I. The Persian Tradition
1. Describe the achievements and significance of the Persians.
550 B.C.E., Cyrus the Great= Persian Empire across northern Middle East & into n.w India. Persians tolerant of local cus¬toms; developed iron technology; new religion-Zoroastrianism; and lively artistic style. Persians =limited influence on Mediterranean coast> ulti¬mately defeated Alexander the Great, Persian language /culture survived periodically affecting developments in region into 20th century.
II. Patterns of Greek and Roman History
2. Describe the characteristics of Greek political development 800 – 600 B.C.E.
Political development in Greece based on city-states, rather than single political unit. Each city-state had its own government, typically a tyranny of one ruler or aristocratic coun¬cil. Penin¬sula was so divided by mountains that unified government would have been difficult to establish.
3. Describe the differences between Sparta and Athens and explain when Athens reached its greatest height.
Sparta=military aristocracy dominating a slave population; Athens= commercial state with extensive use of slaves. 500- 449 B.C.E., two states cooperated to defeat a huge Persian invasion. After Persian war period Athenian culture =highest point, developed more colonies in e. Mediterranean & s. Italy.
4. Describe the rule of Pericles in Athens.
Pericles leader of Athens during Golden Age Peloponnesian.
5. Explain the cause and long term effects of the Peloponnesian War. (Philip II of Macedon)
Athens & Sparta fought for control of Greece in Peloponnesian Wars. (431-404 B.C.E.) Sparta won, but war greatly weakened both sides. Philip II of Macedon invaded from north & conquered Greece 338 B.C.E.
6. Describe the extent of the empire of Alexander the Great.
Philip II’s son Alexander extended Macedon¬ian Empire through Middle East, across Persia to border of India& southward through Egypt.
7. Describe the characteristics of the Hellenistic period.
After Alexander’s death empire divided among 3 generals. Greek art/ culture merged with other Middle Eastern cultures in Hellenistic period. Trade flour¬ished & important scientific advancements were made in centers Alexandria in Egypt. Hellenistic =spread of Greek civilization even after its political decline.
8. Describe the establishment and spread of the Roman Republic.
(Punic Wars)Roman state began as local monarchy in central Italy 800 B.C.E. Roman aristocrats drove out monarchy 509 B.C.E. New Roman republic gradually extended its influence over rest of Italy & conquering Greek colonies in south. Roman conquest spread more widely during three Punic Wars 264 to 146 B.C.E., against armies of Phoenician city of Carthage on northern coast of Africa. After defeating Carthage Romans seized entire western Mediterranean & Greece & Egypt.
9. Describe the events that led to the end of the Roman Republic and the creation of the Roman Empire.
(Julius Caesar, Augustus Caesar) Civil wars between generals>vic¬tory by Julius Caesar, in 45 B.C.E. & end of traditional institutions of Roman Republic. Caesar’s grandnephew, later called Augustus Caesar, seized power in 27 B.C.E., following another period of rivalry after Julius Caesar’s assassination; Augustus established basic structures of Roman Empire.
10. Describe the extent of the Roman Empire by 180 B.C.E.
brought peace/ prosper¬ity to Mediterranean world from Spain/north Africa in west to eastern shores of Med.> moved northward conquering France & southern Britain& pushing into Germany.
11. Describe the decline and fall of the Roman Empire.
(Diocletian and Constantine) it suffered slow, decisive fall over 250 years; invaders from north conquered Rome in 476 C.E. Decline reflected in economic deterioration & population loss: trade & birth rate both fell. Govern¬ment =less effective. Emperors Diocletian &Constantine tried to reverse tide. Constantine in 313 recognized legality of Christianity; decline in west continued. Roman armies depended increasingly on non-Roman recruits, whose loyalty was suspect. Invasion of nomadic peoples from north= end of classical period of Mediterranean civi¬lization; like its counterparts in Gupta India & Han China it could no longer defend itself.
III. Greek and Roman Political Institutions
12. Describe the characteristics of politics in Mediterranean Civilization.
Political interests were part of life in Greece &Rome. The “good life” for upper-class Athenian or Roman = active par¬ticipation in politics. Citizens participated in military> sense of political interest/responsibility. In Roman Empire political concerns restricted by power of emperor, but local area retained some autonomy in Italy, Greece, eastern Mediter¬ranean;
13. Explain the similarities between Greco- Roman political values and Confucianism values of classical China and India.
Strong political ideals/ interests =similarities between Greco-Roman society & Confucian values of classical China; con¬cept of active citizenship was distinctive in Mediterranean cultures. Greece & Rome did not develop a single or cohesive set of political institutions to rival China’s divinely sanctioned emperor or its elaborate bureaucracy; in addition to political intensity & localism in Mediterranean civilization-also diver¬sity in political forms; comparison extends to India, where various political forms—including participation in governing councils—ran strong
14. Describe the types of political rule in the Mediterranean.
Roman republic & most Greek city-states had abolished early monarchies. Rule by individual strongmen=more common’ “tyranny” in classical Greece. Many tyrants= effective rulers in promoting public works & protect¬ing common people against abuses of aris¬tocracy. Some Roman generals who seized power in later days republic had similar characteristics, as did Hellenistic kings who suc¬ceeded Alexander.
15. Describe the characteristics of democracy in Athens.
5th-century Athens major decisions of made by general assemblies in which all citizens could participate= direct democracy, not rule through elected representatives. Executive officers chosen for brief terms to control their power & subject to review by assem¬bly: chosen by lot, not elected on principle any citizen could serve; only minority of Athenian population= citizens. Women=no rights of political participation; half of all adult males= slaves or foreigners; it> popular participation & included principles we would recog¬nize as truly democratic.
16. Describe the most widely preferred polit¬ical framework in the Mediterranean world.
centered on aristocratic assemblies, whose deliberations established guidelines for state policy & served as a check on executive power. Sparta governed by mil¬itaristic aristocracy determined to keep power overlarge slave population. Other Greek city-states also= aristocratic assem¬blies. Even democratic Athens found leadership in many aristocrats, including Pericles.
17. Describe the structure of government in the Roman Republic.
(assembly, Senate, consuls) All Roman citizens in republic could gather in periodic assemblies to elect officials to represent interests of common people. Aristocrats held almost all execu¬tive offices. Senate =mainly aristocrats; 2 consuls shared executive power, Senate could choose dictator to hold emergency authority in time of crisis. In Roman Senate, as in aristocratic assemblies of Greek city-states, ideal of public service, featuring elo¬quent public speaking and arguments that sought to identify general good, came closest to realization.
18. Why did a significant body of political theory develop in classical Mediterranean civilization?
The diversity of Greek and Roman political forms, as well as the importance ascribed to political participation, helped generate a significant body of political theory in classical Mediterranean civilization. True to the aristocratic tradition, much of this theory dealt with appropriate political ethics, the duties of citizens, the importance of incorruptible service, and key political skills such as oratory.
19. Describe the similarities between Greco-Roman society and Confucian values.
Some political writ¬ing resembled Confucianism, but less emphasis on hierarchy or bureaucratic virtues & more on participation in deliberative bodies to make laws & judge actions of executive officers. Classical Mediterranean writers also paid attention to structure of state itself, debating virtues & vices of various political forms. This expressed politi¬cal interests & diversity of Mediterranean world & served as key heritage to later societies.
20. Describe the political system in the Roman Empire.
Roman Empire=different polit¬ical system from earlier city-states, but it preserved some older institutions, such as Senate which> meaningless forum for debates. Empire developed organi¬zational capacities on a far larger scale than city-states; but considerable local autonomy was allowed in many regions. Only in rare cases, such as forced disso¬lution of Jewish state in 63 C.E. after a major local rebellion did Romans take over dis¬tant areas completely. Careful organization in hierarchy of Roman army whose officers wielded great political power.
21. Describe the role of laws in Greece and Rome.
(Twelve Tables) In addition to tolerance for local customs & religions & strong military organiza¬tion Romans emphasized laws as one factor that would hold their vast territories together. Greek &Roman republican leaders had developed an understanding of impor¬tance of codified, equitable law. Aristocratic leaders in 8th-century Athens sponsored legal codes designed to balance defense of private property with protection of poor citizens, includ¬ing access to courts of law administered by fellow cit¬izens. Early Roman republic introduced its first code of law,Twelve Tables, by 450 B.C.E. These early laws were intended to restrain upper classes from arbitrary action & to subject them & ordinary peo¬ple to some common legal principles. Roman Empire believed law should evolve to meet changing con¬ditions without fluctuating wildly. Idea of Roman law: rules, objectively judged, rather than personal whim should govern social relationships; law steadily took over matters of judgment earlier reserved for fathers of families or for landlords.
22. Describe the characteristics of Roman laws codes that spread widely through the empire.
Roman law codes spread widely through empire & idea of law as regulator of social life. Many non-Romans were given right of citizenship & full access to Rome-appointed judges & uniform laws. Imperial law codes also regulated property rights&commerce> economic unity in empire.
23. What was the key political achievement of the Roman Empire?
Idea of fair & reasoned law, comparable in importance, although quite different in nature, to Chinese elaboration of a complex bureaucratic structure.
24. Describe the functions of government in Rome and Greece.
Most concentrated on maintaining law courts & military forces. Rome put importance on military conquest. Mediter¬ranean govts. regulated some branches of commerce in interest of securing vital grain. Rome= vast pub¬lic works in form of roads/harbors to facili¬tate military transport & commerce. Roman empire built stadiums & public baths to entertain & distract its subjects. City of Rome=over million inhabitants, pro¬vided cheap food & gladiator contests & other entertainment for masses; designed to prevent popular disorder.
25. Describe the religious policies of the Romans.
Govts. supported an official religion, sponsoring public ceremonies to honor gods/ goddesses. Civic religious festivals=important events that expressed/encouraged wide-spread loyalty to state; little attempt to impose this religion on everyone; other religious practices tolerated if they didn’t conflict with loyalty to state. Even later Roman emperors who claimed emperor= god as means of strength¬ening authority, were usually tolerant of other reli¬gions. They attacked Christianity because of Christians’ refusal to place state first in their devotion.
26. What were the chief political legacies of the classical Mediterranean world?
localism & fervent political interests with sense of intense loyalty to state; diversity of political systems with preference for aris¬tocratic rule; importance of law & develop¬ment of elaborate/uniform set of legal principles
IV. Religion and Culture
27. Describe the characteristics of Greco-Roman religion and gods.
derived from belief in spirits of nature elevated into complex set of gods/goddesses who were seen as regulating human life. Greeks & Romans= dif¬ferent names for their pantheon, but objects of worship were same: A creator or father god, Zeus or Jupiter, presided over an unruly assem¬blage of gods /goddesses whose functions ranged from regulating daily passage of sun (Apollo) or oceans (Neptune) to inspiring war (Mars) or human love& beauty (Venus). Specific gods= patrons of other human activities such as metalworking, hunt, literature & his¬tory. Regular ceremonies to gods =political importance; many sought gods’ aid in foretelling future or ensuring good harvest or good health.
28. Compare and contrast the role of gods in Greco-Roman religion and Indian religion.
Activities of gods= good storytelling; like soap operas on superhuman scale >classical Mediterranean religion= important literary tradition, as in India> reflected common heritage of Indo-European invaders; gods often used to illustrate human passions/foibles =serving as symbols of serious inquiry into human nature. Unlike Indi¬ans Greeks/Romans became inter¬ested in their gods more in terms of what they could do for &reveal about humankind on this earth than principles that could elevate people toward higher planes of spirituality.
29. Describe the limitations in Roman religion.
lack of spiritual passion. “Mys¬tery” religions, often imported from Middle East, periodically swept through Greece/Rome, pro¬viding secret rituals & fellowship & greater sense of contact with divine powers. Even more than in China a considerable division arose between upper-class & popular belief.
30. Describe the Greco-Roman search for an ethical model.
(Aristotle, Stoics) gods/goddesses of Greco-Roman= little basis for systematic inquiry into nature or human society or provide basis for ethical thought. Many thinkers sought separate model for ethical behav¬ior. Greek/ Roman moral philosophy issued by philosophers like Aristotle& Cicero stressed importance of moderation & balance in human behavior. Other ethical systems were devised dur¬ing Hellenistic period: Stoics emphasized inner moral independence, to be cultivated by strict discipline of body & by personal bravery. These ethical systems were major contributions in their own right & would also be blended with later religious thought under Christianity.
31. Identify/significance : Socrates In Athens,
Socrates encouraged pupils to question conventional wis¬dom; the government thought he was undermining political loyalty; given choice of suicide or exile, Socrates chose suicide. The Socratic principle of rational inquiry by skeptical questioning> recurrent strand in classical Greek thinking& in its heritage to later societies.
32. Identify/significance: Plato
Plato – Greek philosopher; philosophical tradition in Greece de-emphasized human spirituality in favor of cel¬ebration of human ability to think; result =some similarities to Confucianism but with greater emphasis on skeptical ques-tioning & abstract speculations about basic nature of humanity & the universe.
33. What were the practical results of the Greeks’ interest in rationality as a way to explain nature’s order?
many theories, some wrong, about motions of planets & organization of elemental principles of earth, fire, air, water. Also > interest in mathematics as a means of understanding nature’s patterns.
34. Describe the accomplishments of the Greeks in mathematics and science.
(Pythagoras, Euclid, Ptolemy) Greek&Hellenistic =geometry: theorems of Pythagoras. Hellenistic Scientists: empirical studies of anatomy; medical treatises by Galen not improved on in Western world for centuries. Euclid= world’s most widely used book of geometry. Hel¬lenistic astronomer Ptolemy incorrectly= theory of sun’s motion around stationary earth= it contradicted much ear¬lier Middle Eastern astronomy that recognized the earth’s rotation. Ptolemy’s theory was accepted in West until Copernicus’ work much later.
35. Describe the Roman genius for engineering.
Roman genius=more practical than Greek= engineering: roads & aqueducts that Roman arches= carry great structural weight. Rome= huge buildings. Greek/Hellenistic extension of human reason to nature’s princi-ples= their most impressive legacy.
36. Describe the characteristics of art and literature in Mediterranean civilization.
Official religion inspired themes for artistic expression/ justification for temples, statues,plays devoted to glories of gods. Artists empha¬sized beauty of realistic portrayals of human form & poets /playwrights reflected interest in human condition
37. Describe the characteristics of Greek drama.
com¬edy&tragedy; in contrast to India, Greeks= greatest emphasis on tragedy.
38. Describe the sculpture of the Greeks and Romans.
Athens’s t 5th century sculptors like Phidias created realistic/beautiful images of human form; subjects ranged from goddesses to muscled warriors/ athletes. Roman sculptors, less innovative, continued heroic-realistic tradition=scenes of Roman conquests on triumphal columns; captured power & human qualities of Augustus Caesar & successors on busts & full-figure statues.
39. Describe the characteristics of Greek architecture.
emphasized monumental construction; square or rectangular shape with columned porti¬coes; three embell¬ishments for tops of columns supporting buildings: Doric, Ionic & Corinthian. Greeks invented what Westerners still regard as “classical” archi¬tecture, (Greeks had been influenced by Egyptian models).
40. Describe the architecture of the Romans.
adopted Greek themes; engineering skill> buildings of greater size. Romans learned how to add domes to rectangular buildings= architectural diversity. Empire’s taste for massive, heavily adorned monuments & public buildings reflected Rome’s sense of power/achievement; move away from simple lines of early Greek temples.
41. How was classical Mediterranean art and architecture linked with society that produced them?
Greek and Roman structures were built to be used. Temples, marketplaces, public baths part of daily urban life. Classical art flexible, according to need. Vil¬las or small palaces—built for Roman upper classes built around open courtyard—had light, simple quality rather dif¬ferent from temple architecture. Thousands of people gathered in large hillside theaters of Athens/ other cities for perfor¬mance of plays, as music, poetry. Roman Empire known more for monumental athletic performances—chariot races/ gladiators—than for high-quality popular theater. Even in Rome, ele¬ments of classical art=part of daily urban life & pursuit of pleasure.
V. Economy and Society in Mediterranean
42. Explain the development and consequences of commercial agriculture in Greece and Rome.
First in Greece, then in central Italy, farmers increasingly tempted to shift to production of olives /grapes; this required substantial capital, because not bear fruit for at least five years> many farmers> debt. Large land-lords gained increasing advantage over independent farmers> they could enter into market production on a much larger scale with commercial estates because of greater access to capital.
43. How did the rise of commercial agriculture in Greece and Rome lead to efforts to establish an empire?
Greek city-states, developed colonies for grain production; traded olive oil, wine, manufactured goods, silver. Rome acquired Sicilian grain fields & used much of north Africa as granary>heavy cultivation > soil depletion>reduced agricultural fertility in later centuries
44. Describe the development and characteristics of trade in the Mediterranean.
commercial farming >concern with trade. Private merchants >ships carried agricultural products & goods. Greek/ Roman state supervised grain trade, promoted public works, storage facil¬ities. Luxury products from shops of urban artists /craftsmen= major role in lifestyle of upper classes. Some trade also beyond borders of Mediter¬ranean civilization , for goods from India & China, but Mediterranean peoples=at some disadvantage, for their manufactured products less sophisticated than those of eastern Asia; so, they typically exported animal skins, precious metals & exotic African animals for Asian zoos in return for spices /artistic products of east.
45. Describe the characteristics and role of merchants in the Mediterranean.
Athenian mer¬chants usually foreigners, mostly from trad¬ing peoples of Middle East. = higher status in Rome= 2ndunder landed patricians; aristocracy often disputed merchants’ rights. Merchants fared better in Med. than in China, in terms of official recognition, but worse than in India;.
46. Describe the characteristics and consequences of slavery in the Mediterranean.
Aristotle= justifications for slavery in society. Athenians :slaves as household ser¬vants, silver miners. Sparta used slaves for agricultural work. Slavery spread steadily in Rome from final centuries of republic. Most slaves came from conquered territories> slaves= element in military expan¬sion. = theme visible in earlier civilizations in eastern Mediterranean=helps explain greater importance of military forces/ expansion in these areas than in India or China. Roman slaves= household tasks, tutoring of upper-class children (for which cultured Greek slaves were highly valued) in mines for met¬als/ iron (mine work- brutal) Roman estate owners used large numbers of slaves for agricultural work, along with paid laborers & tenant farmers> pressure placed on free farmers who could not compete with unpaid forced labor.
47. Describe the development of technology in Greece and Rome and explain how it was affected by slavery.
neither interested in tech¬nological innovations for agriculture/manufacturing Greeks=shipbuilding/navigation=vital for trading economy. Romans=skills in engineering>greater urban amenities & good roads>movement of troops. Abundant slave labor discouraged concern for more effi¬cient production methods, so did sense that goals of humankind= artistic & political>Mediterranean society lagged behind India & China in production technology> unfavorable balance of trade with eastern Asia.
48. Describe the characteristics of family structure and the role of women in Greece and Rome.
importance of family structure=hus¬band & father in control. Women=vital economic functions in farming & arti¬san families. Upper class women often= influence/power in household; but in law & culture, women = inferior. Families with too many children sometimes put female infants to death. Early Roman law: gave life/death control over wife;(later= customs held in check by family courts with members of both families.>a case where Roman legal ideas modified traditional family con¬trols. Oppression probably less severe than in China. Many Greek/Roman women in busi¬ness & controlled minor portion of urban property
VI. Toward the Fall of Rome
49. Explain the impact of the fall of Rome and compare its fall to classical civilizations in China and India.
Unlike China, classical Med. Civilization was not simply disrupted only to revive. Unlike India,= no central religion derived from the civ. itself, to serve as link between classical period & what followed. Fall of Rome not uniform: it fell more in some parts others. Result: no single civilization rose to claim mantle of Greece/Rome; Greece/Rome would live on, but their heritage was more complex & selective than India or China.


This the social studies curriculum from Center School, Minneapolis.
At Center School the study of history is a critical piece of our academic program. History is a living connection to the words, deeds and lives of our ancestors. The study of history not only provides us with knowledge of what our predecessors went through, but why, and how they lived with it. It is important not just to know what has happened, but also to learn the lessons that past events can teach us about life. We can learn of past mistakes and successes, people’s values and motivations and see powerful examples of the best and worst of humankind.
History, as we see it then, is an opportunity to really examine the world of people and to learn who we are and how we came to be here.
We ask that our teachers deliver history curriculum that is interdisciplinary and multi-faceted. It should incorporate written and spoken language, scientific investigation, spatially-oriented mathematics such as geometry and a spatial non-linear view of time so that students know the power of place. It should also be presented in a variety of ways (such as storytelling, talking circle, adventure learning, map making and visits to historic sites, interviewing as well as reading) so as to make it relevant to the lives of students and to honor the many different types of intelligence and ways of learning and reflect the diversity of humankind.
Center School’s history curriculum is about helping students to learn from history and not as much about memorizing it. We are quite certain that nothing is truer than the saying that “A people who do not know their history are doomed to repeat it,” so we are committed to the idea that our students must learn from history.
They must learn to think critically, to challenge ideas or statements that they find questionable using research, insight, analysis, and the rubric of culture (native), and to evaluate events and decisions in terms of not only what can be learned from them but how we can best respond to them cognitively, emotionally and spiritually.
- Students will understand the relative values of oral and written traditions and histories.
- Students will know and honor the protocols of Indigenous oral traditions.
- Students will be able to critically analyze historical accounts.
- Students will investigate the motivations of historical individuals and groups, including movements, communities and nations.
- Students will appreciate the value of knowing about past events and people.
- Students will study history with a focus on gaining insight and wisdom.
- Students will learn and be able to perform at least two stories using an experimental-based pedagogy.
- Students will understand that truth, while not absolute, is an important component of history.
- Students will be able to perform historical research and share what they have learned.
- Students will understand and be able to utilize the concept of historical perspective in interpreting the history of North America.
- Students will understand that human beings and human relationships are a resource of immeasurable value.
- Students will be able to compare and evaluate the linear view of time in contrast to the spatial view of time.
- Students will understand that acquisition of knowledge and/or skills is an endeavor that Indigenous people undertake for the good of their community, nation and planet.
- Students will learn a minimum of four native songs, including the protocols of ownership and permission.
- Students will be able to express the concept of reciprocity through explanation, modeling and/or artistic expression.
- Students will become familiar with the history, terms and historical development of at least one Treaty.
- Students will understand that story is an essential component of our language, culture and history.
- Talking Circle (Rules) (Sample lesson provided) — Talking Circle is not a point/counterpoint or a debate sort of interaction. It is a sharing of points of view and/or wisdom.
- Storytelling is a semi-interactive performance. Stories are shared using multi-sensory information: words (including volume, inflection and other nuances that provide additional insight and meaning); music (traditional songs connected to the stories); smells (smudging and food); dances (parts of the story may be acted out accompanied by music); and tastes (food is shared at appropriate times).
- Opener/Ice Breaker (Get-acquainted exercises that emphasize the importance of relationships in learning).(Sample lesson provided)
- Experimental Learning/Sacred Geography of the Black Hills – An elder once asked, “How can we expect people, who for hundreds of thousands of years, spent nearly 100% of their time out-of-doors to learn by spending 100% of their time indoors?” The natural world has been the classroom of our children for countless generations, and they are well-attuned to that environment, with all of its cues and stimuli. The more opportunities we can provide for them to return to the natural environment the better they will (and are) become engaged and excited about learning. Examples of Black Hills Unit – attending workshops, conferences, ceremonies, fairs, cultural events such as pow-wows and dances, student-produced workshops. Class travels to the Black Hills, visiting sacred sites, learning of the importance and history of each while there through storytelling and exploration. Evenings include lessons centered around star knowledge related to the sacred sites. Days are spent exploring/experiencing sites first-hand.
- Historical analysis – groups of students are to research from a list of historical events and report back to the class. Students’ reports include basic facts surrounding events, names of local persons involved (who may be brought in to brief class on the events), legal, moral and social issues central to these events and spatial location where events took place. Students are encouraged to discuss motivations behind actions taken and subsequent value of same, using talking circle, at which time students are to also discuss what other steps could have been taken during and after the events in question.
- Memorials – class will attend ceremonies commemorating historical events or persons, paying close attention to both facts that may be illucidated and feelings or ambience of such ceremonies, which help to bring such events and people into perspective.
- Assigned Readings – students are assigned historical readings and asked to interpret them thru use of critical thinking. Facilitated discussion using a variation of talking circle are used to help students gather more meaning and increase comprehension. A major goal here is to help students perceive the value of reading and being able to express oneself in print.
- Test Prep – students will break down a typical test by looking for answers, developing strategies for different formats, questioning testing methodology (ex: is “either/or” appropriate here? would be a question perhaps asked about yes/no test items) Test Creation – Students are not always required to respond to a test, but, as an alternative, may be asked to evaluate a test or to create a test or some other form of assessment. The idea is to get them to think about what they have learned and how they can demonstrate such learning or even apply it in some practical fashion.
- Resource Development – students will research and identify the various sources that are available surrounding certain historical events such as: diaries; newspaper articles; oral traditions; audio recordings; audiovisual recordings; movies; internet websites; first hand accounts/eye witness and legal documents such as congressional acts, executive orders, court decisions and Treaties.
- Interactive/Proactive/Multi-sensory expression – We ask instructors to “spice up” lectures by providing opportunities for reflection, artistic self-expression, movement and spontaneity.
- Games – Treasure hunt-type games can be used to motivate students to search out information. Crossword puzzles and Scrabble type games are fun, active ways to build vocabulary and knowledge base. Role playing games can encourage students and teachers to be imaginative, making distant events more real.
Topics and (“Sources for inquiry”, keywords)
- Geography (maps, landscapes) Where we are, then (tribes by region)
- Oral Traditions - Stories (mostly local) (Ojibwe, Dakota, Hochunk, Menominee) Place Names (Ojibwe and Dakota and Hochunk) Wisdom/concepts (Explained vs. Implied morals)
- Tenochtitlan (map) –“The Broken Spears”, maps, “Aztec 4” video. Teotihuacan (picture) –( Readings, pictures, descriptions,etc.)
- Cohokia (picture and map) (moundbuilders)
- Migration (“The Mishomis Book”,Benton-Benai)
- Economics (Native American culture groups by region)
- Language/Music (local and national)
- Technology/Art (see above) (“The Present Past”,)
- Indigenism/Native Culture – Native Paradigm (“God is Red”, Deloria ..”The Lakota Way”, Marshall)
- Comparing Cultures ( Deloria,Lame Deer,etc.)
- Conquest beginning with Columbus (“Conquest of the Indies”, Bartolome De las Casas)
- Native culture impacts Europe (“Indian Givers’,Weatherford)
- Early colonies (Virginia, Plymouth, Greenland) (“The Name of War”,LeFore)
- Conflicts, War and Drawing the Color Line (“A People’s History of the United States”,Zinn)
- Treaties with European Nations.(“Federal Indian Treaties”)
- The History of Cultural Exchange (Democracy as concensus, runaways, etc.) (“In the Absence of the Sacred”,Manders)
Life in Occupied America
- Truedell (AIM, WK, Cointelpro) (“Trudell” DVD, Heather Rae)
- WK 1890,1973(Wounded Knee Massacre) (“Voices from Wounded Knee”, Akwesasne Notes)
- The Lakotas (“The Gift of the Horse” to Wounded Knee)
- The Dakotas (“Old Indian Days”, Eastman) (The 1862 Sioux Uprising)
- The Ojibwe ( Dennis Jones,U of MN))
- Federal Indian Law and Policy,from “Allies” to “Wards”( “The Long Death”, Andrist)
- The Shawnees (Tecumseh’s Vision) – oral traditions and novels about Tecumseh (Allen Eckert, Bil Gilbert )
- Natives and the Confederacy,Removal to Civil War (“Okla Hannali”, Lafferty “Shell Shaker”, Howe “American Indians and the Confederacy”,Abel)
- California (hunting for Indians) (“Ishi, Last of his Tribe”, Kroeber)
- Natives during the World Wars (Codetalkers , Warriors and Families, “Navajo weapon…”-McClain)
- Children left behind , Federal boarding schools (“Kill The Indian , Save the Man”, Churchill “Children Left Behind”, Giago “Our Spirits Don’t Speak English”,DVD)
# What is Genocide? (Hitler learned from U.S.) (“A Little Matter of Genocide”, Churchill)
- Survival Schools (Red School House, HOTESS, CSI) (AIM survival Schools)
- Alcatraz, WK, Oglala, etc.(“Like a Hurricane”,Smith and Warrior) (American Indian Movement)
- Language Revitalization ,languages reclaimed/the Program (Native Language Revitalization) (“Living Waters”, Lafortune)
- Self-Determination (IRA vs. Traditional vs. BIA) (see Wilkins, Johnson, Deloria)
- Music and the Arts (local and other sources) (Native American Art )
- Environmental Activism, Internal colonies, storehouses of The corporate elite) (“Struggles for the Land”, Churchill “All Our Relations”, LaDuke)
- Getting off the Horse (allowing Indians to be contemporary) (See Deloria, Means)
Objective: Students get to know more about each other and build a relation
Key: Teacher has to focus on the students responses and figure out what common ground they share with that student. This can be used as a relation building tool.
Directions: Tell students they have 10 minutes to find someone who can sign off on the paper. They can only have one person sign off once.
Supplies: Pens/Pencils, Handout
- Find someone whose first name starts with the same letter as your first name.
- Find someone who was born in the same month you were born.
- Find someone who was born on the same day you were born (but not necessarily the same month).
- Find someone who was born in a different state or country than you were born in.
- Find someone who has the same number of brothers that you have.
- Find someone who has the same number of sisters that you have.
- Find someone whose favorite food is the same as yours.
- Find someone whose favorite academic subject is the same as yours (or similar).
- Find someone whose favorite sport or game is the same as yours.
- Find someone whose favorite animal is the same as yours.
- Find someone whose favorite TV show is the same as yours, or a close.
- Find someone from your same reservation.
- Find someone who likes the same kind of music that you like.
- Find someone who is bilingual.
- Find someone who can say hello in 7 different languages. Note: Write these down
- Find someone who is going to Leech Lake powwow this weekend.
- Find a fluent speaker of a Native American language.
- Find someone who has been to over 30 states.
- Find someone who has been outside of North America.
- Find someone who has an Indian name
Lesson B: Talking Circles
Objective: Students will be immersed in an (cultural) indigenous way of “discussing” or sharing information.
- Students will learn indigenous ways of discussing important issues appropriately.
- Students will learn about the importance of smudging.
What is a talking circle? (Explain) It is a structured way of sharing points of view and encouraging people to reflect on each other’s opinions or feelings.
Why circles? There is no “First” or single most important speaker, all are equal, honors our connection to nature and the flow of life.
What are the rules of talking circle and/or discussion? (Only the persom holding the talking feather speaks.All others listen respectively, reflecting on what is being said.There are no “right” or “wrong” statements.This is sharing, not competition or debate.)
As students enter, they are greeted appropriately (welcomed with “polite”* handshake – explain/teach for non-native people). (* Rather than a “firm” or “manly” handshake, we suggest lightly touching each others hands with a non-obtrusive handshake.This is to reflect respect for each other’s spirit and at the same time acknowledge their existence, period.)
Students are asked to set chairs in a circle.
Teacher explains talking circle for benefit of first time participants (see handout).
Teacher talks about sage, the importance of smudging, and student responses are encouraged.
Teacher or student lights sage and it begins its way around the circle.
Teacher explains about the talking feather, demonstrates, and the feather beings its way around the circle.(Only the person holding the talking feather may talk .All others are expected to listen respectfully, holding their thoughts and reflecting on what is shared until the feather reaches them.)
First a general topic is introduced, then teacher- generated topics, and finally student- generated topics.This order is not of paramount importance.
When allotted time for class ends, the teacher-moderator should wrap-up by thanking everyone for what they have shared in terms of thoughts, feelings, respect, and by offering a prayer for the safety of all on the day’s journey.
Students will often request this activity if they enjoy it and the teacher can assess how well they learned it by the quality and/or appropriateness of their contribution.
Students can review “smudging” and talking circle handouts and make suggestions as to how to do it differently for the future.
Key Points of Talking Circle:
- All responses are listened to respectfully and are expected to be contributed in a respectful manner.
- The safer students feel about speaking, the more they are likely to speak.
Reading List — Primary Resources for Content Development:
- “Lies My Teacher Told Me” by Loewen
- “ A Peoples’History of the United States” by Zinn
- “The Power of Place” by Deloria
- “A Decolonization Handbook” by Wilson
Sources for Lessons:
- “Through Dakota Eyes…”-Anderson
- “The Mishomis Book” - Benai
- “A Little Matter of Genocide”-Churchill
- “Kill The Indian, Save the Man”- Churchill
- “Struggles for the Land” - Churchill
- “God Is Red”- Deloria
- “The Power of Place”-Deloria
- “The Conquest of Mexico” - Diaz
- “Old Indian Days” Eastman
- “Indian Boyhood”-Eastman
- “The Frontiersman” – Eckert
- “A Sorrow in Our Hearts”-Eckert
- “Lame Deer, Seeker of Visions”- Erdoes, Lame Deer
- “ Children Left Behind” - Giago
- “God Gave Us this Country”- Gilbert
- “Shell Shaker”- Howe
- “Contemporary American Indian Political Issues”-Johnson
- “All Our Relations”-LaDuke
- “Okla Hannali”- Lafferty
- “The Name of War” - Lefore
- “The Broken Spears” – Leon- Portilla
- “Lies My Teacher Told Me” - Loewen
- “In The Absence of the Sacred”- Manders
- “Crossfire, Plot that Killed Kennedy” – Marrs
- “The Dance House”- Marshall
- “The Journey of Crazy Horse”- Marshall
- “The Lakota Way”-Marshall
- “Where White Men Fear to Tread”- Means
- “Genocide of the Mind”—Moore
- “Ishmael” – Quinn
- “ Crazy Horse”- Sandoz
- “Like A Hurricane”-Smith and Warrior
- “Indian Givers” – Weatherford
- “Native Roots”-Weatherford
- “American Indian Politics and the American Political System”-Wilkins
- “Spirit Car: Journey to A Dakota Past”-Wilson
- “A People’s History of The United States” – Zinn
More info on these titles can be found at “www.pieducators.com under Respect”
- Dream Keepers
- Spirit of Crazy Horse
- Four Sheets to the Wind
- Our Spirits Don’t Speak English
- Incident at Oglala
- We Will Remember
- Lakota Solaris
- Fahrenheit 911
- An Inconvenient Truth
- Be More Cynical
- The Outlaw Josie Wolves
- The Mission
- Little Big Man
- Life is Worth Losing
- Smoke Signals.
Evaluation should be done creatively and with an emphasis on reinforcing student strengths and encouraging them to share what they know.
Allow students to choose a form of self-expression when evaluating what they have learned. Many students feel that objective tests are very stifling, intrusive and boring, so allow them to be creative. Relationship is the most crucial component of classroom management here and they need to know that you are more interested in who they are than what might be in their brains in terms of facts or skills. Pictures, maps, songs, poems, charts, games, videos, posters, clothing, presentation boards, workshops and meals are a few ways students may share what knowledge they will .


“World War II was more terrifying and tragic than World War I regarding the number of sacrifices and loss of resources.”
That is how a thesis statement or an opening sentence of the compare and contrast essay topics on history may look like. The article explores how to write a compare and contrast essay. Read it if your teacher asks to find differences and similarities between 2 or more objects.
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How to Write a Compare and Contrast Essay?
Before we share some of the best ideas to include in your writing, we should discuss how to write a compare and contrast essay in several stages.
- Consider 2 or more objects/events/people to detect similarities & differences. The primary goal is to read the assignment’s prompt, analyze it, highlight the keywords, brainstorm, and prepare an action plan called outline. Take notes while reading the materials – it is a solid head-start!
- Prepare a list of the core things that the objects have in common, and then specify what makes them different from each other. Experts recommend developing separate columns to include the results there.
- Exclude the most significant ideas and create a thesis statement based on them. Cherry-pick the points that underline the differences & similarities between the target objects in the most persuasive way. Think about the major themes, characters, and the messages of every topic.
- Make a final draft of the outline to ground the paper. An outline breaks down the primary points to discuss. In case of this type of homework assignment, it is better to avoid developing papers larger than 6 paragraphs in length (approximately 2-3 pages).
- Add textual elements to come up with the final draft. After writing a plan, everything left to do is to involve a credible evidence to support the main points of the text. To collect such information, a detailed primary research is required.
- Proofread & edit once you are done. Even if you are sure in the quality of work, dedicate some time to re-reading and checking the final draft before turning it into the final paper and submitting. Remember: once the teacher receives the paper, a student cannot get it back to fix something. Do not miss the chance to scan the text for the common mistakes such as grammar, spelling, punctuation errors, and even small typos that can affect the final grade. Another great idea is to ask someone to read & analyze the paper.
Compare and Contrast Essay Example Proposed by Expert
In short, here are the parts a student should include in his work:
- Introduction. Lay out the overall idea behind the main point; it might sound something like, “I believe the way these works draw parallels and gaps between these elements are significant as…” The next thing to step in is the body.
- Body paragraphs. A student is encouraged to prepare 4 body paragraphs for a paper of this type: list and describe minimum 2 similarities & 2 differences when it comes to discussing the offered ideas. A student may choose one of the possible body structures.
Paragraph 1 – Issue 1 Compare
Paragraph 2 – Issue 2 Compare
Paragraph 3 – Issue 1 Contrast
Paragraph 4 – Issue 2 Contrast
Paragraph 1 – Issue 1 Compare
Paragraph 2 – Issue 1 Contrast
Paragraph 3 – Issue 2 Compare
Paragraph 4 – Issue 2 Contrast
Some students prefer standing out form the rest of their classmates by offering a hybrid model.
- Conclusion. In a concluding part, sum up the offered opinions and reword a thesis statement.
What about a good differences & similarities essay example? Professional online writing services like the one mentioned in the opening paragraph of this article provide thousands of free essay samples to enjoy. As for the in-text examples, the experts say the following:
“It is not necessary to have a lot of examples as a single killer example based on personal experience or real-life situation can prove the writer’s point. Depending on the depth of work, a student may bring in outside criticism to back up the arguments. The second set of eyes may help to review the work from a critical perspective. Parents or peers can decide whether the essay is easy and interesting to read.”
Linda Strong, a certified academic & business writer at EssayClick.
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What Are Some Good Compare and Contrast Essay Topics to Consider?
Look for the best ideas shared by the top students in the lists below.
Compare and Contrast Essay Topics for College Students
A freshman may start from one of these essay topics for college students. You may also relate some to the years spent on a college campus.
- Mineralogy & geography
- Several different theories of Albert Einstein
- Political regime in the United States today as to the one 50 years ago
- Volcano eruption or tsunami: Which natural disaster is more threatening?
- How has the fashion changed since the early 90s?
- Would you prefer to stay miserable in a mansion or happy in a shanty?
- The life on campus is better than life with family
- Netball versus basketball rules
Compare and Contrast Essay Topics for High School
What about compare and contrast essay topics for high school? Youth today s technologically advanced – focus on this perspective.
- Samsung on Android or Apple iOS devices
- Linux or Windows operating system
- Flat & private houses
- Chemistry and Biology: Differences & Similarities
- Kennedy and Obama: Comparing 2 American presidents
- Money or gifts make people happier when it comes to holidays
- Which of the 2 date scenarios is better to implement?
- Do aliens exist or not?
Compare and Contrast Topics for Middle School
A list of the comparison topics for middle school is a bit less complicated than the one for high school & college students. Focus on the fun!
- Purchasing goods online against buying products in traditional shops
- Cinema or traditional theater
- Fiction plus non-fiction
- Holidays in Orthodox church versus those celebrated in Buddhism
- Which type of activity is more effective when it comes to losing weight: sports or diets?
- Wearing pants or dresses in the office
- Were mythological Gods real?
- Wearing uniform or having no school uniform at all
Compare and Contrast Essay Topics for 6th Grade
We recommend choosing something fun to discuss in essay topics for 6th grade. Pick several heroes from comics or popular ways of online communication.
- E-mails versus traditional posting
- Various concepts of beauty in modern world
- Heavy metal & hip-hop music
- Fruits vs. Vegetables
- Superman versus Batman
- Summer or winter
- Sailor Moon or Pokemon
- Toys & cookies
AP World History Compare and Contrast Essay
Have you heard about the Advanced Placement exam? Here are some AP world history essay topics!
- Draw a parallel between 2 or more distinguished leaders in history
- What did World War I and WW II have in common?
- How is the development of Ancient Greece different from the development of Ancient Rome?
- What is the difference between Southern & Northern states?
- Cleopatra & Margaret Thatcher
- Christianity & Islam
- Sparta & Athens
- Mesopotamia differences
Things to Compare and Contrast
Observe the list of common things to analyze. Those are simple ideas for this type of paper.
- Playing video games against reading: more preferred pastime
- Messaging is killing live communication: Pros & cons
- A personal lifestyle versus the lifestyle of the target role model
- Hollywood & Bollywood
- Similar & different traits children share with their parents
- Several quotations of famous people
- SEO or traditional approaches to marketing
- Comedy or drama movies
Easy Compare & Contrast Topics
- Active or passive leisure
- Having a long hair versus having a short haircut
- Driving a car or a plane
- Pick 2 plays of William Shakespeare to discuss (more authors are listed here)
- Select any 2 books from the epoch of Romanticism
- Gothic and Baroque art in history of mankind
- MacDonald’s & Burger King
- US English & UK English comparison
Choose one of the offered topics or come up with your own unique idea! Teachers would appreciate the creative approach. After reading several valuable tips, a student may still have no idea how to start a paper or attract reader’s attention. It is a separate art. If you are not ready to master the art of academic writing alone, there is no need to – go the website of an official writing service for students and buy a cheap paper written from scratch to stand out from the rest of your peers!
Let's say your high school or college teacher haven't assigned the topic for your assignment. It means you can choose compare and contrast essay topics by conducting in-depth research, asking for advice, or hiring a professional academic writer to help. It is simpler than deciding on the most relevant argumentative or scientific subject. However, every high grade expects a quality content written on the interesting essay topic; it is critical to learn how to write a compare and contrast essay and choose appropriate ideas to discuss.
Do not be trivial! The article you see now will help you to avoid confusing and banal essay topics. In addition to the list of the top-rated themes, we will share different links to websites with great examples and online writing help.
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Students will find some good points and ideas necessary for the development of a good school or college comparative essay. Online academic writing help is always available to lend a helping hand when it seems like the assignment is impossible to complete.
How to Write a Compare and Contrast Essay: Major Principles
The answer to the disturbing question like how to write a compare and contrast essay begins with the structure of this type of academic writing. It has the same structure as other types of academic papers with the few major differences. Introduction with the powerful hook and thesis statement remains the same. In your conclusion, reword the thesis and summarize the arguments used to defend the main idea of the paper. The body paragraphs are different. It depends on whether the author focuses more on differences, similarities, or tries to balance with both.
Take a look at a couple of images below to realize how to write a paper of this type based on our examples.
How to Choose Compare and Contrast Essay Topics Wisely?
The most effective, time-tested way to select essay topics in case your teacher did not give some is through researching different types of sources:
- Newspapers. A student can find an endless source of great ideas. They are related to the ongoing world’s events, latest innovations, expert opinions, political fluctuations, and other fields. Pay attention to both columns, interviews, and analysis composed by an authoritative person from politics, economy, and other aspects of human life;
- News channels. Turn on your favorite channel not to watch favorite TV show this time. Learn about the contemporary problems and try to think about an interesting topic idea spending something around half an hour of your precious time.
- Magazines/Journals. If you are not a great fan of politics, religion, or economics, try to find some good ideas in the recent magazines/journals. Check the rubrics dedicated to entertainment, technology, teen life, and sports.
- Internet. It should be the greatest source of all ideas collected in the previous types of primary sources altogether.
- Do not forget to attend various seminars, conferences, meetings to learn more about the things going on in the world and recently discussed by the society.
“Before starting the topic, organize the thoughts in a logical manner. Develop some kind of a chart/graph/table to have a visual picture of how the final draft should look like. In this type of academic writing, it is important to focus on the comparable qualities & characteristics of the subjects/events/people to impress the target audience. It means the author should pick original criteria to draw parallels or stressing the gap between the objects.”
Professor Beverly Thompson, online English tutor and golden writer at NerdyMates
Students will not understand how to write a compare and contrast essay without memorizing and using properly so-called signal words. Those are transition words. In other types of essays, it is important to join different sections like body paragraphs and conclusion in a whole piece with the help of special words/phrases. Find the list of signal words below.
Compare and Contrast Essay Topics on Famous People
It is time to answer the main question of our reader, “What are some good compare and contrast essay topics?”
World-known people like different celebrities and political figures have always attracted the attention of ordinary citizens. It's a great chance for every writer to catch an eye of the reader by describing and comparing the life of various American authorities.
You do not necessarily need to analyze the life of people from the same region or field of activity. Many students find it exciting to take a person from real life and a book or movie character. It leaves space for imagination. Have enough ideas to write your five-paragraph essay:
- Madonna and Celine Dion. While the first woman is a self-made American singer, the same can be said about her Canadian fellow singer. By comparing these two, you draw parallels between the American and Canadian pop stage.
- Adolph Hitler and Joseph Stalin. Even though these historical figures widely known to the public were from the opposing camps, there are more similarities between them than you can think.
- Peter Griffin vs. Homer Simpson. The two American television shows, "The Simpsons" and "Family Guy" are alike by showing the disadvantages of the nation and laughing at the public stereotypes. However, one of the shows is still more radical.
- Bugs Bunny and Charlie Chaplin. As the time passes by, these figures remain the symbol of their time and entire American culture. It would be interesting to write about the similarities and differences between their comic images.
- Online ads VS traditional ways to promote goods/services. How these methods affect lives of different popular people
- Hobbes or Locke. English philosophers’ roles regarding the contribution of each to the study of political science
- Batman VS Superman. The reasons why Batman won in the famous movie
- Start Wars modern episodes or episodes of 1970’s. Comparison of graphic, actors, plot, visual effects, music, sound effects, habits, etc
- Plato or Socrates. Decide which one contributed more to the philosophical research
- Putin & Obama. Differences in the political regime and economics offered by each president
Religion, Anthropology, and AP World History Compare & Contrast Essay Topics
Religion is often a taboo topic to discuss. Public schools and colleges have subjects dedicated to religion. Students are encouraged to write about it. Religion, history, and anthropology are closely related. You may choose AP world history compare and contrast essay that covers all three dimensions to enrich your essay.
Here we go with several good examples recommended by high school and college students:
- Discuss World War I and World War II. It is a traditional debate. Many people find the two wars similar, but historians point to a great number of differences such as main factors, actual causes, and consequences. Explain why World War II was much worse and terrifying.
- President Obama and President Kennedy. Mass media tends to draw parallels between both political figures very often. It is time to find out why.
- Ancient Greece Ancient Rome. All ideas related to the offered topic are good enough because these civilizations have a great impact on the modern world. Cover Greek and Roman mythology, describe their traditional public events, a way of living, differences and similarities in poetry, and influence on the modern American society.
- 18th Century Living VS Modern Life. Are American people freer now and how is a modern society divided into classes? What are the advantages of e-mail in contrast to the traditional mailing they used back in the 18th century?
- Frenemies. The way famous political competitors, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson acted often reminded of both friendship and rivalry – which one is correct?
- American Revolution VS French Revolution. Both held back in the VIII century, and both are having similarities & differences.
- The Salem Witch Trials & McCarthy Era in the US history. How they treated people accused of witchcraft in 2 different historical events.
- The idyllic period in the US history is the middle of XX century while the 1960s is known as a tumultuous decade.
- Ancient Greece VS Ancient Rome. Which civilization had a greater impact on the development of contemporary culture & art?
- 3 different branches of Christianity. Common issues, major differences, similarities, examples of traditions, etc.
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Political Essay Compare and Contrast Themes
These topics cover political science and cultural life of different countries. It is time to evaluate political regimes of different countries. Analyze the countries with the echo of communism and those where capitalism dominates; countries where women and men have equal rights versus countries where women are limited to their rights and freedoms.
- Classical Theory of Karl Marx against Modern Capitalistic Movement. Financial and political theories change with the flow of time. High school and college students have to understand the way economics work to get the ideas of different political regimes.
- The war in Syria/Military Situation in Ukraine. The countries could make a union based on the fact they are both regularly attacked by two other hostile countries. However, Ukraine is not officially involved in the war, they say. Research what media shares and analyze the given cases.
- The government of China VS The government of Korea. Both of these nations suffer from the consequences of communism. The second country, specifically North Korea, supports this political regime more than China. What is different and what's in common?
- Welfare Programs in the United States vs. Welfare Programs in the United Kingdom. Although high school and college students believe that these countries look alike in many senses, any related book or movie will show how wrong they are.
- Al Qaeda VS the Islamic State. Which of the terroristic organizations have a greater threat to the world’s peace?
- Legal systems in the United States & Canada: Are they too different in terms of laws, regulations, preventive measures, and other?
- Marriage VS civil union. Which of these types of a partnership between two people in love is less threatening to the image of political figure?
- Debit cards and credit cards: The role of government in establishing various payment methods and responsibility it has in case of any rule break
- Private & public companies. The obligations American government have concerning each of these types of organizations
- Political regime today and back in the 1950s: Things that changed for better and situations that got worse
Compare and Contrast Essay Topics for 6th Grade
Students who study in the sixth grade have to receive the simplest homework assignments and compare and contrast essay topics for 6th grade as they lack the experience to analyze something more complex than these:
- Winter or summer: More gorgeous season of year
- Christmas in another country/Christmas at home
- Juice VS water: While water may be healthier, juices are tastier and…
- Dogs and wolves: Similarities & differences
- Weeds and flowers: Why one cannot exist without another
- Eastern or Western USA: Living in both parts in different period of time
- Comic books or novels: The once which is more interesting to read
- Tennis VS ping pong: Your favorite game out of two
- Watching TV instead of reading a book: Difference/similarity in impressions
- Male friends or female friends: Based on such factors as loyalty, sincerity, bravery, and more
Compare and Contrast Topics for Middle School
Have a look at the list of compare and contrast topics for middle school!
- King Author VS Zeus. One of them is a way cooler than another one
- Comparison of the role models in 1950s with modern role models
- How does it feel to watch favorite movies in the cinema and watching films at home?
- The correlation between famous dictators & school bullies
- The consequences of tsunami might be worse than the consequences of hurricane
- Prom Night, Halloween Night, & Christmas Night: Which holiday is more fun?
- Car driving or bicycle driving: Which experience is more difficult?
- 3-star hotels or 5-star hotels: Reasons to choose each of them
- Things the early spacemen had in common with Christopher Columbus
- People who influence teenagers most of all: Parents and celebrities
Compare and Contrast Essay Topics for High School Students
If you don't need specific ideas for academic papers, look at the list of general essay topics shared by successful college students. Now, we continue with compare and contrast essay topics for high school.
- Fiction or Non-Fiction Literature: Write about which type of literary works is more helpful for college students and why.
- Assess High School Examinations & College Tests. What is more important? Which styles are recommended to be used in academic writing when studying in different educational institutions? When is it easier to cheat?
- Traditional Learning or Online Learning: Do you find it helpful to be able to take college courses online? Is a traditional way of teaching still better and more effective?
- Atlanta Falcons or New England Patriots: Which of the professional sports clubs is more authoritative and loved by high school students?
- Determine the effectiveness of online advertising and TV ads. What type of advertising channel is more influential on children?
- Printed books/e-Books: Which type of material might be more useful for the modern high school students?
- Wooden houses or story buildings. The significance of each type of construction
- Major differences and similarities between Portugal & Spain: Where is it better to have a vacation nowadays?
- American vision of beauty compared to Japanese vision of beauty: Discuss the standards based on the most recent beauty queens plus handsome men
- How rock music has changed: Rock music of early XX century and nowadays
Compare and Contrast Essay Topics for College Students
Finally, there are many ways you can analyze the life with family and on a college campus; important things to consider while studying at school and in university; passing SAT and taking TOEFL; etc. Enjoy the list of 10 compare and contrast essay topics for college students!
- Comparing Life with Parents to Living on Campus: In your essay, write the details about two ways of student's life. Share ideas on why you prefer one of the options (pros and cons of both).
- Where is academic rigor the greatest when it comes to comparing high school education and college learning.
- While Fall is the season of college arrivals, Spring is the time for student departures. Features of different educational seasons.
- Having a look at the meals students get at high school/college and the food they obtain at home from their family members. Which is tastier?
- The remote learning courses slowly replace conventional classes in college. Pros & cons of going technological.
- Living at home with parents compared to living on the college campus on the example of laundry service, cooking, and other everyday household activities.
- Manufacturing jobs against service sector jobs. A right choice of the college student
- Part-time jobs VS seasonal jobs: Pros & cons of each option
- Private colleges or public education: Reasons to make all educational institutions public in the United States
- Advanced placement classes: Better or worse than honors classes?
Easy Compare and Contrast Essay Topics
If you do not want to go deep into the details breaking the head against the wall, choose one of the easy compare and contrast essay topics!
- Twilight & Buffy, the Vampire Slayer. Analyze both shows’ characters
- It by Stephen King: Review book with the film
- Julius Caesar & Macbeth: Do these people have anything in common?
- Realism & modernism. Simple similarities & differences
- Poetry VS prose: List literary elements that make these genres different
- Life in a big city compared to village life: Discuss where people are healthier, kinder, more honest, etc.
- Donald Trump against Hilary Clinton: The one who should have won the latest presidential elections in the United States
- Real Madrid & Barcelona: Advantages + disadvantages of both Spanish football clubs
- iPhone VS Android mobile devices: Benefits Android users obtain against benefits iPhone users get
- Tablets or textbooks in school: Advantages each of these devices have when it comes to the process of learning
Things to Compare and Contrast
The last category contains the names of subjects only. Those are some great things to compare and contrast!
- Jails & Asylums
- Renaissance and Baroque Art
- Star Wars & Star Trek
- American Dad VS Family Guy
- Apple or Pineapple
- Moon and Sun
- Greek VS Scandinavian Mythology
- Communism against Capitalism
- New England Colonies or Southern Colonies (it is possible to add Middle Colonies)
- Fiction VS Non-Fiction
Compare and Contrast Essay Example from Writing Guru
Students write better papers when they have some good examples in front of them. Looking for the compare and contrast essay example? Find many free samples on the professional academic writing websites or view these powerful papers shared by the top college writers with us.
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Book of Esther
|Old Testament (Christianity)|
The Book of Esther, also known in Hebrew as "the Scroll" (Megillah), is a book in the third section (Ketuvim, "Writings") of the Jewish Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) and in the Christian Old Testament. It relates the story of a Hebrew girl in Persia, born as Hadassah but known as Esther, who becomes queen of Persia and thwarts a genocide of her people. The story forms the core of the Jewish festival of Purim, during which it is read aloud twice: once in the evening and again the following morning. Esther is the only book in the Bible that does not explicitly mention God.
Setting and structure
The biblical Book of Esther is set in the Persian capital of Susa (Shushan) in the third year of the reign of the Persian king Ahasuerus. The name Ahasuerus is equivalent to Xerxes (both deriving from the Persian Khshayārsha), and Ahasuerus is usually identified in modern sources as Xerxes I, who ruled between 486 and 465 BC, as it is to this monarch that the events described in Esther are thought to fit the most closely.
However, classical sources such as Josephus, the Jewish commentary Esther Rabbah and the Christian theologian Bar-Hebraeus, as well as the Greek Septuagint translation of Esther, instead identify Ahasuerus as either Artaxerxes I (reigned 465 to 424 BCE) or Artaxerxes II (reigned 404 to 358 BCE).
Assuming that Ahasuerus is indeed Xerxes I, the events described in Esther began around the years 483–482 BCE, and concluded in March 473 BCE.
The Book of Esther consists of an introduction (or exposition) in chapters 1 and 2; the main action (complication and resolution) in chapters 3 to 9:19; and a conclusion in 9:20–10:3.
The plot is structured around banquets (mishteh), a word that occurs twenty times in Esther and only 24 times in the rest of the Hebrew bible. This is appropriate given that Esther describes the origin of a Jewish feast, the feast of Purim, but Purim itself is not the subject and no individual feast in the book is commemorated by Purim. The book's theme, rather, is the reversal of destiny through a sudden and unexpected turn of events: the Jews seem destined to be destroyed, but instead are saved. In literary criticism such a reversal is termed "peripety", and while on one level its use in Esther is simply a literary or aesthetic device, on another it is structural to the author's theme, suggesting that the power of God is at work behind human events.
The story begins with Ahasuerus, ruler of the Persian Empire, holding a lavish banquet, initially for his court and dignitaries and afterwards for all inhabitants of the capital city, Shushan. On the seventh day, Ahasuerus orders the queen, Vashti, to come and display her beauty before the guests by wearing only her crown. She refuses. Furious, Ahasuerus has her removed from her position and makes arrangements to choose a new queen from a selection of beautiful young women from throughout the empire.
One of these is the Jewish orphan, Esther. After the death of her parents, she was fostered by her cousin, Mordecai. She finds favour in the King's eyes, and is crowned his new queen. Shortly afterwards, Mordecai discovers a plot by two courtiers, Bigthan and Teresh, to assassinate Ahasuerus. The conspirators are apprehended and hanged, and Mordecai's service to the King is duly recorded.
Ahasuerus appoints Haman as his viceroy. Mordecai, who sits at the palace gates, falls into Haman's disfavour, as he refuses to bow down to him. Having discovered that Mordecai is Jewish, Haman plans to kill not just Mordecai, but all the Jews in the empire. He duly obtains Ahasuerus' permission to execute this plan, against payment of ten thousand talents of silver, and casts lots to choose the date on which to do this—the thirteenth of the month of Adar.
When Mordecai finds out about the plan, he implores Esther to try and intercede with the King; but she is afraid to break the law and present herself to the King unsummoned, as this was punishable by death. She orders Mordecai to have all Jews fast for three days together with her, and on the third day she goes to Ahasuerus, who stretches out his sceptre to her to indicate that she is not to be punished. She invites him to a feast in the company of Haman. During the feast, she asks them to attend a further feast the next evening. Meanwhile, Haman is again offended by Mordecai and, at his wife's suggestion, has a gallows built to hang him.
That night, King Ahasuerus suffers insomnia, and when he orders the court records be read to him in order to help him sleep, he is reminded of the services rendered by Mordecai in the previous plot against his life. Ahasuerus is informed that Mordecai never received any recognition for this.
Just then, Haman appears, to request the King's permission to hang Mordecai, but before he can make this request, King Ahasuerus asks Haman what should be done for the man that the King wishes to honor. Assuming that the man that the King is referring to is himself, Haman suggests that the man be dressed in the King's royal robes and led around on the King's royal horse, while a herald calls: "See how the King honours a man he wishes to reward!" To his surprise and horror, the King instructs Haman to do so to Mordecai.
Immediately after, Ahasuerus and Haman attend Esther's second banquet, at which she reveals that she is Jewish and that Haman is planning to exterminate her people, including her. Overcome by rage, Ahasuerus leaves the room; meanwhile Haman stays behind and begs Esther for his life, falling upon her in desperation. The King returns in at this very moment and thinks Haman is assaulting the queen; this makes him angrier than before and he orders Haman hanged on the gallows that Haman had prepared for Mordecai.
Instead of annulling the decree, the King reverses it, permitting the Jews to attack their enemies. On 13 Adar, 500 men and Haman's ten sons are killed in Shushan. Upon hearing of this Esther requests it be repeated the next day, whereupon 300 more men are killed. In total, 75,000 Persians are slaughtered by the Jews, who take no plunder. Esther sends a letter instituting an annual commemoration of the Jewish people's redemption, in a holiday called Purim (lots). Ahasuerus remains very powerful and continues his reign, with Mordecai assuming a prominent position in his court.
Authorship and date
The Megillat Esther (Book of Esther) became the last of the 24 books of the Tanakh to be canonized by the Sages of the Great Assembly. According to the Talmud, it was a redaction by the Great Assembly of an original text by Mordecai. It is usually dated to the 4th century BCE. Shemaryahu Talmon, however, suggests that "the traditional setting of the book in the days of Xerxes I cannot be wide off the mark."
The Greek book of Esther, included in the Septuagint, is a retelling of the events of the Hebrew Book of Esther rather than a translation and records additional traditions which do not appear in original Hebrew version, in particular the identification of Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes and details of various letters. It is dated around the late 2nd to early 1st century BCE. The Coptic and Ethiopic versions of Esther are translations of the Greek rather than the Hebrew Esther.
Several Aramaic targums of Esther were produced in the Middle Ages of which two survive – the Targum Rishon ("First Targum") and Targum Sheni ("Second Targum") dated c. 500–1000 CE. These were not targums ("translations") in the true sense but like the Greek Esther are retellings of events and include additional legends relating to Purim. There is also a 16th-century recension of the Targum Rishon, sometimes counted as Targum Shelishi ("Third Targum").
The book of Esther falls under the category of Ketuvim, one of three parts of the Jewish canon. According to some sources, it is a historical novella, written to explain the origin of the Jewish holiday of Purim.
As noted by biblical scholar Michael D. Coogan, the book contains specific details regarding certain subject matter (for example, Persian rule) which are historically inaccurate. For example, Coogan discusses an apparent inaccuracy regarding the age of Esther's cousin (or, according to others, uncle) Mordecai. In Esther 2:5–6, either Mordecai or his great-grandfather Kish is identified as having been exiled from Jerusalem to Babylon by King Nebuchadnezzar II in 597 BCE: "Mordecai son of Jair, the son of Shimei, the son of Kish, who had been carried into exile from Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, among those taken captive with Jeconiah king of Judah". If this refers to Mordecai, he would have had to live over a century to have witnessed the events described in the Book of Esther. However, the verse may be read as referring not to Mordecai's exile to Babylon, but to his great-grandfather Kish's exile.
In her article "The Book of Esther and Ancient Storytelling", biblical scholar Adele Berlin discusses the reasoning behind scholarly concern about the historicity of Esther. Much of this debate relates to the importance of distinguishing history and fiction within biblical texts, as Berlin argues, in order to gain a more accurate understanding of the history of the Israelite people. Berlin quotes a series of scholars who suggest that the author of Esther did not mean for the book to be considered as a historical writing, but intentionally wrote it to be a historical novella. The genre of novellas under which Esther falls was common during both the Persian and Hellenistic periods to which scholars have dated the book of Esther.
There are certain elements of the book of Esther that are historically accurate. The story told in the book of Esther takes place during the rule of Ahasuerus, who has been identified as the 5th-century Persian king Xerxes I (reigned 486–465 BCE). The author also displays an accurate knowledge of Persian customs and palaces. However, according to Coogan, considerable historical inaccuracies remain throughout the text, supporting the view that the book of Esther is to be read as a historical novella which tells a story describing historical events but is not necessarily historical fact. Edwin M. Yamauchi has questioned the reliability of other historical sources, such as Herodotus, to which Esther has been compared. Yamauchi wrote, "[Herodotus] was, however, the victim of unreliable informants and was not infallible." The reason for questioning the historical accuracy of such ancient writers as Herodotus is that he is one of the primary sources of knowledge for this time period, and it has been frequently assumed that his account may be more accurate than Esther's account.
Those arguing in favour of an historical reading of Esther most commonly identify Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes II (ruled 405–359 BCE), although in the past it was often assumed that he was Xerxes I (ruled 486–465 BCE). The Hebrew Ahasuerus (ʔaḥašwērōš) is most likely derived from Persian Xšayārša, the origin of the Greek Xerxes. The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Xerxes sought his harem after being defeated in the Greco-Persian Wars. He makes no reference to individual members of the harem except for a domineering Queen consort named Amestris, whose father, Otanes, was one of Xerxes's generals. (In contrast, the Greek historian Ctesias refers to a similar father-in-law/general figure named Onaphas.) Amestris has often been identified with Vashti, but this identification is problematic, as Amestris remained a powerful figure well into the reign of her son, Artaxerxes I, whereas Vashti is portrayed as dismissed in the early part of Xerxes's reign. Alternative attempts have been made to identify her with Esther, although Esther is an orphan whose father was a Jew named Abihail.
As for the identity of Mordecai, the similar names Marduka and Marduku have been found as the name of officials in the Persian court in over thirty texts from the period of Xerxes I and his father Darius I, and may refer to up to four individuals, one of which might after all be Mordecai.
The "Old Greek" Septuagint version of Esther translates the name Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes, a Greek name derived from the Persian Artaxšaϑra. Josephus too relates that this was the name by which he was known to the Greeks, and the Midrashic text, Esther Rabba also makes the identification. Bar-Hebraeus identified Ahasuerus explicitly as Artaxerxes II; however, the names are not necessarily equivalent: Hebrew has a form of the name Artaxerxes distinct from Ahasuerus, and a direct Greek rendering of Ahasuerus is used by both Josephus and the Septuagint for occurrences of the name outside the Book of Esther. Instead, the Hebrew name Ahasuerus accords with an inscription of the time that notes that Artaxerxes II was named also Aršu, understood as a shortening of Aḫšiyaršu the Babylonian rendering of the Persian Xšayārša (Xerxes), through which the Hebrew ʔaḥašwērōš (Ahasuerus) is derived. Ctesias related that Artaxerxes II was also called Arsicas which is understood as a similar shortening with the Persian suffix -ke that is applied to shortened names. Deinon related that Artaxerxes II was also called Oarses which is also understood to be derived from Xšayārša.
Another view attempts to identify him instead with Artaxerxes I (ruled 465–424 BCE), whose Babylonian concubine, Kosmartydene, was the mother of his son Darius II (ruled 424–405 BCE). Jewish tradition relates that Esther was the mother of a King Darius and so some try to identify Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes I and Esther with Kosmartydene.
Based on the view that the Ahasuerus of the Book of Tobit is identical with that of the Book of Esther, some have also identified him as Nebuchadnezzar's ally Cyaxares (ruled 625–585 BCE). In certain manuscripts of Tobit, the former is called Achiachar, which, like the Greek Cyaxares, is thought to be derived from Persian Huwaxšaϑra. Depending on the interpretation of Esther 2:5–6, Mordecai or his great-grandfather Kish was carried away from Jerusalem with Jeconiah by Nebuchadnezzar, in 597 BCE. The view that it was Mordecai would be consistent with the identification of Ahasuerus with Cyaxares. Identifications with other Persian monarchs have also been suggested.
Jacob Hoschander has argued that evidence of the historicity of Haman and his father Hamedatha is seen in Omanus and Anadatus mentioned by Strabo as being honoured with Anahita in the city of Zela. Hoschander argues that these were not deities as Strabo supposed but garbled forms of "Haman" and "Hamedatha" who were being worshipped as martyrs. The names are indeed unattested in Persian texts as gods, however the Talmud (Sanhedrin 61b) and Rashi both record a practice of deifying Haman and Josephus speaks of him being worshipped. Attempts have been made to connect both "Omanus" and "Haman" with the Zoroastrian term Vohu Mana; however this denotes the principle of "Good Thoughts" and is not the name of a deity.)
Christine Hayes contrasts the Book of Esther with apocalyptic writings, the Book of Daniel in particular: both Esther and Daniel depict an existential threat to the Jewish people, but while Daniel commends the Jews to wait faithfully for God to resolve the crisis, in Esther the crisis is resolved entirely through human action and national solidarity. God, in fact, is not mentioned, Esther is portrayed as assimilated to Persian culture, and Jewish identity in the book is an ethnic category rather than a religious one.
Additions to Esther
An additional six chapters appear interspersed in Esther in the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Bible. This was noted by Jerome in compiling the Latin Vulgate. Additionally, the Greek text contains many small changes in the meaning of the main text. Jerome recognized the former as additions not present in the Hebrew Text and placed them at the end of his Latin translation as chapters 10:4–16:24. This placement and numbering system is used in Catholic Bible translations based primarily on the Vulgate, such as the Douay–Rheims Bible and the Knox Bible. In contrast, the 1979 revision of the Vulgate, the Nova Vulgata, incorporates the additions to Esther directly into the narrative itself, as do most modern Catholic English translations based on the original Hebrew and Greek (e.g., Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition, New American Bible, New Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition). The numbering system for the additions differs with each translation. The Nova Vulgata accounts for the additional verses by numbering them as extensions of the verses immediately following or preceding them (e.g., Esther 11:2–12 in the old Vulgate becomes Esther 1:1a–1k in the Nova Vulgata), while the NAB and its successor, the NABRE, assign letters of the alphabet as chapter headings for the additions (e.g., Esther 11:2–12:6 in the Vulgate becomes Esther A:1–17). The RSVCE and the NRSVCE place the additional material into the narrative, but retain the chapter and verse numbering of the old Vulgate.
- an opening prologue that describes a dream had by Mordecai
- the contents of the decree against the Jews
- prayers for God's intervention offered by Mordecai and by Esther
- an expansion of the scene in which Esther appears before the king, with a mention of God's intervention
- a copy of the decree in favor of the Jews
- a passage in which Mordecai interprets his dream (from the prologue) in terms of the events that followed
- a colophon appended to the end, which reads: In the fourth year of the reign of Ptolemy and Cleopatra, Dositheus, who said he was a priest and Levite, and his son Ptolemy brought the present letter of Purim, saying that it was genuine and that Lysimachus, son of Ptolemy, of the community of Jerusalem, had translated it.
By the time Esther was written, the foreign power visible on the horizon as a future threat to Judah was the Macedonians of Alexander the Great, who defeated the Persian empire about 150 years after the time of the story of Esther; the Septuagint version noticeably calls Haman a "Bougaion" (βουγαῖον) where the Hebrew text describes him as an Agagite.
The canonicity of these Greek additions has been a subject of scholarly disagreement practically since their first appearance in the Septuagint— Martin Luther, being perhaps the most vocal Reformation-era critic of the work, considered even the original Hebrew version to be of very doubtful value. Luther's complaints against the book carried past the point of scholarly critique and may reflect Luther's antisemitism, which is disputed, such as in the biography of Luther by Derek Wilson, which points out that Luther's anger at the Jews was not at their race but at their theology.
The Council of Trent, the summation of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation, reconfirmed the entire book, both Hebrew text and Greek additions, as canonical. The Book of Esther is used twice in commonly used sections of the Catholic Lectionary. In both cases, the text used is not only taken from a Greek addition, the readings also are the prayer of Mordecai, and nothing of Esther's own words is ever used. The Eastern Orthodox Church uses the Septuagint version of Esther, as it does for all of the Old Testament. The additions are specifically listed in the Thirty-Nine Articles, Article VI, of the Church of England: "The rest of the Book of Esther".
- There are several paintings depicting Esther, including one by Millais.
- The Italian Renaissance poet Lucrezia Tornabuoni chose Esther as one of biblical figures on which she wrote poetry.
- In 1689, Jean Baptiste Racine wrote Esther, a tragedy, at the request of Louis XIV's wife, Françoise d'Aubigné, marquise de Maintenon.
- In 1718, Handel wrote the oratorio Esther based on Racine's play.
- In 1958, a book entitled Behold Your Queen! was written by Gladys Malvern and illustrated by her sister, Corinne Malvern. It was chosen as a selection of the Junior Literary Guild.
- The play entitled Esther (1960), written by Welsh dramatist Saunders Lewis, is a retelling of the story in Welsh.
- A movie about the story, Esther and the King.
- A 1978 miniseries entitled The Greatest Heroes of the Bible starred Victoria Principal as Esther, Robert Mandan as Xerxes, and Michael Ansara as Haman.
- Episode 25 of the 1981 anime series Superbook involves this story.
- The 1983 musical entitled Swan Esther was written by J. Edward Oliver and Nick Munns and released as a concept album with Stephanie Lawrence and Denis Quilley. Swan Esther has been performed by the Young Vic, a national tour produced by Bill Kenwright and some amateur groups.
- A 1986 Israeli film directed by Amos Gitai entitled Esther.
- In 1992, a 30-minute, fully animated video, twelfth in Hanna-Barbera's The Greatest Adventure series, titled Queen Esther features the voices of Helen Slater as Queen Esther, Dean Jones as King Ahasuerus, Werner Klemperer as Haman, and Ron Rifkin as Mordecai.
- A 1999 TV movie from the Bible Collection that follows the biblical account very closely, Esther, starred Louise Lombard in the title role and F. Murray Abraham as Mordecai.
- In 2000, VeggieTales released "Esther... The Girl Who Became Queen".
- Chosen: The Lost Diaries of Queen Esther by Ginger Garrett. 2005, NavPress.
- A 2006 movie about Esther and Ahasuerus, entitled One Night with the King, stars Tiffany Dupont and Luke Goss. It was based on the novel Hadassah: One Night with the King by Tommy Tenney and Mark Andrew Olsen.
- Esther is one of the five heroines of the Order of the Eastern Star.
- On March 8, 2011, the Maccabeats released a music video called "Purim Song".
- The Book of Esther is a 2013 movie starring Jen Lilley as Queen Esther and Joel Smallbone as King Xerxes.
- In 2012, a graphic adaptation of the Book of Esther was illustrated by J. T. Waldman and appeared in volume one of The Graphic Canon, edited by Russ Kick and published by Seven Stories Press.
- Rossel, Seymour (2007). The Torah: Portion by Portion. Los Angeles: Torah Aura Productions. p. 212. ISBN 978-1-891662-94-2. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
- David R. Blumenthal. "WHERE GOD IS NOT: THE BOOK OF ESTHER AND SONG OF SONGS". Retrieved April 19, 2016.
- Baumgarten, Albert I.; Sperling, S. David; Sabar, Shalom (2007). Skolnik, Fred; Berenbaum, Michael, eds. Encyclopaedia Judaica. 18 (2nd ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Macmillan Reference USA. p. 216.
- Larkin, Katrina J. A. (1996). Ruth and Esther (Old Testament Guides). Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press. p. 71.
- Crawford, Sidnie White (1998). "Esther". In Newsom, Carol A.; Ringe, Sharon H. Women's Bible Commentary. Louisville: Westminster John Knox. p. 202.
- Moore, Carey A. (1971). Esther (Anchor Bible). Garden City, NY: Doubleday. p. XXXV.
- E. A. W. Budge, The Chronography of Bar Hebraeus, Gorgias Press LLC, reprinted 2003
- Clines 1984, p. 9.
- Jobes 2011, p. 40-41.
- Esther chapters 9–10
- Babylonian Talmud: Tractate Baba Bathra 15a
- NIV Study Bible, Introductions to the Books of the Bible, Esther, Zondervan, 2002
- Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Fishbane, Michael, eds. (2004). The Jewish Study Bible. Oxford University Press. p. 1625. ISBN 978-0195297515.
- Shemaryahu Talmon, "Wisdom in the Book of Esther", Vetus Testamentum 13 (1963), p. 453 (at JSTOR, free subscription needed)
- Freedman, David Noel; Allen C. Myers; Astrid B. Beck Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000 ISBN 978-0-8028-2400-4 p. 428 books.google.co.uk
- George Lyons, Additions to Esther, Wesley Center for Applied Theology, 2000
- Prof. Michael Sokoloff, The Targums to the Book of Esther, Bar-Ilan University 's Parashat Hashavua Study Center, Parashat Tezaveh/Zakhor 5764 March 6, 2004
- S. Kaufman, Cal Targum Texts, Text base and variants, The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, Hebrew Union College – Jewish Institute of Religion
- Alan J. Hauser, Duane Frederick Watson, A History of Biblical Interpretation: The Ancient Period, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2003
- Coogan, Michael David Coogan, A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 396.
- Sidnie White Crawford, "Esther", in The New Interpreters Study Bible New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha, ed. Walter J. Harrison and Donald Senior (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2003), 689–690.
- New King James Version, translation of Esther 2:6
- Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (Editor), International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Volume II, 1982, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. p. 159 (entry: Book of Esther)
- Wiersbe,Warren W., Bible Exposition Commentary: Old Testament History, David C Cook, 2004 p. 712
- Adele Berlin, "The Book of Esther and Ancient Storytelling", Journal of Biblical Literature 120. no. 1 (Spring 2001): 3–14.
- Adele Berlin, “The Book of Esther and Ancient Storytelling", Journal of Biblical Literature 120. no. 1 (Spring 2001): 6.
- "The archaeological background of Esther: archaeological backgrounds of the exilic and postexilic era, pt 2". Bibliotheca sacra 137, no. 546 (1980), 102.
- http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/17-esther-nets.pdf Note on two Greek versions of the book of Esther
- Jacob Hoschander, The Book of Esther in the Light of History, Oxford University Press, 1923
- Hayes, Christine (2006). "Introduction to the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible) — Lecture 24 — Alternative Visions: Esther, Ruth, and Jonah". Open Yale Courses. Yale University.
- see the NAB online for the passages
- Frederic W. Bush, "The Book of Esther: Opus non gratum in the Christian Canon", Bulletin for Biblical Research 8 (1998), p. 39
- Article VI: Of the sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures for Salvation Archived November 10, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
- Robin, Larsen and Levin. Encyclopedia of women in the Renaissance: Italy, France, and England. p. 368.
- Books of the Bible Christian Bookstore. "I Have A Song – Shannon Wexelberg".
- "The Internet Antique Shop – The Web's largest antiques & collectibles mall serving collectors since 1995".
- Tania B (5 November 2000). "Esther". IMDb.
- "The Maccabeats – Purim Song". YouTube. Retrieved 2011-08-09.
- "The Book of Esther (2013)". IMDb. 11 June 2013.
- Clines, David J.A. (1984). The Esther Scroll. A&C Black,.
- Jobes, Karen H. (2011). Esther. Zondervan.
- Beal, Timothy K (Timothy Beal). The Book of Hiding: Gender, Ethnicity, Annihilation, and Esther. NY: Routledge, 1997. Postmodern theoretical apparatus, e.g. Jacques Derrida, Emmanuel Levinas
- Extract from The JPS Bible Commentary: Esther by Adele Berlin: Liberal Jewish view.
- Fox, Michael V. Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther, 2nd ed. Wipf & Stock, 2010 — highly regarded literary analysis
- Sasson, Jack M. "Esther" in Alter and Kermode, pp. 335–341, literary view
- The Historicity of Megillat Esther: Gil Student's survey of scholarship supporting an historical reading of Esther
- Esther, Book of: A Christian perspective of the book.
- Thespis: Ritual, Myth, and Drama in the Ancient Near East by Theodor Gaster. 1950.
- White, Sidnie Ann. "Esther: A Feminine Model for Jewish Diaspora" in Newsom
- Esther (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org
- Cumming, Rev. J. Elder DD The Book of Esther: Its spiritual teaching London: The Religious Tract Society, 1913
- Ecker, Ronald L. The Book of Esther, Ecker's Biblical Web Pages, 2007.
- Fischer, James A. Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther. Collegeville Bible Commentary. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1986.
- Fox, Michael V. Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001.
- Hudson, J. Francis Esther: For Such a Time as This. From Character and Charisma series. Kingsway, 2000.
- Levenson, Jon D. Esther. Old Testament Library Series. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1997.
- McConville, John C. L. Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. Daily Study Bible Series. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1985.
- Moore, Carey A. Esther. Anchor Bible, vol. 7B. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971.
- Paton, Lewis B. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Esther. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1908.
- Hazony, Yoram. God and Politics in Esther. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016.
- "Esther, Book of". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
- "Esther, Apocryphal Book of". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
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Text and translations
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