difficulty. But it is equally true to say that if a child comes to school with emotional problems or social handicaps, it is very possible that he or she may experience difficulty in learning, and this includes writing and reading.
In her book “Is Your Child In The Wrong Grade?” by Louise Bates Ames, Phd., of the Gesell Institute of Child Development, the author makes the point that a large proportion of school children are being forced to perform at levels beyond their ability, thus creating behavioral problems, and antipathy toward school and learning. Ames asserts that a high I.Q. can give the illusion that a child is ready for more advanced work at a higher grade level, when in fact, the child’s emotional and social behavior is not capable of more demands. Clearly, it is important that a child’s emotional and social behavior be considered in deciding when to begin writing and reading; and any activities which foster this maturational development would seem to be beneficial to the development of the child’s reading capabilities.
Social and Emotional Intelligence Tip:
Young children are constantly learning through their play. They learn a great deal when they play on their own: including working through and digesting many sense impressions and emotions and reflecting on things. Children also learn an enormous amount when they play with others: how to interact, how to share, how to stand up for themselves, how to be compassionate. It is a constant give and take. Provide opportunities for both solitary, creative play and creative play with others. Don’t overschedule your child with school all day, and then provide constant, structured activities and playdates after school. They need time to digest their school experiences. But if your child is having social difficulties it can be helpful to invite another child over for a playdate so that social skills can be practiced in a relatively quiet, focused way, in a familiar and secure setting.
Some basic social skills include:
- Learning to say “No Thank You” to someone who is bothering them (pushing, taking a toy, speaking rudely, etc.)
- Learning how to enter into other children’s play, for example, knocking at the door of their “house” and saying “knock, knock, knock, may I come in?” and conversely, inviting in friends who want to come in and play.
- If two children are fighting bring them together rather than separating them. If one has hurt the other, let him go and get a tissue and cup of water for his friend. Let them take hands and say “sorry, friend” then give them a task to do together.
A shortened version of this article was published in the Spring 2012 Mosaic Newsletter of the Great Barrington Rudolf Steiner School (PDF).


A selection of biwa in a Japanese museum
The biwa (琵琶?) is a Japanese short-necked fretted lute, often used in narrative storytelling. The biwa is the chosen instrument of Benten, goddess of music, eloquence, poetry, and education in Buddhism.
It arrived in Japan in two forms. Since that time, the number of biwa types has more than quadrupled. Guilds supporting biwa players, particularly the biwa hoshi, helped proliferate biwa musical development for hundreds of years. Biwa hōshi performances overlapped with performances by other biwa players many years before heikyoko and continued until today. This overlap resulted in a rapid evolution of the biwa and its usage and made it one of the most popular instruments in Japan.
Yet, in spite of its popularity, the Onin War and subsequent Warring States Period disrupted biwa tutelage and decreased the number of proficient users. With the abolition of Todo in the Meiji period, biwa players lost their patronage.
Furthermore, reforms stemming from the Meiji Restoration led to massive, rapid industrialization and modernization. Japan modeled its development on Europe and the US, praising everything Western and condemning everything native. Traditions identifiably Japanese became associated with terms like backwards or primitive. Such associations even extended into areas like art and music, and the biwa.
By the late 1940s, the biwa, a thoroughly Japanese tradition, was nearly completely abandoned for Western instruments; however, thanks to collaborative efforts by Japanese musicians, interest in the biwa is being revived. Japanese and foreign musicians alike have begun embracing traditional Japanese instruments, particularly the biwa, in their compositions. While blind biwa singers no longer dominate the biwa, many performers continue to use the instrument in traditional and modern ways.
The biwa came to Japan in the 7th century and it was evolved from the instrument pipa, while the pipa itself was derived from similar instruments in Western Asia. This type of biwa is called the gaku-biwa and was used in gagaku ensembles and is the most commonly known type. While the route is unclear, another type of biwa found its way to the Kyushu region, and this thin biwa (called mōsō-biwa or kōjin-biwa) was used in ceremonies and religious rites. Before long, as the Ritsuryō state collapsed, the court music musicians were faced with the reconstruction and sought asylum in Buddhist temples. There they assumed the role of Buddhist monks and encountered the mōsō-biwa. They incorporated the convenient aspects of mōsō-biwa, its small size and portability, into their large and heavy gaku-biwa, and created the heike-biwa, which, as indicated by its namesake, was used primarily for recitations of The Tale of the Heike.
Through the next several centuries, players of both traditions intersected frequently and developed new music styles and new instruments. By the Kamakura period (1185–1333), the heike-biwa had emerged as a popular instrument. The heike-biwa could be described as a cross between both the gaku-biwa and mōsō-biwa. It retained the rounded shape of the gaku-biwa and was played with a large plectrum like the mōsō-biwa. The heike biwa was also small, like the mōsō-biwa (actually smaller) and was used for similar purposes.
While the modern satsuma-biwa and chikuzen-biwa both find their origin with the mōsō-biwa, the Satsuma biwa was used for moral and mental training by samurai of the Satsuma Domain during the Warring States period, and later in general performances. The Chikuzen biwa was used by Buddhist monks visiting private residences to perform memorial services, not only for Buddhist rites, but also for telling entertaining stories and news while accompanying themselves on the biwa, and this form of storytelling was thought to be spread in this way.
Not much seems to have been written about biwas from roughly the 16th century to the mid-19th century. What is known is that three main streams of biwa emerged during that time: zato (the lowest level of the state-controlled guild of blind biwa players), shifu (samurai style), and chofu (urban style). These styles emphasized 琵琶歌 (biwa-uta) — vocalization with biwa accompaniment — and formed the foundation for 江戸歌 (edo-uta) styles such as shinnai and kota [Allan Marett 103]. From these styles also emerged the two principal survivors of the biwa tradition: satsuma-biwa and chikuzen-biwa [Waterhouse 156]. From roughly the Meiji Era (1868–1912) until the Pacific War, the satsuma-biwa and chikuzen-biwa were popular across Japan, and, at the beginning of the Showa Era (1925–1989), the nishiki-biwa was created and gained popularity. Of the remaining biwa traditions, only higo-biwa remains a style almost solely performed by blind persons in the post-war era. The higo-biwa is closely related to the heike-biwa and, similarly, relies on an oral-narrative tradition focusing on wars and legends.
By the middle of the Meiji period (1868–1912), improvements had been made on the instruments and easily understandable songs were composed in quantity. In the beginning of the Taisho period (1912–1926), the Satsuma biwa was modified into the Nishiki biwa which was popular among female players at the time. With this the biwa met a great period of prosperity, and the songs themselves were not just about the Tale of the Heike but songs connected to the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War such as “Takeo Hirose”, “Hitachimaru”, “203 Hill” gained popularity. However, the playing of the biwa nearly became extinct during the Meiji period as Western music and instruments became popular, until players such as Tsuruta Kinshi and others revitalized the genre with modern playing styles and collaborations with Western composers.
Types of biwa
There are more than seven types of biwa, characterised by number of strings, sounds it could produce, type of plectrum, and their use. As the biwa does not play in tempered tuning, pitches are approximated to the nearest note.
- Gagaku-biwa (雅楽琵琶) - A large and heavy biwa with four strings and four frets used exclusively for gagaku. It produces distinctive Ichikotsuchō (壱越調) and Hyōjō (平調). Its plectrum is small and thin, often rounded, and made from a hard material such as boxwood or ivory. It is not used to accompany singing. Like the heike biwa, it is played held on its side, similar to a guitar, with the player sitting cross-legged. In gagaku, it is called gaku-biwa (楽琵琶).
- Gogen-biwa (五絃琵琶) - This T'ang variant of biwa can be seen in paintings of court orchestras and was used in the context of gagaku, however was removed with the reforms and standardizations made to the court orchestra during the late 10th Century. It is assumed that the performance traditions died out by the 10th or 11th century (William P. Malm). This is instrument also disappeared in the Chinese court orchestras. Recently, this instrument, much like the Kugo harp has been revived for historically informed performances and historical reconstructions. Not to be confused with the five-stringed variants of modern biwa, such as Chikuzen biwa.
- Mōsō-biwa (盲僧琵琶) - A biwa with four strings used to play Buddhist mantra and songs. It is similar in shape to the chikuzen-biwa, but with a much more narrow body. Its plectrum varies in both size and materials. The four fret type is tuned to E, B, E and A, and the five fret type is tuned to B, e, f♯ and f♯. The six fret type is tuned to B♭, E♭, B♭ and b♭.
Middle and Edo biwa
- Heike-biwa (平家琵琶) - A biwa with four strings and five frets used to play Heike Monogatari. Its plectrum is slightly larger than that of the gagaku-biwa, but the instrument itself is much smaller, comparable to a chikuzen-biwa in size. It was originally used by traveling biwa minstrels, and its small size lent it to indoor play and improved portability. Its tuning is A, c, e, a or A, c-sharp, e, a.
- Satsuma-biwa (薩摩琵琶) - A biwa with four strings and four frets popularized during the Edo Period in Satsuma Province (present day Kagoshima) by Shimazu Nisshinsai. Modern biwas used for contemporary compositions often have five or more frets, and some have a doubled fourth string. The frets of the Satsuma biwa are raised 4 centimeters from the neck allowing notes to be bent several steps higher, each one producing the instrument's characteristic sawari, or buzzing drone. Its boxwood plectrum is much wider than others, often reaching widths of 25 centimeters or more. Its size and construction influences the sound of the instrument as the curved body is often struck percussively with the plectrum during play. The satsuma-biwa is traditionally made from Japanese mulberry, although other hard woods such as Japanese zelkova are sometimes used in its construction. Due to the slow growth of the Japanese mulberry, the wood must be taken from at least a 120 year old tree and dried for ten years before construction can begin. The strings are made of wound silk. Its tuning is A, E, A, B, for traditional biwa, G, G, c, g, or G, G, d, g for contemporary compositions, among other tunings, but these are only examples as the instrument is tuned to match the key of the player's voice. The first and second strings are generally tuned to the same note, with the 4th (or doubled 4th) string is tuned one octave higher. The most eminent 20th century satsuma-biwa performer was Tsuruta Kinshi, who developed her own version of the instrument, which she called the tsuruta-biwa. This biwa often has five strings (although it is essentially a 4-string instrument as the 5th string is a doubled 4th that are always played together) and five or more frets, and the construction of the tuning head and frets vary slightly. Ueda Junko and Tanaka Yukio, two of Tsuruta Kinshi's students, continue the tradition of the modern Satsuma biwa. Carlo Forlivesi's compositions Boethius (ボエティウス) and Nuove Musiche per Biwa (琵琶のための新曲) had both been written for performance on the Satsuma model of the biwa designed by Kinshi Tsuruta and Yukio Tanaka. "These works presents a radical departure from the compositional languages usually employed for such an instrument. Also, thanks to the possibility of relying on a level of virtuosity never before attempted in this specific repertory, the composer has sought the renewal of the acoustic and æsthetic profile of the biwa, bringing out the huge potential in the sound material: attacks and resonance, tempo (conceived not only in the chronometrical but also deliberately empathetical sense), chords, balance and dialogue (with the occasional use of two biwas in Nuove Musiche per Biwa), dynamics and colour."
- Chikuzen-biwa (筑前琵琶) - A biwa with four strings and four frets or five strings and five frets popularized in the Meiji Period by Tachibana Satosada. Most contemporary performers use the five string version. Its plectrum is much smaller than that of the Satsuma biwa, usually about 13 centimeters in width, although its size, shape, and weight depends on the sex of the player. The plectrum is usually made from rosewood with boxwood or ivory tips for plucking the strings. The instrument itself also varies in size, depending on the player. Male players use biwas that are slightly wider and/or longer than those used by females or children. The body of the instrument is never struck with the plectrum during play, and the five string instrument is played upright, while the four string is played held on its side. The instrument is tuned to match the key of the singer. An example tuning of the four string version is B, e, f♯ and b, and the five string instrument can be tuned to C, G, C, d and g. For the five string version, the first and third strings are tuned the same note, the second string down three steps down, the fifth string an octave higher than the second string, and the fourth string a step down from the fifth. So the previously mentioned tuning can be tuned down to B♭, F, B♭, c, d. Asahikai and Tachibanakai are the two major schools of Chikuzen biwa. Popularly used by female biwa players such as Uehara Mari.
- Nishiki-biwa (錦琵琶) - A modern biwa with five strings and five frets popularized by Suitō Kinjō. Its plectrum is the same as that used for the Satsuma biwa. ts tuning is C, G, c, g, g.
Generally speaking, biwa is considered one of Japan`s principal traditional instruments, and, as such, it has both influenced and been influenced by other traditional instruments and compositions throughout its long history in Japan. The following section will situate the biwa in the context of traditional Japanese music.
- General Background on Music in Japan
The general term used for music in Japan is 音楽 (ongaku). 音 means sound or tone, and 楽 means music or enjoyment. Both characters together technically refer to all forms of music but, more recently, evoke images of modern (post-Pacific War) ensembles and compositions. Traditional music styles have their own designations.
- 邦楽 Hōgaku - Japanese Traditional Music
Broken apart, 邦 means (home) country and, 楽 means music. The characters together are thought to be an abbreviation of the term 本邦音楽, which literally means “music of Japan.” The term Hogaku is also derived from 近世邦楽, which translates as “national music of modern times.” It is usually defined as traditional Japanese Music. Japan`s Ministry of Education classifies Hogaku as a category separate from other traditional forms of music, such as Gagaku (court music) or Shōmyō (Buddhist chanting), but most ethnomusicologists view Hogaku, in a broad sense, as the form from which the others were derived [Sosnoski 34]. Outside of ethnomusicology, however, Hogaku usually refers to Japanese music from around the 17th to mid 19th Centuries [Sugiura 1]. In Hogaku, musical instruments usually serve as accompaniments to vocal performances. Song dominates hogaku, and the overwhelming majority of hogaku compositions are vocal. In this context, the biwa was one of the prominent instruments [Dean 156].
- 雅楽 Gagaku – Japanese Court Music
Since雅 means elegance, Gagaku literally means elegant music and generally refers to musical instruments and music theory imported to Japan from China and Korea from 500-600 CE. Gagaku is divided into two main categories: Old Music and New Music. Old Music refers to music and musical compositions from before the Chinese Tang Dynasty (618-906), and New Music refers to music and compositions produced during or after Tang, including music brought from various regions in China and Korea [Randel 339] [The International Shakuhachi Society].
Old and New Music are further divided into 左楽 (Music of the Left) and 右楽 (Music of the Right) Categories. 左楽 is composed of 唐楽 (music from Tang) and 林邑楽 (music from Indo-China). 右楽 is composed of 高麗楽 (music from Korea).
Gagaku was usually patronized by the imperial court or the shrines and temples. Gagaku ensembles were composed of string, wind, and percussion instruments, where string and wind instruments were more respected and percussion instruments were considered lesser instruments. Among the string instruments, the biwa seems to have been the most important instrument in gagaku orchestral performances [Garfias, Gradual Modifications of the Gagaku Tradition 16].
- 声明 Shōmyō – Buddhist Chanting
The two characters: 声 and 明 literally mean “voice” and “clear”. Shōmyō is a translation of the Sanskrit word, sabda-vidya, which means “the (linguistic) study of language”. Shōmyō is a kind of chanting of Buddhist scriptures syllabically or melismatically set to melodic phrasing, usually performed by a male chorus. It is said to have come to Japan in the early 9th Century [Randel 270].
While biwa was not used in shōmyō, the style of biwa singing is closely tied to shōmyō, especially mōsō and heike style biwa singing [Matisoff 36]. Both shōmyō and mōsō are rooted in Buddhist rituals and traditions. Before arriving in Japan, shōmyō was used in Indian Buddhist. The mōsō-biwa was also rooted in Indian Buddhism, and the heike-biwa, as a predecessor to the mōsō-biwa, was the principle instrument of the biwa hōshi, who were blind Buddhist priests.
- Biwa Aesthetics
Generally speaking, biwas have four strings. That being said, modern satsuma and chikuzen biwas might have five strings. The first string is thickest and the fourth string is thinnest (the second string is the thickest on the chikuzen-biwa, and the fourth and fifth strings are the same thickness on five-stringed chikuzen and satsuma-biwas) [Minoru Miki 75]. The varying string thickness creates different timbres when stroked from different directions.
In biwa, tuning is not fixed. General tones and pitches can fluctuate up or down entire steps or microtones [Dean 157]. When singing in a chorus, biwa singers often stagger their entry and often sing through non-synchronized, heterophony accompaniment [Dean 149]. In solo performances, a biwa performer sings monophonically, with melismatic emphasis throughout the performance. These monophonic do not follow a set harmony. Instead biwa singers tend to sing with a flexible pitch without distinguishing soprano, alto, tenor, or bass roles. This singing style is complemented by the biwa, which biwa players use to produce short glissandi throughout the performance [Morton Feldman 181]. Biwa singing style tends to be nasal, particularly when singing vowels, the consonant ん, and notes containing “g” (e.g., が, ぎ, ぐ, げ, ご, ぎゃ, ぎゅ, ぎょ). Also, biwa performers vary the volume of their voice between barely audible to very loud (rarely deafening). Since biwa performances were generally for small groups, singers did not need to project their voices as do opera singers in the Western tradition
Biwa music is based on a pentatonic scale (sometimes referred to as a five-tone or five-note scale), meaning that each octave contains five notes. This scale sometimes includes supplementary notes, but the core remains pentatonic. The rhythm in biwa performances allows for a broad flexibility of pulse. Songs are not always metered, although more modern collaborations are metered. Notes played on the biwa usually begin slow and thin and progress through gradual accelerations, increasing and decreasing tempo throughout the performance. The texture of biwa singing is often described as “sparse.”
The plectrum also contributes to the texture of biwa music. Different sized plectrums produced different textures; for example, the plectrum used on a moso-biwa was much larger than that used on a gaku-biwa, producing a harsher, more vigorous sound [Morley 51]. The plectrum is also critical to creating the sawari sound, which is particularly utilized with satsuma-biwas [Rossing 181]. What the plectrum is made of also changes the texture, with ivory and plastic plectrums creating a more resilient texture to the wooden plectrum`s twangy hum [Malm 215].
Use in modern music
Biwa usage in Japan has declined greatly since the Heian period. Outside influence, internal pressures, and socio-political turmoil redefined biwa patronage and biwa image; for example, the Onin War during the Muromachi period (1338–1573) and the subsequent Warring States period (15th-17th centuries) disrupted the cycle of tutelage for heikyoku performers. As a result, younger musicians turned to other instruments and interest in biwa music decreased. Even the biwa hoshi transitioned to other instruments such as the shamisen (a three stringed lute) [Gish 143].
Interest in the biwa revived during the Edo period (1600–1868) when Tokugawa Ieyasu unified Japan and established the Tokugawa Shogunate. Ieyasu favored biwa music and became a major patron. He helped strengthen biwa guilds (called Todo) by financing them and allowing them special privileges (142). Shamisen players and other musicians found it financially beneficial to switch to the biwa, and, as they crossed over, they brought new styles. The Edo period proved to be one of the most prolific and artistically creative periods for the biwa in its long history in Japan (143).
In 1868, the Tokugawa Shogunate collapsed, giving way to the Meiji period and the Meiji Restoration. In Meiji, the samurai class was abolished, and the Todo lost their patronage. Biwa players no longer enjoyed special privileges and were forced to support themselves. At the beginning of Meiji (1868), it was estimated that there were at least one hundred traditional court musicians in Tokyo. Yet, by the 1930s, there were only forty-six traditional court musicians in Tokyo. A quarter of these musicians died in the war. Life in Post-war Japan was difficult, and many musicians abandoned their music in favor of more sustainable livelihoods [Garfias, Gradual Modifications of the Gagaku Tradition 18].
While many styles of biwa flourished in the early 1900s (e.g., Kindai-biwa from the 1900s-1930s), the cycle of tutelage was broken yet again. Currently, there are no direct means of studying biwa in many biwa traditions [Ferranti, Relations between Music and Text in "Higo Biwa"_ The "Nagashi" Pattern as a Text-MusicSystem 150]. Even higo-biwa players, who were quite popular in the early 20th century, may no longer have a direct means of studying oral composition, as the bearers of the tradition have either died or are no longer able to play. Kindai biwa still retains a significant number of professional and amateur practitioners, but zato, heike, and moso-biwa styles have all but died out [Tokita 83].
As biwa music declined in post-Pacific War Japan, many Japanese composers and musicians found ways to revitalize interest in it. They recognized that studies in music theory and music composition in Japan almost entirely consisted in Western theory and instruction. Beginning in the late 1960s, these musicians and composers began to incorporate Japanese music and Japanese instruments into their compositions; for example, one composer, Toru Takemitsu, collaborated with Western composers and compositions to include the distinctly Asian biwa. His well-received compositions such as November Steps, which incorporates biwa heikyoku with Western orchestral performance, revitalized interest in the biwa and sparked a series of collaborative efforts by other musician in genres ranging from jpop and enza to shin-hougaku and gendaigaku [Tonai 25].
Other musicians, such as Yamashika Yoshiyuki, who is considered by most ethnomusicologists to be the last of the biwa hoshi, preserved scores of songs that were almost lost forever. Yamashika, born in the late Meiji, continued the biwa hoshi tradition until his death in 1996. Beginning in the late sixties to the late eighties, composers and historians from all over the world visited Yamashika and recorded many of his songs. Up to that time, the biwa hoshi tradition of songs was completely an oral tradition. When Yamashika died in 1996, the era of the biwa hoshi tutelage died with him, but the music and genius of that era continues thanks to his recordings [Sanger].
- Silenziosa Luna - 沈黙の月 / ALM Records ALCD-76 (2008).
- biwa from Britannica
- ALM Records ALCD-76


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Module A: Comparative Study of Text and Context– Exploring Connections: King Richard III & Looking for Richard
Module B: Critical Study of Text – George Orwell, Essays
AREA OF STUDY: Belonging Area of Study
An Area of Study is the exploration of a concept that affects our perceptions of ourselves and our world. Students explore, analyse, question and articulate the ways in which perceptions of this concept are shaped in and through a variety of texts.
In the Area of Study, students explore and examine relationships between language and text, and interrelationships among texts. They examine closely the individual qualities of texts while considering the texts’ relationships to the wider context of the Area of Study. They synthesise ideas to clarify meaning and develop new meanings. They take into account whether aspects such as context, purpose and register, text structure, stylistic features, grammatical features and vocabulary are appropriate to the particular text.
In addition, students will explore texts of their own choosing relevant to the Area of Study. Students draw their chosen texts from a variety of sources, in a range of genres and media.
AREA OF STUDY: Belonging AREA OF STUDY: Belonging This Area of Study requires students to explore the ways in which the concept of belonging is represented in and through texts.
Perceptions and ideas of belonging, or of not belonging, vary. These perceptions are shaped within personal, cultural, historical and social contexts. A sense of belonging can emerge from the connections made with people, places, groups, communities and the larger world. Within this Area of Study, students may consider aspects of belonging in terms of experiences and notions of identity, relationships, acceptance and understanding.
AREA OF STUDY: Belonging Texts explore many aspects of belonging, including the potential of the individual to enrich or challenge a community or group. They may reflect the way attitudes to belonging are modified over time. Texts may also represent choices not to belong, or barriers which prevent belonging. Perceptions and ideas of belonging in texts can be constructed through a variety of language modes, forms, features and structures. In engaging with the text, a responder may experience and understand the possibilities presented by a sense of belonging to, or exclusion fromthe text and the world it represents. This engagement may be influenced by the different ways perspectives are given voice in or are absent from a text.
AREA OF STUDY: Belonging In their responses and compositions students examine, question, and reflect and speculate on: how the concept of belonging is conveyed through the representations of people, relationships, ideas, places, events, and societies that they encounter in the prescribed text and texts of their own choosing related to the Area of Study assumptions underlying various representations of the concept of belonging how the composer’s choice of language modes, forms, features and structures shapes and is shaped by a sense of belonging their own experiences of belonging, in a variety of contexts the ways in which they perceive the world through texts the ways in which exploring the concept and significance of belonging may broaden and deepen their understanding of themselves and their world
NOTE: THIS MEANS YOUR PERSONAL RESPONSE IS IMPORTANT!!
AREA OF STUDY: Belonging Section I(15 marks) There will be ONE section based on unseen texts related to the Area of Study. This question will consist of a number of short response parts. Section I - RUBRIC In your answer you will be assessed on how well you: demonstrate understanding of the way perceptions of belonging are shaped in and through texts describe, explain and analyse the relationship between language, text and context.
If asked to considerAudience, think about: Age Sex Education Interests Background
If asked to considerPurpose think about: Persuade? Inform? Entertain? Review? Express Feelings? Narrate? Share an opinion? Arouse Emotion? Express P.O.V?
If asked to consider Tone think about: Attitudes to self, audience, context? Sincere? Serious? Critical? Positive/negative? Neutral? Cynical? Authoritative? If asked to consider Structure think about: Words, Sentences, Paragraphs, Overall Frame… Short, long, exhaustive, extended, littered with commas, cyclic, concise. Beginning, Middle, End? Climax? Anti-climax? Coda?
AREA OF STUDY: Belonging 1. When you first look at a text you should make notes on: FORM PURPOSE AUDIENCE CONTEXT 2. You should decide what aspect of belonging is being presented (see Syllabus outline for this) 3. You should decide how the composer has reflected these aspects of belonging through their chosen form
AREA OF STUDY: Belonging IF IT’S A WRITTEN TEXT, CONSIDER: Strong Action Verbs? Metaphor, Simile, Personification??? Colloquialisms? imply relaxed view of journey Connotations…positive? negative? Use of; Rhetorical Q’s? Parody? Pun? Formal/Colloquial/Slang? Sophisticated vocab? Use of Humour? Emotive? Description? Jargon? Cliché? Irony? Euphemism? Subjective/Objective language?
IF IT’S A VISUAL TEXT, CONSIDER: Composition, Framing, Colour, Symbolism, Modality, Vectors, Tone, Clarity?
AREA OF STUDY: Belonging HSC MARKERS’ DOs AND DON’Ts – AREA OF STUDY: SECTION I
DO: use direct quotations or paraphrases where appropriate in your responses analyse a text rather than simply explain or describe it choose appropriate textual references to support your ideas include a conceptual as well as technique-based discussion
Write a longer response than necessary, brief responses are required for one and two mark questions. Use limited textual support Quote large portions of the text without explanation Simply describe the content of the texts Describe generalised aspects of belonging with limited textual references
AREA OF STUDY: Belonging Section II(15 marks) There will be ONE question. Candidates will be required to compose or adapt a text for a specified context, purpose and audience. Section II - RUBRIC In your answer you will be assessed on how well you: express understanding of belonging in the context of your studies organise, develop and express ideas using language appropriate to audience, purpose and context.
AREA OF STUDY: Belonging Here are some suggestions that might be helpful if writing a narrative: • strong sense of voice, if writing in first person • clear characterisation suggesting who is affected/involved in the belonging/not belonging • barrier(s) to the belonging encountered on the way • clear evocation of place through descriptive language • sensory detail • metaphorical language linked to chosen aspects of belonging • clear conceptual reflection on certain aspects of belonging • framing devices linking beginning and end
AREA OF STUDY: Belonging YOUR TURN Task: This person chooses not to belong.
In what ways has this decision been
prompted by and/or impacted upon the individual’s experiences and notions of identity, relationships, acceptance and understanding?
Describe the place that this person
finds themself in. Your description must include full sensory detail, this means olfactory, visual and aural imagery.
AREA OF STUDY: Belonging HSC MARKERS’ DOs AND DON’Ts – AREA OF STUDY: SECTION II
Compose a response that is lengthy enough to allow you to explore the concept of belonging in an enhanced manner. Demonstrate an understanding and conceptual awareness of belonging Demonstrate your ability to skilfully apply the mechanics of language, punctuation, sentence structure and paragraphing as these are important elements of writing Show an awareness of the question and the rubric Respond with originality and insight to the question; this applies to content as well as form Demonstrate an insightful understanding of the concept of belonging in an insightful and succinct manner Use an authentic, sustained and engaging voice Employ structural complexity and cohesion
Simply use a linear structure and discuss belonging with limited or no conceptual awareness Use imagery that is simplistic or clichéd Simply recount a basic situation of belonging or not belonging with minimum reflection on the concept of belonging
AREA OF STUDY: Journey Section III(15 marks) There will be ONE question based on the Area of Study and prescribed texts. The question will require an extended response. Section III - RUBRIC In your answer you will be assessed on how well you: demonstrate understanding of the concept of belonging in the context of your study analyse, explain and assess the ways belonging is represented in a variety of texts organise, develop and express ideas using language appropriate to audience, purpose and context.
AREA OF STUDY: Belonging What does belonging mean? From the Oxford Dictionary and Thesaurus: belong, verb. 1 to be rightly put into a particular position or class; 2 fit or be acceptable in a particular place or environment; 3 belong to be a member of; 4 belong to be the property or possession of. belonging, noun. affiliation, acceptance, association, attachment, integration, closeness, rapport, fellow feeling, fellowship antonym: alienate, verb 1 cause to feel isolated 2 lose the support or sympathy Synonyms for alienate, verb: estrange, divide, distance, put at a distance, isolate, cut off, set against, turn away, drive apart, disunite, set at odds/variance, drive a wedge between
The most successful essays have a clear focus, expressed in a thesis statement at the end of the first paragraph. The thesis statement is the most important sentence in the whole essay; weak thesis statements lead to weak essays. In an argumentative essay, the thesis statement should express the position you're taking on an issue. Effective essays are organised around the thesis; everything you write in the essay should directly or indirectly relate to the thesis statement. DEVELOPING A THESIS STATEMENT:
The first way to tackle an essay is to READ, and read A LOT!! You cannot develop an effective thesis for your extended response if you haven’t read enough to inform the thesis. In class you have been given ample information (both verbal and written – in the form of copious handouts!!) to adequately answer all questions thrown at you by the HSC examiners. What you need to do is read, summarize and brainstorm the information. By now I am assuming that you have covered the first two stages of that task (yes, the reading and summarizing parts!) and that you are on to the brainstorming. This stage is important as it is where you actually develop your thesis. You need to decide which ideas in the texts you will focus on and why.
AREA OF STUDY: Belonging Example introduction:
An individual’s perception of belonging is determined by the world in which they live, grow and learn. Through the connections made with others and the world, an individual can better appreciate what it is to belong and thus develop a heightened sense of self-awareness . These very ideas about the nature of belonging and not belonging are explored through the employment of language, tone and recurring motifs in the poetry of Peter Skrzynecki, specifically ‘Felix Srzynecki’ and ‘Ancestors’, as well as the Australian western film The Proposition, and the novel Perfume (The Story of a Murderer)by Patrick Suskind. (ADD IN HERE A BIT RELATING TO THE ESSAY QUESTION)
AREA OF STUDY: Belonging HSC MARKERS’ DOs AND DON’Ts – AREA OF STUDY: SECTION III
demonstrate a sophisticated control of language, expression and spelling in an integrated and logical structure display a depth of understanding of the concept of belonging and the ability to construct an argument in response to the question compose a response that it thoughtful and astute establish a sense of personal involvement in the argument, and engage with the question be prepared to respond to the specific issues raised by the examination display evidence of a personal voice and demonstrate a structured argument select suitable supporting evidence from your texts choose related material which demonstrate san insightful understanding of the concept of belonging and which add substance to your argument support your discussion of texts with reference to purpose, structure and language features skilfully analyse textual features in relation to a conceptual understanding of belonging commenting on their impact successfully link your texts by reflecting on your conceptual understanding and analysis as this will result in a perceptive and sophisticated argument address the question specifically explain how textual features contribute to your understanding of belonging confidently engaged with the question and its focus underpin your thesis with analysis and discussion in a cohesive manner integrate an analysis of textual features seamlessly to support your argument use related texts of a sophisticated nature that advance your point of view Analyse textual features making insightful comments, accompanied by close textual reference and appropriate quotations use a variety of textual features to support your argument USE THIS AS A CHECK LIST FOR YOUR DRAFT BELONGING ESSAY!!
AREA OF STUDY: Belonging YOUR TURN Task: Write down your own thesis statement for the ‘belonging’ extended response. Now write an introduction using this thesis statement to answer the following essay question: To what extent has studying the concept of belonging expanded your understanding of yourself and your world?
In your answer, refer to your prescribed text and at least TWO other related text of your own choosing.
AREA OF STUDY: Belonging PAST HSC QUESTIONS Rubric: (This will be the same for the trial and the HSC)
“In your answer you will be assessed on how well you: demonstrate understanding of the concept of belonging in the context of your study analyse, explain and assess the ways belonging is represented in a variety of texts organise, develop and express ideas using language appropriate to audience, purpose and context”
More than anything else, physical journeys are about notions of identity. Do you agree? Argue your point of view. In your answer, refer to your prescribed text and TWO related texts. 2005 To what extent has studying the concept of belonging expanded your understanding of yourself and your world? In your answer, refer to your prescribed text and TWO related texts.
‘Belonging is essential to a fulfilled life.’ Discuss this statement, focusing on how composers of texts represent the concept of the belonging. In your answer, refer to your prescribed text and TWO related texts.
MODULE A: Exploring Connections Module A: Comparative Study of Texts and Context
This module requires students to compare texts in order to explore them in relation to their contexts. It develops students’ understanding of the effects of context and questions of value. Each elective in this module requires the study of groups of texts which are to be selected from a prescribed text list. These texts may be in different forms or media.
Students examine ways in which social, cultural and historical context influences aspects of texts, or the ways in which changes in context lead to changed values being reflected in texts. This includes study and use of the language of texts, consideration of purposes and audiences, and analysis of the content, values and attitudes conveyed through a range of readings.
Students develop a range of imaginative, interpretive and analytical compositions that relate to the comparative study of texts and context. These compositions may be realised in a variety of forms and media. (English Stage 6 Syllabus, p 51)
MODULE A: Exploring Connections Context defined … personal context refers to those elements that are one's own, individual and private cultural context is complex and refers generally to way of life, lifestyle, customs, traditions, heritage, habits - civilisation. More specifically, it refers to intellectual and artistic awareness, education and discernment. Popular culture refers to the Arts, the humanities, intellectual achievement, literature, music, painting and philosophy. historical context refers to the factual and documented evidence of a set time, either of the composer and/or the text. social context refers to the larger community or group, its organisation or hierachy. It also refers to that which is civil, public and of society at large.
MODULE A: Exploring Connections 16th century Europe:
time of change beginning of modern life Italian Renaissance spread to England growing economy – capitalist, money-based, scientific and technological innovation development of the printing press – making ideas, religious/philosophical/aesthetic/scientific rhetoric accessible to the people and the bible (people could question/judge/inquire into the teachings of the Church for themselves Reformation – Europe no longer united in religious belief, brought about social and political changes Initial optimism of populace dwindles due to changed social structure, rich became richer, poor became poorer growing middle classes due to merchant trading humanism Queen Elizabeth: an age of genius, exploration, national pride dynastic struggles between Spain, France, England and Scotland have cost Europe dearly and by the end of the century poverty rates are high causing tensions amongst the classes
Humanism: Scholars in the 16th century were heavily influenced by the ideologies of humanism. Humanism is a movement, started in Italy during the 15th century, which affirms the potential scope of human understanding and that, through the application of reason, all individuals have the capacity for self-determination. Humanism asserts that it is possible to come to a full understanding of humanity through the application of reason and scientific method and as a result individuals will acknowledge their free-will and with honour and integrity which will benefit the whole of society. Some humanist however, such as Michel de Montaigne, held that human understanding was limited due to the impossibility of knowing what lies beyond the ‘appearances’ which an individual projects to society.
MODULE A: Exploring Connections Wheel of Fortune: According to this medieval belief, still held by most people living during the Elizabethan era, the main controlling force in life is fate. All fate was determined by the Goddess Fortuna whose role it was to spin the wheel of fortune. The wheel of fortune visually depicts the precarious nature of man’s fortune. The Great Chain of Being: According to this medieval belief, still held by most people living during the Elizabethan era, everything and everyone exists in a certain order. This hierarchical view of the world posits God at the top of the chain, then the king, the pope, man, animals, plants and finally minerals. It was believed that any disruption to this chain of being, such as the murdering of a king, would create universal chaos.
MODULE A: Exploring Connections Some quotes from Shakespeare’s context: "In her (Nature's) inventions nothing is lacking, and nothing is superfluous." Leonardo da Vinci 1452 - 1519 "The experience of our times shows that the princes who have done great things are the ones who have taken little account of their promises and who have known how to addle the brains of men with their craft." "So far as he is able, a prince should stick to the path of good but, if the necessity arises, he should know how to follow evil." "It is much safer for a prince to be feared than loved, if he is to fail in one of the two." "The prince must be a fox, therefore, to recognize the traps and a lion to frighten the wolves." "Men should either be treated generously or destroyed, because they take revenge for slight injures - for heavy ones they cannot." Niccolò Machiavelli 1469 - 1527
"A desperate disease requires a dangerous remedy." Guy Fawkes 1570 - 1606 "Cogito, ergo sum." (I think, therefore I am.) René Descartes 1596 - 1650 "I am about to take my last voyage, a great leap in the dark." (Last words) Thomas Hobbes 1588 - 1679
MODULE A: Exploring Connections Aspects of Pacino’s 20th century context: Existentialism – Jean-Paul Satre Nihilism – Frederick Nietzsche War: WWI, WWII, Cold War, Vietnam War, Gulf War Civil Rights movement – liberty, human rights, equality, feminism, queer theory Religious uncertainty – atheism; secular society Psychology/Psychoanalysis – anxiety & neurosis Scientific revolutions – space race, Darwin, Einstein Postmodernism – focus on language and its role & power in society as well as its inadequacies
MODULE A: Exploring Connections Shakespeare’s context Pacino’s context: VALUES: progress freewill self-awareness tolerance emancipation materialist enlightenment virtue dignity honour Loyalty VALUES: reason democracy freedom human rights scepticism nihilism materialism disillusionment atheism/secularism individuality – or lack of it
MODULE A: Exploring Connections YOUR TURN Task: Write your own thesis statement for the extended response. Now write an introduction using this thesis statement to answer the following essay question: How does Pacino’sLooking for Richard sustain interest in the values represented in Shakespeare’s King Richard III ?
MODULE A: Exploring Connections PAST HSC QUESTIONS:
Rubric: (This will be the same for the trial and the HSC)
“In your answer you will be assessed on how well you:
evaluate the relationships between texts and contexts
organise, develop and express ideas using language appropriate to audience, purpose and form”
How does Pacino’sLooking for Richard sustain interest in the values represented in Shakespeare’s King Richard III ? 2004:
How has your perception of Exploring Connections been illuminated by your comparative study of the prescribed texts?
MODULE A: Exploring Connections Dos and Do nots from the HSC Marking Centre DO: Evaluate and analyse the comparative nature of the module through a well-developed thesis which incorporates a discussion of texts and contexts Demonstrate your individual learning and engagement with the plays Include detailed textual references to support your evaluation of the plays Write in an integrated way which allows you to demonstrate a clear understanding of the connection between the plays Ensure that a consideration of both composers’ context is integrated into the whole response Make strong connections between texts, contexts and the implications of the question Show a detailed knowledge of the plays and the techniques composers employ to convey meaning Remember that Module A is a comparative study and therefore plays should be explored in the light of their relationship rather than as separate entities Use textual references that are perceptive and well integrated to develop an effective argument Show appreciation of the way language forms, features and structures shape meaning Demonstrate a strong personal engagement through the use of a personal voice as well original examples Sustain a strong thesis Develop a highly literate responses which is well structured and clearly argued Demonstrate a clear engagement with the rubric and the question Explore the relationship between the texts and the values and attitudes of respective contexts
MODULE A: Exploring Connections DO NOT: Simply make connections about the relationships between texts rather than making evaluative judgements Simply describe ideas about the texts instead of discussing context Use references that are inappropriate Allow context to become the focal point of your discussion. Rely on simple narration Fail to maintain a central focus Persist with a non-integrated approach by overlooking the comparative nature of the module Structure a response around themes and issues alone as this does not address the nature of transformations Use textual references that are inaccurate, inappropriate and obvious Simply identify language forms and features without explaining how language shapes meaning Heavily favour one text over the other Simply demonstrate an understanding of texts without dealing with the specific demands of the question Confine your response to a description of parallel events and characters in the two texts
Ability to respond to the question Understands requirements of module Ability to write well
MODULE B: Critical Study of Text Module B requires students to respond to their prescribed text both personally and intellectually through an analysis and evaluation of language, content and construction, leading to an understanding of its textual integrity. They develop and refine their own understanding and interpretations of the prescribed text and critically consider these in the light of the perspectives of others. Students explore how context influences their own and others' responses to the text and how the text has been received and valued. Textual integrity/overall unity- coherent use of form and language to produce an integrated whole in terms of meaning and value - either individual or whole body of work. It is the artistry of the moment.
MODULE B: Critical Study of Text Textual integrity is a really broad term but, put very simply it's a measure of how well the text is written and how well it speaks to and is received by its audience, both during its time and today i.e. withstanding the test of time etc...
The notion of textual integrity rests on the close reading of the text (language, form, structure) and how these things work to coherence (in meaning).
Going out to notions of context (and also the interpretations of others) might then test out a (developing) notion of textual integrity, as it will shine new light on language and ideas etc. Reading for textual integrity is associated with a particular way of reading and the values that go with that. Students need to read "inwards" (to the text) to come to grips with it if they are to understand its textual integrity. THEN they might read "outwards" (to contextual matters, interpretations of others) to see if what they see as its integrity (or lack of it) holds up.
MODULE B: Critical Study of Text Textual integrity refers to the extent to which the text makes internal sense, and leads a responder to ask: does it create a consistent world within its own boundaries? does it make sense within its own terms? if it raises questions about life or society, does it answer them? if it doesn’t, is this a deliberate device to suggest that there are no answers, or did the composer just neglect to provide answers? does the text stand up to close examination?
MODULE B: Critical Study of Text Wikipedia definition: Integrity is consistency of actions, values, methods, measures, principles, expectations and outcome. As a holistic concept, it judges the quality of a system in terms of its ability to achieve its own goals. A value system's abstraction depth and range of applicable interaction may also function as significant factors in identifying integrity due to their congruence or lack of congruence with empirical observation. A value system may evolve over time while retaining integrity if those who espouse the values account for and resolve inconsistencies. Integrity may be seen as the quality of having a sense of honesty and truthfulness in regard to the motivations for one's actions. The term "hypocrisy" is used in contrast to integrity for asserting that one part of a value system demonstrably conflicts with another, and to demand that the parties holding apparently conflicting values account for the discrepancy or change their beliefs to improve internal consistency.
MODULE B: Critical Study of Text YOUR TURN Task: Write your own thesis statement for the extended response. Now write an introduction using this thesis statement to answer the following essay question: Your class has been exploring the question, ‘What will continue to make Orwell’s essays worthy of critical study?’
Your personal response has been challenged by another student. Defend your response through a critical evaluation of Orwell’s essays analysing the construction, content and language of the text.
MODULE B: Critical Study of Text PAST HSC QUESTIONS Rubric: (This will be the same for the trial and the HSC)
“In your answer you will be assessed on how well you: demonstrate understanding of the ideas expressed in the text evaluate the text’s reception in different contexts organise, develop and express ideas using language appropriate to audience, purpose and form”
To what extent has your personal response to the essays been shaped by the enduring power of Orwell’s focus on language and power? Support your evaluation with a close analysis of TWO essays by Orwell. 2005:
Your class has been exploring the question, ‘What will continue to make Orwell’s essays worthy of critical study?’
Your personal response has been challenged by another student. Defend your response through a critical evaluation of Orwell’s essays analysing the construction, content and language of the text. 2004:
‘Interpretations of texts can shift and change with time and place.’
Considering your time and place, reflect on the ways in which context has shaped your critical interpretation of the prescribed text.
In your response, refer to TWO essays you have studied.
MODULE B: Critical Study of Text DO: develop an informed personal understanding of Orwell’s essays analyse and evaluate language (essay-writing techniques), content (themes and subject matter) and construction (rhyme scheme/rhythm) of Orwell’s essays develop and refine your own understanding and interpretations of the essays critically and consider these in the light of the perspectives of others this means critics who have written about the writings of Orwell in a variety of different contexts since the time of the composition of the essays explore how context influences your own and others' responses to the text and how the text has been received and valued Remember context refers to Historical, Social and Cultural influences establish and maintain a clear thesis integrate a close critical analysis of the essays, with fluency and authority make reference to how others’ perspectives have informed and/or challenged your own understanding of the text firmly ground your response in the essays evaluate any ‘reading’ as it applies to the essays acknowledge and address the question in an integrated way
MODULE B: Critical Study of Text DON’T: rely solely on supplementary support material use barely understood critical theory in your assessment of the essays use critical readings about the text as a substitute for your study of the essays use too much jargon as it impedes meaning, fluency and clarity simply present a prepared essay with little real attention to the requirements of the question rely on, or provide a regurgitation of, various critical theories or of ‘readings’ with little sense of an evaluation of or personal engagement with these ‘readings’ ‘top and tail’ (make connections with the set question that are limited to the introduction and conclusion) the material that they have prepared for the examination. summarise rather than analyse simply describe various readings of the essays and fail to discuss the actual poems simply present a discussion/description of Orwell’s life rather than an analysis of his essays
GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS aesthetic Having an appreciation of beauty.
affective Relating to a thoughtful consideration and evaluation of emotions and values associated with an idea or set of ideas. appropriated text A text which has been taken from one context and translated into another. The process of translation allows new insights into the original text and emphasises contextual differences between the two. assess To establish the value of a particular idea or text.
concept A concept is an abstract idea derived or inferred from specific instances or occurrences. In the context of an Area of Study, ‘concept’ typically operates in and through language and text which enables ideas and experiences to be organised and at the same time shapes meaning and inferences. context The range of personal, social, historical, cultural and workplace conditions in which a text is responded to and composed. conventions Accepted practices or features which help define textual forms and meaning. creative thinking The ability to think laterally and imaginatively looking at all sides of an issue and devising interesting and imaginative solutions.
critical thinking The ability to think using hypothesis and deduction as a way to question, interpret and draw conclusions.
culture The social practices of a particular people or group, including shared beliefs, values, knowledge, customs and lifestyle. electronic media Media technology, such as television, the internet, radio, teletext and email, that communicates with large numbers of people.
evaluate To estimate the worth of a text in a range of contexts and to justify that estimation and its process.
explore To examine closely and experiment with texts.
genre A category of text that can be recognised by specific aspects of its subject matter, form and language. imaginative The ability to think divergently, to generate original ideas by thinking drawing on emotional and cognitive experiences. interpretation Explanation of meaning within the context of one’s own understanding. language formsand features The symbolic patterns and conventions that shape meaning in texts. These vary according to the particular mode or medium of production of each text.
GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS cont. meaning The dynamic relationship between text and responder involving information (explicit and implicit), the affective and the contextual. medium The physical form in which the text exists or through which the text is conveyed. paradigmOrganising principles and underlying beliefs that form the basis of a set of shared concepts. perspective A way of regarding situations, facts and texts and evaluating their relative significance. popular culture Cultural experiences widely enjoyed by members of various groups within the community. recreating texts Transforming texts to explore how changes in particular elements of a text affect meaning. register The use of language in a text appropriate for its purpose, audience and context. A register suited to one kind of text may be inappropriate in another. representation The ways ideas are portrayed through texts. structuresof The relationships of the different parts of a text to each other texts and to the text as a complex whole. synthesis The collecting and connecting of many specific elements or ideas from various sources to form something new. systems of Principles and processes which combine to allow people to valuation ascribe value to texts. technology The knowledge, tools and processes used to create the medium in which the text exists or through which the text is conveyed. texts Communications of meaning produced in any medium that incorporates language, including sound, print, film, electronic and multimedia representations. Texts include written, spoken, nonverbal or visual communication of meaning. They may be extended unified works or series of related pieces. textual integrity The unity of a text; its coherent use of form and language to produce an integrated whole in terms of meaning and value. value (verb) To estimate or assign worth to a text; to consider something to have worth. value (noun) A quality desirable as a means or an end in itself.