Photograph of Sojourner Truth
Credit: Courtesy of The American Memory Project at the Library of Congress.
About one-third of Patriot soldiers at the Battle of Bunker Hill were African Americans (according to The Battle of Bunker Hill on the EDSITEment resource American Memory). Census data also reveal that there were slaves and free Blacks living in the North in 1790 and later years. What were the experiences of African-American individuals in the North in the years between the American Revolution and the Civil War?
In this lesson, students will meet some of those African Americans and practice the techniques authors use to transform information about individuals into readable biographies.
Note: This lesson may be taught either as a stand-alone lesson or as a sequel to the complementary EDSITEment lesson African-American Communities in the North Before the Civil War.
In the cold, nearly colorless light of a New England winter, two men on horseback traveled the coast road below Boston, heading north. A foot or more of snow covered the landscape, the remnants of a Christmas storm that had blanketed Massachusetts from one end of the province to the other. Beneath the snow, after weeks of severe cold, the ground was frozen solid to a depth of two feet. Packed ice in the road, ruts as hard as iron, made the going hazardous, and the riders, mindful of the horses, kept at a walk.
… Dressed as they were in heavy cloaks, their hats pulled low against the wind, they were barely distinguishable even from each other, except that the older, stouter of the two did most of the talking.
McCullough begins the book "in medias res," in the middle of a sequence of events, a familiar literary device. He will return to earlier events later, a technique reminiscent of a flashback. McCullough uses suspense in not immediately revealing the names of the two men. He uses description to add authenticity to the moment. But how did McCullough know the quality of the light on that particular day? Through the writing of one of the participants? Through his own experience of a New England winter? How did he know what was in the mind of the riders ("mindful of the horses")? Through the writing of one of the participants? Through a logical assumption? How did McCullough know they had their "hats pulled low against the wind"? Would one of the participants have mentioned such a fact in an account of that ride? It doesn't matter to the reader because the likelihood is great that they would have had their hats pulled down. The inclusion of the detail of the hats adds to the authenticity of the account while doing nothing to lessen the accuracy of the work.
This lesson increases student awareness of the role of literary techniques and historical accuracy in biography and offers students the opportunity to deal with both issues in practice.
[these] miniature portraits used as calling cards, were extremely popular during the American Civil War. These photographic calling cards, approximately 21/2 x 4 inches in size, had been invented in France in the early 1850s, and their popularity quickly spread throughout Europe and eventually to the United States, where the corollary development of the photograph album spurred a collecting craze in the 1860s that became known as Cartomania. In addition to assembling albums of family photographs, the public sought to collect images of celebrities…
It was common practice during the war to acquire such portraits through gift or purchase …
This card was created around 1864, before the end of the Civil War.
Have students list their observations about the card. If desired, use the Photo Analysis Worksheet on the EDSITEment-reviewed website Digital Classroom. Then, prompt discussion about the card based on these observations. Does it seem that this card was sold or given away? (One possible hint is the caption, "I sell the shadow to support the substance." Sojourner did support herself, in part, through the sale of her photographs.) If the card was sold, that means people wanted it enough to pay for it. What does that imply about the subject? The subject is seen sewing. If she had been walking down the road with a knapsack or in a field holding a tool, how would that change one's impression of the subject?
Now reveal the identity of Sojourner Truth and share with the class a brief account of her life, such as the Biography of Sojourner Truth available on the EDSITEment resource American Memory. What an eventful life! Born a slave in New York after the American Revolution, Isabella, as she was originally known, eventually became an important figure in America. It's not surprising that people like to read about her life. But how does an author make such an account lively?
The class is going to compare the three brief accounts, below, of an event in Sojourner's life to see how authors employ specific literary elements. Tell students that they will eventually use the same techniques to write about an event in the life of an African American who lived between the American Revolution and the Civil War. Make a list of the techniques your class notices.
As “property” of several slave owners, when she was ten years old, Isabella was sold for $100 and some sheep.Why such a brief account of this significant event? (The purpose of this piece of writing is to summarize an entire life in a few paragraphs. It can only provide the basic facts, and little else.)
A slave auction is a terrible affair to its victims, and its incidents and consequences are graven on their hearts as with a pen of burning steel.What is added here? The thoughts and feelings of the subject are revealed-the consequences of slave auctions "are graven on their hearts." Sojourner's memory of the event is not clear in that she has “an impression.” Some additional detail is provided, such as the name of the farmer. Sojourner told her story to Olive Gilbert in hopes of making money. It is difficult to know with certainty how Gilbert may have added to or changed the narrative, either intentionally or through error. Though this version adds more than the very basic facts, Sojourner may have had an interest in finishing the project quickly. On the other hand, Gilbert had the advantage of having the speaker present as the story was related. When a story is told aloud, some information is conveyed by the facial expression. An author has to supply all the information with words only. The ability to review the material and make changes allows writers to shape their words exactly as they want.
At this memorable time, Isabella was struck off, for the sum of one hundred dollars, to one John Nealy, of Ulster County, New York; and she has an impression that in this sale she was connected with a lot of sheep. She was now nine years of age, and her trials in life may be dated from this period.
Strangers stared while the auctioneer poked and pointed at the girl with the stick-showing how tall and strong she was. He promised that since she was only about nine years old and already so tall, she'd soon be able to do the work of any man …
Tall, and strong as she was, no one bid for the slave girl called Isabella at that auction in Kingston, New York, in 1806. The sun settled low in the sky and still she wasn't sold. Finally the auctioneer offered to throw in a flock of sheep if someone would just buy the girl so he could call it a day and go home for supper.
Then a farmer did.
This account is told more like a story. How does it differ from the others as history? What details are likely to have come from the imagination of the author? What elements are confirmed by Gilbert's account? How does Only Passing Through: The Story of Sojourner Truth differ from the others as a piece of literature? The author uses images; she appeals to the reader's senses. For example, we see the expression on the faces of those observing the auction. We get an impression through implied speech of what the auctioneer said (“He promised that …”). We can almost feel the auctioneer's stick poking us. The short sentence set aside in its own paragraph emphasizes the dramatic end of this episode. On the basis of this passage, would students term Only Passing Through as biography or historical fiction? How do students distinguish between the two (historical fiction allows more embellishment by the author, but accuracy is still expected)?
Using the list of writing techniques that you developed as a class in the last activity (i.e., using images to appeal to the senses; supplying a character's thoughts and/or emotions; structuring the piece with a beginning, middle, and end; and so on), the class will now work together to create an “excerpt” about Sojourner Truth.
Begin by reviewing once again Sojourner Truth's carte de visite on the EDSITEment-reviewed website American Memory. Remind students that images such as this one can help the writer provide images for the reader. For example, what clothing in the photograph might be typical of Sojourner (the cap and glasses)? Challenge students to include some physical description of Sojourner in the passage.
Now review the following description of Sojourner's visit to the aged Mr. Dumont—her third, and last, master—who purchased Isabella from John Nealy when she was about 13 (available through the Narrative of Sojourner Truth on the EDSITEment resource American Studies at the University of Virginia):
Sojourner … found him, still living, though advanced in age, and reduced in property, (as he had been for a number of years,) but greatly enlightened on the subject of slavery. He said he could then see that 'slavery was the wickedest thing in the world, the greatest curse the earth had ever felt-that it was then very clear to his mind that it was so, though, while he was a slaveholder himself, he did not see it so, and thought it was as right as holding any other property.' Sojourner remarked to him, that it might be the same with those who are now slaveholders. 'O, no,' replied he, with warmth, 'it cannot be. For, now, the sin of slavery is so clearly written out, and so much talked against,-(why, the whole world cries out against it!)-that if any one says he don't know, and has not heard, he must, I think, be a liar …
Students will now create the excerpt about Sojourner, based on this episode. First, brainstorm as a class about what pictures an author could "paint" to make the scene come to life (the aged slave master, the decrepit property)? What was Sojourner probably thinking as she approached the property? When she first saw her former master? As she was talking to Mr. Dumont? We have the benefit of Mr. Dumont's words as Sojourner remembered them. Use quotation marks to turn some of his words into direct quotes. Ask a volunteer to suggest an opening sentence or even start the class with, “As Sojourner walked down the road to Mr. Dumont's house, she …”
When the class has finished the excerpt, evaluate it. Would they categorize what they've come up with as biography or historical fiction?
Working individually or in small groups, students now will be given some primary and secondary information on an African American who lived between the end of the American Revolution and the outbreak of the Civil War. Based on a specific event in that person's life, students will compose an “excerpt” from a biography of the individual or historical fiction with the individual as a character. One or more members of each group may serve as illustrators. In addition, each group should prepare a very brief summary of the individual's life based on one or more secondary accounts.
I gave the King a testament and let him know by the interpreter the useful records contained in these books, and the great fountain they pointed to.could become:
Handing the King a Bible, I told him through the interpreter, “This book contains many useful records, stories and guidance that will point you to a great fountain of knowledge and love.”
A party of wild young men, with no motive but that of entertaining themselves by annoying and injuring the feelings of others, had assembled at the meeting, hooting and yelling, and in various ways interrupting the services, and causing much disturbance. Those who had the charge of the meeting, having tried their persuasive powers in vain, grew impatient and tried threatening.
The young men, considering themselves insulted, collected their friends, to the number of a hundred or more, dispersed themselves through the grounds, making the most frightful noises, and threatening to fire the tents …
Sojourner left the tent alone and unaided, and walking some thirty rods to the top of a small rise of ground, commenced to sing, in her most fervid manner, with all the strength of her most powerful voice …
As she commenced to sing, the young men made a rush towards her, and she was immediately encircled by … rioters, many of them armed with sticks or clubs as their weapons of defense, if not of attack. As the circle narrowed around her, she ceased singing, and after a short pause, inquired, in a gentle but firm tone, 'Why do you come about me with clubs and sticks? I am not doing harm to any one.' 'We aren't a going to hurt you, old woman; we came to hear you sing,' cried many voices, simultaneously. 'Sing to us, old woman,' cries one. 'Talk to us, old woman,' says another. 'Pray, old woman,' says a third. 'Tell us your experience,' says a fourth. 'You stand and smoke so near me, I cannot sing or talk,' she answered.
'Stand back,' said several authoritative voices, with not the most gentle or courteous accompaniments, raising their rude weapons in the air. The crowd suddenly gave back, the circle became larger, as many voices again called for singing, talking, or praying, backed by assurances that no one should be allowed to hurt her-the speakers declaring with an oath, that they would 'knock down' any person who should offer her the least indignity.
During the winter of 1773, the indications of disease had so much increased, that her physician advised a sea voyage. This was earnestly seconded by her friends; and a son of Mr. and Mrs. Wheatley being about to make a voyage to England to arrange a mercantile correspondence, it was settled that Phillis should accompany him, and she accordingly embarked in the summer of the same year.
She was at this time but nineteen years old, and was at the highest point of her short and brilliant career. It is with emotions of sorrow that we approach the strange and splendid scenes which were now about to open upon her--to be succeeded by grief and desolation.
Phillis was well received in England, and was presented to Lady Huntingdon, Lord Dartmouth, Mr. Thornton and many other individuals of distinction; but, says our informant, 'not all the attention she received, nor all the honors that were heaped upon her, had the slightest influence upon her temper or deportment. She was still the same single-hearted, unsophisticated being.' During her stay in England, her poems were given to the world, dedicated to the Countess of Huntingdon, and embellished with an engraving which is said to have been a striking representation of the original. It is supposed that one of these impressions was forwarded to her mistress, as soon as they were struck off; for a grand niece of Mrs. Wheatly's informs us that, during the absence of Phillis, she one day called upon her relative, who immediately directed her attention to a picture over the fire-place, exclaiming --'See! look at my Phillis! does she not seem as though she would speak to me!'
Phillis arrived in London so late in the season, that the great mart of fashion was deserted. She was therefore urgently pressed by her distinguished friends to remain until the Court returned to St. James's, that she might be presented to the young monarch, George III. She would probably have consented to this arrangement, had not letters from America informed her of the declining health of her mistress, who intreated her to return, that she might once more behold her beloved protegee.
Free labor provided possibilities for emancipation for some enslaved people. The most industrious and the most skilled of the enslaved could take greater advantage of these opportunities. Venture Smith had been born in the 1720s, the son of a West African prince who named him Broteer Furro. Slave traders captured him at the age of six, spirited him away to the coast, and transported him to a life of enslavement in Long Island and eastern Connecticut. After several changes of ownership, he was able to purchase his freedom by his labors at the age of 31. Those labors, along with his entrepreneurial activities such as fishing, working on a whaler, and agricultural activities, made possible the purchase of his son, daughter, and wife's liberty. Near the end of the 18th century he related his life history to Elisha Niles, a schoolteacher and Revolutionary war veteran. Published in 1798, A Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Venture, a Native of Africa: But Resident above Sixty Years in the United States of America, Related by Himself recounted his successful negotiation of the slavery economy and recognition of free labor as the key to a free identity.
About twelve years ago, I hired a whale-boat and four black men, and proceeded to Long-Island after a load of round clams. Having arrived there, I first purchased of James Webb, son of Orange Webb, six hundred and sixty clams, and afterwards, with the help of my men, finished loading my boat. The same evening, however, this Webb stole my boat, and went in her to Connecticut River, and fold her cargo for his own benefit. I thereupon pursued him, and at length, after an additional expense of nine crowns, recovered the boat; but for the proceeds of her cargo I never could obtain any compensation.
My master owned a certain Irishman, named Heddy, who about that time formed a plan of secretly leaving his master. After he had long had this plan … he suggested it to me … after he had persuaded and much enchanted me with the prospect of gaining my freedom by such a method, I at length agreed to accompany him … We privately collected out of our master's store, six great old cheeses, two firkins of butter, and one whole batch of new bread. When we had gathered all our own clothes and some more, we took them all about midnight, and went to the waterside. We stole our master's boat, embarked, and then directed our course for the Mississippi river.
We mutually confederated (agreed) not to betray or desert one another on pain of death. We first steered our course for Montauk Point, the east end of Long Island. After our arrival there we landed, and Heddy and I made an incursion into the island after fresh water, while our two comrades were left at a little distance from the boat, employed at cooking. When Heddy and I had sought some time for water, he returned to our companions, and I continued on looking ... When Heddy had performed his business with our companions who were engaged in cooking, he went directly to the boat, stole all the clothes in it, and then traveled away for East-Hampton, as I was informed. I returned to my fellows not long after. They informed me that our clothes were stolen, but could not determine who was the thief, yet they suspected Heddy as he was missing.
The Mendingo Tribe professes Mohometanism. I became acquainted with two men of this tribe who were apparently men of considerable learning; indeed this tribe, generally, appeared to be a people of some education. Their learning appeared to be the Arabic. They do not allow spirituous liquors to be made use of in this tribe. They have declined the practice of selling their own tribe; but notwithstanding this, they continue to sell those of other tribes, and thought it hard that the traffic in slaves should be abolished, as they were made poor in consequence thereof. As they themselves were not willing to submit to the bonds of slavery, I endeavored to hold this out as a light to convince them of their error. But the prejudice of education had taken too firm hold of their minds to admit of much effect from reason on this subject.
Realizing that their best chance of emancipation lay with the British army, as many as 100,000 enslaved African Americans became Loyalists during the War for Independence. They risked possible resale by the British or capture by the Americans, and many became refugees when the British withdrew at the end of the war. Born near Charleston, South Carolina, Boston King fled his owner to join the British. He escaped captivity several times and made his way to New York, the last American port to be evacuated by the British. King was listed in the "Book of Negroes" and issued a certificate of freedom, allowing him to board one of the military transport ships bound for the free black settlements in Nova Scotia. There, King worked as a carpenter and became a Methodist minister. He moved to Sierra Leone in 1792 and published his memoirs, one of a handful of first-person accounts by African-American Loyalist refugees.The following suggested event from Boston King Chooses Freedom, also available on History Matters, is the story of a slave who chose to fight with the British to earn his freedom:
… about one o'clock in the morning I went down to the river side, and found the guards were either asleep or in the tavern. I instantly entered into the river, but when I was a little distance from the opposite shore, I heard the sentinels disputing among themselves: One said "I am sure I saw a man cross the river." Another replied, "There is no such thing." It seems they were afraid to fire at me, or make an alarm, lest they should be punished for their negligence. When I had got a little distance from the shore, I fell down upon my knees, and thanked God for the deliverance. I traveled till about five in the morning, and then concealed myself till seven o'clock at night, when I proceeded forward, thro' bushes and marshes, near the road, for fear of being discovered. When I came to the river, opposite Staten-Island, I found a boat; and altho' it was very near a whaleboat, yet I ventured into it, and cutting the rope, got safe over. The (British) commanding officer, when informed of my case, gave me a passport, and I proceeded to New-York.
3 class periods


Sentimental ballads, also known as pop ballads, rock ballads or power ballads, are an emotional style of music that often deal with romantic and intimate relationships, and to a lesser extent, war (protest songs), loneliness, death, drug abuse, politics and religion, usually in a poignant but solemn manner. Ballads are generally melodic enough to get the listener's attention.
Sentimental ballads are found in most music genres, such as, pop, R&B, soul, country, folk, rock and electronic music, among others. Ballads tend to have a lush musical arrangement, emphasizing melody and harmonies. Characteristically, ballads use acoustic instruments such as guitars, pianos, saxophones, and sometimes an orchestral set. However though, many modern, mainstream ballads tend to feature synthesizers, drum machines and even, to some extent, a dance rhythm.
Sentimental ballads had their origins in the early Tin Pan Alley music industry of the later 19th century. Initially known as "tear-jerkers" or "drawing-room ballads", they were generally sentimental, narrative, strophic songs published separately or as part of an opera, descendants perhaps of broadside ballads. As new genres of music began to emerge in the early 20th century, their popularity faded, but the association with sentimentality led to the term ballad being used for a slow love song from the 1950s onwards.
Sentimental ballads have their roots from medieval French chanson balladée or ballade, which were originally "danced songs". Ballads were particularly characteristic of the popular poetry and song of the British Isles from the later medieval period until the 19th century. They were widely used across Europe, and later in the Americas, Australia and North Africa. As a narrative song, their theme and function may originate from Scandinavian and Germanic traditions of storytelling. Musically they were influenced by the Minnesinger. The earliest example of a recognizable ballad in form in England is "Judas" in a 13th-century manuscript. A reference in William Langland's Piers Plowman indicates that ballads about Robin Hood were being sung from at least the late 14th century and the oldest detailed material is Wynkyn de Worde's collection of Robin Hood ballads printed about 1495.
18th century – early 20th century
Ballads at this time were originally composed in couplets with refrains in alternate lines. These refrains would have been sung by the dancers in time with the dance. In the 18th century, ballad operas developed as a form of English stage entertainment, partly in opposition to the Italian domination of the London operatic scene. In America a distinction is drawn between ballads that are versions of European, particularly British and Irish songs, and 'Native American ballads', developed without reference to earlier songs. A further development was the evolution of the blues ballad, which mixed the genre with Afro-American music.
In the late 19th century, Danish folklorist Svend Grundtvig and Harvard professor Francis James Child attempted to record and classify all the known ballads and variants in their chosen regions. Since Child died before writing a commentary on his work it is uncertain exactly how and why he differentiated the 305 ballads printed that would be published as The English and Scottish Popular Ballads. There have been many different and contradictory attempts to classify traditional ballads by theme, but commonly identified types are the religious, supernatural, tragic, love ballads, historic, legendary and humorous.
By the Victorian era, ballad had come to mean any sentimental popular song, especially so-called "royalty ballads". Some of Stephen Foster's songs exemplify this genre. By the 1920s, composers of Tin Pan Alley and Broadway used ballad to signify a slow, sentimental tune or love song, often written in a fairly standardized form. Jazz musicians sometimes broaden the term still further to embrace all slow-tempo pieces. Notable sentimental ballads of this period include, "Little Rosewood Casket" (1870), "After the Ball" (1892), and "Danny Boy" (1913).
Popular sentimental ballad vocalists in this era were Frank Sinatra, Doris Day, Andy Williams, Dusty Springfield, Johnny Mathis, Connie Francis, Nat King Cole, Liza Minnelli and Perry Como. Their custom recordings were usually instrumental versions of current or recent rock and roll or pop hit songs. The most popular and enduring songs from this style of music are known as "pop standards" or (where relevant) "American standards". Many vocalists became involved in 1960s' vocal jazz and the rebirth of swing music, which was sometimes referred to as "easy listening" and was, in essence, a revival of popularity of the "sweet bands" that had been popular during the swing era, but with more emphasis on the vocalist and the sentimentality.
Soft rock, a subgenre that mainly consist of ballads, was derived from folk rock in the early 1970s, using acoustic instruments and putting more emphasis on melody and harmonies. Major sentimental ballad artists of this decade included Barbra Streisand, Nana Mouskouri, Elton John, Engelbert Humperdinck, Carole King, Cat Stevens, James Taylor. By the early 1970s, softer ballad songs by the Carpenters, Anne Murray, John Denver, Barry Manilow, and even Streisand, began to be played more often on "Top 40" radio.
When the word ballad appears in the title of a song, as for example in The Beatles' "The Ballad of John and Yoko" (1969) or Billy Joel's "The Ballad of Billy the Kid" (1974), the folk music sense is generally implied. The term ballad is also sometimes applied to strophic story-songs more generally, such as Don McLean's "American Pie" (1971).
Prominent artists who made sentimental ballads in the 1980s were Richard Marx, Michael Jackson, Bonnie Tyler, George Michael, Phil Collins, Sheena Easton, Amy Grant, Lionel Richie, Christopher Cross, Dan Hill, Leo Sayer, Billy Ocean, Julio Iglesias, Bertie Higgins, Tommy Page and Laura Branigan.
The 1990s mainstream pop/R&B singers such as All-4-One, Boyz II Men, Rob Thomas, Christina Aguilera, had made a number of successful, chart-topping ballads. In addition to Celine Dion, other artists with multiple number ones ballads on the AC chart in the 1990s included Phil Collins, Marc Anthony, Michael Bolton, Whitney Houston, Shania Twain and Mariah Carey. Backstreet Boys and Savage Garden
Newer female singer-songwriters such as Sarah McLachlan, Natalie Merchant, Jewel, Melissa Etheridge and Sheryl Crow also broke through on the AC chart during this time owing to their ballad-sound.
A popular trend in the early 2000s was remixing dance music hits into acoustic ballads (for example, the "Candlelight Mix" versions of "Heaven" by DJ Sammy, "Listen To Your Heart" by D.H.T., and "Everytime We Touch" by Cascada).
Throughout this era, artists such as Nick Lachey, James Blunt, John Mayer, Bruno Mars, Jason Mraz, Kelly Clarkson, Adele, Clay Aiken, Susan Boyle, Michael Bublé and Josh Groban have become successful thanks to a ballad heavy sound. Rock artists such as Coldplay, Nickelback and Evanescence have also had made ballad music. Country musicians such as Faith Hill, Shania Twain, LeAnn Rimes and Carrie Underwood had also gained popularity for their ballads.
In the early 2010s, indie musicians like Imagine Dragons, Mumford & Sons, Of Monsters and Men, the Lumineers and Ed Sheeran also had indie songs that crossed over to the adult contemporary charts, due to their ballad-heavy sound.
Jazz and traditional pop
Most pop standard and jazz ballads are built from a single, introductory verse, usually around 16 bars in length, and they end on the dominant – the chorus or refrain, usually 16 or 32 bars long and in AABA form (though other forms, such as ABAC, are not uncommon). In AABA forms, the B section is usually referred to as the bridge; often a brief coda, sometimes based on material from the bridge, is added, as in "Over the Rainbow".
Examples of notable traditional pop and jazz ballads include:
- "Always" (1925) by Irving Berlin
- "God Bless the Child" by Billie Holiday (1941)
- "Ev'ry Time We Say Goodbye" (1945) by Cole Porter
- "Autumn Leaves" (1945) by Nat King Cole
- "You Mean Everything to Me" (1960) by Neil Sedaka
- "I Will Wait For You" (1965) by Connie Francis.
- "My Way" (1968) by Frank Sinatra
- "Windmills of your Mind" (1968) by Noel Harrison
- "If You Go Away" (1968) by Tom Jones
- "(Where Do I Begin?) Love Story" (1970) by Andy Williams
- "Speak Softly Love" (1972) by Andy Williams
- "Killing Me Softly with His Song" by Roberta Flack (1973)
Pop and R&B ballads
The most common use of the term "ballad" in modern pop and R&B music is for an emotional song about romance, breakup and/or longing. The singer would usually lament an unrequited or lost love, either where one party is oblivious to the existence of the other, where one party has moved on, or where a romantic affair has affected the relationship.
Some notable examples of pop ballads include: Celine Dion's "My Heart Will Go On", Elton John's "Sorry Seems To Be The Hardest Word", Delta Goodrem's "Lost Without You", George Michael's "Careless Whisper", Lana Del Rey's "Summertime Sadness", Kelly Clarkson's "Because of You" and Shakira's "Underneath Your Clothes". Examples of R&B ballads include Mariah Carey's "My All" and "Love Takes Time", Lionel Richie's "Hello", Ashanti's "The Way That I Love You", Jazmine Sullivan's "Bust Your Windows", Labrinth's "Jealous", Rihanna's "Unfaithful", and Toni Braxton's "Un-Break My Heart".
Simon Frith, the British sociomusicologist and former rock critic, identifies the origins of the power ballad in the emotional singing of soul artists, particularly Ray Charles, and the adaptation of this style by performers such as Eric Burdon, Tom Jones, and Joe Cocker to produce slow-tempo songs often building to a loud and emotive chorus backed by drums, electric guitars, and sometimes choirs. According to Charles Aaron, power ballads came into existence in the early 1970s, when rock stars attempted to convey profound messages to audiences.
Aaron argues that the power ballad broke into the mainstream of American consciousness in 1976 as FM radio gave a new lease of life to earlier songs such as Led Zeppelin's "Stairway to Heaven" (1971), Aerosmith's "Dream On" (1973), and Lynyrd Skynyrd's "Free Bird" (1974). The Carpenters' "Goodbye to Love" (1972) has also been identified as a prototype of the power ballad. Notable power ballad examples include Nazareth's version of "Love Hurts" (1975), Heart's "What About Love" (1985) and Poison's "Every Rose Has Its Thorn" (1988).
Journey's power ballad, "Faithfully", a late addition to the group's Frontiers (1983) album, inspired Prince, who obtained the blessing of Journey's singer/songwriter Jonathan Cain, before releasing what was to become Prince's signature song, "Purple Rain" (1984).
During the mid to late 90's and early to mid 2000's a new form of rock ballad would appear, this time using post-grunge as the genre rather than hard rock, heavy metal and less often glam metal. A notable post-grunge ballad would be Bush's "Glycerine" from their debut album Sixteen Stone. What makes the ballad stand out of sorts from the other post-grunge ballads is that it features a cello. Another noted post-grunge ballad would be "With Arms Wide Open" by Creed from their album Human Clay in which the synthesizer is occasionally used. It is also not unusual for a post-grunge ballad to chart on the Adult Contemporary chart in addition to the rock charts. A great example of an artist having multiple post-grunge songs played on AC stations would be Nickelback. Creed's "With Arms Wide Open" has also charted on the AC chart as well reaching number 29 on the chart. While not considered a post-grunge song, 3 Doors Down (a band with ties to post-grunge music) also charted on the AC chart with "Here Without You", although it is considered a soft rock and symphonic rock song rather than post-grunge and almost never gets airplay on rock radio unlike their previous and future hits.
- Adult contemporary music
- Easy listening
- Soft rock
- Torch song
- List of Irish ballads
- List of rock ballads
- "POP VIEW; The Male Rock Anthem: Going All to Pieces". The New York Times. Published February 1, 1998.
- "Rock Concert Question: Are Lighter Salutes Bad for the Environment?" Live Science, July 15, 2006.
- J. M. Curtis, Rock Eras: Interpretations of Music and Society, 1954-1984 (Popular Press, 1987), p. 236.
- Bronson, B., H. (1969). The Ballad as Song. Los Angeles: University of California Press
- Ord, J. (1990). Bothy Songs and Ballads. Edinburgh: John Donald.
- "Pop Music - What Is Pop Music - A Definition and Brief History". Top40.about.com. September 7, 2012. Retrieved October 3, 2012.
- P. Buckley, The Rough Guide to Rock (Rough Guides, 3rd edn., 2003), p. 378.
- Witmer. See also Middleton (I,4,i).
- W. Apel, Harvard Dictionary of Music (Harvard, 1944; 2nd edn., 1972), p. 70.
- A. Jacobs, A Short History of Western Music (1972, Penguin, 1976), p. 21.
- W. Apel, Harvard Dictionary of Music (1944, Harvard, 1972), pp. 70-72.
- J. E. Housman, British Popular Ballads (1952, London: Ayer Publishing, 1969), p. 15.
- A. Jacobs, A Short History of Western Music (Penguin 1972, 1976), p. 20.
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Normally, when you breathe in an irritant or are subjected to a stressor such as exercise, your airways relax and open, allowing the lungs to get rid of irritants or take in more air. In a person with asthma, muscles in the airways tighten and the lining of the air passages swells. The immune system gets involved, but instead of helping, it causes inflammation.
Asthma is a disease of both adults and children. In fact, asthma is the most common chronic childhood illness. About half of all cases of asthma develop before the age of 10. Many children with asthma also have allergies. While there is no cure for asthma, it can be controlled.
Asthma Signs and Symptoms
Most people with asthma have periodic attacks separated by symptom-free periods. Some asthmatics have chronic shortness of breath with episodes of increased shortness of breath. Asthma attacks can last minutes to days and can become dangerous if the airflow becomes severely restricted.
The primary symptoms of asthma include:
- Shortness of breath
- Wheezing -- usually begins suddenly; may be worse at night or early in the morning; aggravated by exposure to cold air, exercise, heartburn and relieved with the use of bronchodilators (drugs that open the airways; see Medications)
- Chest tightness
- Cough (dry or with sputum) -- sometimes this is the only symptom
Call for emergency assistance if you have or are with someone having any of these serious symptoms:
- Extreme difficulty breathing or cessation of breathing
- Bluish color to the lips and face (called cyanosis)
- Severe anxiety
- Rapid pulse
- Profuse sweating
- Decreased level of consciousness (such as drowsiness or confusion)
Additional symptoms that may be associated with an asthma attack include:
- Flared nostrils
- Abnormal breathing pattern, in which exhalation takes more than twice as long as inhalation
- Use of the muscles between the ribs (called intercostals) to help with the increased work of breathing
- Coughing up blood (called hemoptysis)
Asthma is most likely caused by a combination of several factors. Experts suggest that in people who are susceptible (genetically predisposed), factors such as allergens (substances that commonly induce an allergic reaction), infections, dietary patterns, exercise, cigarette smoke, and stress can bring on an asthma attack.
The following factors may increase the risk of developing asthma:
- Allergies -- children with asthma often have allergies as well
- Family history of asthma or allergies
- Cigarette smoke, including second hand smoke from, for example, parents or a spouse
- Food allergies - a true food allergy, particularly one that induces asthma, is difficult to identify and, therefore, it is not clear exactly how frequently (or infrequently) this contributes to asthma; it seems to be more common in children than in adults and the responsible foods include eggs, milk, wheat, soy, peanuts, fish, shellfish, and sulfite food perservatives.
- Living in a Western or industrialized country - some experts believe that dietary habits (more processed foods, less fruits and vegetables), indoor living (resulting in overexposure to indoor allergens), energy- efficient homes (trapping allergenic dust mites inside), immunizations, and possibly, declining rates of breastfeeding contribute to the rising rates of asthma
- Urban living
- Gender -- among younger children, asthma develops twice as frequently in boys as in girls, but after puberty it may be more common in girls
- Obesity - controversial; a recent study suggests that asthma is over-diagnosed among obese people
Childhood asthma in particular can be triggered by almost all of the same things that trigger allergies, such as the following:
- Sensitivity to allergens in the air, such as dust, cockroach waste, animal dander, indoor and outdoor mold, pollens
- Respiratory infections
- Air pollutants, such as smoke from tobacco or a fireplace, aerosols, perfumes, fresh newsprint, diesel particles, sulfur dioxide, elevated ozone levels, and fumes from paint, cleaning products, and gas stoves
- Changes in the weather, especially in temperature (particularly cold) and humidity
Other triggers include:
- Behaviors that affect breathing (exercising, laughing, crying, yelling)
The symptoms of asthma can mimic several other conditions, and a doctor must take a thorough history to rule out other diseases. Questions will likely be asked about how and when symptoms occur, and if there is a family history of allergies and asthma or occupational exposure to chemicals. If asthma is suspected, tests (called pulmonary function tests) will probably be done to measure, among other things, the volume of your lungs and how much air you exhale. Other tests may include chest and sinus x-rays, blood tests, or allergy tests.
Preventive Care for Asthma
Although there is no method guaranteed to prevent asthma, there are a number of measures parents can take to reduce their child's risk of developing asthma. These include:
- Exclusively breastfeeding for the first 3 to 6 months of life; this issue is controversial, however, with the most recent (and largest) study suggesting that breastfeeding for the first 6 months of life helps to protect the child.
- Delaying the introduction of solid food until age 6 months
- Manipulating the child's environment (not smoking during pregnancy or around infants, eliminating household allergens such as mites and cockroaches. For example, to reduce exposure to dust mites, encase mattresses and pillows in special covers that are impermeable to allergens; also, remove carpets from bedrooms.)
According to certain studies on adults, apples and selenium-rich food in the diet may protect against asthma, and moderate consumption of red wine may be associated with less severe asthma attacks. These foods are high in antioxidants (namely, flavonoids). It is too early to say definitively that these nutrients protect against asthma, however. Plus, it is important to note that in certain individuals, red wine may actually induce asthma symptoms if you have an allergy to sulfites, a food additive, or any other substance found in wine. Often, wine labels indicate if sulfites are present.
Key steps in preventing asthma attacks include identifying the allergens and the triggers that bring on or worsen your asthma symptoms and then working to eliminate or avoid them. Sometimes it takes exposure to more than one of these factors before an asthma episode is triggered. Keeping a diary to determine triggers may be helpful.
The following conditions are common triggers for asthma. Reduce your chances of exposure to them by taking some common-sense steps:
- Viral infections (colds, flu, bronchitis, pneumonia) - stay away from people who you know are ill
- Sinusitis and allergic rhinitis (hay fever or year-round allergies) - avoid seasonal allergens by staying indoors in air conditioning as much as possible and eliminating indoor allergens; fewer allergy attacks generally means fewer cases of sinusitis and asthma
- Gastroesophageal reflux (heartburn) - avoid provoking foods, medication, and mealtime habits
Avoid the following altogether:
- If sensitive or allergic, aspirin and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
- Beta-blockers (such as acebutolol, atenolol, esmolol, labetalol, metoprolol, nadolol, pindolol, propranolol, and timolol) including those in eye medication
- If sensitive or allergic, processed potatoes, shrimp, dried fruit, beer, and wine - these often contain sulfite food preservatives
Allergy desensitization, if you have a known allergy, may decrease the number of asthma attacks you experience, diminish the intensity of each attack, and lower the amount of medication that you need.
Asthma Treatment Approach
Avoiding asthma attacks, reducing inflammation, and preventing lung damage are the primary goals of treatment. This requires educating yourself about asthma, working closely with your doctor to determine the severity of your asthma and to define a treatment plan, and following recommendations. Adjusting your environment as much as possible to prevent exposure to allergens or irritants are important for the successful control of asthma. Certain nutritional changes, particularly increasing the amount of omega-3 fatty acids in your diet and decreasing omega-6 fatty acids, and acupuncture may be useful adjuncts.
- Quit smoking
- Lose weight if you are overweight and already have asthma; although the connection between obesity and asthma is not entirely understood, excess weight may put pressure on the lungs and trigger an inflammatory response.
- Keep a diary of respiratory complaints - this may help determine triggers.
Asthma Nutrition and Dietary Supplements
Studies indicate that people with asthma tend to have low levels of certain nutrients (for example, selenium and potassium) and that the Western diet (high in fast foods and low in fresh fruits and vegetables) has been associated with higher rates of asthma. In fact, fried foods and margarine may be particularly bad, especially in children. On the other hand, it has been suggested that adding onion, garlic, pungent spices, and antioxidants (such as foods rich in vitamin C, vitamin E, flavonoids, and beta-carotene) to the diet may help reduce symptoms.
Two large studies found that low dietary magnesium intake may be associated with risk of developing asthma in both children and adults.
A review of scientific studies suggests that N-acetylcysteine may help dissolve mucus and improve symptoms associated with asthma.
Omega-3 Fatty Acids
Preliminary research on adults with asthma suggests that an omega-3 fatty acid supplement may reduce inflammation and improve lung function.
One thing that can be said about omega-3 fatty acids is that if you enrich your diet with this type of essential fatty acid (from foods such as cold-water fish, flaxseeds, pumpkin seeds, and walnuts) and reduce your intake of omega-6 fatty acids (from foods like meat, egg yolks, and certain cooking oils), this is likely to help improve your symptoms.
Data from several studies suggest that compared to diets with normal amounts of potassium, diets low in potassium are associated with poor lung function and even asthma in children. Improving dietary intake of potassium through foods such as fish, fruits, and vegetables may therefore be valuable for preventing or treating asthma. Adequate amounts of magnesium are needed to maintain normal levels of potassium. In addition, the drug theophylline (used sometimes for asthma) may deplete potassium, as can excessive intake of salt or caffeine in the diet.
Quercetin, which is a member of a group of antioxidants called flavonoids, inhibits the production and release of histamine and other allergic/inflammatory substances. Histamine is a substance that contributes to allergy symptoms such as a runny nose, watery eyes, and hives. Like other flavonoids, quercetin is a plant pigment responsible for colors seen in fruits and vegetables.
Studies suggest that people with asthma tend to have low blood levels of selenium. In addition, a population-based study (studies that evaluate groups of people) suggested that eating selenium-rich foods may have a protective effect against asthma. Plus, taking selenium supplements may prove to be helpful as well. In a study of 24 people with asthma, for example, those who received selenium supplements for 14 weeks demonstrated a significant improvement in symptoms compared to those who received placebo. More studies, with larger numbers of people and lasting longer than 14 weeks, are needed to determine whether selenium supplementation is truly safe and effective for people with asthma.
Although research is limited, there is some indication that vitamin C, particularly from fresh fruit in your diet, may be useful for treating allergy-related conditions such as asthma.
Other supplements that may have benefit for asthma include:
- Coenzyme Q 10 (CoQ10) - if you have asthma, you may have low levels of this antioxidant in your blood. It is not known at this time, however, whether taking CoQ10 supplements will make any difference in your symptoms.
- Lactobacillus acidophilus - there is some evidence that this "good" organism (called a probiotic), which is found naturally in the gut, may reduce the risk of developing an allergic reaction, including asthma. In fact, some early evidence suggests that if mothers who have at least one relative with asthma, or some other allergy-related illness, take this probiotic while pregnant and breastfeeding, their babies may be less likely to develop asthma.
- Lycopene and beta-carotene - preliminary data suggests that each of these two antioxidants may prove useful for preventing exercise induced asthma symptoms when taken daily.
- Vitamin B6 - may be needed if you are taking theophylline because this medication can lower blood levels of this nutrient.
Asthma Suggested Nutritional Supplementation
- D-43 Bronchasthmol - 10-15 drops under tongue 3 times daily. Acute: 5 - 10 drops under tongue every 20 - 30 minutes.
- 500-C Methoxyflavone - 3 tablets initially, then 1 tablet every 20-30 minutes until symptoms subside. 500-C Methoxyflavone is a synergistic formula that features a specialized complex of bioflavonoids combined with vitamin C.
- Vitamin C and the bioflavonoids are known to be helpful in reducing the effects of allergy mediated bronchial asthma, sometimes stopping the attack in as little as five minutes.
- Nazanol -1-2 tablets 2-3 times daily on empty stomach.
Natural , stimulant-free herbal support for healthy sinus, nasal and lung function.
- DMG Sublingual - 1 tablet under tongue every 20-30 minutes until symptoms subside.
- Research has shown DMG to be a physiologically active ingredient that: 1) is an anti-stress agent that can significantly improve physical and mental performance; 2) can improve and stimulate oxygen utilization and thereby reduce hypoxic (low oxygen) states in the body; and 3) can increase resistance to disease and infection by strengthening both arms of the immune response system, including antibody and lymphocyte production.
- Mega B12 / Folic - 4 drops three times daily
Highly concentrated B12/folic acid liquid
- NOTE: Childhood asthma has been shown to respond remarkably well to B12 therapy.
- VentiMax - Adults: 2 capsules twice daily with meals. Children over 6 years: 1 capsule twice daily with meals. Children under 6 years: Use VentiMax PD
VentiMax is the only scientifically designed nutritional supplement for asthma free of hidden herbal stimulants such as caffeine, theophylline, and ephedrine.
- VentiMax PD - Children 1-3 years: 1-2 teaspoons twice daily mixed in apple or pear juice. Children 4-6 years: 1 Tablespoon twice daily mixed in apple or pear juice.
- PerimineTM - 1-2 tablets twice daily with food.
Patented, Flavonoid-Rich Perilla Seed Extract.
In severe chronic asthma, Dr. Jeffrey Bland recommends adding
- UltraInflamX Plus 360 - 2 scoops twice daily
Multi-mechanistic support with key nutrients, phytonutrients, and selective kinase response modulators (SKRMs) to address underlying inflammation.
Asthma Dietary Suggestions
- Anti-Inflammatory Diet
Asthma Supporting Research
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*This is a slightly expanded version of an article that first appeared in Understanding Our Gifted is the first in a series of three articles about the processes of parenting an exceptionally gifted child.
Assessing gifted children is similar to and different from assessing other types of children. Though areas to be assessed are similar for all, for gifted children, the assessment techniques and tests require special characteristics. While most professionals are trained to assess many kinds of children, few are specifically trained to assess in this particular area. The general perception is that these youngsters, with abilities and strengths in many areas, have no special needs, educational or otherwise, that merit serious clinical attention. For this reason, it is important that parents who suspect that their child may be gifted search for a professional with experience in working with this population. Knowledge about these practices can help parents with this search.
Testing versus assessment.
These two activities are frequently discussed together and criticized together, when, in fact, they are quite different. As a psychologist, I have done both and will continue to do both for very different reasons. Testing, or the individual administration of a standardized test, means presenting test items according to very specific pre-set directions and following an exact verbal script. The results are usually reported as numbers. This is a limited activity and the information that it provides is similarly limited. Assessment, on the other hand, includes standardized test administration but goes well beyond it. Good test administration should be the same from person to person; that is, it should be independent of personal experience and personal viewpoints. Assessment, especially clinical assessment, is highly dependent upon training, theoretical orientation, personal experience, research knowledge and clinical experience. In good test administration, the person administering the test should not have a major impact on the test results; in assessment, the person doing the assessment does have a major impact on the final result. For these reasons, assessing children is part science and part art. The science part is straightforward and largely concerns testing. The art part is difficult to describe, difficult to teach and essential.
Age of child.
All tests and assessments vary with the age of the child, as we expect that children will do different things at different ages. In general, we chose to use an instrument that has been standardized with children of a specific age without regard to their ability levels. Yet, gifted children will accomplish a variety of things earlier than other children or will accomplish them at a higher level than their age peers will. Assessment must adapt to this reality. There are two basic strategies for making this adaptation; the easiest is to use a test standardized for older children (this is the out of level testing that is used in the talent searches). For example, most children do not read before entering school, and therefore most assessments of preschool children do not routinely include reading. Some gifted preschool children do read early, and an adequate assessment of them should include measures of reading. One way to accomplish this is to give an above age or grade level of the Gates MacGinitie Reading Test. A second strategy is to informally look for behaviors and skills that usually appear in older children. For example, an informal strategy for reading assessment is to take an inventory of the books that the child has read in the 6 months prior to the assessment. The most important step is not to make assumptions about the child's level of accomplishment based upon age or upon grade, but rather select test materials that will permit a young child to demonstrate high level skills in a variety of areas.
Each child, gifted or not, has his or her own history. When a child is tested, for example, in the admission process for private schools or selective programs, parent information is often not collected. In assessment, however, the first step is to interview the parents to obtain the child's history in the areas of general development, education, health, social interactions and family interactions. As a parent, you should be wary of any professional who plans to evaluate a child without taking a developmental history.
The careful collection of information from parents, via report forms, checklists and most importantly direct interviewing, becomes the foundation upon which the individual nature of the assessment is built. Parents, speaking to a professional for the first time, should feel free to say that they think that their child may be gifted. They should then hear a question like-"Why do you think that your child may be gifted? What does your child do that suggests this?" thus opening the door for a frank and complete history of the child's development and behavior. As with any interview technique, the value of the information obtained depends upon the skill of the interviewer and upon the biases of the interviewer. Several remarkable studies have had a particular impact on my thinking about the developmental pathways of gifted children and I want to direct your attention to those studies (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
In the academic world, there are debates about the meaning and the value of intelligence tests in general; at parent and school meetings, I have been asked many questions about intelligence tests and the meanings of different score patterns. After working with hundreds of children, my own view of the value of intelligence tests is this: when I administer an individual intelligence test, I gain necessary but not sufficient information about an individual child. Among the most commonly used tests for assessing the gifted are the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III), the Stanford-Binet: Fourth Edition (SB:IV) and, yes, the Stanford-Binet: Form L-M (SB:LM). I use all three at different times. For gifted children, I have frequently observed that a score on one intelligence test cannot be converted to a score on another intelligence by means of any formula. These tests provide information that is not interchangeable and the scores that they generate are not interchangeable.
If I think that a gifted child may have a learning disability, I use the WISC-III based upon my clinical experience and because there is a body of useful research on this application (6). If I am interested in a school age child's high-level math reasoning or visual-spatial reasoning, I use the SB: IV as I have had numerous experiences with young elementary school children who demonstrate skill in subtests normally reserved for older children, especially the subtests of number series, equation building, paper folding and matrices. However, both the WISC-III and the SB: IV have a serious general limitation due to their low ceiling. The tests were designed to be most useful for children who are close to average and are less useful for children who are far from average (e.g. retarded or gifted). In fact, the original creator of the Weschler tests, David Weschler stated that "My scales are meant for people who score between 70 and 130. They are clinical tests." When reminded that his tests were commonly used by psychologists for such children, he said, of the psychologists, "Then that is their misfortune. It's not what I tell them to do, and it's not what a good clinician ought to do. They should know better."(7, p xiv).
One word about the SB:LM is in order. Many people mistakenly believe that the publication of the SB:IV meant that the SB: LM should not and could not be used. That is not true. There are serious and well documented reasons for continuing to use this test (3,8). I especially like the SB: LM for its very high level verbal reasoning items, which, in my experience, tap an ability to think, verbally and mathematically, in a complex way. However, there is a serious limitation in using this test, namely, the reluctance of school personnel to accept the test results. Several years ago, there was a lively debate about the relative merits of the SB: LM and the SB: IV in the identification of gifted children, with some favoring the use of the SB: IV (8) and others the use of the SB: LM (9). Putting the issue to the clinical test, by administering both tests to the same children, I have found that with the SB: IV, it is difficult, sometimes impossible, to distinguish between highly and exceptionally intellectually gifted children. To put it simply, if I want to know whether or not an individual child fits the characteristics of an exceptionally gifted child, as presented by Dr. Mirica Gross (3) in her extensive research, then I must administer the SB: LM. The Riverside Publishing Company reports plans to incorporate some of the best features of the SB: LM into the formation of a new test, the Stanford-Binet: Fifth Edition. However, it will be years until that new test is ready, and has proven to be useful for gifted students.
One of the clear ways in which gifted children differ from other children is in the ease and speed with which they master academic skills. The more extreme the child is in intellectual ability, the more likely it is that the child will not fit in well with a standard curriculum. For that reason, I find that it is critical to evaluate the child's abilities to decode words, comprehend printed passages, understand math processes, complete math calculations, produce legible print or script and to write varied types of material. Gifted children, in the early school years, vary widely in the degree to which these skills are developed. Of the children I have seen, highly and exceptionally gifted children, often, but not always, have some school skills that are much more advanced than the skills of more moderately gifted children. These children, in turn, have some skills that are much more advanced than the skills of average children.
To convincingly document extreme skill development in any of these areas, it is essential to use an individual educational assessment that has a very high ceiling as schools often do not possess or obtain this information. This occurs for several reasons: first, many schools do not routinely test all their elementary children until they reach a pre-established grade, which can be as late as 3rd or 4th grade, and, second, the types of standardized, normed, group-administered tests that are given in schools to classrooms of children often have such low ceilings that they cannot distinguish well among the children in the top 3 to 5 percentiles.
Individual assessment can be adapted to document the differening academic levels of children in the top 3 percentiles on standardized tests. The talent searches, which are available for 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th graders are very important tools in documenting highly developed math and verbal aptitude. For elementary children in 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th grades, a good assessment practice is the use of individual tests that go up to a 12th grade level of difficulty. By using such tests, there is no pre-conceived ceiling that is imposed on a child by the nature of the test construction. There are several individually administered academic tests with high ceilings, for example, the Woodcock-Johnson and the Peabody Individual Achievement Test. I prefer the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement for early elementary gifted students, as it includes what, I feel, is a more realistic assessment of reading. In the KTEA, the child is required to read and demonstrate comprehension of printed paragraphs. In many other tests, the child's reading comprehension skill is measured by merely filling in a missing word in a sentence. In my experience this less demanding task, the cloze procedure, can lead to inflated and inaccurate scores of reading comprehension.
Gifted children often possess abilities in areas that are well outside the realm of standardized tests; they may possess talents in music, art, creative writing, scientific thinking and group leadership, to name only a few. Using these abilities, the children may complete activities or undertake projects that no one their age may have imagined or attempted. In order to understand these qualities and to begin to appreciate the importance of these activities in the lives of these children, I have had to be creative in my assessment strategies. Certainly, portfolios of art and writing are useful, as are videotapes of performances and activities. Constructions of all types have made an appearance in my office; some of them can be captured with a Polaroid camera. Children's efforts in these areas often represent hours of committed labor and may indicate unusual and emerging life interests. As these activities are often undertaken outside of school, parent information about these projects is vital. It is often equally important to brainstorm with parents about the ways they can encourage and support their children in these activities. There is no simple, standardized, normed method for accomplishing this; consequently, this is not a testing activity but it is an essential assessment activity.
The role of intuition.
This topic, which could also be called clinical judgment, is perhaps, the single most important one, in discussing the assessment of children and the one that is the most difficult to describe. To a substantial extent it is based upon reading the non-verbal communication from the child. This aspect of the communication includes many factors: the child's body position, body movements, use of gestures, eye glances, tone of voice, intonation and various approach and avoidance behaviors. Reading the non-verbal communication is a complex process and one that provides vital information about the child. The more children I evaluate, the more I depend upon this aspect of assessment. While it is important throughout the entire process, I am most aware of it during the first minutes after meeting a child. Mostly, it resembles a sensation of waiting, of alert waiting for the child. At those moments, I try to set aside all I have heard or read about the child and simply respond to what occurs. To do this successfully, I have to concentrate fully and I often respond in ways that I have not preplanned. To a great extent, I depend upon the initial impressions, feelings and ideas that occur to me in the moments after I meet the child.
Children chose to bring in photographs, trophies, books, stuffed toys, construction projects, art or other projects; responding enthusiastically is easy and welcome. Other children, sometimes the ones who bring in nothing, make it plain that they would rather be anywhere else in the world. At times, I find myself saying almost before I say hello, "You look like you’d rather be anywhere but here." Children are usually grateful for the acceptance it implies. Other children, painfully shy, look like they wish they could just disappear. Sitting down in the waiting room, chatting with their parents, inviting their parents into the testing room allows the child to minimize the interaction with me. With my attention directed toward their parents, they feel less pressure to interact and they will often ease themselves into the conversation, as they are able. For children who are quiet or hesitant to speak, allowing periods of silence and offering non-verbal toys (origami, puzzles, markers and paper) helps ease the transition into the assessment process. Other children need to have a brief introductory session and then return, later, to a now somewhat familiar place for longer, more focused assessment sessions. While some of these variations can be anticipated in advance by discussions with parents, others are, essentially, spontaneous.
The most useful preparatory technique is to tell the parents to help the child select something important or well loved to bring to the session. Allowing them to choose gives them an initial sense that their needs and opinions will be valued and it provides an immediate and engaging topic for conversation. Also importantly, this activity gives the child some small area of control over a process that will be largely outside of his or her control. Finally, it communicates the message that, at least part of, the assessment will be about what they like and value.
My subjective experiences.
I have found that assessing gifted children, is a qualitatively different experience than the assessment of other types of children. First of all, it takes 1 ½ to 2 times longer to administer high ceiling tests to gifted children than to average children. The more extreme the ability of the child, the longer the session. The reasons for this are straightforward. Gifted children generally answer more questions correctly, produce more elaborated answers, ask more detailed questions and become more deeply engaged in testing than do other children. For all these reasons, it can take along time to reach a test ceiling or the end of a subtest. The tendency of gifted children to be more positive and engaged during the testing means that they are more difficult to disengage and that they are more reluctant to leave at the end. Breaks and stopping points must, more often, be imposed on gifted children. Also, the interpersonal dynamics in the testing sessions are more complex. I often have the sensation that I am being closely observed and that the nuances of what I say and do are being noted. In short, I find that I need to be particularly focused, alert and engaged when I am assessing gifted children. I also need to offer more explanations for why I do what I do. Experience has taught me that if I do not offer explanations, the children will invent their own, sometime quite incorrect explanations, of what I am doing or thinking.
All assessment processes involve providing information to parents and often to teachers. In the case of gifted children, I find that their parents ask more questions, expect more fully developed answers and appreciate references to relatively complex reading material. Teachers and parents alike often have to cope with feelings of uncertainty about how best to respond to the child's needs, and questions of best educational practices are constantly raised. Teachers and parents are often appreciative of straightforward information on practices like subject matter acceleration, grade skipping, radical acceleration and home schooling. Frequently, there is an urgently felt need to solve educational problems of fit and there is a great need for information on a variety of successful techniques. Obtaining and sharing this information is an important part of the assessment process. In many fascinating ways, the growth of the Internet has given parents quick access to each other and to information of varying quality. The resourcefulness and persistence of parents constantly impresses me as they seek appropriate adaptations for their children in the schools. My role, at that stage, is to provide links between the parent, the school and the body of knowledge about promising educational practices. In this regard, materials supplied by the ERIC system (10) and the work of the National Research Center on the Gifted and the Talented (11) has been invaluable and I encourage parents to obtain materials from both sources. It is my opinion that no assessment is complete until some meaningful changes have taken place in the daily life of the child, however, it is often the parents who must see to it that those changes take place.
1. Bloom, B. S. (1985) Developing Talent In Young People. New York: Ballantine Books.
2. Gottfried, A. W., Gottfried, A. E., Bathurst, K. & Guerin, D. W. (1994). Gifted IQ: Early
Developmental Aspects: The Fullerton Longitudinal Study. New York: Plenum Press.
3. Gross, M. U. M., (1993) Exceptionally Gifted Children. London: Routledge.
4. Hart, B. & Risley, T. D. (1995) Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Company.
5. Roedell, W. C., Jackson, N. E. and Robinson, H. B. (1980) Gifted Young Children. New York:
Teachers College Press.
6. Fox., L. H., Brody, L. & Tobin, D. (1983) Learning-Disabled Gifted Children: Identification and Programming. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
7. Kaufman, A. (1994) Intelligent Testing with the WISC-III. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
8. Robinson, N. (1992) Which Binet for the Brightest? Stanford-Binet IV, Of Course! Time Marches On! Roeper Review, 151, 32-34
9. Silverman, L. & Kearney, K (1992) Don’t Throw Away the Old Binet. Roeper Review, 1591, 32- 34.
10. The ERIC documents on gifted children can be obtained at: ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education, The Council for Exceptional Children, 1920 Association Drive, Reston, VA 22091-1589.
11. The Product list from NRCGT can be obtained by contacting the Dissemination Coordinator,
University of Connecticut, The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented, 362 Fairfield Rd., U-7 Storrs, CT 06269-2007.
Reprinted by permission from Open Space Communications.
This article is provided as a service of the Davidson Institute for Talent Development, a 501(c)3 nonprofit dedicated to supporting profoundly gifted young people 18 and under. To learn more about the Davidson Institute’s programs, please visit www.DavidsonGifted.org.
The appearance of any information in the Davidson Institute's Database does not imply an endorsement by, or any affiliation with, the Davidson Institute. All information presented is for informational purposes only and is solely the opinion of and the responsibility of the author. Although reasonable effort is made to present accurate information, the Davidson Institute makes no guarantees of any kind, including as to accuracy or completeness. Use of such information is at the sole risk of the reader.