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Action learning is an approach to problem solving involving taking action and reflecting upon the results. This helps improve the problem-solving process as well as simplify the solutions developed by the team. The theory of action learning and its epistemological position were originally developed by Reg Revans, who applied the method to support organizational and business development initiatives and improve on problem solving efforts.
Action learning is effective in developing a number of individual leadership and team problem-solving skills, and it became a component in corporate and organizational leadership development programs. This strategy is different from the "one size fits all" curriculum that is characteristic of many training and development programs. Confucius once said, "I hear and I forget; I see and I remember; I do and I understand," and action learning is a cycle of doing and reflecting.
The action learning process includes:
- A real problem that is important, critical, and usually complex,
- A diverse problem-solving team or "set",
- A process that promotes curiosity, inquiry, and reflection,
- A requirement that talk be converted into action and, ultimately, a solution, and
- A commitment to learning.
In most forms of action learning, a coach is included and responsible for promoting and facilitating learning, as well as encouraging the team to be self-managing.
Reginald Revans is the originator of action learning. Revans' formative influences included his experience training as a physicist at the University of Cambridge. In his encounters with this talented group of scientists—several went on to win Nobel prizes—he noted the importance of each scientist describing their own ignorance, sharing experiences, and communally reflecting to learn. He used these experiences to further develop the method in the 1940s while working for the Coal Board in United Kingdom. Here, he encouraged managers to meet together in small groups, to share their experiences and ask each other questions about what they saw and heard. The approach increased productivity by over 30%. Later on, in hospitals, he concluded that the conventional instructional methods were largely ineffective. People had to be aware of their lack of relevant knowledge and be prepared to explore the area of their ignorance with suitable questions and help from other people in similar positions.
Revans makes this more precise in the opening chapter of his book which describes the formula:
where L is learning, P is programmed knowledge and Q is questioning to create insight into what people see, hear or feel.
Q uses :
- "closed" questions:
- "objective" questions:
- how much or how many?
- "relative" questions:
- "open" questions
Although Q is the cornerstone of the method, the more relaxed formulation has enabled action learning to become widely accepted in many countries all over the world. In Revans' book, there are examples from the United States, Canada, Latin America, the Middle East, Africa, and Asia-Pacific.
International Management Centres, the action learning professional association where Revans was the inaugural president, have proposed an extension to this formula with the addition of R for "reflection". This has also been proposed by Michael Marquardt:
In this expanded equation, R refers to reflection. This additional element emphasizes the point that "great questions" should evoke thoughtful reflections while considering the current problem, the desired goal, designing strategies, developing action or implementation plans, or executing action steps that are components of the implementation plan.
Waddill and Marquardt (2003) demonstrate the link between adult learning theory and Marquardt's action learning approach in their article entitled "Adult Learning Orientations and Action Learning".
Action-based learning questions
Action-based learning questions are questions that are based on the approach of action learning where one solves real-life problems that involve taking action and reflecting upon the results. There are two types of questions: closed questions and open questions. Closed questions involve a technique which does not allow the respondents to develop their response, they can just say 'Yes' or 'No'. Open questions allow the respondents to expand or explore in their response.
One of the keys to effective action learning is asking the 'right question'. When asked to the right people at the right time, these questions result in obtaining the necessary information. The action learning process, which primarily uses a questioning approach, can be more helpful than offering advice because it assumes that each person has the capacity to find their own answers.
Normally, the purpose of asking a question is to obtain information. However, in action Learning, the purpose is to help someone else to do one or more of the following:
- Think more deeply
- Explore new options and perspectives
- Reflect in order to make better choices and decisions
Types of questions
Closed questions involve a technique which does not allow the respondents to develop their response. It can do so by limiting respondents with a strict, limited list of answer choices. Answers are mostly monosyllabic words or short phrases. For example, some closed questions can only be answered by a "Yes" or "No".
Closed questions should not be interpreted as simple questions. They can be of varying levels of difficulty, and may make the respondent think before answering. Take this phrase for example: "When two quantities are dependent on each other, does an increase in one always leads to an increase in the other?".
Usage of closed questions:
- To give facts
- To help keep control of the conversation with the questioner
- To open up a conversation
Open questions allow the respondent to expand or explore in their response, and do not have a single correct response. This gives the respondent the freedom to discover new ideas, consider different possibilities, and decide on the course of action which is right for them.
Open-ended questions are not always long—they may be short as well as open-ended. Shorter questions often have equal or greater impact than longer ones. When asking shorter questions, it is easier to be perceived as abrupt or even rude. When questioning an Action Learning set, it is important to be aware of one's tone and language. The goal is usually to ask challenging questions, or to challenge the respondent's perspective.
Usage of open questions:
- To encourage discussion of opinion and feelings.
- To think and reflect
- To give control of the conversation to the respondent
- To expand upon a closed question
- To aid in the realization of the depth of a situation
- To help to learn more about an individual
Use in organizations
Today, action learning is practiced by a wide community of businesses, governments, non-profits, and educational institutions.
Writers on the subject have included Mike Pedler, Alan Mumford and Richard Hale in the United Kingdom & Australia, Yury Boshyk in Canada, Garry Luxmore in Australia. Ng Choon Seng in Singapore, Ira Cohen and Kevin Hao in China, and Michael Marquardt, Skipton Leonard, Arthur Freedman, Robert Kramer, and Joe Raelin, and Verna Willis (a pioneer in action learning and co-author with Robert L. Dilworth, as well as an award recipient with the Annual Global Forum on Action Learning in the United States.
Action learning is applied by using the action learning question method (Hale) to support organizational development (OD) capability development across central government in the UK Civil Service supported by OD specialists Mayvin. As such, this is combining action learning with organizational development as reported at the 2014 Ashridge Action Learning Conference and Action Learning: Research and Practice, October, 2014.
An action learning approach has been recognized as a valuable means of supporting the continuing professional development of professionals in emerging professions. The action learning question approach has been applied with, for instance the emerging professional field of global outsourcing as reported by Hale ('Actual Professional Development', Training Journal, 2012). This supports the idea that powerful learning can occur at the boundaries of organizations as proposed by Wenger in his work on 'communities of practice'.
Organizations may also use action learning in the virtual environment. This is a cost-effective solution that enables the widespread use of action learning at all levels of an organization. Action e-Learning (AEL), as defined and implemented by Waddill, provides a viable alternative for organizations interested in adapting the action learning process for online delivery with groups where the members are not co-located.
ARL, MiL and WIAL models
As with other educational processes, practitioners have built on Revans' pioneering work and have adapted some tenets to accommodate their needs. One such branch of action learning is Action Reflection Learning (ARL), which originated in Sweden among educators and consultants under the guidance of Lennart Rohlin of the MiL Institute in the 1970s. With the so-called "MiL model", ARL gained momentum with the work of LIM, Leadership in International Management, under the leadership of Ernie Turner in the USA. The WIAL (World Institute for Action Learning) Model was developed by Michael Marquardt, Skipton Leonard, Bea Carson and Arthur Freedman.
The main differences between Revans' approach to action learning and the 'MiL Model' in the '80s are :
- the role of a project team advisor (later called Learning Coach), which Revans had reservations about;
- the use of team projects rather than individual challenges;
- the duration of the sessions, which is more flexible in ARL designs.
The MiL model evolved organically as practitioners responded to diverse needs and restrictions. In an experiential learning mode, MiL practitioners varied the number and duration of the sessions, the type of project selected, the role of the Learning Coach and the style of his/her interventions.
ARL evolved organically through the choices and savvy intuitions of practitioners, who informally exchanged their experiences with each other. It became a somewhat shared practice, which incorporated elements of design and intervention that the practitioners adopted because of their efficacy. In 2004, Isabel Rimanoczy researched and codified the ARL methodology, identifying 16 elements and 10 underlying principles.
The WIAL model incorporates six elements:
- problem or challenge
- group of 4–8 members
- reflective inquiry
- development and implementation of strategies and actions
- individual, group and organizational learning
- an action learning coach.
The model starts with 2 simple ground rules that ensure that statements follow and are related to questions and provide the authority for the coach to promote learning. Team members may develop additional ground rules, norms, and roles as they deem necessary or advantageous. Addressing Revans' concern that a coach's over-involvement in the problem-solving process will engender dependency, WIAL coaches only ask questions that encourage team members to reflect on the team's behavior (what is working, can be improved, or done differently) in efforts to improve learning and, ultimately, performance.
"Unlearning" as a prerequisite for "learning"
Robert Kramer pioneered the use of action learning for officials in the U.S. government, and at the European Commission in Brussels and Luxembourg. He also introduced action learning to scientists at the European Environment Agency in Copenhagen, to officials of the Estonian government at the State Chancellery (Prime Minister's Office) in Tallinn, Estonia, and to students of communication and media studies at Corvinus University of Budapest.
The process of learning more creative ways of thinking, feeling, and being is achieved in action learning by reflecting on what is working now and as well as on actions that can be improved. Action learning is consistent with the principles of positive psychology and appreciative inquiry by encouraging team/set members to build on strengths and learn from life's challenges. In action learning, there is no need to forget what has worked in the past. However, reflecting on what has not worked helps team/set members unlearn what doesn't work and invent/learn better ways of acting and moving forward. This way, team/set members are able to keep what has worked in the past, while also finding new and improved ways to increase productivity, in areas that may need improvement.
Unlike other writers in the field of action learning, Kramer applies the theory of art, creativity and "unlearning" of the psychologist Otto Rank to his practice of action learning. Rank was the first to see therapy as a learning and unlearning experience. The therapeutic relationship allows the patient to: (1) learn more creative ways of thinking, feeling and being in the here-and-now; and (2) unlearn self-destructive ways of thinking, feeling and being in the here-and-now. Patterns of self-destruction ("neurosis") represent a failure of creativity, not, as Freud assumed, a retreat from sexuality.
In action learning questions allow group members to "step out of the frame of the prevailing ideology", as Otto Rank wrote in Art and Artist,: 70 reflect on their assumptions and beliefs, and reframe their choices. The process of "stepping out" of a frame, out of a form of knowing—a prevailing ideology—is analogous to the work of artists as they struggle to give birth to fresh ways of seeing the world, perspectives that allow them to see aspects of the world that no artists, including themselves, have ever seen before.
The most creative artists, such as Rembrandt, Michelangelo and Leonardo, know how to separate even from their own greatest public successes, from earlier artistic incarnations of themselves. Their "greatness consists precisely in this reaching out beyond themselves, beyond the ideology which they have themselves fostered", according to Art and Artist.: 368 Through the lens of Otto Rank's work on understanding art and artists, action learning can be seen as the never-completed process of learning how to "step out of the frame" of the ruling mindset, whether one's own or the culture's—in other words, of learning how to unlearn.
Comparing the process of unlearning to the "breaking out" process of birth, Otto Rank was the first psychologist to suggest that a continual capacity to separate from "internal mental objects"—from internalized institutions, beliefs and assumptions; from the restrictions of culture, social conformity and received wisdom—is the sine qua non for lifelong creativity.
Unlearning necessarily involves separation from one's self-concept, as it has been culturally conditioned to conform to familial, group, occupational or organizational allegiances. According to Rank, unlearning or breaking out of our shell from the inside is "a separation [that] is so hard, not only because it involves persons and ideas that one reveres, but because the victory is always, at bottom, and in some form, won over a part of one's ego".: 375
In the organizational context, learning how to unlearn is vital because what we assume to be true has merged into our identity. We refer to the identity of an individual as a "mindset". We refer to the identity of an organizational group as a "culture". Action learners learn how to question, probe and separate from, both kinds of identity—i.e., their "individual" selves and their "social" selves. By opening themselves to critical inquiry, they begin to learn how to emancipate themselves from what they "know"—they learn how to unlearn.
There is also an emerging, radical approach to unlearning in the areas of critical action learning (CAR). According to Pedler and Hsu, Chokr's concept of unlearning has an important implication for critical action learning because it questions the predominant cultural tendency that sees conventional teaching as an unquestionable good. Pedler and Hsu further connect the idea of unlearning to some ancient forms of wisdom such as Taoism.
Role of facilitator, coach and questions
An ongoing challenge of action learning has been to take productive action as well as to take the time necessary to capture the learning that result from reflecting on the results of taking action. Usually, the urgency of the problem or task decreases or eliminates the reflective time necessary for learning. As a consequence, more and more organizations have recognized the critical importance of an action learning coach or facilitator in the process, someone who has the authority and responsibility of creating time and space for the group to learn at the individual, group and organizational level.
There is controversy, however, about the need for an action learning coach. Reg Revans was sceptical about the use of learning coaches and, in general, of interventionist approaches. He believed the action learning set or group could practice action learning on its own. He also had a major concern that too much process facilitation would lead a group to become dependent on a coach or facilitator. Nevertheless, later in his development of the action learning method, Revans experimented with including a role that he described as a "supernumerary" that had many similarities to that of a facilitator or coach.: 9 Revans, like many other action learning practitioners, noted that without someone dedicated to managing basic process norms as well as championing individual, team, and organizational learning, action learning often devolved into much action without much learning.
Pedler distills Revans' thinking about the key role of the action learning facilitator as follows:
(i) The initiator or "accoucheur": "No organisation is likely to embrace action learning unless there is some person within it ready to fight on its behalf. ......This useful intermediary we may call the accoucheur—the managerial midwife who sees that their organisation gives birth to a new idea... ".: 101
(ii) The set facilitator or "combiner": "there may be a need when it (the set) is first formed for some supernumerary ... brought into speed the integration of the set ...." but "Such a combiner ....... must contrive that it (the set) achieves independence of them at the earliest possible moment...".: 9
(iii) The facilitator of organizational learning or the "learning community" organiser: "The most precious asset of any organization is the one most readily overlooked: its capacity to build upon its lived experience, to learn from its challenges and to turn in a better performance by inviting all and sundry to work out for themselves what that performance ought to be.": 120
Hale suggested that the facilitator role developed by Revans be incorporated into any standards for action learning facilitation accreditation. Hale also suggests the action learning facilitator role includes the functions of mobiliser, learning set adviser, and learning catalyst. To increase the reflective, learning aspect of action learning, many groups now adopt the practice or norm of focusing on questions rather than statements while working on the problem and developing strategies and actions. Questions focus discussion and encourage the group to listen, to become a cohesive team more quickly, and to generate creative, out-of-the-box thinking.
Self-managed action learning is a variant of action learning that dispenses with the need for a facilitator of the action learning set. Shurville and Rospigliosi have explored using virtual action learning to promote self-management by the team. Deborah Waddill has developed guidelines for virtual action learning teams, what she calls action e-learning.
There are a number of problems, however, with pure self-managed teams (i.e., with no coach). Wellins, Byham, & Wilson have noted that self-managing teams (such as task forces) seldom take the time to reflect on what they are doing or make efforts to identify key lessons learned from the process. Without reflection, team members are likely to import organizational or sub-unit cultural norms and familiar problem solving practices into the problem-solving process without explicitly testing their validity and utility. Team members employ assumptions, mental models, and beliefs about methods or processes that are seldom openly challenged, much less tested. As a result, teams often apply traditional problem solving methods to non-traditional, urgent, critical, and discontinuous problems. In addition, team members often "leap" from the initial problem statement to some form of brainstorming that they assume will produce a viable solution. These suggested solutions typically provoke objections, doubts, concerns, or reservations from other team members who advocate their own preferred solutions. The conflicts that ensue are generally both unproductive and time-consuming. As a result, self-managed teams, tend to split or fragment rather than develop and evolve into a cohesive, high-performing team.
Because of these typical characteristics of self-managing teams, many theorists and practitioners have argued that real and effective self-management in action learning requires coaches with the authority to intervene whenever they perceive an opportunity to promote learning or improve team performance. Without this team role, there is no assurance that the team will make the time needed for the periodic, systemic, and strategic inquiry and reflection that is necessary for effective individual, team, and organizational learning.
Events, forums and conferences
A number of organizations sponsor events focusing on the implementation and improvement of action learning. These include The Journal of Action Learning: Research & Practice, the World Institute of Action Learning Global Forum, International Foundation for Action Learning events, the Global Forum on Executive Development and Business Driven Action Learning, and the Action Learning, Action Research Association World Congress. LinkedIn interest groups devoted to action learning include WIAL Network, Action Learning Forum, International Foundation for Action Learning, Global Forum on Business Driven Action Learning and Executive Development, Learning Thru Action, and Action Research and Learning in Organizations.
- Action research
- Action teaching
- Chris Argyris § Action science
- Experiential learning
- Inquiry-based learning
- Large-group capacitation
- Learning cycle
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- ^ Waddill, D. (2004). Action E-Learning: The Impact of Action Learning on the Effectiveness of a Management-Level Web-Based Instruction Course. Ann Arbor, Michigan, UMI.
- Kramer, R. 2008. Learning How to Learn: Action Learning for Leadership Development. A chapter in Rick Morse (Ed.) Innovations in Public Leadership Development. Washington DC: M.E. Sharpe and National Academy of Public Administration, pp. 296–326.
- Kramer, R. 2007a. Leading Change Through Action Learning. The Public Manager, 36 (3): 38–44.
- Kramer, R. 2007b. How Might Action Learning Be Used to Develop the Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Capacity of Public Administrators? Journal of Public Affairs Education, 13 (2): 205–230.
- ^ Seligman, M.E. & Csikszentmihalyi, M.(2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 1, 5–14.
- ^ Cooperrider, D.L. & Whitney, D (2001) A positive revolution in change. In Cooperrider, D. L. Sorenson, P., Whitney, D. & Yeager, T. (eds.) Appreciative Inquiry: An Emerging Direction for Organization Development (9–29). Champaign, IL: Stipes.
- ^ Clegg, Stewart; Bailey, James (2008). International Encyclopedia of Organization Studies. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi:10.4135/9781412956246. ISBN 978-1-4129-1515-1.
- ^ a b c Rank, O. 1932/1989. Art and Artist: Creative Urge and Personality Development. W.W. Norton.
- ^ Pedler, M. and Hsu, S-W (2014). Unlearning, critical action learning and wicked problems. Action Learning: Research and Practice 11(3): 296–310.
- ^ Chokr, N. N. (2009) Unlearning or 'How not to be governed?'. Thorverton, UK: Imprint Academic.
- ^ Hsu, Shih-wei (2013) Alternative Learning Organization. In: Anders Örtenblad (ed) Handbook of Research on the Learning Organization. London: Edward Elgar. pp. 358–371.
- ^ a b c d e Revans, R. W. 2011. ABC's of action learning. Burlington, VT: Gower.
- Hale, R.I. 2003a How Training Can Add More Value to the Business, part 1, Industrial and Commercial Training, Volume 35, No. 1, pp. 29–32.
- Hale, R.I. 2003b. How Training Can Add More Value to the Business, part 2, Industrial and Commercial Training, Volume 35, No. 2, pp. 49–52.
- Hale, R.I., Adding Real Value With Work Based Learning Questions, Training Journal, 2004, July, pp. 34–39.
- ^ Hale, R.I., 2012. Bright Horizons for Action Learning, Training Journal, July.
- ^ Bourner, T., O'Hara, S., and Webber, T. 2002. "Learning to manage change in the Health Service", in: A. Brockbank, I.
- ^ O'Hara, S., Bourner, T. and Webber, T. 2004. Practice of self managed action learning. Action learning: research and practice,1(1): 29–42.
- ^ Shurville, S.J. and Rospigliosi, A. 2009. Implementing blended self-managed action learning for digital entrepreneurs in higher education. Action Learning: Research and Practice, Volume 6, Issue 1 March 2009, pages 53–61.
- ^ Wellins, R.S., Byham, W.C., & Wilson, J.M. (1991). Empowered teams: Creating self-directed work teams that improve quality, production, and participation, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
- ^ cf. Marquardt, M.J., Leonard, S., Freedman, A., and Hill, C. 2009. Action learning for developing leaders and organizations. Washington, DC: American Psychological Press.
- ^ "[Homepage]". Action Learning: Research and Practice. 14 (2). Retrieved 28 May 2017.
- ^ "World Institute for Action Learning". WIAL. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
- ^ "International Foundation for Action Learning – IFAL". www.IFAL.org.uk. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
- ^ "Global Forum – Action Learning (homepage)". Global Executive Learning. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
- ^ "Welcome to ALARA". ALARA. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
This further reading section may contain inappropriate or excessive suggestions that may not follow Wikipedia's guidelines. Please ensure that only a reasonable number of balanced, topical, reliable, and notable further reading suggestions are given; removing less relevant or redundant publications with the same point of view where appropriate. Consider utilising appropriate texts as inline sources or creating a separate bibliography article. (February 2022)
- Boshyk, Yury, and Dilworth, Robert L. 2010. Action Learning and its Applications. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan.
- Boshyk, Yury. 2000. Business Driven Action Learning: Global Best Practices. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan.
- Boshyk, Yury. 2002. Action Learning Worldwide: Experiences of Leadership and Organizational Development. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan.
- Carrington, L. House Proud: Action Learning is Paying Dividends at Building Firm, People Management, 5 December 2002, pp 36–38.
- Chambers, A. and Hale, R. 2007. Keep Walking: Leadership Learning in Action, MX Publishing; 2nd edition (9 November 2009), UK.
- Collingham, B., Critten, P., Garnett, J. and Hale, R. (2007) A Partnership Approach to Developing and Accrediting Work Based Learning – Creating Successful Work Based Learning – Meeting the Skills Challenge for Performance Improvement, Inaugural Conference, British Institute for Learning and Development, Royal Society of Medicine, London 17 May 2007.
- Crainer, Stuart. 1999. The 75 Greatest Management Decisions Ever Made. New York: AMACOM Publishing
- Critten, P. & Hale, R. (2006) 'From Work Based/ Action learning to Action Research – Towards a Methodology for the Worker/ Practitioner researcher' The Work-based Learning Network of the Universities Association for Life-Long learning Annual Conference: 'Work Based Projects: The Worker as Researcher 24–25 April 2006 University of Northampton.
- Dilworth, R. L., and Willis, V. 2003. Action Learning: Images and Pathways.
- Freedman, A.M. & Leonard, H.S. 2013. Leading organizational change using action learning: What leadersh should know before committing to a consulting contract. Reston, VA: Learning Thru Action Press.
- Kozubska, J & MacKenzie, B 2012. Differences and impact through action learning, Action Learning Research & Practice, 9 2, 1450164.
- Leonard, H.S. & Freedman, A.M. 2013. Great solutions through action learning: success every time. Reston, VA: Learning Thru Action Press.
- McGill & N. Beech (Eds) Reflective learning in practice, Aldershot, Gower.
- Hale, Richard. 2014. Fundamentals of Action Learning, Training Journal, August, 2014, pp. 30–36.
- Hale, Richard. 2014. Fundamentals of Action Learning: Knowledge Mapping, Training Journal, September, 2014.
- Hale, Richard. 2014. Fundamentals of Action Learning: Mobilising Action Learning, Training Journal, October, 2014.
- Marquardt, M. J. 1999. Action learning in action. Palo Alto, CA:Davies-Black.
- Marquardt, M. J. 2004. Harnessing the power of action learning. T D, 58(6): 26–32.
- Marquardt, M.J. 2011. Optimizing the power of action learning. Boston: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
- Marquardt, M.J. & Roland Yeo (2012). Breakthrough Problem Solving with Action Learning: Concepts and Cases. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
- Martinsons, M.G. 1998. MBA action learning projects. Hong Kong University Press.
- O'Neil, J. and Marsick, V.J. 2007. Understanding Action Learning. NY: AMACOM Publishing
- Pedler, M., (Ed.). 1991. Action learning in practice (2nd ed.). Aldershot, UK: Gower.
- Pedler, M. 1996. Action learning for managers. London: Lemos and Crane.
- Raelin, J. A. 1997. Action learning and action science: Are they different? Organizational Dynamics, 26(1): 21–34.
- Raelin, J. A. 2000. Work-based learning: The new frontier of management development. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
- Rimanoczy, I., and Turner, E. 2008. Action Reflection Learning: solving real business problems by connecting learning with earning. US, Davies-Black Publishing.
- Rohlin, L., Turner, E. and others. 2002. Earning while Learning in Global Leadership: the Volvo MiL Partnership. Sweden, MiL Publishers AB.
- Smith, S. & Smith, L. (2017) Assessing the value of action learning for social enterprises and charities. Action Learning: Research and Practice (14)3: 230-242
- Sawchuk, P. H. 2003. Adult learning and technology in working class life. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Learning materials related to Storytelling at Wikiversity


How Islamic Architecture Transformed Europe
By Neenah Payne
How Arabs Revolutionized Western Culture shows how the Moors brought Europe out of the Dark Ages into which it sank after the fall of Rome in 500 AD. When the Arabs ruled Spain from 711-1492 AD, they replaced the awkward Roman numerals with the Arabic numbering system we use today. They introduced gardens, paved and lighted streets, heated and air-conditioned homes, public baths, libraries, and universities to which Western Europe flocked.
Sicily’s contact with the Moors led to the Renaissance and Arabs revolutionized astronomy, geography, geometry, algebra, medicine, philosophy, architecture, city planning, health, etc. It explains that many of the words we use today are Arabic. This article shows how extensively Arab architecture revolutionized Europe. Many of Europe and America’s most iconic buildings are based on Moorish design. However, credit is not given to the Moors. These include all the Gothic architecture in the cathedrals of Europe including Notre Dame in Paris.
Diana Darke, author of Stealing from the Saracens: How Islamic Architecture Shaped Europe, says in a video below that she was inspired to write the book when Notre Dame burned down in April 2019 and the French were mourning the loss of a symbol of their culture. She realized that most Europeans did not know that the Gothic architecture is not a symbol of European culture, but of Arab culture!
Against a backdrop of Islamophobia, Europeans are increasingly airbrushing from history their cultural debt to the Muslim world. But this legacy lives on in some of Europe’s most recognizable buildings, from Notre-Dame Cathedral to the Houses of Parliament.
This beautifully illustrated book reveals the Arab and Islamic roots of Europe’s architectural heritage. Diana Darke traces ideas and styles from vibrant Middle Eastern centers like Damascus, Baghdad, and Cairo, via Muslim Spain, Venice, and Sicily into Europe. She describes how medieval crusaders, pilgrims, and merchants encountered Arab Muslim culture on their way to the Holy Land; and explores more recent artistic interaction between Ottoman and Western cultures, including Sir Christopher Wren’s inspirations in the “Saracen” style of Gothic architecture.
Recovering this long yet overlooked history of architectural “borrowing,” Stealing from the Saracens is a rich tale of cultural exchange, shedding new light on Europe’s greatest landmarks.
The beautiful stained glass windows of which many churches are so proud were possible only because of the unique glass from Syria. They allowed buildings to be filled with light instead of the heavy Roman architecture that created dark interiors.
Yet, the West’s deep debt to the Moors is not taught in our schools or shown in our media. Darke explains that growing up in England, she was taught that everything originated in Greece and Rome. However, she learned later how deep the West’s debt is to the Arabs. She points out that the legendary British architect Christopher Wren (1632-1723) who built St. Paul’s Cathedral in London said the “Gothic” architecture of all the European cathedrals should be called “Saracen” architecture because it was based on the knowledge of the Saracens — aka Muslims, Moors, Arabs.
Duke said the Capitol building in Washington, DC is also an example of Arab architecture. How ironic that the government of the United States meets there to wage the endless War on Terror on the Arab world for over 20 years!
How Islamic Architecture Shaped Europe | Diana Darke
In this video, Diana Darke, author of the award-winning book, Stealing from the Saracens: How Islamic Architecture Shaped Europe, takes you on a quick architectural journey to see how architectural styles and ideas passed from vibrant Middle Eastern centers such as Damascus, Baghdad, and Cairo and entered Europe via gateways including Muslim Spain, Sicily, and Venice through the movement of pilgrims, bishops, merchants, and medieval Crusaders. It’s a rich tale of cultural exchange that will help you see some of Europe’s – and even America’s – iconic landmarks with new eyes.
Diana Darke is a Middle East cultural expert with special focus on Syria. With degrees in Arabic from Oxford University and in Islamic Art & Architecture from SOAS, London, she has spent over 30 years specializing in the region, working for both government and commercial sectors. She is frequently invited to speak at international events and media networks, such as the BBC, PBS, TRT, Al-Jazeera, and France24. Her work on Syria has been published by the BBC website, The Sunday Times, The Guardian, and The Financial Times.
She is a Non-Resident Scholar at Washington’s think-tank MEI (the Middle East Institute). Diana is also the author of the highly acclaimed My House in Damascus: An Inside View of the Syrian Crisis (2016), The Merchant of Syria (2018), and The Last Sanctuary in Aleppo (2019).
Stealing from the Saracens: How Islamic Architecture Shaped Europe 8/1920
From the Notre-Dame and Saint Marks Cathedrals to Big Ben and Westminster Abbey. They are all symbols of the western world. But according to a new book, Gothic architecture might not be as European as we think. Diana Darke, author of Stealing from the Saracens.
In the video below, Diana Darke explains that growing up in England, she was taught that everything originated in Greece and Rome. However, Christopher Wren (1632-1723) who built St. Paul’s Cathedral in London said that the “Gothic” architecture of all the European cathedrals should be called “Saracen” architecture because it was based on the knowledge of the Saracens — aka Muslims, Moors, Arabs. Wren explained that he used Saracen vaulting in the dome of St. Paul’s because it was the best. Oxford University was receiving lots of Arabic manuscripts that were very relevant to architecture.
How Islamic Architecture Shaped Europe with Diana Darke
The high ceilings with stained glass windows that let in a lot of light were a major transition from the Romanesque architecture which had low ceilings with dark interiors. Stained glass is incredibly important in gothic architecture. The beautiful glass was shipped from Syria because Europe had nothing like it. The technique of enameled glass was invented in Syria. Nothing of that sort existed in Europe.
Darke explains that she was inspired to write the book after the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris caught fire in 2019 and the French despaired that they were losing a symbol of their national identity. President Macron has promised to have the cathedral rebuilt. Darke realized the French didn’t understand that the Gothic Cathedrals were not French, but Muslim architecture. When she realized people didn’t know that, she decided to write the book. The stain glass windows survived the fire because the Syrian glass is incredibly strong.
The video explains that the Arab influence on European Christian architecture has been “air brushed” out of history as though Europeans created all the architectural innovations. The video ends explaining how the US Capitol building in Washington, DC has an Islamic dome.
Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World Through Islamic Eyes
The Western narrative of world history largely omits a whole civilization. Destiny Disrupted tells the history of the world from the Islamic point of view, and restores the centrality of the Muslim perspective, ignored for a thousand years.
In Destiny Disrupted, Tamim Ansary tells the rich story of world history as it looks from a new perspective: with the evolution of the Muslim community at the center. His story moves from the lifetime of Mohammed through a succession of far-flung empires, to the tangle of modern conflicts that culminated in the events of 9/11. He introduces the key people, events, ideas, legends, religious disputes, and turning points of world history, imparting not only what happened but how it is understood from the Muslim perspective.
He clarifies why two great civilizations-Western and Muslim-grew up oblivious to each other, what happened when they intersected, and how the Islamic world was affected by its slow recognition that Europe — a place it long perceived as primitive — had somehow hijacked destiny.
With storytelling brio, humor, and evenhanded sympathy to all sides of the story, Ansary illuminates a fascinating parallel to the world narrative usually heard in the West. Destiny Disrupted offers a vital perspective on world conflicts many now find so puzzling.
Medieval Muslims made stunning math breakthrough
By Will Dunham
Magnificently sophisticated geometric patterns in medieval Islamic architecture indicate their designers achieved a mathematical breakthrough 500 years earlier than Western scholars. By the 15th century, decorative tile patterns on these masterpieces of Islamic architecture reached such complexity that a small number boasted what seem to be “quasicrystalline” designs, Harvard University’s Peter Lu and Princeton University’s Paul Steinhardt wrote in the journal Science.
Only in the 1970s did British mathematician and cosmologist Roger Penrose become the first to describe these geometric designs in the West. Quasicrystalline patterns comprise a set of interlocking units whose pattern never repeats, even when extended infinitely in all directions, and possess a special form of symmetry. “Oh, it’s absolutely stunning,” Lu said in an interview. “They made tilings that reflect mathematics that were so sophisticated that we didn’t figure it out until the last 20 or 30 years.” Lu and Steinhardt in particular cite designs on the Darb-i Imam shrine in Isfahan, Iran, built in 1453.
Islamic tradition has frowned upon pictorial representations in artwork. Mosques and other grand buildings erected by Islamic architects throughout the Middle East, Central Asia and elsewhere often are wrapped in rich, intricate tile designs setting out elaborate geometric patterns. The walls of many medieval Islamic structures display sumptuous geometric star-and-polygon patterns. The research indicated that by 1200, an important breakthrough had occurred in Islamic mathematics and design, as illustrated by these geometric designs. “You can go through and see the evolution of increasing geometric sophistication. So, they start out with simple patterns, and they get more complex” over time, Lu added.
While Europe was mired in the Dark Ages, Islamic culture flourished beginning in the 7th century, with achievements over numerous centuries in mathematics, medicine, engineering, ceramics, art, textiles, architecture and other areas. Lu said the new revelations suggest Islamic culture was even more advanced than previously thought. While traveling in Uzbekistan, Lu said, he noticed a 16th century Islamic building with decagonal motif tiling, arousing his curiosity as to the existence of quasicrystalline Islamic tilings.
The sophistication of the patterns used in Islamic architecture has intrigued scholars worldwide. Emil Makovicky of the University of Copenhagen in Denmark in the 1990s noticed the relationship between these designs and a form of quasicrystalline designs. Makovicky was interested in particular in an 1197 tomb in Maragha, Iran.
Joshua Socolar, a Duke University physicist, said it is unclear whether the medieval Islamic artisans fully understood the mathematical properties of the patterns they were making. “It leads you to wonder whether they kind of got lucky,” Socolar said in an interview. “But the fact remains that the patterns are tantalizingly close to having the structure that Penrose discovered in the mid-70s.” “And it will be a lot of fun if somebody turns up bigger tilings that sort of make a more convincing case that they understood even more of the geometry than the present examples show,” Socolar said.
Córdoba (Spain), mosque, vault over the bay in front of the mihrab, 976. Photo by Jonathan Bloom
Architecture of the Islamic West: Innovative, Impressive and … Overlooked?
Some of the most outstanding examples of world architecture, such as the Mosque of Córdoba, the ceiling of the Cappella Palatina in Pale.
Granada (Spain), Alhambra, Hall of the Abencerrajes, muqarnas ceiling, late c13. Photo by Jonathan Bloom.
The complex geometry of Islamic design – Eric Broug
View full lesson: http://ed.ted.com/lessons/the-complex… In Islamic culture, geometric design is everywhere: you can find it in mosques, madrasas, palaces, and private homes. And despite the remarkable complexity of these designs, they can be created with just a compass to draw circles and a ruler to make lines within them. Eric Broug covers the basics of geometric Islamic design.
Stained Glass Windows
An Abbreviated History of Stained Glass Windows (images) by Abigail Swire implies that Europe invented stained glass windows. It gives just a brief nod to the Muslim world with “Stained glass windows were adopted into the atmosphere of medieval monasteries in the 7th century. Soon they could be found in cathedrals across Europe….Stained glass adorned Islamic mosques and palaces across the Middle East by the 8th century reflecting the rich ornate styles of Islamic architecture. The Book of the Hidden Pearl, written by Persian chemist Jābir ibn Ḥayyān, is a colored glass recipe book written about the craft.”
While the article below gives credit to the Egyptians and then skips right to Christian churches. It implies that Moorish architecture employed stained glass windows after Christian churches!
THE REAL REASON OLD CHURCHES HAVE STAINED GLASS
BY RICHARD MILNER/UPDATED
No matter your opinion on Christian doctrine and theology, it’s hard to deny the architectural and artistic beauty of old cathedrals. The powerful vertical lines drawing the eye up; the crisscrossed support arches high above; the detailed filigrees along columns and walls. Whether new, art deco cathedrals like Sagrada Familia in Barcelona or old, gothic behemoths like Notre Dame in Paris, cathedrals continue to inspire. But even small, modest chapels and churches often contain a key feature of beauty and storytelling shared with their larger cousins: stained glass.
If you’ve ever poked around an old church or sat in one during a service, you might have found your head tilted up and your gaze running along with the church’s glassy wedges of green, red, yellow, etc. Maybe you saw a nativity, or a scene of Jesus doing the “sacred heart” pose with the first two fingers of the right hand upraised, or St. Peter standing on clouds at the gates of heaven.
If so, then you’ve done exactly what folks hundreds of years ago did and demonstrated the exact purpose of stained glass: to tell stories.
The History of The Glass Industry During the Islamic Era
by Egyptian Government
“The influence exerted on the Arabs by the civilizations of the countries they conquered; the Greek, Roman, and ancient Egyptian civilizations in Italy, Syria, Asia, Turkey, Egypt, and Spain were enormous. In Egypt, such influence manifested itself, among other things, in glass-making. A glass-making industry already flourished in Alexandria at the time Amr Bin Alas conquered Egypt. However, the Arabs made efforts to further develop this industry.
They encouraged it in their new Egyptian capital, Fustat, near modern Cairo, and introduced it to other centers of the Islamic world, such as Damascus, Aleppo, and the cities of Andalusia. Islamic glass works of the period were distinguished by their elaborate ornamentation, including calligraphy of Quranic verses and other writings. Glided lanterns, pots, and bottles were exported to the East as far away as China. One of the most terrific glass works of this period of Islamic history is the lantern presently exhibited at the Corning
Museum of Glass, Corning, N.Y., USA.
Up to the Abbasid era (AD 750-868) the glass industry was dominated by Alexandria and Syrian, but the Abbasid Caliph Harun Al-Rashid valued enameled and gilded glass works. This became the finest gift that the Caliph could bestowed on his favorites. In Egypt during the Tulunid era (AD 868-905), special attention was given to stained glass surfaces as well as lanterns and vessels. Sultan Ahmed Bin Tulun (AD 868-883) renovated glass workshops in Alexandria. In connection with the restoration of Alexandria’s lighthouse, his technicians developed glass mirrors, and he introduced official weights of glass sealed with his stamp.
Shamsiyyas and qamariyys are closely associated with Islamic architecture and are a good example of design that fulfils both aesthetic and practical ends. Windows themselves lighten loads carried by walls or arches, while admitting daylight. The glass set in them provides a building with defense against animal or insect intruders, controls the amount of light entering the place, and protects the interior against dust, wind, and weather throughout the year. Practical functions of shamsiyyas and qamariyyas are as important as the beauty they impart to a building, endowing it with a kind of spiritual peacefulness.
Architecture in Egypt made use of stained glass in mosques, houses, palaces and khankawat (monastic complexes). Stained glass windows varied in their style, ornamentation, and color according to the kind of building and to the era of construction. Cairo abounds in buildings with stained glass windows of all periods from the ninth century to the twentieth. Among these are Ahmed Bin Tulun Mosque, the Tanbugha Al Maridany Mosque, the Palace of Beshtak, Khanqah of Shiaykhu, the Madrasah of Sultan Hassan, House of Zaynab Khatun, the Musafirkhanah Palace, the Rifa’i Mosque, and the Palace of Prince Mohammed Ali in Manyal.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF ISLAMIC GLASSMAKING
The prophet Muhammad proclaimed the new religion of Islam in 622. Following his death 10 years later, Arab armies conquered much of what is now Egypt, the Near East, and Iran. Here the Muslims found flourishing glass industries, which continued to produce large quantities of objects for daily use. Later, Islamic glassmakers introduced new forms and decoration that were based on one or more of the three principal “building blocks” of Islamic art: geometric ornament, vegetal motifs, and calligraphy. From time to time, these craftsmen also depicted human figures, animals, birds, and fish.
In the eighth century, glassmakers in Egypt discovered the technique of painting glass with metallic stain. Transparent stains colored with copper (which produces red or brown) and silver (which produces yellow) became a hallmark of early Islamic glassware in Egypt and the Near East…
In the 13th century, decorators in the region of Syria achieved the first extensive application of enamels on glass. For the next two centuries, Syrian and Egyptian craftsmen produced large quantities of glass in many shapes and sizes with brilliant polychrome ornament. These objects included functional vessels such as hanging lamps to illuminate the interiors of mosques, as well as drinking vessels and other useful items, plus spectacular display pieces.
The making of this glass required both artistic imagination and technical expertise….
In the later Middle Ages, Europeans prized Islamic luxury glasses because of their exotic appearance and technical sophistication, and sometimes because they were believed to be relics from the Holy Land….
In the 19th century, glassmakers in Austria, Bohemia, and France began to create objects decorated in Islamic style. The Viennese firm of Lobmeyr and other companies produced gilded glassware for Egyptian and Middle Eastern markets, as well as pieces with “Moorish” and Turkish decoration for customers closer to home.
Neenah Payne writes for Activist Post
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„Write as you read, read as it is written“ – Johann Christoph Adelung
Did you know that Serbian language is the only European language which has two different alphabets? Both of them were adapted by Serbian language reformer Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, with great help of the Grimm brothers and other European linguists; so they have created Serbian Cyrillic alphabet which is the official alphabet of Serbia, and Serbian Latin alphabet, which is – besides Serbia – used today in Croatia, Slovenia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Thanks to them, today we have the simplest alphabet in the world where each sound has its own corresponding symbol. Thus, we have 30 letters in our alphabet, 5 of which are the vowels.
Serbian Cyrillic alphabet has a little bit different order than Roman Latin, and it goes like this:
Аа Бб Вв Гг Дд Ђђ Ее Жж Зз Ии Јј Кк Лл Љљ Мм Нн Њњ Оо Пп Рр Сс Тт Ћћ Уу Фф Хх Цц Чч Џџ Шш
Aa Bb Vv Gg Dd Đđ Ee Žž Zz Ii Jj Kk Ll LJlj Mm Nn NJnj Oo Pp Rr Ss Tt Ćć Uu Ff Hh Cc Čč DŽdž Šš
/a/ /b/ /ʋ/ /ɡ/ /d/ /dʑ/ /ɛ/ /ʒ/ /z/ /i/ /j/ /k/ /l/ /ʎ/ /m/ /n/ /ɲ/ /ɔ/ /p/ /r/ /s/ /t/ /tɕ/ /u/ /f/ /x/ /ts/ /tʃ/ /dʒ/ /ʃ/
It is very easy to learn it, and it’s a great way to start learning Serbian! Here are some guidelines for you:
Letters which are the same both in Serbian Cyrillic and in Latin:
A E O J K M T
Letters which you might puzzle you:
В Р С У X in Latin, their equivalents are:
V R S U H
Common Cyrillic letters are:
Б Г Д Ж З И Л Н П Ц Ч Ш their Latin (Central European) equivalents are:
B G D Ž Z I L N P C Č Š
Unique Serbian Cyrillic letters are:
Џ Ђ Ћ Љ Њ which have equivalents in:
DŽ Đ Ć LJ NJ
Here’s an interesting way of learning Serbian Alphabet:
А is for ADA CIGANLIJA, or „the Belgrade Sea“ as we like to call it. Ada Ciganlija is a holm in Sava river, and it’s the favorite picnic for Belgradians. Ada Ciganlija is a perfect refuge from the urban heat during the summer.
Б is for BELGRADE, our capital. It is the largest city in the region, and one of the oldest known settlements in Europe which has never been abandoned. Belgrade already has the reputation of the most wanted destinations in Europe in past several years, and is declared as a „European hidden pearl“.
В stands for VOJVODINA, Serbian northern province. It is the southernmost part of the vast Pannonian plain, intersected by mighty rivers such as Danube, Tisa, Begej, Tamiš… Each of Vojvodina’s three regions has stories of their own. Vojvodina’s natural, cultural and ethnic wealth is among the greatest not only in Europe, but in the world.
Г is like GUČA TRUMPET FESTIVAL, held every summer for more than fifty years in the picturesque village Guča. Settled above beautiful West Morava river, in the shades of mountains Ovčar, Kablar and Jelica, this village becomes the world center of trumpet and partying once a year. It is the worldknown symbol of Serbian sense for party.
Д is for DRINA RIVER, beautiful and untamed. Drina river is a natural border between Serbia and Bosnia & Herzegovina, and it sheer raw beauty is the inspiration for thousands of painters and poets. Drina Regatta, held each July, gathers thousands of participants on a jolly rafting down the river speeds. Thanks to its pureness, Drina is known as angling paradise.
Ђ is the first letter of ĐERDAP GORGE, the largest, longest, widest and narrowest Danube gorge. It is the home of the oldest known European civilisation – civilisation of Lepenski Vir, dating back in 10th millenium BC. Đerdap gorge provides unique experience: outstanding natural beauty (it is the largest national park in the region) combined with cultural legacy from the Mesolith through Roman culture, Medieval kingdoms makes one-of-a-kind in the world.
Е stands for the EXIT MUSIC FESTIVAL, one of the largest music festivals in Europe. Each summer thousands of music lovers hurl to Novi Sad, second largest city in Serbia and to opposing Petrovaradin fortress to enjoy a whole week of outstanding musical performances held by the greatest names in show business.
Ж is for medieval Royal monastery ŽIČA. Founded in 1207 by the first king of Serbian medieval dynasty of Nemanjić – king Stefan the Firstcrowned, Žiča monastery was the Seat of the first autonomous Serbian Orthodox Church. Its distinctive color and beautiful frescoes were the state-of-the-art masterpieces in Europe. Today Žiča monastery is protected as the Cultural Monument of Exceptional Importance.
З is the common letter for two twin-mountains: ZLATIBOR and ZLATAR. Along with the „sister mountain“ Tara, they form a true gem of Serbian alpine tourism. Mt. Zlatibor is one of the largest mountain resorts in the region, and is equally popular throughout the year. Mt. Zlatar, however, is a hidden gem of Serbia being almost completely dedicated to implementation of the ethno-influence in tourism.
И is for the most popular rafting destination in the Region – IBAR RIVER. Secluded between Mt. Čemerno and Mt. Stolovi, Ibar river speeds offer fantastic opportunity for those who seek adventure. Being at the very heart of the region which used to be the center of Serbian medieval state, Ibar river rafting is perfectly combined with expeditions to the old fortresses and monasteries.
Ј stands for the JERMA CANYON, one of the most scenic canyons in Europe. Hidden in Mt. Balkan, at the Southeast of Serbia, Jerma canyon is a part of one of the oldest geologic forms in Europe. Jerma canyon is a perfect destination for those who are looking for an adventure: fantastic landscapes and extraordinary history leave noone untouched.
К like the world’s naive arts center – KOVAČICA. This picturesque town is only an hour away from Belgrade, yet it represents a completely another perspective on Serbian cultural heritage. Local Slovak community made Kovačica famous for its naive painters, and a great number of them got the world’s glory. Kovačica is also a home of a virtuose, Mr. Jan Nemček, famous violin maker.
Л stands for the oldest European civilisation of LEPENSKI VIR. Dated in 9500 BC, Lepenski Vir was the corner-stone of the latter civilisations of Vinča and Starčevo cultures. Little is known about the culture of Lepenski Vir, however, the archaeologist keep discovering fascinating facts over and over. The large complex dedicated to this culture comprises of the large original settlement, where one can see the first urban systems. Yet, perhaps the best known symbol of Lepenski Vir are famous fish-people figurines.
Љ is best described in two words, tightly related: LJUBAV meaning „love“ and LJUBOSTINJA MONASTERY, 14th century endowment of Serbian princess Milica and Serbian symbol of feminine unconditional love to her beloved man. The heartbreaking story of Serbian heroism and sacrifice in Kosovo Battle and their women who took vows as nuns is still one of the most romantic legends in the world.
М is for MANASIJA MONASTERY, one of a kind sanctuary and fortress, built as a defense from the Ottoman attacks. Not only Manasija was a rampart against the Ottomans, but it was also a bastion of Serbian literacy and cultural heritage. During the fifteenth century, Manasija monastery had the largest scribal school in the Christian Orthodox world. Literally hundreds of old manustcripts were daily transcripted and translated by the brotherhood of monks. Although eventually conquered, Manasija remained to be a symbol of Serbian medieval culture.
Н is a starting letter of the third largest city in Serbia – NIŠ or NAISSUS, as the Romans called it. Niš is the birthplace of the Roman emperor Constantine the Great, who established Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. Its turbulent history was an inspiration to dozens of dramas and comedies, and Niš spirit is quite famous and interesting among Serbs as they are recognized as great jokers. If you seek for an exquisite Balkan story, then Niš is a must. Niš is also a host of one of the largest jazz festivals in the world – famous „Nišville“.
Њ stands for NJIVA, Serbian expression for a cultivated field or soil. Serbia is abundant of wheat, corn and oat crops; and is one of the world leaders in fruit production. Thanks to its mild climate, Serbian soil is perfect for agriculture and some of our agricultural symbols are plum, raspberry, blueberry, blackberry, apples… There is a saying that if there were no farmers – Serbia wouldn’t exist. Serbs nurture a kind of cult towards Serbian fruitful soil, and respect it very much. That’s why Serbs consider organic food as an daily routine.
О like OPLENAC HILL, the very center of Serbia. Nested among other picturesque hills of Serbian Šumadija region, Oplenac was chosen by the last Serbian Royal family to become their symbol, their home and their resting ground. Surrounded by century old vinyards and thick oak forest, at the very top of Oplenac hill lies the magnificent Royal Complex of Karađorđević Royal Dynasty. It comprises of the King Peter’s summer residence, Royal wine cellar, Queen’s Court and a jewel – St. George’s Church and Royal Mausoleum.
П is for PALIĆ LAKE, the northernmost lake in Serbia and one of the most respected Baths & Spas in this region. This eolic lake is enriched by fabulous Baroque and Art Nouveau architecture along its coastline. The nearby city of Subotica with its magnificent architecture, surrounding csardas – genuine guesthouses and taverns, and endles fields of vine form a beautiful picture of Serbian North.
Р stands for RAŠKA or RAS, Serbian southwestern county, which is considered to be a cradle of the first Serbian medieval kingdom. Hundreds of monasteries dating way back from 6th century, dozens of citadels and an exquisite mixture of European and Orient influence form a magnificent atmosphere for storytelling. Prepare yourself for breathtaking stories about Serbian knights, folklore and legends.
С is for SLAVA – genuine Serbian holiday which celebrates the patron saint of one family. It is considered that Slava derives from the pre-Christian Slavic customs which celebrated ancestral line and tribal god. Today Slava cannot be unchained from Serbian Orthodox Church, and is one of the most cheerful holidays in the world. It is dedicated to the family, to pay respect to family ancestors and to celebrate continuance of family legacy. Slava is protected by UNESCO as the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
Т is dedicated to beautiful TARA, one of the three gem mountains in West Serbia. The untouched nature overlooking mighty river Drina and surrounding mountains is a true paradise for its visitors. Its very name – Tara – is closely related to the Celtic deity, as Mt. Tara was considered to be the home of gods. Today Mt. Tara is a National Park of great significance, as it is one of rare European bear natural habitats.
Ћ stands for ĆEVAPI, sort of kebabs without which one cannot visit Serbian tavern – kafana. Being great meat fans, Serbs have formed a complete philosophy of making grill. Each region in Serbia has its own school and ĆEVAP or ĆEVAPČIĆI as we call them dearly are the perfect example of grilling arts & crafts. There is no chance that any BBQ or any tavern gathering or party can pass without sweet delicious ćevapi.
У is for one of the most beautiful panoramas in Europe, and home to Griffon Vulture – river and canyon UVAC. Located at the southwest of Serbia, Uvac river forms a one of a kind phenomenon, as it meandres through magnificent mountains and mountain plateaus. The natural reservate nurtures one of the most endagered bird species in Europe and the largest European vulture – Griffon Vulture. Along with nearby Mt. Zlatar and Raška county Uvac forms a fantastic choice for a dynamic vacation.
Ф is dedicated to FELIX ROMULIANA, a magnificent complex of Roman Emperor Galerius. The complex itself was a vast palace of emperor’s mother Romula, hence Felix Romuliana. Being a high priestess of a pagan cult, Romula had a shrine within the Royal complex. Its magnificent mosaics are among the best preserved ones and the richest in Roman heritage. Felix Romuliana is listed on UNESCO World Heritage list.
Х like HOMOLJE, mountain region in East Serbia, home of Vlahs. They say that Vlahs are descendants of the Roman legionnaires and ancient settlers. There are many legends which claim that Vlah magic is the mightiest one in the world. It is certain that their folklore is among the most interesting ones in the world, and we are sure that a part of Vlah magic can be found in local specialties such as Homolje cheese and Homolje honey.
Ц is for CARSKA BARA BIRD RESERVATE, not the largest, but the richest ornitological station in Europe. Nested in Banat county Carska Bara is a large swamp complex which nurtures hundreds of rare bird species and hundreds of herb species. Its flora and fauna is extraordinary and makes the perfect refuge for nature enthusiasts.
Ч is for „cheers!“ when you drink from ČOKANJ. Čokanj is a miniature bottle from which Serbs drink their favorite spirit – Rakija. It is a symbol of Serbian art of toasting, as it makes cheerful sound when Čokanjs are crossed. There are many anecdotes about Čokanj: a woman decided to spoil her husband’s joy of drinking from Čokanj by insertind a spider into it. A man looked at the poor spider for a few seconds, and advised it: „draw in your legs, my friend, you are about to travel…“
Џ is for another Serbian treat – DŽERVIN WINES. Mountainous regions of East Serbia are famous for fantastic wines and wine sorts. Perhaps the best representative would be Džervin hill, near town of Knjaževac. There is an opinion that the Džervin area was under the vinyards for thousands of years. One thing is for certain – this fruitful hill trully keeps its wealth in outstanding fruit and wine collection.
Ш stands for ŠUMADIJA, Serbian central region. This hilly area carries its name for numerous forests, or „šuma“ in Serbian. Intersected by hundreds of creeks and rivers, Šumadija is famous for the fruit production. There are only several mountains in Šumadija region, and its mild climate is perfect to visit all year round. Šumadija is perfect for those who seek a true gourmet adventure, as its culinary specialties made of pure organic ingredients are always accompanied by a shot of rakija and make a perfect match with a glass of Šumadija wine.
Now that you have mastered our alphabet, let’s try to learn couple of phrases, OK?
|ДОБРО ЈУТРО!||DOBRO JUTRO!||DAW-BRO YOU-TRAW||GOOD MORNING!|
|ДОБАР ДАН!||DOBAR DAN!||DAW-BAR DONE||GOOD DAY!|
|НЕМА НА ЧЕМУ||NEMA NA ČEMU||NEM-A NA CHE-MOO||YOU’RE WELCOME|
Now that you have mastered our alphabet, or АЗБУКА, you’re on a great way to become a true Serb or – Србин!
Writen by Petar Živić / Serbia Incoming DMC Project Manager
One reply on “AZBUKA – what makes Serbian different from other Slavic alphabets“
müsste die lateinische Variante der Auflistung des serbischen Alfabets nicht genauer „Aa Bb Vv Gg Dd Đđ Ee Žž Zz Ii Jj Kk Ll Ǉǉ Mm Nn Ǌǌ Oo Pp Rr Ss Tt Ćć Uu Ff Hh Cc Čč Ǆǆ Šš“ heißen? Siehe die Buchstaben Nr. 8 (Жж), 23 (Ћћ), 28 (Чч) und 30 (Шш).
Und müsste der Satz „Briefe, die das gleiche sowohl in kyrillisch und in lateinischer Sprache sind:“ nicht „Buchstaben, die das gleiche sowohl in kyrillisch und in lateinischer Sprache sind:“ lauten? Denn im Englischen (der Standardsprache der Übersetzungsmaschinen) beteutet “Letters” sowohl „Briefe“ als auch „Buchstaben“.
Ist mir aufgefallen, weil ich vor 22 Jahren mal etwas Serbisch gelernt hatte.
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Aztec cuisine is the cuisine of the former Aztec Empire and the Nahua peoples of the Valley of Mexico prior to European contact in 1519.
The most important staple was corn (maize), a crop that was so important to Aztec society that it played a central part in their mythology. Just like wheat in much of Europe or rice in most of East Asia, it was the food without which a meal was not a meal. It came in varieties that differed in color, texture, size and prestige, and was eaten as corn tortillas, tamales or ātōlli, maize gruel. The other constants of Aztec food were salt and chili peppers and the basic definition of Aztec fasting was to abstain from these two.
The other major foods were beans, squash and New World varieties of the grains amaranth (or pigweed), and chia. The combination of maize and these basic foods would have provided the average diet.
Aztec cuisine was a very well-rounded diet without any significant deficiencies in vitamins or minerals. The cooking of maize grains in alkaline solutions, a process called nixtamalization, significantly raised the nutritional value of the common staple.
Water, maize gruels and pulque (iztāc octli), the fermented juice of the century plant (maguey in Spanish), were the most common drinks, and there were many different fermented alcoholic beverages made from honey, cacti and various fruits. The elite took pride in not drinking pulque, a drink of commoners, and preferred drinks made from cacao, among the most prestigious luxuries available. Favored by rulers, warriors and nobles, they were flavored with chili peppers, honey and a long list of spices and herbs.
The Aztec diet included a variety of fish and wild game: various fowl, pocket gophers, green iguanas, axolotls (a type of amphibian, much like a salamander), a type of crayfish called acocil, and a great variety of insects, larvae and insect eggs.
They also domesticated turkeys, duck and dogs as food and at times ate meat from larger wild animals such as deer, but none of these were a major part of their diet. They ate various mushrooms and fungi, including the parasitic corn smut, which grows on ears of corn.
Squash (also known as cucurbita) was very popular and came in many different varieties. Squash seeds, fresh, dried or roasted, were especially popular. Tomatoes, though different from the varieties common today, were often mixed with chili in sauces or as filling for tamales.
Eating in Aztec culture could take on a sacred meaning, especially as evidenced in ritual cannibalism. The act of eating another human was deeply connected to the Aztec mythology, in which gods needed to consume the sacrificed flesh and blood of humans to sustain themselves, and the world.
One way to look at this is that since human flesh was a food of the gods, it was sacred, and consuming sacred food could sanctify an individual and bring him or her closer to the gods. Further, certain warriors, in their afterlife, were believed to have been turned into butterflies and hummingbirds with the ability to fly back to the realm of the living to feed on nectar. From this, the importance the Aztecs ascribed to the act of eating is clear.
Most sources describe two meals per day, though there is an account of laborers getting three meals, one at dawn, another one at around 9 in the morning, and one at around 3 in the afternoon. This is similar to the custom in contemporary Europe, but it is unclear if intake of ātōlli, maize gruel, was considered a meal or not. Drinking a good amount of the thicker kinds of ātōlli could equal the calories in several corn tortillas, and ātōlli was consumed on a daily basis by most of the population.
Many accounts exist of Aztec feasts and banquets and the ceremony that surrounded them. Before a meal, servants presented fragrant tobacco tubes and sometimes also flowers with which the guests could rub their head, hands, and neck. Before the meal would start each guest would drop a little food on the ground as an offering to the god Tlaltecuhtli.
As military prowess was highly praised among the Aztecs, table manners imitated the movement of warriors. The smoking tubes and flowers went from the left hand of the servant to the right hand of the guest and the plate accompanying the smoking tube went from the right hand to the left hand.
This was an imitation of how a warrior received his atlatl darts and shield. The flowers passed out bore different names depending on how they were handed out; "sword flowers" went from left hand to hand to left. When eating, guests would hold their individual bowls filled with dipping sauce in the center of the right hand and then dip corn tortillas or tamales (which were served from baskets) with the left. The meal was concluded by serving chocolate, often served in a calabash cup along with a stirring stick.
Men and women were separated at banquets and, though it is not entirely clear from the sources, it seems as if only men drank chocolate. The women would more likely have drunk pozolli (maize gruel from finely ground maize) or some type of pulque.
Rich hosts could often receive guests sitting in rooms around an open courtyard similar to Caravanserais and senior military men would perform dances. Festivities would begin at midnight and some would drink chocolate and eat hallucinogenic mushrooms so that they could tell about their experiences and visions to the other guests.
Right before dawn singing commenced and offerings were burned and buried in the courtyard to ensure the fortune of the children of the hosts. At dawn, the remaining flowers, smoking tubes and food were given to the old and poor that had been invited, or to the servants.
As with all other aspects of life, the Aztecs stressed the dual nature of all things, and toward the end of the banquet the host would be sternly reminded by his elders of his own mortality and that he should not be overcome with pride.
Aztec private feasts included music singing, storytelling, dancing, incense burning, flowers, tobacco, offerings, and gift-giving. Aztec feasts were a display of material culture and wealth—notes by Friar Bernardino de Sahagún and Friar Diego Durán describe Aztec feasts as events where "everything was to be created in abundance". Feasts were organized to the point of ritual, there were roles and relationships displayed and reinforced. Hosts needed to meet the obligations of banqueting, in order not to "offend" their guests, and guests needed to reinforce the hosts' stature.
There are multiple important events in Aztec society that called for feasts. Child naming ceremonies involved the ritual calling out of the baby's name and progressed into a large organized feast. This feast could consist of dressed bird or dog, meat and/or maize tamales, beans, cacao bean, and roasted chillis.
Izcalli child presentation ceremonies were also important, part of the Aztec agricultural calendar. Izcalli was the last month of the calendar. Every fourth Izcalli celebration included the introduction of children, born during this four-year period, to the Aztec community. This feast introduced the child to actions important to their religious life such as singing, dancing, ceremonial drinking, sacrificial bloodletting, and body modification.
The food served during this feast was traditionally spicy. Noted by Sahagun was: "And the sauce of the tamales was called 'red chilli sauce'. And when the good common folk ate, they sat about sweating, they sat about burning themselves. And the tamales stuffed with greens were indeed hot, gleaming hot." The wedding process also contained many ceremonies, the parents of a young male, when marriage was desired, had to ask permission of his calmecac school leaders.
Part of this process was a feast of tamales, chocolate, and sauces. During the wedding itself, there were feasts of pulque, tamales, and turkey meat. Funerary feasts were also common among the wealthy class. Served at these feasts was octli (pulque), chocolate, bird, fruit, seeds, and other foods.
Parts of the 260-day ritual calendar of the Aztecs were veintena. Veintena can be approximated as months, however, they are more aptly described as 20-day public ceremony periods. Each 20-day veintena was a full and complex festival made up of ceremonies dedicated to specific gods and deities of the current veintena.
Regional and local ceremonies differed in deities and methods from the official state-sponsored ones at Tenochtitlan. Food was an important part of veintena ceremonies; it was both consumed and adorned by priests. It was noted that during the ceremonies honoring Xipe Totec the priests would adorn themselves in arrays of "butterfly nets, fish banners, ear of maize, coyote heads made of amaranth seed, tortillas, thick rolls covered with a dough of amaranth seeds, toasted maize, red amaranth, and maize stalks with ears of green or tender maize."
In the ceremonies honouring Mixcoatl, after a "great hunt," Aztecs would feast on deer, rabbit, and all other animals killed in the hunt. Hunting was also important to celebrations dedicated to Xiuhtecuhtli when Aztec boys and young men would hunt for ten days. The products of these hunts would then be turned over to priests, who cooked them in large fire flies.
The main method of preparation was boiling or steaming in two-handled clay pots or jars called xoctli in Nahuatl and translated into Spanish as olla (pot). Ceramics were vital to the cooking process and served at least three major purposes: nixtamal preparation, tamale steaming, and cooking beans, stews, and hot beverages. The xoctli was filled with food and heated over a fire. It could also be used to steam food by pouring a little water into the xoctli and then placing tamales wrapped in maize husks on a light structure of twigs in the middle of the pot.
Tortillas, tamales, casseroles and the sauces that went with them were the most common dishes. Chili and salt were both ubiquitous and the most basic meal was usually just corn tortillas that were dipped in chilis that had been ground in a mortar with a little water. The dough could be used to encase meat, sometimes even whole turkeys, before cooking.
In major Aztec towns and cities there were vendors that sold street food of all kinds, catering to both the rich and poor. Other than ingredients and prepared food every imaginable type of ātōlli could be bought, either to quench one's thirst or as an instant meal in liquid form.
Women, in charge of domestic duties in Aztec societies, were also the cooks. Generally, men did not directly participate in cooking. Based on where cooking tools are usually found, it seems that kitchens were a simple, single-room structure separate from the house itself. Most cooking probably took place on a small triangular hearth in the kitchen.
Most information regarding Aztec cooking tools comes from finding the tools themselves, as depictions of the tools in art are rare, and when they are featured, they aren't particularly prominent or detailed. Luckily, tools were most often made of stone and ceramics and as such can be found in large quantities in good condition for study.
Manos and metates were the tools of choice for grinding nixtamalized maize (nixtamal). It was also used to grind sauce ingredients like peppers, though different sets of manos and metates would likely have been used to avoid getting other flavors in maize dough (masa).
The metate is a stone slab that can be slightly concave. Nixtamal was placed on top of the metate and the mano, effectively a rough cylindrical stone, was rolled over it, grinding the nixtamal.
The mano and metate were tools that would have been used every day, since ground nixtamal usually goes bad within a day.
Ethnographies of 20th-century indigenous communities seem to indicate that women could have spent between four and eight hours a day at a metate grinding nixtamal, but women in a 2007 study at Xaltocan insisted that an experienced woman could grind all she needed for the day in only an hour; regardless, use of a metate for grinding is considered tedious work.
The mano and metate remained as the grinding tool of choice in central Mexico, as it tends to grind finer than European-style mills, and tortillas made from masa ground on a mano and metate are still considered of a higher quality, if much more labor-intensive. However, some argue that the reason women used to and still do grind nixtamal by hand is because it was a way for men to limit the amount of free time women have in an effort to prevent extramarital affairs.
The molcajete is another grinding tool. It is a bowl made of porous basalt rock, and an accompanying basalt cylinder was used to grind foods into the molcajete. It looks and functions very similarly to a western mortar and pestle. The fact that a molcajete will hold whatever is prepared in it means it would have been ideal for preparing sauces that would spill off the sides of a metate, and molcajetes could also be used as serving vessels.
Comals are a type of ceramic griddle with a smooth top and a porous bottom used for cooking various types of tortillas, as well as for non-maize foods like peppers and roasted squash. It is possible that comales could also have been used as makeshift pot lids for the sake of convenience.
There are several references to frying in the accounts of Spanish chroniclers, but the only specification of the Aztec type of frying appears to be some kind of cooking that was done with syrup, not cooking fat. This is corroborated by the fact that no evidence for large-scale extraction of vegetable oils exist and that no cooking vessels suited for frying have been found by archaeologists.
Aztec staple foods included maize, beans and squash to which were often added chilis, nopales and tomatoes, all prominent parts of the Mexican diet to this day. They harvested acocils, a small and abundant crayfish of Lake Texcoco, as well as Spirulina algae, which was made into a sort of cake called tecuitlatl and was rich in flavonoids. Although the Aztecs' diet was mostly vegetarian, the Aztecs consumed insects such as grasshoppers chapulín [t͡ʃaˈpolin] (singular) or chapulines [t͡ʃapoˈlimeʔ] (plural), maguey worm, ants, larvae, etc. Insects have a higher protein content than meat, and even now they are considered a delicacy in some parts of Mexico.
Maize was the single most important staple of the Aztecs. It was consumed at every meal by all social classes, and played a central role in Aztec mythology. To some of the first Europeans, the Aztecs described maize as "precious, our flesh, our bones".
It came in a vast number of varieties of various sizes, shapes and colors; yellow, reddish, white with stripes of color, black, with or without speckles and a blue-husked variant that was considered to be particularly precious. Other local and regional varieties must have also existed but few were recorded. Maize was revered to such an extent that women blew on maize before putting it into the cooking pot so that it would not fear the fire, and any maize that was dropped on the ground was picked up rather than being wasted. One of the Aztec informants of the Spanish Franciscan missionary and chronicler Bernardino de Sahagún explained the practice in the following way:
Our sustenance suffers, it lies weeping. If we should not gather it up, it would accuse us before our Lord. It would say: O our Lord, this vassal picked me not up when I lay scattered on the ground. Punish him. Or perhaps we should starve.
A process called nixtamalization was used all over America where maize was the staple. The word is a compound of the Nahuatl words nextli ("ashes") and tamalli ("unformed corn dough; tamal"), and the process is still in use today. Dry maize grain is soaked and cooked in an alkaline solution, usually limewater. This releases the pericarp, the outer hull of the grains and makes the maize easier to grind.
The process transforms maize from a simple source of carbohydrates into a considerably more complete nutritional package; it increases the amount of calcium, iron, copper, zinc that are added through the alkalide or the vessel used in the process and niacin, riboflavin and more protein already present in the corn that is not digestible to humans are made available through the process.
The inhibited growth of certain mycotoxins (toxic fungi) is another benefit of nixtamalization. If the processed maize, the nextamalli, is allowed to ferment, further nutrients, including amino acids such as lysine and tryptophan are made available.
Together with beans, vegetables, fruit, chilis and salt nixtamalized corn can form a healthy and diverse diet.
A great number of herbs and spices were available to the Aztecs in seasoning food. Among the most important, chili peppers come in a wide variety of species and cultivars, some domesticated and many of them wild. These included a great range of heat intensity depending on the amount of capsaicin present, with some being mild and others being very piquant.
The chilis were often dried and ground for storage and use in cooking, some roasted beforehand to impart different tastes. Flavors varied significantly from one type to another, including sweet, fruity, earthy, smoky, and fiery hot.
Native species of plants used as seasonings produced flavors similar to Old World spices that often proved to be more easily accessible in cooking after the Spanish conquest. Culantro or Mexican coriander provides a much stronger flavor than its Old World parallel, cilantro, and its leaves can be easier to dry. Mexican oregano and Mexican anise likewise produce flavors reminiscent of their Mediterranean counterparts, while allspice has an aroma somewhere in between nutmeg, cloves, and cinnamon.
The bark of canella or white cinnamon has a soft, delicate flavor that might have eased the acceptance of the more pungent cinnamon of Ceylon into modern Mexican cuisine.
Before the arrival of onions and garlic, subtler but similar wild plants such as Kunth's onion and other southern-ranging species of the genus Allium, as well as the fragrant leaves of garlic vine may have been used.
Other flavorings available included mesquite, vanilla, achiote, epazote, hoja santa, popcorn flower, avocado leaf, and other indigenous plants.
Many different alcoholic beverages were made from fermented maize, honey, pineapple, cactus fruit and other plants. The most common was octli which was made from maguey sap. It is today known as pulque, an Antillean term. It was drunk by all social classes, though some nobles made a point of not downing such a humble beverage. Drinking was tolerated, even for children at some occasions, but becoming intoxicated was not. The penalties could be very stiff, and were stricter for the elite.
The first transgression of a commoner would be punished by tearing his house down and sending him off to live in the field like an animal. A noble would generally not get a second chance and could be executed for overindulging in alcohol. Getting intoxicated appeared to have been more tolerated for elderly people; Spanish translations of the Codex Mendoza note that there were specific circumstances that allowed the elderly to get intoxicated:
It is shown how, according to the laws and customs of the lose of seventy years of age, man or woman, if such old persons had children or grandchildren. These had license and freedom to use it.
This did not prevent the occasional tragedy of nobles who became alcoholics and drank themselves into poverty, squalor and an early death. An informant of Sahagún told the sad story of a former tlacateccatl, a general and commander of over 8,000 troops:
He drank up all his land; he sold it all ... Tlacateccatl, a valiant warrior, a great warrior, and a great nobleman, sometimes, somewhere on the road where there was travel, lay fallen, drunk, wallowing in ordure.
Ātōle ([aːˈtoːlːi]), maize gruel, accounted for a considerable amount of the daily calorie intake. The basic recipe for ātōle was eight parts water and six parts maize with lime that was cooked until it softened and then ground. The mixture was then boiled until it thickened.
There were many variations of ātōle: a mixture of 1/10 maguey syrup made nequātōle; adding chili ground with salt and tomato would make iztac ātōle; letting maize dough sour for 4–5 days and then adding more fresh dough with chili and salt would make xocoātōle.
Beans, baked corn tortillas with the crust cut off, toasted maize, chia, amaranth and honey could also be added and there was pinolli, ground toasted maize that was carried by travelers in sacks which could be mixed with water on the road for an instant meal.
Cacao had immense symbolic value. It was a rare luxury and an import that could not be grown within the boundaries of the Aztec Empire. There are no detailed descriptions of how cacao solids were prepared, but there are a number of allusions to the fact that it was eaten in some form.
Cacao beans were among the most valuable commodities and could be used as a form of payment, although of somewhat low value; 80-100 beans could be used to buy a small mantle or a canoe-full of fresh water if one lived on the salty part of the lakes around Tenochtitlan. Nevertheless, beans were frequently counterfeited by filling empty cacao shells with dirt or mud.
Cacao was commonly drunk as cacahuatl, "cacao water", and was the beverage of warriors and nobles. It was considered a potent intoxicant and something that was drunk with great solemnity and gravity and was described as something "not drunk unthinkingly" by the Spanish chronicler Sahagún.
Chocolate could be prepared in a huge variety of ways and most of them involved mixing hot or tepid water with toasted and ground cacao beans, maize and any number of flavorers such as chili, honey, vanilla and a wide variety of spices.
The ingredients were mixed and beaten with a beating stick or aerated by pouring the chocolate from one vessel to another. If the cacao was of high quality, this produced a rich head of foam. The head could be set aside, the drink further aerated to produce another head, which was also set aside and then placed on top of the drink along with the rest of the foam before serving.
The Aztecs stressed moderation in all aspects of life. European authors and chroniclers were often impressed by what they perceived as exemplary frugality, simplicity and moderation. Juan de Palafox y Mendoza, the bishop of Puebla and viceroy of New Spain in the 1640s reported:
I have seen them eat with great deliberation, silence, and modesty, so that one knows that the patience shown in all of their habits is shown in eating as well, and they do not allow themselves to be rushed by hunger or the urge to satisfy it.
The primary meaning of an Aztec fast was to abstain from salt and chilis and all members of Aztec society engaged in fasting to some extent. There were no regular exceptions from the fast, something that shocked the first Europeans who came into contact with the Aztecs. Though fasting was common in Europe, there were permanent exceptions for the women and small children, the sick or frail and the elderly. Before the New Fire ceremony, which occurred every 52 years, some priests fasted for a whole year; the other priests 80 days and lords 8 days.
Commoners engaged in fasts, but less rigorously. There was also a permanent contingent of fasters in Tehuacan. Along with various ascetic rigors like sleeping on a stone pillow, they fasted for periods of four years on one 50-gram corn tortilla (about 2 ounces) per day. The only respite came every 20 days, when they were allowed to eat whatever they wanted.
Even rulers such as Moctezuma were expected to cut down on their otherwise luxurious lifestyle and did so with considerable conviction and effort. At times he abstained from luxuries and sex with women and ate only cakes of michihuauhtli and seeds of amaranth or goosefoot. The lord's chocolate was also replaced with water mixed from parched bean powder. This can be contrasted with the fasts of many European nobles and clergy that, while obeying the letter of the religious regulation by replacing meat and animal products with fish, were still luxurious feasts in their own right.
During the fourteenth month, called Quecholli, ceremonies in honor of the hunting god Mixcoatl there would be a large hunt as part of the ritual. To prepare for the hunt Aztecs would fast for five days. The fasting was done, according to Sahagun, "for the deer, so that it would be a successful hunt."
During the celebrations of the god Tezcatlipoca, his priests fasted for ten, five, or seven days continuously before the main feasts. They were known as "those who do penance."
During celebrations of Huitzilopoctli it was noted by Friar Duran: "I have been assured that they became so weak because of the terrible eight-day fast that for another eight days they were not themselves, nor were they satisfied with eating. Many became gravely ill, and the lives of many pregnant women were in danger."
During festivals in honor of Chicomecoatl, there would be a drastic back and forth of gorging and fasting. So much so that people would become ill.
Bernal Diaz del Castillo comments on how the ruler of Tenochtitlan was served food:
His cooks had more than thirty styles of dishes made according to their fashion and usage, and they put them on small low clay braziers so that they would not get cold ... if it was cold they made him a fire of glowing coals made from the bark of certain trees ... the odor of the bark ... was most fragrant ... they put the tablecloths of white fabric ... They served him on Cholula pottery, some red and some black ... and from time to time they brought him some cups of fine gold, with a certain drink made of cacao.
Sahagun provides a list of the different types of tlaquetzalli, a chocolate drink served to Aztec lords:
The ruler was served his chocolate, with which he finished [his repast] - green, made of tender cacao; honeyed chocolate made with ground-up dried flowers - with green vanilla pods; bright red chocolate; orange-colored chocolate; rose-colored chocolate; black chocolate; white chocolate."
Aztec expansion was targeted in ways to gain or maintain access to foodstuffs need for ceremony and everyday life. The leader's ability to acquire food needed for ritual was important for his political success.
Main article: Cannibalism in pre-Columbian America
The Aztecs practiced ritualistic cannibalism. Victims, usually prisoners of war, were sacrificed in public on top of temples and pyramids by cutting out their hearts. The bodies were then thrown down to the ground where they were dismembered. The pieces were then distributed to the elite, which were mostly warriors and priests. The meat was consumed in the form of stews flavored only with salt and eaten with corn tortillas, but without the otherwise ubiquitous chili.
The veintena Tlacaxipehualiztli was one of intense human sacrifice, it was noted by Sahagun that "it was the time when all captives died, all those taken, all those who were made captive, the men, the women, all the children." It began with the sacrifice of captured warriors, the flesh of the sacrificed warriors would be taken to the residence of the Aztec who had captured the warrior. The capturer was forbidden to feast on the flesh of the sacrificed, however his family would eat it. A stew called tlacatlaolli was prepared out of dried maize and into each serving would be placed a piece of the flesh of the captive.
In the late 1970s the anthropologist Michael Harner suggested that the Aztecs had resorted to large-scale, organized cannibalism to make up for a supposed protein deficiency in the diet. This idea gained limited support from some scholars, but has been shown to be based on unfounded assumptions about eating habits, agriculture and demographics, making it a highly unlikely scenario.