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Yet she was brought up with the likes of Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau and Nathaniel Hawthorne as neighbors, teachers, role models and close family friends.
She is Louisa May Alcott and this unit explores her life and her works ñspecifically Little Women (published in 1868).
- To encourage teachers and students to explore one of America’s favorite classic novels, Little Women and at the same time, develop an interest in classics. Concurrently, students will learn about the author's life and discover which elements of her family history she incorporates into her work.
- To show how Alcott’s works relate to family life as portrayed by women authors. It is part of a larger unit comprised of teachers at the L.W. Beecher School in New Haven, Connecticut. We are exploring the families of different cultures as represented by women’s voices in fiction. As part of our team approach, some of our activities will be integrated with other team classrooms.
- To achieve balanced literacy, by providing opportunities for students to read, listen, view and write through guided and independent activities.
- To incorporate Library Media Standards for grades K - 4. Content standard 1.0 is “READ, READ, READ: The student will demonstrate an appreciation and enjoyment of reading.” The key words included in this standard will be met as students view, listen or read and describe their reactions to literature. When they produce journals of their own, they will meet content standard 1.4a, as they create a product related to the material heard, viewed and/or read. They will also meet Content Standard 1.3g, as they participate in group discussions and activities and express opinions about materials heard, viewed or read.
Louisa May Alcott was the product of two remarkable parents. They were such strong influences on her writing that they need to be discussed. In order to better instruct the students, teachers using this unit should know something about where Louisa May Alcott came from and how she “came to be.” Her family was a major part of her life: both parents encouraged her to write and her fictional characters are often based on her family.
Bronson Alcott, her father, was eventually to become the first Superintendent of Public Schools in Boston and to be acknowledged as an educational visionary, but this fame came only after he had wandered down several career paths. He was a thinker, a philosopher and an eccentric ñ but he had trouble bringing home the bacon, so to speak. He lost many teaching jobs because he advocated well-lit, heated and comfortable classrooms as well as recess and sex-education. He also purchased textbooks for his poorer students. On the grounds of The Orchard House in Concord, Massachusetts stands the school that he eventually founded, where for a time Louisa May Alcott taught. He often came home empty handed from lecture tours, because he hated to charge people.
Abba Bronson believed in her husband and often picked up the slack. She protected her daughters from the hard realities of life when they all lived at Fruitlands, a Transcendental commune that was a miserable failure. The family was allowed to eat only what the land provided ñ no meat, milk or eggs. They could wear only linen, as the cotton industry exploited the slaves in the South. Louisa and her sisters were encouraged to spend their time at the commune playing, picnicking and roaming the fields. Louisa later wrote a gentle satire about this time in her life, called Transcendental Wild Oats. At one point when her husband was unable to produce an income, Abba went to work in Boston as one of the country’s first social workers, at thirty dollars a month. She also was in charge of an employment agency for women in domestic service and once ran a boarding house. She did these things at a time when genteel women did not work.
Both parents encouraged their daughters’ intellectual development and provided whatever stimulation they could. Abba established a post office in her home so that family members could communicate with each other every day. Bronson kept a day by day diary recording the growth and development of each his four daughters from the day they were born. They encouraged their children to write in their own journals every day and would then critique them or answer any written concerns for them. Her father also built the desk on which Louisa May wrote Little Women (in her room at the Orchard House).
Louisa May Alcott;s Louisa May Alcott’s first and biggest success was based on her experience with her sisters and was written in response to a publisher who asked her to write a story for girls. It took her two and a half months to write and was an immediate success, selling 2000 copies. In 1868, this was a great sum. Little Women was originally published as two volumes. Part Two, Good Wives, came out in 1869. Nowadays, both volumes are published together and in every language.
Ironically, she did not want to write this story and only did it for the money. She preferred to write for boys and is often quoted as saying “never liked girls or knew many, except my sisters.” Borrowing from life, she used her former home, Hillside, as the setting for her novel and patterned the March girls after her sisters.
Jo, the tomboy, is most definitely Louisa. Louisa and Jo are both spirited souls who love to read and write. Like Jo, Louisa wasn’t interested in marriage. Writing was her biggest passion, as was Jo’s. Like Jo and her sisters, the Alcott girls used their vivid imaginations to write and produce adventure plays. In fact, visitors to The Orchard House in Concord today can still see the trunk of clothing the Alcott girls used when acting out their plays. Like Beth, Elizabeth Alcott died young. Anna, the oldest sister, married and became a teacher, as does Meg, the oldest March girl. And May Alcott, who achieved her own fame as an artist, is the model for Amy March. In fact, May even illustrated the first edition of Little Women.
Marmee and Abba Alcott are basically the same person ñ the Alcott girls even called their mother “Marmee.” Marmee is patient and kind, strong and supportive. While father March is away at war, she takes care of the family. Bronson Alcott, the model for Mr. March, traveled throughout the country on lecture tours. Louisa’s Great-Aunt Hancock, widow of the famous John Hancock, served as the inspiration for Aunt March.
When she described the poverty in Little Women, Alcott was speaking from experience. Once, when family finances were low, Louisa almost sold her hair, just as Jo March later did to send Marmee to visit her wounded husband. Eventually, Louisa supported her family with her writings.
Her other children’s novels include: An Old-Fashioned Girl, Little Men (based on a school her widowed sister ran), Eight Cousins, Rose in Bloom, Under the Lilacs, Jack and Jill, Jo’s Boys and A Garland for Girls. Her books portray nineteenth century domestic middle class life realistically, since so much of her work is based on her own family life, which was however sometimes unconventional. Common themes include self-reliance, duty, charity, self-sacrifice and patience. She incorporated some of her father’s educational theories into Little Men and Eight Cousins.
Louisa, like Jo March, was a versatile author and wrote plays, poetry, reviews, short stories and novels. Her first novel was The Inheritance, but this was unpublished until 1997, when it was first discovered at Harvard. Her first poem, Sunlight, was published in “Peterson’s Magazine” in 1852 under the pen name “Flora Fairfield.” Under another pseudonym, “A. M. Barnard”, she wrote gothic thrillers or, as they were also called, the “Blood and Thunder” tales. It would have been unladylike and too embarrassing for a woman of good breeding to be published as a writer of these gory stories, so she assumed pen names to write such titles as Doctor Dorn’s Revenge or Revenge of the Buckle. Other pen names that she used to publish her works included “Aunt Weedy,” “Oranthy Bluggage” and “Minerva Moody.”
Louisa ventured into several other careers besides writing. She was a seamstress, a companion, a teacher, and even a Civil War nurse. In 1862, wanting to do her part, she went to Washington, D.C. to serve in the war effort. Unfortunately, she contracted typhoid fever and almost died. She left Washington to recuperate at home in Massachusetts, but not before Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation. At that time typhoid was treated with calomel, which gave her mercury poisoning. It was an illness that was to affect her health for the rest of her life. Though her nursing career was short, she wrote a book called Hospital Sketches, based on her experiences. Her pen name for this work, was appropriately enough, “Tribulation Periwinkle.”
Unlike Jo March, Louisa never married, although she did once receive a marriage proposal. But her sister May did marry and later died, leaving express wishes that her daughter Lulu be raised by her Aunt Louisa.
Though she lived with her parents for the bulk of her life, she also at times lived alone in Boston so she could write undisturbed. She wanted to be a dutiful daughter but sometimes needed to be by herself.
Among her other accomplishments, Louisa was involved with the suffragette movement. In 1879, she became the first woman to register to vote in Concord in a school committee election. She wrote for the “Woman’s Journal” and was known to go from door to door encouraging women to vote.
In 1888, on March 4th, Bronson Alcott died. Two days later, Louisa succumbed to the mercury poisoning that had affected her since the Civil War. Abba had died several years earlier.
There are several books that will help ease the students into the study of the classics. These come under the headings of abridged versions, “based on” stories or adaptations. Purists may objects to the use of abridgements, but not all of our students will be able to read through the original work. My strategy is to make these shortened versions available to the students, since one of my objectives is to get them interested in the story of Little Women.
The most simplified adaptation is Little Women by Francine Hughes, published by Scholastic. It has only 32 pages and is based on the 1994 version of the movie. Recommended for ages 5 ñ 8, it is on a grade 2 reading level.
Another easy “close to the real thing” version is the Little Women adapted by Monica Kulling, as part of the “Bullseye Step into Classics” series. Only 106 pages, it features large print and condenses the story into an easy grade 2 reading level. It simplifies 13 of the more eventful chapters from the original and introduces all of the main characters. As a chapter book, this can be used as a read aloud or for independent reading.
The hardest abridgement would be the Little Women from the Dover Children’s Thrift Classic Series. Adapted by Bob Blaisdell, this includes some illustrations. Although it is only 108 pages long, the print is small. This version also captures more of the essence of Alcott’s original prose. Its sixteen chapters also cover the major events.
All of the above mentioned books begin with the Christmas episode, as does the original. The Christmas episode introduces the March family and sets them all up as caring and giving souls. Each of the four daughters has a dollar to spend on something for themselves. They fantasize about the things they might buy, like sheet music and pencils. But then the girls decide that they will surprise their mother and spend the money on presents for her because they love to make her happy. This chapter can initiate several discussions, such as what would the class buy if they had a ten dollar bill? What do the girls gain from helping others?
Avon Books has put out a series of books by Charlotte Emerson, featuring each of the March girls, with titles like Beth’s Snow Dancer, Amy’s True Prize and Jo’s Troubled Heart. These stories feature each of the sisters at the age of 10 in adventures of their own. Students can pick their favorite sister, read the featured story and then be asked to explain their choices. These questions can be posed: What is it about this sister that attracts you? Do you see any similarities to yourself? Would you be friends if you met? Why?
Other books that can be used to supplement the unit, include An Alcott Family Christmas by Alexandra Wallner, which takes a fictional look at the life of the Alcotts, and is based on a true episode. In this story, the Alcotts are a poor but happy family sitting down to their Christmas dinner. A neighbor comes to the door looking for Mrs. Alcott --he wants her to help his sick wife. “Marmee” quietly suggest that her daughters give their dinners to the needy family. The girls acquiesce, because they feel rich in spirit. In a similar episode in Little Women, the March girls give up their Christmas breakfast to a poor widow with six children.
In relation to this activity, other journals not necessarily related to this unit can be introduced, such as Dear Levi by Woodruff, Only Opal by Boulton, Polar the Titanic Bear by Spedden and Sally Reed’s Doll by Laugaard. These are all children’s books written in journal form.
Another project will be to adapt An Alcott Family Christmas into a one act play. Because it is a short picture book with easy dialogue, it would be simple to do. Because the language of the nineteenth century can be somewhat stuffy for an inner-city school, we could modify the dialogue to reflect the community in which our students live.
Another project suitable for an individual classroom would be to institute a Post Office in class. Students would write notes to each other or to the teacher. Replies would be encouraged and students would take turns being the Postmaster. This would help with writing skills and may allow shyer students to tell the teacher things that they might not say aloud.
Small class groups or whole classes will be given research lessons which will focus on the study of family life in the nineteenth century as well as familiarize students with the resources in the Library Media Center. This will be a collaborative effort between the classroom teacher and the Library Media Specialist.
Teachers will discuss with their class school days in the nineteenth century. How is it different from today? Bronson Alcott was controversial for supporting things we take for granted today--kindergarten, recess, student involvement, adult education, sex education, comfortable learning environments. What would school be like today without these “innovations”?
There are several movie versions of Little Women. We will watch the Winona Ryder version and see how it differs from the novel. This film could also be shared with the third grade involved with our team. With a student population that needs encouragement to read more challenging works, a film might prove a bridge to the book.
Perhaps the students could write a “Blood and Thunder” play, much like the Alcott and March girls did. The important thing would be to expose the students to an important American author and help lead them on the quest to developing literacy.
To introduce a classic American novel.
To stimulate discussion.
To understand and appreciate the mores of a past generation.
- 1. Read aloud the first few chapters of the original, unabridged version of Little Women to the class or group. This can take place over a period of two to three days.
- 2. Make abridged editions available for individual reading (as well as the uncut version).
- 3. Discuss the following:
- ____a. What did families do for entertainment when there were no televisions, no malls, and no theater complexes? Before sports infiltrated society so much? The Alcott and March girls read, wrote and produced plays, and studied art and music. What do the students do with their families that are comparable?
- ____b. In one chapter, Jo and Meg share a pair of white gloves when they go to a formal dance. In the nineteenth century, proper dress for women for formal occasions called for long dresses and white gloves. What are the standards of dress for today’s formal occasions? Compare and contrast customs and dress for nineteenth century parties with those of today.
- ____c. The Marches made charitable sacrifices, as did the Alcotts, as exemplified in An Alcott Family Christmas. What did the girls gain from helping others? What do today’s young people do for their communities?
- ____d. The first chapter shows the girls discussing what they would buy with their dollars. What would the students buy if they had 10 dollars to spend on themselves?
- To develop writing skills.
- To develop observation skills and to learn to analyze.
- 1. Introduce a selection of children’s books written in journal form. These include Dear Levi by Woodruff, Only Opal by Wheeler, Polar the Titanic Bear by Spedden and Patty Reed’s Doll by Laugaard.
- 2. Explain to students the elements of journal writing, including putting down date headings, making daily observations and recording daily events.
- 3. Distribute blank journals to students ñ either handmade or mass-produced.
- 4. Ask students to name the events of their everyday life, including their meals, movies or television shows watched, books read, feelings or moods, test results, etc. List on board or overhead and use these as examples of what they can write in their journals.
- 5. At the end of the unit or school year, tell the students to take their journals home and put them in a safe place. They should save them for the future.
- 1. To interpret materials read.
- 2. To create a product related to the materials heard, viewed, or read.
- 3. To complete task in a timely manner with assistance.
- 4. To create a final group product which all group members have helped produce.
- 1. Read An Alcott Family Christmas to the group.
- 2. Generate a list of roles that can be cast in a play based on the book.
- 3. Discuss the sacrifices that the Marches and Alcotts made for poorer families.
- 4. Assign groups of students to write parts for each role. Encourage them to utilize language more relevant to their backgrounds.
- 5. Hold auditions for the roles.
- 6. Rehearse the students.
- 7. Produce the play one month after introducing the book.
- To increase writing skills
- To encourage social development
- 1. Tell the students about the Post Office the Alcotts set up in their household. Tell them your class will have its own Post Office, so that the students can communicate with anyone in the classroom without repercussion.
- 2. Plan an art activity around making a Classroom Post Office, using an empty refrigerator box.
- 3. Assign rotating Post Masters, based on class performance or by alphabetical listing.
- 4. Assign a mail time each day, when mail can be delivered or dropped off.
- 5. Establish ground rules for letter content.
- To listen, view and/or read attentively for pleasure and information.
- To compare a written story to a story in another medium.
- To understand plot, characterization and sequencing.
- 1. Schedule over a 2 to 3 day period a showing of Little Women, the 1994 version starring Winona Ryder, Kirsten Dunst and Clare Danes preferred for this age level for the star recognizability factor. Show the movie after the book has been read and discussed.
- 2. Ask the students to compare the events in the movie to those in the book. What was different? What was the same? Did the visual presentation echo the images they had formed in their minds? Would they have changed anything in the film?
- 3. Talk about “artistic license” and point out that the film version often differs from the written original for various reasons, such as length and character development. Ask the students to list some other reasons for changing the story line in a movie adapted from a novel.
- 4. Have the students write a movie review.
- 5. Have the students draw a movie poster or book cover promoting Little Women.
- To compare and contrast literary characters.
- To identify characters.
- 1. Provide biographical information about the author through research, sharing or independent reading.
- 2. Ask the students to make up a chart listing all the central characters.
- 3. Have them compare members of the March family to those in the Alcott family.
- 4. Ask them to tell who their favorite character is and why.
Who can tell it better? For a first hand look at the author’s life, read her journals. Get insights into her thinking while learning all about her.
Anderson, William. The World Of Louisa May Alcott: A First-time Glimpse Into The Life And Times Of Louisa May Alcott, Author Of Little Women. New York: Harper Perennial, 1995.
Another biography that also includes photos. Be sure to read about her interesting family.
Clark, Beverly Lyon. Regendering The School Story: Sassy Sissies And Tattling Tomboys. New York: Garland Pub., 1996. This examines several authors and their works concerning girls and school stories. Among the discussions: Louisa May and the way she incorporates school into her stories.
Delamar, Gloria T. Louisa May Alcott And Little Women. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1990.
Biography, criticism, and some of her shorter works, including poems and songs
Elbert, Sarah. A Hunger For Home: Louisa May Alcott's Place In American Culture. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984.
Discussion about women, sex and the home in literature.
Fisher, Aileen Lucia. We Alcotts; The Story Of Louisa M. Alcott's Family As Seen Through The Eyes Of "Marmee," Mother Of Little Women. New York: Atheneum, 1968.
A fictional view of Louisa May Alcott's family written as her mother might have written the story of their adventures as a poor but creative family. Juvenile fiction, but a good start for teachers.
Foster, Shirley. What Katy Read: Feminist Re-Readings Of "Classic" Stories For Girls. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1995.
History and criticism of writings by women.
McSherry, Frank, ed. Civil War Women : American Women Shaped By Conflict In Stories By Alcott, Chopin, And Welty. Little Rock: August House, 1988.
Includes several short stories by women about the war, including one by Louisa May.
Moses, Belle. Louisa May Alcott: Dreamer And Worker, A Story Of Achievement. New York: D. Appleton, 1930.
Older biography by someone who was alive in Louisa’s lifetime. Interesting for historical value.
Salyer, Sandford Meddick. Marmee, The Mother Of Little Women. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1949.
Marmee was a big influence on Louisa and deserves this book on her life. It is an older biography but full of facts that should not be overlooked.
Shephard, Odell. Pedlar’s Progess; The Life Of Bronson Alcott. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1937.
Though it was published over 60 years ago, this is a comprehensive and scholarly look at a fascinating man. Bronson Alcott was a major influence on American education and impacted his daughter’s life.
Strickland, Charles. Victorian Domesticity: Families In The Life And Art Of Louisa May Alcott. University, Ala: University of Alabama Press, 1985.
Shows the influence of family on Alcott’s family. A good resource work.
Ticknor, Caroline. May Alcott. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1928.
Another Alcott family member who was the subject of a biographical work. May was the artistic sister who served as the model for Amy. Once again, an older reference with valuable information.
Simplification of 13 of the more eventful chapters from the original and introduction to all of the main characters.
Alcott, Louisa May. Little Women. New York: World Pub. Co., 1969.
Alcott, Louisa May. Louisa May Alcott: Her Girlhood Diary. Mahwah, NJ: Bridgewater Books, 1993.
Boulton, Jane. Only Opal: The Diary Of A Young Girl. New York: Philomel Books, 1994.
Opal lives in a lumber camp in Oregon at the turn of the century and records her daily life in her journal.
Emerson, Charlotte. Amy's True Prize. New York: Avon Books, 1998.
----------. Beth's Snow Dancer. New York: Avon Books, 1997.
- Amy must make a decision when, after two of her paintings are accepted for an art contest, she discovers that one of her entries is actually a work done by Marmee.
When a sick pony strays into her yard, Beth tries to save it from a horrible fate.
----------. Jo's Troubled Heart. New York: Avon Books, 1997.
Jo must control her temper or run the risk of not getting her first story published in the newspaper.
Laugaard, Rachel. Patty Reed’s Doll ñ The True Story Of The Donner Party. Sacramento: Tomato Enterprises, 1989.
A doll who travels westward records the dangerous journey she takes with her owner and her family.
McGill, Marci. The Story Of Louisa May Alcott, Determined Writer. Milwaukee: Gareth Stevens Pub., 1996.
Newbery Award winning biography for young people.
Pfeffer, Susan Beth. Portraits Of Little Women: Amy Makes A Friend. New York: Delacorte Press, 1998.Desperate for art lessons, Amy tries to manipulate her friendship with two other girls to get what she wants.
Pfeffer, Susan Beth. Portraits Of Little Women: Amy's Story. New York: Delacorte Press, 1997.
Because she desperately wants to have her picture taken, ten-year-old Amy finds a way to save the necessary five dollars but then decides to spend it another way.
Pfeffer, Susan Beth. Portraits Of Little Women: Beth Makes A Friend. New York: Delacorte Press, 1998.
Beth tries to help an impoverished Irish immigrant boy and his family by stealing a silver bowl from her great aunt and giving it to his family to sell.
Pfeffer, Susan Beth. Portraits Of Little Women: Beth's Story. New York: Delacorte Press, 1997.
Relates the story of Beth’s trip to New York in the days before the Civil War.
Pfeffer, Susan Beth. Portraits Of Little Women: Christmas Dreams: Four Stories. New York: Delacorte Press, 1998.
As each of the four March sisters turns ten, she is invited by Aunt March at Christmastime to discuss who will receive an heirloom, an old cameo brooch, and thus each girl contemplates her role in the family.
Pfeffer, Susan Beth. Portraits Of Little Women: Jo Makes A Friend. New York: Delacorte Press, 1998.
Great-Aunt March asks Jo to befriend a sad and lonely blind girl whom is visiting the neighborhood.
Pfeffer, Susan Beth. Portraits Of Little Women: Jo's Story. New York: Delacorte Press, 1997.
Young Jo decides to let her wealthy Aunt adopt her.
Pfeffer, Ssusan Beth. Portraits Of Little Women: Meg Makes A Friend. New York: Delacorte Press, 1998.
Meg plans to sing at a friend's wedding, until she meets the groom's sister and they become instant enemies.
Pfeffer, Susan Beth. Portraits Of Little Women: Meg’s Story. New York: Delacorte Press, 1998.
When ten-year-old Meg receives an invitation to a friend's picnic but Jo does not, Meg must decide whether to stay home in loyalty to her sister or to follow her heart and attend.
Ruth, Amy. Louisa May Alcott. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company, 1999.
Biography for older readers.
Spedden, Daisy Corning Stone. Polar, The Titanic Bear. Toronto: Little, Brown and Company Canada, 1994.
The story of the Titanic as revealed from the journals of a stuffed bear who survived the fatal voyage.
Wallner, Alexandra. An Alcott Family Christmas. New York: Holiday House, 1996.
The Alcotts are sitting down to their holiday supper when they receive the opportunity to do some good for their neighbors.
Woodruff, Elvira. Dear Levi: Letters From The Overland Trail. New York: Knopf, 1998.
Something to attract male readers! Austin Ives, age 12, writes letters to his younger brother describing his long journey by wagon train from their home in Pennsylvania to Oregon in 1851.
Suitable for a gift or reward for work well done, this is a compilation of sayings taking from Louisa’s books.
Anderson, Gretchen. The Louisa May Alcott Cookbook . Boston: Little, Brown, 1985.
Recipes for young cooks based on dishes mentioned in Little Women and recreated from cookbooks of the times.
Penner, Lucille Recht. The Little Women Book; Games, Recipes, Crafts And Other Homemade Pleasures. New York: Random House, 1995.
As the title suggests, this is full of activities to be enjoyed by Alcott’s fans.
“The Scrap-Baggers”, Orchard House, P.O. 343, Concord, Massachusetts, 01742-0343. $10.00 yearly susbscription.
Contents of 1999 Volume I | Directory of Volumes | Index | Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute


A Literary Analysis of the Book of Ruth
Both the Old Testament and the New Testament use various forms to communicate, including story, music, and homiletics. Each of these forms deserves to be analyzed according to their genre. “Since both the Old and New Testaments are largely written in story form, narrative is the essence of biblical revelation… That makes understanding narrative essential for all interpreters of the Bible.”1 A literary approach is fundamental to understanding the Bible because many of the parts of the Bible are in literary form. In doing so, it is necessary to trace the action in terms of plot: “Correct interpretation of narratives depends in part on an appreciation of the plot as it marks out the beginning, middle, and end of both single and complex patterns and an appreciation of the pace of the narrative.”2 Further, the literary approach is able to appropriately appreciate the artistry of the Bible. “The artistic beauty of the Bible exists for the reader’s enjoyment and artistic enrichment. To ignore this aspect of biblical literature is to distort the Bible as a written document.”3 The Book of Ruth, as a story, deserves to be treated as literature in its study. On defining literature, Leland Ryken observes that
Literature does not, for example, discourse about virtue but instead shows a virtuous person acting. We might say that literature does not tell about characters and actions and concepts but presents characters in action. Literature not only presents experience but interprets it. The writer of literature selects and molds his material according to discernible viewpoints. Human experience is presented in such a way as to express, whether explicitly or by implication, a world view. Finally, literature is an interpretive presentation of experience in an artistic form. That is, the content of a work of literature is presented in the form of a novel, play, short story, poem, and so forth…A working definition of literature, then, is that it is an interpretive presentation of experience in an artistic form.4
In seeking to analyze the story of Ruth and Naomi according to its literary genre, this paper traces the plot and character elements in structures evident in early mythological writings as well as modern movies.5 In so doing, this paper will employ literary form and structure to analyze Ruth and its elements.
The Hebrew short story uses “an artistic and elevated prose containing rhythmic elements which are poetic,” takes an interest in typical people, and seeks to both entertain and instruct.6 “Especially important: they look at ordinary events as being the scene of God’s subtly providential activity. Fun and delight, pathos and violence, characterize the human portrayals; combined with the subtle divine dimension, the total effect is one of joy and seriousness together.”7 Ruth, in particular, displays artistry in the poetic prose of different speeches (i.e. Ruth’s vow to Naomi in 1:16-17),8 in word-play such as assonance and punning,9 and in the design of the story with its inclusios (i.e. ילד),symmetry (i.e. Ruth’s return from Boaz with grain in symmetrical scenes), and contrasts (i.e. the general disobedience of Israel characteristic of the time of the judges seen specifically in Naomi’s family abandoning the promised land contrasted with Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi and God in times of trouble; empty verses full; helpless versus provided for and protected; death versus life).
The universal monomyth contains four elements: romance and anti-romance, tragedy and comedy.10 These categories are evident in Old Testament stories: “In classical literature, and in the literature of the Old Testament itself, the existence of pregeneric [monomyth] plot structure is not only evident, but is intrinsically necessary to the development of that literature.”11Ruth, as a romance, displays the fulfillment of desire and, as a comedy, the upward movement from the unideal to the ideal. The book displays typical virtuous, beautiful ideals, villains that threaten the heroine’s ascent and final achievement of “the victory of fertility over the wasteland” of a comedy-romance.12 The final society reached at the end is the one that the “audience has recognized all along to be the proper and desirable state of affairs.”13 As a comic plot, “the protagonist encounters obstacles but eventually overcomes them through faith and/or divine intervention.”14 Its story is meant to “inspire, challenge, and encourage us.”15
One aspect of literature is its elements of recurrence in imagery and conventional actions.16 Rituals of conventional actions and that imitate nature’s cycle are organizing rhythms and patterns. These patterns represent the fulfillment of desire and the obstacles to it.17 Because the same sovereign God Who is ruling the affairs of men is also ruling the acts of the natural world, these cycles are “rooted in a divine reality beyond the natural world. There is a continual interpenetration of the supernatural into the earthly order, and God is a continual actor in human affairs. One effect of this is that life becomes filled with meaning, since every event takes on spiritual significance.”18 This coincides with Frye’s analysis of the imagery and cyclical elements of story. In short, the setting and details of Ruth are pregnant with meaning.
In Ruth, imagery such as provision is embodied in Bethlehem: Bethlehem (בית לחמ) literally means “house of bread.” This is ironic since at the opening of the book, Bethlehem was lacking in bread due to the famine! In 1:6, God visits His people with the purpose of giving them bread. Ruth and Naomi together sojourn to Bethlehem hoping for, and finding, provision through Ruth’s work of gleaning in the field, through Boaz’s generous gift to Ruth, through Boaz’s redemption of Ruth and Naomi’s field, and finally through Obed, the son who holds the hope for future provision. The book begins with a famine but ends with plenty. It is also interesting to note that Ruth’s marriage proposal occurs on the threshing floor, where the grain that provides is created. Not only does she return to Naomi after the marriage proposal with a promise of redemption but also with tangible evidence of grain. The use of the harvest cycle is also prevalent in Ruth. While the family tragedy is surrounded by famine, Ruth and Naomi return to Bethlehem when the famine has been abated at the beginning of the barley harvest, clueing the reader in to the hope they have.
Ruth exhibits both the typical initiation and death-rebirth cycles of the mythic plots. Naomi’s character, as the Hero Mentor on her own journey (see below), displays the death-rebirth cycle, which “involves a hero who endures death or a deathlike experience and returns to life and security.”19 As a helpless and childless widow, Naomi is in a “deathlike experience.” However, she passes to rebirth at the birth of Obed. Ruth’s character demonstrates both the death-rebirth and the initiation cycles. Like Naomi, she moves from the deathlike experience of the childless widow to the rebirth of marriage. This cycle is represented in miniature at Ruth’s Approach (occurring in the evening), Ordeal (at midnight), Reward (at dawn) (see below for further explanation of these stages).20 As a Moabitess seeking redemption in God’s community, she also undergoes the initiation cycle. “In an initiation story the hero undergoes a series of ordeals as he passes from ignorance and immaturity to social and spiritual adulthood.”21 Ruth’s character, while always exhibiting virtuous character, passes socially to the next level. In the beginning she is known as the Moabitess. However, in the end, she is recognized as an ancestor of the great King David of Israel.
The story of Ruth begins with death, moves toward marriage, and finds its ultimate fulfillment in birth. The Hebrew uses the same term ילדfor sons to show in inclusio Naomi’s loss of sons to her regaining of a child. The tension and tragedy lies in the empty and lonely Naomi. However, as a comedy, there is rebirth in the end, literally in Ruth’s son that is considered Naomi’s, and figuratively in Naomi, who is redeemed. The women in the story act as a Greek chorus, noting Naomi’s return in the beginning and commenting in the end both on Yahweh’s provision for Naomi of a son and on Ruth’s loving-kindness (חסד), which furnished the vehicle for Yahweh’s blessing (ironically).
The plot of any story revolves around overcoming obstacles. In Ruth, the obstacles consist of Naomi attempting to dissuade Ruth from coming; Ruth approaching Boaz; and the potential kinsman with first rights. From this, a plot structure can be derived. Pratt fits Ruth into a five-part plot structure.22 Specifically, the plot structure breaks into the following divisions: “I. Naomi’s Bitterness (ch. 1); II. Ruth Discovers Potential Kinsman Redeemer (ch. 2); III. Boaz Agrees to be Kinsman Redeemer (ch. 3); IV. Boaz Acquires Right to be the Kinsman-Redeemer (4:1-12); V. Naomi’s Blessing (4:13-17)”23 This analysis fits within the overarching comedy ternary form from the ideal (understood by the audience) to the unideal experience (the deaths of Elimelech, Kilion and Machlon leaving their three widows helpless, unprotected, and unprovided for), and the journey back to the ideal (Ruth’s marriage to Boaz, which redeems both her and Naomi, and Ruth’s child, who carries Ruth’s husband’s name24 and guarantees Naomi’s future).25 Further, because the story of Ruth exhibits elements of mythic structure as analyzed by Joseph Campbell and Christopher Vogler, it is helpful to understand how Ruth fits this form.26
1. The Ordinary World: This stage is understood by the audience as a time of blessing and provision.
2. The Call to Adventure: This occurs when the men Elimilech, Machlon, and Killion die and Naomi decides to return to Bethlehem.
3. Refusal of the Call: While Ruth is set on going throughout, this stage is seen in Orpah, Ruth’s foil, who is discouraged by the Threshold Guardian and returns to Moab.
4. Meeting with the Mentor: Herein lies the irony: Ruth’s meeting with the Mentor becomes her first test as a meeting with the Threshold Guardian (the one who attempts to barricade entrance into the first stage).
5. Crossing the First Threshold: Ruth swears an oath to Naomi to remain loyal to her and returns with Naomi to Bethlehem.
6. Tests, Allies, and Enemies: Ruth’s continued hard work in the fields wins her Allies in Boaz’s foreman and in Boaz himself. The Enemy exists in the Shadow, the idea of an unredeemed, unprovided for and unprotected life. This is embodied in the Mr. So and So, who refuses to redeem Ruth. “For this potential redeemer, the question placed before him was simply a matter to be decided on the basis of financial considerations. Love for the covenant and the preservation of a family in that covenant played no role in his calculations.”27
7. Approach to the Inmost Cave: Naomi prepares and instructs Ruth regarding approaching Boaz.
8. The Ordeal: Ruth’s Ordeal comes in the form of a marriage proposal to Boaz. On a sub-level, this scene is the Call to Adventure for Boaz, who becomes the active Hero for the next few scenes.
9. Reward: Boaz promises to seek redemption for Ruth, whether through approaching the nearer kinsman-redeemer or redeeming himself. Boaz also gives Ruth grain to take back to Naomi so that she would not return empty-handed.
10. The Road Back: This scene is also Boaz’s Ordeal stage as he speaks with Mr. So and So, the nearer kinsman redeemer.
11. Resurrection: On Ruth’s journey, her Resurrection is her wedding with Boaz (thus using a life cycle to represent the fulfilled desire).
12. Return with the Elixir: Ruth, as the Heroine, provides a son, Obed, for Naomi, thus giving life to Naomi. For the Fallen Mentor (Naomi), who herself is journeying, this scene is the Resurrection of Naomi.
The Message of Ruth
Though the story treats Ruth as the heroine, the story revolves around the redemption of Naomi. The book begins and ends focusing on Naomi. This reveals God’s character in His faithfulness toward His covenant promise of protecting His chosen people, His loving kindness in providing for the helpless widow, and His sovereignty in the surprising twist of using the Moabitess to provide for Naomi.28 The sub-theme focuses on Ruth’s redemption and God’s mercy in grafting the Gentiles into His chosen people for redemption.29 The heart of the story is God’s provision, both in expected ways (providing for Naomi and ultimately Israel through Ruth’s line) and in unexpected ways (providing for Ruth, the Moabitess). While Naomi receives provision and blessing, Ruth is God’s instrument for this. It is the Abrahamic covenant in reverse: instead of the nations being blessed through Israel, Israel is blessed through a Gentile.
This story is a great tool for evangelism by drawing analogies between Boaz, the type of Christ, and the archetype, Christ Himself. It exposes the unbeliever to the loving grace of God and His provision of redemption through Jesus Christ. Old Testament narratives reveal the character of God.30 In Ruth, God is revealed as the Faithful Provider to the helpless. In this case, God provides through the גאל, the kinsman redeemer who plays the part of the Messianic figure. The Messiah figure is associated with various royal figures in the Old Testament (i.e. the bridegroom, the conqueror, and the leader who brings his people into their rightful home).31 In the story of Ruth and Naomi, Boaz represents the Messiah as the redeemer who is the bridegroom for Ruth and reclaims the rightful home for Naomi. Boaz is described as the one who redeems (גאל). BDB defines גאל as “redeem, act as a kinsman.”32 It is used to refer to God’s redeeming acts.33 This term refers to the kinsman “who is responsible for standing up for him and maintaining his rights.34 Boaz takes responsibility for Naomi’s land and the widows. In so doing, he provides an example of Yahweh, who is the redeemer of the widows and the orphans.35 As Ruth was delivered from poverty, unprotected and unprovided for, Yahweh also delivers His people from distress and ultimately from death through Christ’s sacrifice on and the cross and victory over.
This tale also provides an object lesson for the Christian on חסד, loving-kindness. The first chapter introduces Ruth’s sacrificial character. “Against the dark moral and ethical backdrop of the Judges period, the foreigner Ruth emerges as a paradigm of loyal love and of the kind of person the Lord is looking for to populate his covenant community.”36 Boaz notes this quality in Ruth in 3:10, blessing her for remaining loyal to Naomi and to Yahweh rather than finding her security in a Moabite husband.37 Because of Ruth’s loyalty and love, she is first blessed by Yahweh in her marriage to Boaz and then becomes Yahweh’s tool of blessing to Naomi (the helpless widow), to the nation of Israel through Ruth’s descendent, King David, and to the whole world through Ruth’s descendent, Jesus Christ.
Death in the beginning sets the story in motion. The action revolves around looking for the “missing piece” and restoring balance.38 The rescue consists of saving from a “death state.”39 Both Naomi and Ruth are in a “death state” in that they have no hope of provision or protection because they are widows and childless. Ruth recognizes wholeness in a life attached to Yahweh and His people rather than in an empty life of idol worship in Moab. Naomi considers herself cursed by God and sees no hope of security.
The character and function of the Hero should fall to Naomi who has the power to redeem Ruth by bringing her to God’s chosen people. However, it is Ruth who plays the Heroine and saves Naomi. “A Hero is someone who is willing to sacrifice his own needs on behalf of others, like a shepherd who will sacrifice to protect and serve his flock. At the root the idea of Hero is connected with self-sacrifice.”40 This definition more aptly fits Ruth, who sacrifices security and the likelihood of marriage in order to remain loyal to Naomi.41 Naomi’s role changes throughout the story: she is the threshold guardian attempting to dissuade Ruth from entering the “special world” in chapter one; she is the mentor who instructs and prepares Ruth for the marriage proposal in chapter three (the inversion of the threshold guardian); she is the recipient of the healing elixir in the end. While Ruth is the flat character who remains constant, Naomi presents a more complicated character of the Fallen Mentor. “Some Mentors are still on a Hero’s Journey of their own. They may be experiencing a crisis of faith in their calling…Such a Mentor may go through all the stages of a hero’s journey, on his own path to redemption.”42 Naomi, as Mentor, considers herself a special vessel of God’s wrath. However, Boaz is presented as Naomi’s kinsman (2:1); the hope of redemption is first seen through Naomi’s eyes (2:20); and the final redemption is defined in regards to Naomi (4:14-17). Naomi, as the Fallen Mentor, is actively involved in preparing Ruth for Boaz and becomes the Recipient of the Elixir given by Ruth. Thought the book is titled Ruth, the story revolves around Naomi and her perspective. Ultimately, it is about God and His loving-kindness to act as the Faithful Provider to His covenant people and to those who put their trust in Him for wholeness and salvation.
A literary analysis of this book enabled an enlightenment of the story development as well as the character development, which revealed the overarching and secondary messages of the Book of Ruth. It also allowed an appreciation for the beauty and complicity of the plot as unfolded by the author. These same categories can be applied to other stories in the Bible to unveil the central message that God wishes to communicate, understood according to their appropriate genre.
1 Walter C. Kaiser, Jr., “Narrative” in Cracking Old Testament Codes: A Guide to Interpreting the Literary Genres of the Old Testament, ed. D. Brent Sandy and Ronald L. Giese, Jr. (Nashville: Broadman & Holdman Publishers, 1995), 71.
2 Ibid., 73.
3 Ryken, Literature of the Bible, 14.
4 Leland Ryken, The Literature of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1974), 13.
5 Joseph Campbell analyzes the elements of myths and stories from different countries and different times in order to reveal the parallels of the basic plot. He lists segments of the common adventure as Departure (including the Call to Adventure, Refusal of the Call, Supernatural Aid, The Crossing of the First Threshold, and the Belly of the Whale), the Initiation (i.e. The Road of Trials), and the Return (consisting of such elements as the Rescue from Without, the Crossing of the Return Threshold, and the Freedom to Live). Joseph Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces, 2nd ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), ix-x. Christopher Vogler further clarifies these categories as well as characterization and applies them to modern-day story telling (i.e. plays and movies). Cf. Christopher Vogler, The Writer’s Journey: The Mythic Structure for Writers, 2nd ed. (Studio City, CA: Michael Wiese Productions, 1998), throughout.
6 Edward F. Campbell, Ruth: A New Translation with Introduction, Notes, and Commentary, The Anchor Bible, vol. 7, ed. William Foxwell Albright and David Noel Freedman (New York: Doubleday, 1975), 5.
7 Ibid., 5-6.
8 Ibid., 11.
9 Ibid., 13.
10 Frye, Anatomy of Criticism, 95.
11 Reg Grant, “The Validity of Pregeneric Plot Structure in Ruth as a Key to Interpretation” (Ph.D. diss., Dallas Theological Seminary, 1988), 169.
12 Frye, Anatomy of Criticism, 193.
13 Ibid., 164.
14 Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., From Exegesis to Exposition: A Practical Guide to Using Biblical Hebrew (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998), 156.
15 Ibid., 157.
16 Frye, Anatomy of Criticism, 86, 104.
17 Ibid., 104, 160.
18 Ryken, Literature of the Bible, 17.
19 Ibid., 23.
20 Grant, “Validity of Pregeneric Plot Structure,” 180. Cf. Frye, Anatomy of Criticism, 160 for an explanation of the cycle of times and seasons as significant in plot.
21 Ryken, Literature of the Bible, 23.
22 This five-part plot structure is defined as problem, rising action (“raises tension”), turning point, falling action (“continues the unwinding initiated by the turning point”), and resolution. Richard L. Pratt, He Gave Us Stories: The Bible Student’s Guide to Interpreting Old Testament Narratives (Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 1990), 200.
23 Ibid., 301.
24 For the sake of ease, this musical takes Machlon as Ruth’s husband, although the biblical text never assigns which husband to which wife.
25 Frye, Anatomy of Criticism, 171.
26 Categories taken from Vogler, Writer’s Journey, passim.
27 S. de Graaf, Promise and Deliverance, vol. 2, trans. H. Evan Runner and Elisabeth Wichers Runner (St. Catherines, Ontario: Paideia, 1977), 62.
28 The musical makes use of the bread metaphor found in the biblical account. In the beginning, Naomi worries about the lack of bread; she makes the announcement to Ruth and Orpah of her plan to return to Bethlehem while kneading bread (a hint of the hope she has in her return to Bethlehem); Ruth recognizes the provision of bread Boaz will bring with his agreement to marry her; finally, Naomi receives the announcement of Obed’s birth while taking a fresh loaf of bread out of the oven.
29 A second metaphor used in this musical is of the branch. Ruth recognizes that her life is in Yahweh’s tree, and therefore seeks to join His people. Ideally the set should be presided over by a large tree that blooms at the wedding ceremony.
30 Pratt, He Gave Us Stories, 130.
31 Frye, Anatomy of Criticism, 316.
32 Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, Charles A. Briggs, eds., The New Brown-Driver-Briggs-Gesenius Hebrew and English Lexicon, reprinted (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1979), 145.
33 It is also connected with the legal and social life of Israel. The legal acts of the Israelites reflect the acts of God.
34 Helmer Ringgren, “גאל,” in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, rev. ed., eds., G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren, trans. John T. Willis, vol. 2 (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1975), 351.
35 Ruth finds shelter both in the wings of Yahweh (2:12) and in the covering of Boaz (3:9), further associating Boaz’s role with Yahweh’s role (Grant, “Validity of Pregeneric Plot Structure,” 203-04.).
36 Chisholm From Exegesis to Exposition, 226.
37 Orpah provides the foil for Ruth’s character here. Her character is united with Ruth’s in the beginning, but the shallowness of her commitment “dissolves” this union (Grant, “Validity of Pregeneric Plot Structure,” 206). Orpah was more interested in her perceived well-being than in remaining loyal to her proper family ties (Deuteronomy 25:5 notes that a widow is not to remarry outside the family). It also shows her lack of a fear of Yahweh, Whom she abandons in order to return to her Moabite gods. Her decision highlights Ruth’s sacrifice.
38 Vogler, Writer’s Journey, 40.
39 Campbell, Hero with a Thousand Faces, 213.
40 Vogler, Writer’s Journey, 35. This definition also fits Boaz, who sacrifices his own self-interests (seen in his foil, Mr. So and So) to redeem Ruth and Naomi.
41 This jabbed the original Jewish audience. Ruth’s social status as not only a widow but as a Gentile Moabitess brought expectations of both a sinful and helpless character. However, her actions as well as the speech and thought of the story community proved her to be faithful, loyal, and sacrificial (cf. Pratt, He Gave Us Stories, 137-39 for categories of character revelation).
42 Vogler, Writer’s Journey, 52-53.


History of the Ascendency of the Lunda Kingdom
Luba (Baluba) Ethnic group of present-day Zambia and Zaire. The Luba are regarded as one of the earliest peoples to practice Ironworking in Central Africa. Their ancestors were farmers who, as early as 400 CE, inhabited the Lake Kisale region of Katanga.
Oral tradition mentions Luba Chiefs in Malawi and Zambia, but very little is known about their early history.
The area in which the Luba lived was well suited to the growth of powerful Chiefdoms. The copper mines of the Katanga region were nearby; the soil was fertile and good for growing crops, especially cereals; nearby woodlands provided hunting grounds; waterways were an excellent source of fish; and ease of movement through the savannah stimulated trade.
The Luba were an agricultural people whose communities slowly grew into small trading and farming chiefdoms.
Between 1300 and 1400 they came under the sway of the Nkongolo Dynasty, which, in turn, was conquered in the early 1400s by Ilunga Kalala, whom oral tradition describes as a fierce hunter.
Ilunga Kalala expanded the kingdom’s boundaries and took control of the Katanga copper mines and the trade routes to East Africa. Later in the 15th century, members of the Luba aristocracy left the kingdom and moved west, where they centralized their power among the Lunda people, beginning the ascendency of the Lunda Kingdom.
The Establishment of the Lunda Kingdom
The Lunda Kingdom Monarchy was taking shape in Austral Equatorial Africa by 1450, along the upper Kasai River.
Some histories place the foundation of the Kingdom of the influential Bantu-speaking Lunda around 1450, when members of the Luba aristocracy - disappointed in their failed attempts to gain power in their own land - moved south-west into Lunda territory. Other accounts point to an earlier starting date for the Kingdom but note that the Lunda state remained a loose confederation and did not develop strong centralized government until about 1450.
The Luba newcomers married into the families of the Lunda Chieftains. Initially they made no major changes in Lunda political structures; they simply collected tribute from their Lunda subjects. In time, however, the Luba Chiefs began centralizing their authority, paving the way for the emergence of the Lunda Empire that became a major regional trading state from the 16th through the 19th centuries.
Administratively the Lunda Kingdom practised “perpetual kingship,” whereby a new king assumed the identity of the one he replaced. In essence, the successor to the title became the previous king. Through perpetual kingship, alliances and agreements could remain in force from generation to generation because they were made by the “same” king.
Tchokwe (Cokwe, Ciokwe, Bajokwe) Bantu-speaking Central African people. A mixture of many indigenous and immigrant peoples, they trace their origins to the Mbuti, hunter-gatherers who came under the demonstration of agricultural by Bantu-speakers about the sixth or seventh century. Around 1500 the Tchokwe came under the rule of the Lunda Kingdom when a disinherited Lunda Prince moved west into the area in southern Austral Equatorial Africa. Conquering the people in his path, the Prince created a Kingdom for the Tchokwe people.
HISTORY AND CULTURAL IDENTITY
On a contemporary map of Central Africa, three national, colonial-drawn borders artificially cut through the savannahs where the Tchokwe (also Cokwe, Tshokwe, Tutshokwe, Quioco, Bajok) people live in southern Zaire, northeastern Angola, and northwestern Zambia. Every year, many families, travelling along footpaths to visit relatives on the other side, cross back and forth across these often invisible boundaries.
Approximately 900,000 Tchokwe live in Moxico, Lunda Norte and South Lunda another 800,000 in Congo (formerly, Zaire), and 100,000 in Zambia. (See Bastin, 1966). All of these present-day Tchokwe (singular Kachokwe) trace their origins to Lunda nobles once living in the Nkalaany Valley of western Shaba, in today’s Republic of the Congo.
According to oral history as recounted by Lunda and Tchokwe peoples alike, the Lunda nobles began moving out from the Nkalaany Valley in the sixteenth century when Chibinda Ilunga, a Muluba hunter from the East, arrived in the Lunda court and married the Lunda queen, Lweji (Lima 1971, 41–65; de Heusch 1982, 180–82).
Discontented with his rule, the queen’s brothers decided to emigrate. The Lunda diaspora includes the following peoples, who all trace their ancestors to these emigrating chiefs: Tchokwe, Minungu, Lwena (also known as Luvale), Luchazi, Songo, Lunda Ndembu, and Lunda of Kazembe. One of the brothers, Ndumba wa Tembo, settled in Saurimo, Angola, and it was his maternal nephew, Mwachisenge, who was given the title of supreme chief of the Tchokwe.
This same title, “Mwachisenge,” together with a special bracelet (lukano), has been passed down through the generations from maternal uncle to maternal nephew, as a sign of the highest chief among the Tchokwe. The present-day bearer of the bracelet and Mwachisenge title lives in Samutoma village, of Shaba province in Congo.
Historical Expansion The Tchokwe have been known throughout history as independent, indomitable warriors, hunters, and traders. By the eighteenth century, the Tchokwe had established power over the matrilineal peoples around them and had claimed rights to the farming and hunting. During the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the Tchokwe were known as excellent hunters and traders all along the trade route from Central Africa to the Angolan coast, where they traded with Europeans. They exchanged ivory, wax, and male slaves for European weapons, mostly guns. In raids on other peoples en route, they captured the men as slaves and integrated the women and children into Tchokwe society through marriage. Thus they assimilated other peoples and expanded throughout the area.
Not until the 1880s did the Tchokwe return to the Congo, when a group of Lunda hired Tchokwe warriors to fight for them in Shaba province. For a brief time, these warriors gained victories over the Lunda (1880–1887) and thus facilitated the Tchokwe expansion into Shaba as well. The Tchokwe continued to expand north and west out of Angola until the late 1930s (See Miller 1970, 175–201 for Tchokwe history).
Village Life and Social Organization Tchokwe independence and ease of assimilating other peoples can be attributed in part to their political and social organization. Tchokwe political power is decentralized. Though all chiefs recognize the title Mwachisenge as a sign of supreme chieftanship, Chief Mwachisenge of Samutoma is a ritual chief who has little practical influence over the lives of Tchokwe people beyond his own village.
Tchokwe villages are insular, socially cohesive units. Though matrilineal, the women move to the homes of their spouses after marriage. A group of brothers and maternal uncles, along with their wives and children, build a village together. Often small, ranging from forty to eighty people, these villages frequently move their locations in search of better fishing, hunting, gathering, or farming areas or to escape sorcery accusations or conflicts with relatives.
As subsistence farmers and roaming hunters, the Tchokwe are extremely mobile and thus, of necessity, live in very small villages. This kind of self-sufficiency enables the Tchokwe to maintain their language and customs as they move from one locale to another and from one country to the next. As a consequence, their way of life survives times of great upheaval and change.
Folklore and Fame The Tchokwe’s reputation among neighbouring groups in Central Africa differs somewhat from their reputation in the West. Their neighbours know them as great hunters, sorcerers, diviners, and healers; they both fear their sorcerers and visit their healers. In a similar vein, Africanist scholars remember the Tchokwe for their history as expansionists, for their assimilation of other peoples along the trade routes of Central Africa. In contrast, many Westerners, especially art connoisseurs, recognize the Tchokwe for their artistic traditions. They admire the remarkable masks, ancestor figurines, carved chairs, and divining baskets, which can be viewed in museum displays on African life and art throughout the world.
Travellers and researchers, from the early 1900s on, have collected and/or documented Tchokwe arts, that is, the more visible, striking features of Tchokwe life: the ancestor figurines (mahamba), carved chairs (yitwamo), and masks (akishi) from the mukanda initiations (Bastin 1961; Crowley 1975).
Early twenty-first-century researchers study Tchokwe life in greater detail, paying attention to local concerns and daily routines; they document and analyze artistic expression and ritual performances in the contexts of Tchokwe daily life. For example, such studies concern the practices of healers (mbuki), diviners (tahi), and sorcerers (nganga), and the lives of women and women’s initiation rites (mwadi) (See Bastin 1982, 1988; Fretz 1987; Jordan 1993; Kubik 1988, 1993; Sesembe 1981; Yoder 1988).
Unlike these more easily observed and transported objects, the verbal arts have been minimally described until recent times. For instance, the documents of Tchokwe tales (yishima) from the early 1900s, translated into Western languages such as Portuguese, lack the vitality and aesthetic qualities of Tchokwe storytelling as performed for local audiences (See Barbosa 1973; Havenstein 1976).
Current studies focus on the teller’s interactions with the audience and record both verbal and nonverbal features of the performance. Such research includes documentation of both artistic and everyday forms of speech: for example, narrating and telling proverbs (kuta yishima), indirect speaking and telling parables (kubwa nyi misende), recounting historical events or recent news (kulweza sanoo), and “just talking” (kuta pande) (Fretz 1987; 1994; 1995).
Historically, whenever the Tchokwe relocated, they carried with them their knowledge of healing, divining, and sorcery, their renowned abilities in mask making and carving of ancestral figurines, and their oral tradition as represented by myths, tales, and proverbs. Thus, they created a web of interconnected traditions that still transcends the colonially imposed national boundaries.
Today, they continue to traverse the borders that separate their families and clans. However, as the political situations in the Republic of the Congo, in Angola, and in Zambia shift, the alliances between these neighbouring countries change, often making their journeys more difficult and urgent. Not only do they cross the border for family visits and for the lucrative diamond trade, but they also escape as refugees from war-torn areas. In addition, these erstwhile hunters and traders now cross more intangible, intellectual frontiers through radio broadcasts, education abroad, and leadership positions in international organizations.
As communication with the rest of the world accelerates, the opportunity for travel beyond their homelands increases for the more educated and well-connected. Having learned throughout their history to be resilient, to assimilate other cultures, and to create syncronistic arts, the Tchokwe, no doubt, will continue to improvise on new experiences and, thereby, both retain and revitalize their traditions.
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—. 1981. L’homme et la femme dans la society et la culture Tchokwe: de l’anthropologie et la philosophic. Unpublished dissertation. Universite Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium.
Yoder, P.Stanley, 1981. Disease and Illness Among Cokwe: An Ethnomedical Perspective. Ph.D. Dissertation, Anthropology, UCLA.
Language: Wuchokwe (Bantu)
Neighboring Nations: Luba, Lunda, Lwena, Ovimbundu, Songo
Types of Art: The Tchokwe are well known for art objects produced to celebrate and validate the royal court. These objects include ornately carved stools and chairs used as thrones. Most of the sculptures are portraits, which represent the royal lineage. Staffs, scepters, and spears are among other implements sculpted to celebrate the court.
History: Tchokwe origin can perhaps be traced to the Mbundu and Mbuti Pygmies. Between 1600 and 1850 they were under considerable influence from the Lunda states and were centrally located in Angola. In the second half of the 19th century though, considerable development of the trade routes between the Tchokwe homelands and the Angolan coast led to increased trade of ivory and rubber. Wealth acquired from this allowed the Tchokwe kingdom to expand, eventually overtaking the Lunda states that had held sway over them for so long. Their success was short-lived, however. The effects of overexpansion, disease, and colonialism resulted in the fragmentation of Tchokwe power.
Economy: The Tchokwe grow manioc, cassava, yams, and peanuts. Tobacco and hemp are also grown for snuff, and maize is grown for beer. Domesticated livestock is also kep, and includes sheep, goats, pigs, and chickens. Protein is added through hunting. There is an exclusive association of big game hunters known as Yanga, but everyone contributes to the capture of small game animals. The farming and processing of agricultural products is done almost exclusively by women among the Tchokwe. Slash and burn techniques and crop rotation are practiced to conserve the land naturally.
Political Systems: The Tchokwe do not recognize a paramount leader, but instead offer allegiance to local chiefs who inherit their positions from the maternal uncle. The chiefs (mwana nganga) consult with a committee of elders and ritual specialists before making decisions. Villages are divided into manageable sections which are governed by family headmen. All members of Tchokwe society are divided into two categories: those who are descended from the founding matrilineal lines and those who are descended from former enslaved populations.
Religion: The Tchokwe recognize Kalunga, the god of creation and supreme power, and a series of nature and ancestral spirits (mahamba). These spirits may belong to the individual, family, or the community, and neglecting them is sure to result in personal or collective misfortune. Evil spirits may also be activated by sorcerers (wanga) to cause illness, and this must be counteracted to regain health. In order to accomplish this individuals normally consult with a diviner (nganga), who attempts to uncover the source of the patient's problem. The most common form of divination among the Tchokwe is basket divination, which consists of the tossing of up to sixty individual objects in a basket. The configuration of the objects is then "read" by the diviner to determine the cause of illness.
The hyphenated Nation of the Lunda-Tchokwe. As the hyphenation implies, the category comprises at least two subsets, the origins of which are known to be different and the events leading to their inclusion in a single set are recent. The Lunda alone were a congeries of peoples brought together in the far-flung Lunda Empire (seventeenth century to nineteenth century) under the hegemony of a people calling themselves Ruund, its capital in the eastern section of Zaire's Katanga Province (present-day Shaba Province).
Lunda is the form of the name used for the Ruund and for themselves by adjacent peoples to the south who came under Ruund domination. In some sources, the Ruund are called Northern Lunda, and their neighbours are called Southern Lunda. The most significant element of the latter, called Ndembu (or Ndembo), lived in Zaire and Zambia.
The people with whom the northward-expanding Tchokwe came into contact were chiefly Ruund speakers. The economic and political decline of the empire by the second half of the nineteenth century and the demarcation of colonial boundaries ended Ruund political domination over those elements beyond the Zairian borders.
The Tchokwe, until the latter half of the nineteenth century a small group of hunters and traders living near the headwaters of the Cuango and Cassai rivers, were at the southern periphery of the Lunda Empire and paid tribute to its head. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, the Tchokwe became increasingly involved in trading and raiding, and they expanded in all directions, but chiefly to the north, in part absorbing the Ruund and other peoples. In the late nineteenth century, the Tchokwe went so far as to invade the capital of the much-weakened empire in Katanga. As a consequence of this Tchokwe activity, a mixed population emerged in parts of Zaire as well as in Angola, although there were virtually homogenous communities in both countries consisting of Tchokwe, Ruund, or Southern Lunda.
The intermingling of Lunda (Ruund and Southern Lunda) and Tchokwe, in which other smaller groups were presumably also caught up, continued until about 1920. It was only after that time that the mixture acquired the hyphenated label and its members began to think of themselves (in some contexts) as one people.
The languages spoken by the various elements of the so-called Lunda-Tchokwe were more closely related to each other than to other Bantu languages in the Zairian-Angolan savanna but were by no means mutually intelligible. The three major tongues (Ruund, Lunda, and Tchokwe) had long been distinct from each other, although some borrowing of words, particularly of Ruund political titles by the others, had occurred.
Portuguese anthropologists and some others accepting their work have placed some of the peoples (Minungu and Shinji) in this area with the Mbundu, and the Minungu language is sometimes considered a transitional one between Kimbundu and Chokwe. There may in fact have been important Mbundu influence on these two peoples, but the work of a number of linguists places their languages firmly with the set that includes Ruund, Lunda, and Tchokwe.
Economic and political developments in the 1970s affected various sections of the Lunda-Tchokwe differently. Substantial numbers of them live in or near Lunda Norte Province, which contains the principal diamond mines of Angola. Diamond mining had been significant since 1920, and preindependence data show that the industry employed about 18,000 persons. Moreover, the mining company provided medical and educational facilities for its employees and their dependents, thereby affecting even greater numbers. How many of those employed were Lunda-Tchokwe is not clear, although neighbouring villages would have been affected by the presence of the mining complex in any case.
In the intra-Angolan political conflict preceding and immediately following independence, there apparently was some division between the northern Lunda-Chokwe, especially those with some urban experience, who tended to support the MPLA, and the rural Tchokwe, particularly those farther south, who tended to support UNITA. In the 1980s, as the UNITA insurgency intensified in the border areas of eastern and northern Angola, Lunda-Chokwe families were forced to flee into Zaire's Shaba Province, where many remained in 1988, living in three sites along the Benguela Railway. The impact of this move on the ethnolinguistic integrity of these people was not known.
A somewhat different kind of political impact began in the late 1960s, when refugees from Katanga in Zaire, speakers of Lunda or a related language, crossed the border into what are now Lunda Sul and northern Moxico provinces. In 1977 and 1978, these refugees and others whom they had recruited formed the National Front for the Liberation of the Congo (Front National pour la Libération du Congo-FNLC) and used the area as a base from which they launched their invasions of Shaba Province. In the 1980s, these rebels and perhaps still other refugees remained in Angola, many in Lunda Sul Province, although the Angolan government as part of its rapprochement with Zaire was encouraging them to return to their traditional homes.
The Zairian government offered amnesty to political exiles on several occasions in the late 1980s and conferred with the Angolan government on the issue of refugees. In 1988, however, a significant number of Zairian refugees continued to inhabit Lunda Tchokwe territory. The significance for local Lunda-Tchokwe of the presence and activities of these Zairians was not known.
ARTE PRIMITIVA LUNDA
Se não mantivéssemos estes objectos juntos, esta pequena migalha da cultura mundial perder-se-ia. A arte Africana ao entrar na Europa influenciou estéticamente artistas como Picasso ou Matisse que admiraram a animação dos objetos e seu primitivismo...
A cultura Lunda ou Kioka, nasceu das tribos Bantu, silvícolas, recolectores e caçadores que esculpiam todos os aspectos da vida. Traçavam seus dotes artísticos com uma simples faca fazendo instrumentos de uso diário como pentes, adornos vários e artefactos de uso em suas casas e cozinhas. As paredes de suas casas eram decoradas, seus corpos tatuados, seus penteados adornados com criatividade.
Na falta de registos escritos, a cultura oral que passava de pais para filhos, tal como a sua arte primitiva e costumes, eram as bases que perpectuavam no tempo. Este é o legado Kioko ou, tchockwe, sendo que sua arte constitui raridade e, por isso, mais reputada na avaliação de seus artigos da arte a nível mundial.
As revistas “Art d´Áfrique Noir” de Roul Letuart referem a arte Tchockwe como sendo das obras mais cotadas no mercado de artes primitivas; as famosas estátuas T´chipinda e Lunda mais conhecidas por Mwatshianvua e Lweje-Ya-Konde (casal fundador do império Lunda), atingiram nesse mercado de arte, o 1º lugar da tabela de preços. Isto é referido no livro “Identidade e Patrimônio Cultural” da autoria do antropólogo e escritor Henrique Abranches.
Acácio “Sakapwma”, iniciou suas esculturas em madeira respeitando a arte, conteúdo, e corte com machadinha, faca nativa e formões. Esculpiu o casal do império Lunda, de rara beleza, talhando a madeira de forma muito pessoal preservando a traça original. Independentemente dessas peças preciosas que marcam sua obra, esculpiu outras de renome e forte cunho na identidade deste povo, o “T´shipinda Katele” (caçador), o casal “Mama Wa-Knkw” e “Mwkuluana Wa Kwkw” (pensador e pensadora), talvez a representação mais marcante e admirada internacionalmente, pois que mostra um casal de velhos esperando a morte.
Como obra inédita, tem uma peça única em madeira, com quatro pessoas que mostra a cena do “Kaponye” (parto). Além das estatuetas temos as máscaras, masculinas e femininas: umas decorativas, outras para uso em danças populares ou profanas.
É rica a diversidade deste conjunto, sendo as máscaras por demais importantes em suas vidas. O bastão decorativo é uma peça importante e de uso dos chefes ou notáveis como insígnias do poder. O artista “Sakapwma”, não poderia deixar de criar quatro destas belas peças.
Em relevo, criou cenas do quotidiano representadas numa tábua de madeira e duas peças de alumínio fundido, uma dourada a outra prateada. No conjunto do espólio de arte tchockwe, trabalho rico em arte e de difícil elaboração é a incisão de figuras e simbologia em cabaça natural, obra que os nativos muito praticavam e valorizavam. Não há referência de haver outro branco que tenha ousado gravar em cabaça.
No campo das esculturas, não poderia faltar o trabalho em marfim; a realização de um artista é reconhecida devido à dificuldade e paciência na sua elaboração; e Acácio “Sakapwma” executou uma jarra com altura 38,5cm, com o diâmetro interno de 13x10,5 cm e o peso de 2kg. Esta peça consumiu 18 anos de trabalho na sua execução.
José Manuel Primo Videira (Nelo)
Subscreve: O Soba T´chingangeFFSAFederation of the Free States of AfricaContactSecretary General