GNS 101 Use of English (2 Units)
The course is designed to equip students with listening, speaking and reading language skills which will enable them to comprehend their lectures with ease and accomplish their reading tasks. The course is task-based and student-oriented
1. Awareness Raising:
To sensitize students on the need for the course by examining some errors in students’ scripts.
To examine some differences between formal and informal English.
2. Listening Skill:
To help students develop some note-taking skills and strategies.
To help students anticipate the subject–matter of a lecture from the topic.
To distinguish main from minor points.
To follow a teacher’s train of thought using lexical and structural signals.
To match verbal clues with pictures.
3. Speaking Skill:
To minimize and eliminate first language interference.
To help students pronounce vowel and consonant sounds correctly.
To identify dark/silent letters.
To enable students use stress and intonation appropriately.
4. Word Classes:
To emphasize correct use of nouns, verbs, adverbs, pronouns, adjectives, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and exclamations.
To encourage correct agreement in grammatical structures.
To point attention to common errors and locate the sources of such errors.
5. Punctuation Marks:
To identify different kinds of punctuation marks.
To facilitate the correct use of punctuation marks in writing.
6. Reading Skill:
To develop fast reading in students.
To enhance and improve comprehension for specific and main ideas; reference and critical interpretations.
To facilitate vocabulary development.
7. Application of the above Skill:
To study two prescribed texts (short prose).
GNS 102 Introduction to Nigeria History (1 Unit)
The course provides an overview of Nigeria’s contribution to world history and her relationship with other parts of the world. It focuses on the following: Sources of Nigerian history, Methodology of history; major landmarks in early Nigeria History (Nok, Igbo-Ukwu, Ife, Benin, etc). Emphasis is on the scientific and technological development of these early Nigerian societies. Students will also be exposed to pre-colonial history: Sudanese/Nigerian states; the Slave trade and its effects; colonial and post-colonial history of Nigeria. Attempts are made to relate the discussion to agriculture, with special reference to the introduction of cash crops, industrialization and urbanization processes.
(1) Methodology of History
(2) Sources of Nigerian History
History of Non-Literate Societies
Early Nigerian Cultures and Society
Nok, Igbo-Ukwu, Ife, Benin, others.
(3) Pre-colonial Societies
(a) Sudanese Empires
(b) Forest States
(4) Nigeria’s Early Contact with the World
The Trans-Saharan and Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and their effects.
(5) Scramble For Africa
British interest in Nigeria
The British conquest of Nigeria
Colonial rule and its impact on Nigeria
(6) Decolonization Process in Nigeria
(a) Rise of Nationalism
(b) Culture and Political dimension
(c) Economic Dimension
(7) Development in Nigeria after independence
GNS 103 Introduction to Social Problems (2 Units)
The course will present students with current perspectives on the nature and cause of contemporary social problems and possible ways of solving them. The approach is meant to help students to use their reasoning ability in a way that would help them to better understand the causes of our social problems; by so doing, students will be able to make decisions that will contribute to an improvement in the quality of life in Nigerian society. Since the sociological approach is not the only approach which offers useful insight about social problems, an eclectic approach will be adopted in this course. That is, in addition to a variety of sociological perspectives diverse views to social problems will be considered. Thus, where relevant, the course will rely on other social science disciplines such as anthropology, psychology, political science, economics and indeed some of the natural sciences.
What is social problem? The sociological approach to the study of social problems. Problems inequality. Prejudice, discrimination and ethnicism/racism. Deviance (Collective behaviour and substance abuse). Problems of environment and energy. Population and Urbanisation. Education and Social Problems. Health and HIV/AIDS related issues.
200 LEVEL COURSES
GNS 201 Writing and Literary Appreciation (2 Units)
The course is designed to enable students write acceptable summaries, reports and essays with the aid of relevant reference works. It will also enable the students to have a generalized but clear awareness of the historical development of literature in the English Language in Nigeria and in Africa, the Caribbean, the United States of America and the British Isles. It will expose students to relevance and classification of literature and literary appreciation.
1. Evaluation of Common Errors in Students’ Writing:
To bring out students’ errors and locate the sources of such errors.
2. Writing Skill:
To help students organise their ideas and write good outline.
To raise awareness of order in texts-coherence.
To develop text with the appropriate use of transitional devices.
To know different kinds of writing as applied to students’ disciplines and other situations.
To raise awareness on the technicalities of different forms of letter writing
To write formal and informal letters.
3. Bibliography and Citations in Academic Writing:
To draw graphs, tables from descriptions.
To write descriptions using graphs, tables and charts etc.
To write bibliography and other references.
4. Literary Appreciation
To know the historical development of literature across culture.
To have a general awareness of literature.
To know the relevance and classification of literature.
To study literary terms.
To appreciate the three genres of literature by studying a play, a poem and a novel.
5. Application of the various Acquired Skills:
To write projects that will integrate the taught/acquired English Language skills.
GNS 202 Government and Politics (1 Units)
Examination of man in a political society: the nature and role of the state; political systems; ideologies of politics; political institutions; the evolution of the Nigerian State; the Nigerian political system; constitution-making in Nigeria, Nigeria and the international political system; problems of world politics.
Man as apolitical animal; theories of the state. The evolution of the modern state. Varieties of political system and institutions. Ideologies of politics Liberalism, Conservatism, Socialism, Pan Africanism etc. Colonialism and the Evolution of the Nigerian Politics, Structure and problems of the contemporary international political system. Politics in Africa. Nigeria in world politics.
GNS 203: USE-OF-LIBRARY
The objectives of the course are:
(i) To make students aware of the role of the Library in their academic pursuit;
(ii) To equip students with the knowledge of how library materials are organized; and
(iii) To develop in students, skills of using library information resources (both print and non-print)
Course Content and Synopsis
1. Brief history of libraries; the origin of library from Egyptian, Greece and Roman civilizations to the present day libraries.
2. Type of libraries: academic, national, public, special, private, school libraries and the differences between them.
3. Types of library materials: textbooks, reference materials, periodicals, documents, electronic resources e.t.c.
4. Organization of library resources: the library catalogue (Card catalogue, OPAC e.t.c) and how library materials are arranged according to subject class.
5. Using library resources: these include e-learning, e-materials, (data base resources, CD-ROM, On-line e.t.c.)
6. Library rules and regulations regarding loans, reservation of books, theft, mutilation, library infractions e.t.c.
7. Study skills: how to use books, journals and reference materials for research.
8. Copyright and its implication: what copyright is, Nigerian Copyright Commission, authorship, plagiarism, fair use, e.t.c.
9. Bibliographies and referencing: meaning and use of bibliographies, literature survey, compilation of bibliographies; citation methods; footnotes, references e.t.c.
GNS 204 Logic and History of Science (2 Units)
Introduction to the basic principles and techniques of distinguishing correct from incorrect reasoning; evolution of science and technology; issues in the philosophy of science.
Nature of arguments: Deductive and inductive arguments; Validity and soundness: Validity and truth. Elementary techniques of testing validity. Fallacies. The priori and the empirical Problems of Induction. Elements of probability. Elements of the history of science and technology. Observation, hypotheses, experiments and scientific explanation. Problems of scientific and technological development in Nigeria. Science and society.
i. Postgraduate Diploma in Communication Studies
PCS 601 Use of English (2 units)
Basic course in written and spoken English. Brief review of the grammar and principles of English speech. Practice in spoken English.
PCS 602 Developmental Writing Skills (2 units)
Fundamental elements of punctuations. Americanism in English language, Colloquialism. Basic or General Reporting. Specialised Writing and Reporting, Basic News Writing, News Agencies.
PCS 603 Basic Mass Communication Theories (2 units)
The contemporary theories of Mass Communication - Individual Differences Theory, Social Categories Theory, Social Relations Theory, The Cultural Norms Theory, Theories of Media Violence, Catharsis Theory, Observation Learning Theory, Reconfirments Theory, Cultivation Theory.
PCS 605 Introduction to Sociology (2 units)
The scope and methods of Sociology. General Definition. Problems Hampering the study of Sociology as a Scientific Discipline. Human societies and culture. Characteristics and Functions of Culture. Basic but important concepts in Sociology. Social Organizations. Socialisation. Social Stratification and Social Problems and Issues in Modern Societies.
PCS 607 Public Relations (2 units)
What is Public Relations? Evolution of PR: The Nigeria. Experience. Corporate Public Relations. The Public Relations Process, Public Opinion, Propaganda, Persuasive Communication Techniques. Public Relations as Management Function. Corporate Publicity. Public Relations Periodicals. Production of House Organs. Ethics of Public Relation.
PCS 608 Developmental Oral Communication Skills (2 units)
Oral language as a form of communication. Relevant theoretical instructions are followed by practical exercises designed to improve the mechanics of oral communication.
PCS 609 Conflict and Dispute Settlement (2 units)
Theories of Conflicts. Machinery for dispute settlement – mediation, reconciliation, arbitration and industrial courts.
PCS 617 Ethnics (2 units)
Historical and contemporary theories of ethics. Intensive study of specialized topics in ethics e.g. the place of reason in ethics, ethical intuitionism, utilitarianism, the ethics of Aristotle, the ethics of medicine, and moral problems. Enforcement of professional ethics. The meeting point between Ethics and Journalism.
PCS 619 Advertising (2 units)
The origin of Advertising. Economics and Social Role of Advertising. Public attitudes in Advertising. Marketing Evolution. The Basic principles of marketing. Relevance of market concept to Advertising. Product life cycle. Marketing segmentation and evaluation. Reaching Target Segment. Organisation of Advertising. Control and Regulation of Advertising.
ARD 611 Introductory Rural Sociology (2 units)
Meaning of Rural Sociology. Concept of Rurality. Differences between rural and urban societies. Culture, Agents of Socialisation, Social Groups, Governance in Rural Communities, Social Stratification. Settlement Patterns in Rural Areas. Types of Migration. Contemporary Rural Societies in developing and developed countries.
ARD 613 Social Theories and Social Change (3 units)
Theories of Development, Social Development Theories. Types of Social Changes and Social Responses. Rural Development Approaches Indicators of Socio-economic Development. The Concept of Sustain-ability (ecological and economic dimensions, people related/social dimension.
ARD 614 Gender Matters in Development Policy (3 units)
Gender Inequality Issues. Gender and Poverty Levels. Measurement of Gender Empowerment Index. Measurement of Gender Development Index. Gender Empowerment and Development Indices in Nigeria. Gender-Related Policy Options in Human Development and Agrarian Programmes. Strategies for Implementing Gender-biased Programmes.
ARD 615 Principles of Human Development (3 units)
Facets of Human Development Gender Perspective in Human Development (Nigeria, Africa, and Global Status). Measurement of Human Development Index (HDI). Poverty as a human development problem; Perspectives of Poverty. Human Poverty and Income Poverty. Measurement of Human Poverty Index (HPI). Poverty Alleviation Policies. The Status of Human Development in Nigeria. Strategies for Enhancing Human Development Index (World Regional Models inclusive.)
ARD 616 Research Methods & Measurement Techniques (3 units)
Steps in Social Science Research. Defining Research Problem and its Guidelines. Developing Specific Objectives and Hypotheses Writing. Categories of Research Design. Concept of Variables. Sampling Techniques. Method of Data Collection. Roles of Related Literature in Research. Analysis and Interpretation of Data. Measurement and Evaluation. Levels of Measurement. Validity and Reliability. Types of Rating Scale. Test Construction and Item Analysis. Measurement of Socio-economic Status. Measurement of Innovation Adoption. Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction. Likert Method of Scaling. Conversion of Descriptive Ratings to Standard Stores.
ARD 618 Statistics for Social Sciences (3 units)
Distinction between Descriptive and Inferential Statistics. Steps in Hypothesis Testing. Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Mode, and Median). Measures of Dispersion (Variance, Standard Deviation etc.). Measures of Association. (Correlation, Coefficient, Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance). Dependent and Independent Variables. Hypothesis Testing taking cognizance of one sample, two samples, dependent and non dependent cases. Chi-square. Analysis, Wilcoxon’s Test, t-test, Analysis of Variance, Regression Analysis.
PCS 610 Seminar (3 units)
A seminar paper to be presented by each student on a topic approved by the Institute.
PCS 612 Practicum (2 units)
Opportunities in putting research theories into visitation to media houses or relevant organizations. Students should experience visitations to media houses or relevant organizations on a three months attachment.
PCS 614 Project (3 units)
A project report to be written by the student on any topic approved by the Institute. The topic should be an outcome of the student’s practicum experience.
ii. Masters in Communication Development
COM 720 Gender and Genre (2 units)
When writers choose one mode of discourse (and not another), they shape what can be included and what must be excluded. Before a word has been put on a page or an image on a screen, they have simultaneously created a bounded space for readers and opened a site of experimentation. Students in "Gender and Genre" will explore some implications of genre choices, with special attention given to the gender questions those choices raise. Further, it will look at how both implications and questions change over time.
COM 721 Philosophy, Language and Communication (2 units)
The nature of language and human communication. The role of language in the development of knowledge. The character of concepts and their role in the organisation of human experience. The problem of the objectivity of meaning and the possibility of inter-cultural translation of ideas.
COM 722 Gender and Writing (2 units)
This course will explore the connections between theories of gendered identity and ways of writing. In order to examine the effects of a gendered identity on the production of text, it will examine what the assumptions, gender theory, makes about identity production. In particular, it will look at theories of gendered identity from many different schools of thought - essentialism, psychoanalysis, developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, poststructuralism, neo-Marxism, and cultural studies - and the resulting writing research which emerges from each theory.
COM 723 Culture and Society (2 units)
Culture, its meaning and significance. Cultural attributes and their dynamics: Ecology, Language, social, political and belief systems. Cultural development with special reference to human’s recent cultural history. West Africa as a case study..
COM 724 Business Communication (2 units)
A study of various types of verbal and non-verbal messages in business setting, with an examination of the accompanying communication problems. Also consumer behaviour and practices will be analysed.
COM 725 The Role of Communication in Conflict and Negotiation (2 units)
This course examines the role of communication in managing conflict in various relationships: interpersonal, inter-organizational, and international. Special emphasis is given to how the application of communication processes like negotiation can influence outcomes. Current cases are studied to reveal how organizational leaders incorporate ethical decisions and strategic communication in conflict and change management.
COM 726 Political Communication (2 units)
Analysis and criticism of political discourse using theories and methods from the discipline of speech communication.
COM 728 Arguments and Critical Thinking (2 units)
Meaning and Definition. Types of discourse. The nature of arguments. Validity; techniques for evaluating of arguments. The distinction between inductive and deductive inferences. Illustrative arguments taken from typical texts in history, law reports, newspapers, etc. will be examined.
COM 730 Ethics (2 units)
A discussion of the nature of moral judgements. Problems concerning conflicts between moral judgements. Examination of some important ethical notions, e.g. moral objectivity, authority, punishment, freedom and moral responsibility. Philosophical discussion of issues in contemporary life, e.g. abortion, euthanasia, artificial insemination, suicide, capital punishment, war, nuclear weapons, polygamy, monogamy, etc..
COM 732 Social Conflict and Social Change (2 units)
Strategies for producing, and consequences of change. Topics could include effects of change on the individual, the collection and use of data as strategies for the production of change; socio-technical intervention strategies (e.g. Ajaokuta, etc) conflict as a change strategy.
COM 734 Advertisement (2 units)
This course examines theories of advertisement and reviews advertisement's role in society. Students will gain increased familiarity with advertisement concepts, theories, methods and research findings; increased ability to apply theories and research generalizations to cases; increased ability to compare and evaluate approaches; increased sensitivity to problems of ethics in advertisement.
COM 736 Language and Communication in Peace and Conflict Resolution (2 units)
Language in the thinking processes and thought expression; uses and abuses of language as a means of communication in different socio-linguistic contexts; the Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis of the influence of language on the perception of reality; linguistic dimensions of ethnicity and features of power play between majority and minority language speakers; issues in identity, security and insecurity; language in legal arbitration and the administration of justice and conflicts within case studies of ethno linguistic conflicts and resolutions of language planning frameworks as in the former Soviet Union, India, South Africa, Switzerland etc.
ARD 703 Measurement and Scaling Techniques (3 units)
Meaning and scales of measurement. Factors influencing the choice of appropriate parametric tests. Principles of test construction-statistical concepts, item analysis, and types and measurements of reliability and validity. Techniques for attitude scale, construction methods of paired comparison, equal-appearing intervals, successive intervals, summated ratings, and scale-gram analysis.
ARD 705 Rural Sociology (3 units)
General Sociology Theory, Analysis of Rural Social Systems; Relation of the Individual to his Social Environment, Group Dynamics, Leadership Patterns; Social Change and Community Organisation; Special Topics in Rural Sociology.
ARD 707 Social Statistics and Computer Science I&II (3 units)
The courses aim at intimating students with advanced concepts and principles of statistical methods and their subsequent application in solving social science issues. The format of course will be in the shape of quizzes, assignments and group work, all of which count in the final course grading.
ARD 708 Mass Communication Theories and Practice (3 units)
This course examines a variety of communication theories, how they are constructed, tested and revised. Several theories are examined and critiqued (e.g., systems, discourse analysis) with reference to their theoretical traditions (e.g., hypo-deductive, phenomenological), and their respective orientations (e.g., epistemological, axiological). Connections between theory and research methods are explored, as well as the need for consistencies across theoretical and methodological approaches.
ARD 717 Statistical Theory and Analysis (3 units)
Sets and Probability, Random Variables and Probability Distributions, Mathematical Expectations, Sampling Theory, Estimation Theory, Tests Hypotheses and Significance, Regression and Correlation, and Analysis of Variance.
COM 727 Seminar (1 unit)
This is an oral presentation of the project proposal and literature review on the project topic before the investigation class critique.
COM 738 Seminar (1 unit)
This is an oral presentation of the research investigation and findings after the completion of the project.
COM 729 Practicum in the Area of Specialization (3 units)
Students would be attached to different communication outfits for practical experience in area of specialisation for three months. Students would be expected to receive sufficient practical training under strict professional conditions and supervision. Detailed report of the students’ activities and experiences during this period would be submitted by the students.
COM 740 Masters Dissertation (6 units)
A project report of not more than 15,000 words (excluding appendices) written
by the student on any topic approved by the Institute.
In addition to the above, the Department will work towards:
a) running and coordinating short-term certificate associate and proficiency courses, seminars, conferences and workshops for staff and others in the immediate environment in Language and Communication Skill courses.
b) providing expert advice and analysis on language and social issues for staff, students and the catchment areas.
c) encouraging staff and students to write, especially in the area of creative writing.
d) operating a language laboratory with writing and oral communication clinics. The writing clinic will focus on helping undergraduate and postgraduate students with writing skill in their courses, projects and dissertations. The oral communication clinic shall be responsible for organizing speech therapy for staff, students and others in the catchment areas.
e) organising a quantitative reasoning and critical thinking lectures.
f) providing and promoting awareness and training on citizenship and leadership issues, peace and conflict resolutions, and problems facing our communities and the nation at large.
g) widening the academic experiences of students through drama presentations - the University Theatre Troupe shall be placed directly under the Centre.
h) establishing a small scale museum of Natural History.
i) organizing campus wide quiz and writing competitions.


ORIGIN OF PROVINCE NAME: Derived from the Cree Indian word kisiskatchewanisipi, which means "swift-flowing river," and was first used to describe the Saskatchewan River.
NICKNAME: Canada's Breadbasket (also: The Wheat Province).
ENTERED CONFEDERATION: 1 September 1905.
MOTTO: Multis e gentibus vires (From many peoples strength). Coat of Arms: In the center, the provincial shield of arms displays a red lion, which symbolizes loyalty to the British Crown, and (over a field of green) three gold wheat sheaves, which symbolize Saskatchewan's agriculture. Above the shield is a crest with a beaver holding a western red lily and carrying a royal crown on its back. Supporting the shield are a lion on the left and a deer on the right; both wear collars made of Prairie Indian beads. Beneath the shield the provincial motto appears on a scroll entwined with western red lilies. The red signifies the fires that once swept the prairies, green represents vegetation, and gold symbolizes ripening grain.
FLAG: Horizontal bars of equal width with green above (for the northern forests) and yellow below (for the southern grain region). The provincial shield of arms appears in the upper quarter on the staff side and a western red lily lies in the half farthest from the staff.
FLORAL EMBLEM: Western red lily (also known as the prairie lily).
TARTAN: Saskatchewan Tartan (gold, brown, green, red, yellow, white, and black).
PROVINCIAL BIRD: Prairie sharp-tailed grouse.
TREE: White birch.
TIME: 6 AM CST = noon GMT; 5 AM MST = noon GMT.
Saskatchewan, almost rectangular in shape, is located between the two other prairie provinces, with Manitoba to the east and Alberta to the west. The Northwest Territories are to the north, and the US states of Montana and North Dakota are to the south. Saskatchewan covers some 251,700 square miles (651,900 square kilometers). It is the only province formed entirely of man-made borders.
The northern part of Saskatchewan lies on the Canadian Shield geologic formation which stretches across much of Canada. As a result, there are numerous lakes (nearly 100,000), rivers, bogs, and rocky outcroppings. About one-eighth of the entire province is covered with water. The southern part of the province is relatively flat prairie, with occasional valleys created by erosion from the glacial era. The south is where most of the population lives. The highest point is at Cypress Hills, 4,566 feet (1,392 meters) above sea level. The province has three major river systems, which all empty into Hudson Bay: North and South Saskatchewan, Assiniboine, and Churchill. Saskatoon, the largest city, is divided by the South Saskatchewan River.
Athabasca Provincial Park has sand dunes 100 feet (30 meters) high and semi-arid vegetation. Nowhere else in the world are dunes found so far north.
The whole province enjoys a hot, dry summer. The town of Estevan in the southeast averages 2,540 hours of sunshine per year, more than any other city in Canada.
In Regina, the normal daily temperature ranges from 0°F (-18°C) in January to 66°F (19°C) in July. Normal daily temperatures for Saskatoon are -2°F (-19°C) in January and 66°F (19°C) in July. The recorded high temperature in Saskatchewan of 113°F (45°C) was set on 5 July 1937 at Midale; the record low, -70°F (-56.7°C), was set on 1 February 1893 at Prince Albert.
|Estimated 2003 population||994,800|
|Population change, 1996–2001||-1.1%|
|Percent Urban/Rural populations|
|Foreign born population||5.0%|
|Population by ethnicity|
|North American Indian||102,285|
|Lloydminster (in Alberta)||13,148|
|Lloydminster (in Saskatchewan)||7,840|
Saskatchewan's southern plains were once covered by native prairie grass. Grass fires started by nature would often sweep over the plains. Western wheat grass, snowberry, and silver sage are common to Grasslands National Park, located in the extreme south. To the north, several types of berries and wildflowers, Labrador tea, and feather moss are commonly found
The prairie sharp-tailed grouse, one of the province's most common native game birds, is the official bird of Saskatchewan. Other common bird species include the Hungarian partridge, ruffed grouse, and spruce grouse. Bison, eagles, osprey, white pelicans, beaver, elk, moose, and wolves inhabit Prince Albert National Park. Golden eagles, pronghorn antelope, prairie rattlesnakes, sage grouse, prairie falcons, bobcats, and porcupines are found in Grasslands National Park. Endangered and threatened species include ferruginous hawks, short-horned lizards, and burrowing owls. Lake trout, walleye, northern pike, and Arctic grayling are among 68 fish species in the province.
In 1997, the worst outbreak of avian botulism (a fatal bacterial disease among birds) in decades was reported at Saskatchewan's Old Wives Lake, where an estimated one million birds died (85 percent ducks).
Solid waste generation amounted to 828,359 tons in 2000, or 1,788 pounds (811 kilograms) per person. Saskatchewan is actively participating in efforts to address climate change and greenhouse gas emissions. However, as of 2002, Saskatchewan did not support the Kyoto Protocol emissions target set by the Canadian government.
Saskatchewan's 2001 population of 978,933 is about 3 percent of the national population. Saskatchewan's population density is the lowest among the four provinces of western Canada. As of 2001, 29 percent of all residents were under 19 years of age. The median age increased from 32.6 years in 1991 to 36.7 years in 2001. That was still younger than the national average of 37.6 years, however. Saskatoon had 196,816 residents, while Regina had 178,225 in 2001. Other large cities and their populations include Prince Albert, 34,752; Moose Jaw, 32,631; Lloydminster, 20,988; and North Battleford, 17,117.
Saskatchewan is the only province where the number of people of British or French background is smaller than the number of people from other ethnic groups. Various European ethnic groups are found here, including British, German, Ukrainian, French, Norwegian, Polish, Dutch, Swedish, and Russian. Its Aboriginal (Native Peoples) population was 102,285 in 2001, or 10.6 percent of the total. Many other non-European peoples (Chinese, blacks, Indians and other southern Asians, and Filipinos) live in Saskatchewan as well.
In 2001, 84.9 percent of all Saskatchewaners claimed English as their first language, 1.8 percent reported French, and 12.3 percent reported some other first language (1 percent had two or more native languages).
Most Saskatchewaners are Christian. Close to half of the population, or 449,195 people, are Protestant. The leading Protestant denominations are represented, including United Church of Canada members, Lutherans, Anglicans, Pentecostals, Baptists, and Presbyterians. Catholics—31.7 percent of the population—number 305,390. About 1.5 percent of Saskatchewaners are Eastern Orthodox. Other faiths are also represented in smaller numbers, including Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus, Sikhs, and Jews. About 151,455 Saskatchewaners report no religious affiliation.
During the frontier era, waterways such as the Clearwater and Churchill Rivers became established fur-trade routes, as did the overland Carlton Trail.
At 150,000 miles (250,000 kilometers), Saskatchewan today has more road surface than any other province. In 2003, registered road motor vehicles numbered 709,788. There were also 3,820 buses, 5,132 motorcycles and mopeds, and 110,843 trailers. Both Regina and Saskatoon have bus systems with more than 110 buses in each fleet.
Saskatchewan currently has over 800 miles (1,300 kilometers) of railways under provincial jurisdiction. International airports are located at Regina and Saskatoon.
Saskatchewan is referred to as one of Canada's Prairie Provinces because its southern geography consists of extensive plains. The first European explorers and trappers to visit Saskatchewan found established settlements of Aboriginal, or native, peoples. The Chipewyan Indians lived in the north, the nomadic Blackfoot roamed the eastern plains, and the Assiniboine inhabited the west. The territory of the Cree, who were long-time residents of the north, also extended southward to the plains.
The earliest explorer to the region was England's Henry Kelsey of the Hudson's Bay Company. Around 1690 he followed the Saskatchewan River to the southern plains of Saskatchewan, which was especially good fur-trapping country. Fur-trading companies and trading posts soon sprang up, becoming the foundation of many present-day settlements.
For about 200 years, the Hudson's Bay Company owned and oversaw the vast Northwest Territories, including Saskatchewan. Because these regions were perfect for farming and colonizing, the Government of Canada purchased the Territories in 1870. The passage of the Dominion Lands Act in 1872 encouraged families known as homesteaders to acquire, live on, and cultivate tracts of Saskatchewan farmland. Another act was passed to help stimulate immigration, and the establishment of a new railway began bringing waves of settlers into these rich lands.
As more and more Europeans arrived in the area, the Native people began to worry that they would be pushed out and lose control of their land, their language, and their political rights. When the Métis, people of mixed French and Indian heritage, approached the federal government with their concerns, they were told that they had no legal claim to the land. This led to a long conflict known as the North West Rebellion, during which the Métis fought hard for their native land. When it was all over, the Native peoples were forced to surrender to the Canadian government's forces. Many of the Métis ended up leaving their land and moving elsewhere.
After the Métis uprising had been brought under control, immigration and settlement of the area expanded rapidly. When the Territories became too large to manage, they were reorganized. Saskatchewan was established as a province in 1905, with Regina as its capital. The early years of the 20th century were prosperous ones for the new province. Between 1885 and 1911, the population of the region grew from approximately 32,000 to 493,000. Furthermore, the price of wheat—the main crop grown by farmers on the plains—continued to climb during these years. After World War I (1914-1918), however, the people of Saskatchewan suddenly faced a bleak future. Wheat prices fell
Over the course of the 1920s, grain prices recovered, and Canada as a whole experienced a period of rapid industrialization. Improvements to railways and roads boosted commerce. Automobiles, telephones, electrical appliances, and other consumer goods became widely available. As in the United States, consumer confidence led to the rapid expansion of credit and greater business opportunities.
The Great Depression, a period of severe economic downturn that began in 1929, hit Saskatchewan and the other Prairie Provinces very hard. In addition to the falling grain prices of the 1920s, droughts and frequent crop failures devastated the economy of the province. Feeling that the federal government's grain policies did not meet their needs, Saskatchewan farmers began to look for a way to gain more control over the grain industry. As a result, they created a cooperative organization called the Saskatchewan Wheat Pool. The Pool allowed wheat to be sold directly to foreign importers; all profits were then divided among the Pool's members. By 1924, about 45,000 farmers were under contract to the Pool. As economic conditions in Saskatchewan worsened in the 1930s, social welfare programs in the area expanded rapidly. The provincial income in Saskatchewan decreased by 90% during the 1930s, and two-thirds of the province's population needed welfare assistance. These harsh economic conditions frequently resulted in protests and demonstrations by unemployed workers, the most famous being the Regina Riot.
World War II (1939-1945) brought an end to the Depression, and in the 1940s consumer spending and immigration to Canada increased rapidly. Urbanization spread quickly with the passage of the National Housing Act, which made it easier for ordinary people to purchase their own homes. Unemployment insurance and other social welfare programs were also created following the war. In 1945, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF), led by Tommy Douglas, became the first socialist government elected in North America. (Socialism is a political and economic system in which the means of production are owned and controlled by the government.) In 1949, the CCF was also responsible for the creation of the Saskatchewan Arts Board, the first publicly funded council of the arts in North America. Later, under the leadership of Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent, old age pensions were increased (1951) and a national hospital insurance plan was introduced (1957).
The recovery of the 1940s and 1950s saw the economy of Saskatchewan—once dependent solely on agriculture—branch out into the development of oil, uranium, potash, coal, and other minerals. All of Saskatchewan's industries demanded a plentiful water supply, but water availability in the southern part of the province was rather unpredictable. To address this problem, Lake Diefenbaker on the South Saskatchewan River was created in 1958 to act as a reservoir.
The prosperity enjoyed by Saskatchewan farmers at this time was threatened in 1970, when grain sales fell drastically. Farmers faced hardships that reminded many of the difficult Depression years. Fortunately, recovery from this downturn began almost immediately, with an increase in sales and a rise in wheat and barley prices in 1971. The 1970s and 1980s brought other progress, particularly in the areas of culture and sports. The Saskatchewan Centre of the Arts opened in Regina in 1970, and the University of Regina was established there in 1974. In 1989, the city of Saskatoon hosted the Jeux Canada Games, and the Saskatchewan Roughriders won the Grey Cup for the second time. (They had also been victorious in 1966.) The late 1980s saw the emergence of Saskatoon as a major trading centre of western Canada. Its population in these years rose to surpass that of Regina.
On 17 December 1992 Canada joined the United States and Mexico in signing the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which was built upon the U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement. NAFTA, which was implemented in 1994, seeks to create a single market of 370 million people.
Canada's unity has been threatened by the possibility of Québec's secession, or separation, from the rest of the country. Québec is a French-speaking area that places high value on the preservation of its French culture. The Meech Lake Accord (1987) and the Charlottetown Accord (1992) both proposed the recognition of Québec as a "distinct society" within the nation. The Canadian government had hoped that these accords would alleviate Québec's fears of cultural loss and discrimination while maintaining a unified Canada, but Québec's separation issue remains unresolved.
In the early 2000s, Saskatchewan was taking steps to improve its educational system. It was also looking to improve health care, create jobs, and grow the economy. Also, steps were taken to promote a "green" Saskatchewan: breakthroughs in renewable energy sources, environmental technology, and energy conservation were geared to support an economy growing in harmony with the natural environment.
The structure of the provincial government reflects that of the federal government. For example, the provincial premier, as the majority party leader of the legislature, functions much like the Canadian prime minister. Provincial legislators, like their federal counterparts in Parliament, are elected to represent a constitutional jurisdiction and pass legislation. They do so as members of the 58-seat Legislative Assembly. A provincial lieutenant-governor approves laws passed by the legislature, much like the Governor General at the federal level. There is no provincial equivalent, however, to the federal Senate.
After Saskatchewan entered the confederation in 1905, political parties catered to the interests of farmers. The Liberal Party gained the majority of seats, eventually holding 91 percent of them in 1934. Soon, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) became more important, and often held the majority from 1944 to 1971.
The most recent general election was held on 5 November 2003. The parties held the following number of seats in Saskatchewan's Legislative Assembly in 2003 (following the election): New Democratic Party, 30; Saskatchewan Party, 28; Liberal Party, 0.
|1905–16||Thomas Walter Scott||Liberal|
|1916–22||William Melville Martin||Liberal|
|1922–26||Charles Avery Dunning||Liberal|
|1926–29||James Garfield Gardiner||Liberal|
|1929–34||James Milton Anderson||Conservative|
|1934–35||James Garfield Gardiner||Liberal|
|1935–44||William John Patterson||Liberal|
|1944–61||Thomas Clement Douglas||CCF|
|1961–64||Woodrow Stanley Lloyd||CCF|
|1964–71||William Ross Thatcher||Liberal|
|1971–82||Allan Emrys Blakeney||New Democratic|
|1982–91||Donald Grant Devine||Conservative|
|1991–01||Roy John Romanow||New Democratic|
|2001–||Lorne Calvert||New Democratic|
Saskatchewan's municipalities are classified as the following: rural municipalities, villages, resort villages, towns, and cities, as well as northern towns, northern villages, northern hamlets, and northern settlements. Villages must have at least 100 permanent residents and a tax base of C$200,000, while resort villages do not need permanent residents. Towns must have at least 500 permanent inhabitants. Cities are required to have a minimum population of 5,000. Saskatchewan has 9 cities, 33 municipalities, 4 rural municipalities, and 3 villages.
The Canadian Constitution grants provincial jurisdiction over the administration of justice, and allows each province to organize its own court system and police forces. The federal government has exclusive domain over cases involving trade and commerce, banking, bankruptcy, and criminal law. The Federal Court of Canada has both trial and appellate divisions for federal cases. The nine-judge Supreme Court of Canada is an appellate court that determines the constitutionality of both federal and provincial statutes. The Tax Court of Canada hears appeals of taxpayers against assessments by Revenue Canada.
The provincial court system consists of the Provincial Court, which hears criminal and civil cases, small claims, family and youth proceedings, and traffic violations; the Court of Queen's Bench, which hears serious civil and criminal cases, and some family law matters, including divorce; and the Court of Appeal, Saskatchewan's highest court, which hears certain appeals from the Provincial Court and the Court of Queen's Bench.
In 2002, there were 27 homicides in Saskatchewan. That year, there were 1,812 violent crimes per 100,000 persons, and 5,678 property crimes per 100,000 persons.
The Métis, people of mixed European and Aboriginal descent, were among the first settlers, many of them having migrated from Manitoba.
A major wave of immigration began in 1899 and continued until 1929. By the early 1920s, over 20 percent of all Canadians lived in the Prairie provinces (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta), up from just 8 percent in 1911.
In 2001, 17.7 percent of the 47,825 immigrants living in Saskatchewan had come from the United Kingdom, and 12.3 percent came from the United States. About 13.8 percent came from Northern and Western European countries other than the United Kingdom (mostly from Germany). Some 13.6 percent came from Eastern Europe (mostly from Poland). About 9.6 percent came from Southeast Asia (mostly from the Philippines), and 8.7 percent from East Asia (mostly from China).
In 2001, 1 percent of Saskatchewan's residents age 5 and older were living abroad. Some 11.5 percent were living elsewhere in Saskatchewan, while 4.7 percent were living in another province. Alberta is the leading province of origin for incoming internal migration and the leading province of destination for outward internal migration.
During the early 20th century, with land available at token prices, agriculture gradually replaced the fur trade. Today, other prominent industries include mining, meat processing, electricity production, and petroleum refining. In 2002, the gross domestic product (GDP) totaled C$34.6 billion, or about 3 percent of the national total.
In 2000, average weekly wages amounted to C$559.29. Average family income in the province was C$58,077 in 2000 for a family of five.
In 2002, the total value of shipments by manufacturers was C$7.24 billion. By value of shipments, the leading areas of manufacturing in Saskatchewan included food, C$1.8 billion; machinery, C$662 million; chemicals and chemical products, C$562 million; forestry products, C$430 million; fabricated metals, C$416 million; and electrical equipment, C$208 million.
In 2003, the labor force amounted to 510,300. The total number of employed persons was 483,900, and the number of unemployed persons was 26,400, for an unemployment rate of 5.2 percent. The hourly minimum wage as of January 2004 was C$6.65.
The sectors with the largest numbers of employed persons in 2003 were trade, 79,700; health care and social services, 58,400; agriculture, 47,300; educational services, 40,200; accommodation and food services, 34,400; manufacturing, 29,600; public administration, 27,600; finance, insurance, and real estate and leasing, 26,800; construction, 22,600; transportation and warehousing, 22,200; other services, 22,100; information, culture, and recreation, 21,800; forestry, fishing, mining, and oil and gas, 19,100; professional, scientific, and technical services, 18,200; management, administrative, and other support, 11,300; and utilities, 4,500.
About one-third of Saskatchewan's area consists of cultivated lands. In 1905, when Saskatchewan entered the Canadian confederation, agriculture was the only industry, and it centered on wheat farming. In 1907, the development of the Marquis strain of wheat (a fast-growing type that thrives in the short but intense growing season of the northern prairie) expanded farming and settlement in northern Saskatchewan. Today, Saskatchewan supplies over 25 percent of Canada's grain production, and crops include canola, rye, oats, barley, and flaxseeds, as well as wheat.
Saskatoons (a berry) and strawberries are the top fruit crops produced. The top field-grown vegetable crops are sweet corn, cabbage, and green peas. In 2001, 773 farms were growing certified organic products. There were 298 farms with
There were 50,598 farms operating in Saskatchewan in 2001. The total farm area that year was 64.9 million acres (26.3 million hectares), and 37.9 million acres (15.4 million hectares) were used for crops.
Farm receipts in 2000 (excluding forest products sold) amounted to over C$5.89 billion. Farmers' operating expenses equaled C$5.02 billion. The average farmer was left with C$17,263 before interest payments and taxes.
Saskatchewan is a major Canadian producer of cattle and hogs. As of 2001, the livestock population included 2.9 million head of cattle, 30,136 dairy cows, 1.1 million hogs, and 149,389 sheep. The poultry population in 2003 was over 1 million. There were 73 chicken producers, 24 turkey producers, and 67 egg producers. The total value of livestock receipts in 2003 was C$1.65 billion.
Although commercial fishing is not a large contributor to the provincial economy, sport fishing on Saskatchewan's 94,000 lakes is very popular. Sport fishing is important to many local economies, especially in the northern parts of Saskatchewan. In 2000, the province had 130,076 residents actively engaged in sport fishing within Saskatchewan. Popular game fish for sport anglers include walleye, perch, trout, Arctic grayling, goldeye, burbot, whitefish, and sturgeon.
About half of Saskatchewan is covered with forest. About 97 percent of the 71.2 million acres (28.8 million hectares) of forest land is provincial Crown land. Northern forests are Saskatchewan's most important renewable natural resource, with softwoods the focal point of forestry development. White birch, found primarily in the northern three-fourths of the province and long used by the Plains Indians to make birch bark canoes, is today used for lumber, plywood, veneer, and fuel. In 2000, the total timber harvest was 52,311 acres (21,169 hectares). The value of forestry product exports in 2002 was C$631.9 million, of which wood pulp made up 45 percent. The forestry industry directly employed 4,800 persons in 2002.
Saskatchewan has nearly two-thirds of the world's recoverable potash reserves. Canada is the world's largest producer of potash, and Saskatchewan produces about 85 percent of the national output. Potash, which is used in fertilizers, is mined near Saskatoon, Regina, Esterhazy, and Rocanville. In 2003, the total value of mineral production was C$2.37 billion. Saskatchewan's uranium production was 10,294 tons in 2003, when it was valued at C$504.4 million. Other leading minerals for the province's mining industry include copper, sand and gravel, salt, and gold.
Saskatchewan is Canada's second-highest oil-producing and third-highest natural gas-producing province. The province has Canada's largest reserves of heavy oil, in addition to light and medium crude deposits. Saskatchewan's 14,000 oil wells produce about 20 percent of Canada's annual oil output. Of Saskatchewan's total exported crude oil, some 65 percent goes to the United States. Crude oil from both Saskatchewan and Alberta is transported to market via the Interprovincial Pipe Line (IPL). The IPL originates in Edmonton and passes through Saskatchewan on its way to eastern Canada and the United States. In 2002, 1.4 million was invested in oil and gas exploration and development. The energy sector provides around 22,000 direct and indirect jobs in the province.
SaskPower is Saskatchewan's major electricity supplier. As of 2003, 78 percent of Saskatchewan's energy needs were met by thermal sources, 21 percent by hydroelectricity, and 1 percent by other sources. The province is a net importer of electricity.
In 2002, total merchandise exports amounted to C$11.3 billion and imports totaled C$4.1 billion. The United States was Saskatchewan's largest export market (62.1 percent of all exports) and the major import supplier (90 percent of all imports). Other major export markets are Japan, China, Algeria, and Mexico. Import suppliers include Mexico, the United Kingdom, Germany, and China.
The fiscal year runs from 1 April to 31 March. For fiscal year 2002/03, total revenues were C$6.46 billion. Government expenditures were C$5.76 billion. The largest expenditure areas were health, education, interest on debt, social services, agriculture, and highways and transportation. In the 2002/03 fiscal year, provincial debt was estimated at C$11.45 billion. The government debt to gross domestic product ratio was 22.8 percent.
As of 2003, the basic personal income tax rate was 45 percent. The retail sales tax was 6 percent. Major consumption taxes are levied on gasoline (C$0.15 per liter) and tobacco (C$32 per carton).
The average family of four (two parents and two children) in 2003 earned C$76,544. Such a family paid C$36,772 in taxes.
Corporate income tax rates in 2003 were as follows: small business rate, 6 percent; general business rate, 17 percent; and capital tax rate, 0.6–3.25 percent.
In 2001, there were 12,275 live births in Saskatchewan, a 1.1 percent increase over 2000. Saskatchewan was one of only four provinces or territories that had an increase in the number of live births in 2001. There were 8,740 deaths that year, a 2.4 percent decrease from 2000. Life expectancy for men in 2001 was 76.4 years, and 82.3 years for women. Reported cases of selected diseases in 2002 included gonococcal infections, 560; giardiasis, 168; salmonellosis, 161; hepatitis B, 43; and campylobacteriosis, 254. Between November 1985 and June 2003, 407 residents had become infected with HIV, the virus that causes AIDS.
Saskatchewan has over 130 hospitals and health centers. The Regina General Hospital is the largest health care facility in southern Saskatchewan.
Saskatchewan had 379,680 households in 2001. The average household size was 2.5 persons. There were 288,075 households living in single-detached houses, 10,715 households living in apartments in buildings with five or more stories, 6,900 households living in mobile homes, and 73,990 households living in other dwellings, including row houses and apartments in buildings with fewer than five stories. In 2002, C$958.5 million was invested in residential housing construction.
In 2000, Saskatchewan had 208,483 students enrolled in elementary and secondary schools. That year, there were 11,473 teachers, for a student-teacher ratio of 16 to 1.
There are two major universities in the province: the University of Saskatchewan in Saskatoon, with an enrollment of 15,368 full-time students in October 2002; and the University of Regina, with about 12,000 full-and part-time students. The First Nations University of Canada (formerly the Saskatchewan Indian Federated College) is affiliated with the University of Regina. It is the first university-level institution in North America operated by and for Native North Americans. Enrollment at First Nations University of Canada has grown from 9 students in 1976 to about 1,200 in 2003–04.
The Regina Symphony Orchestra is Canada's oldest symphony orchestra. Regina's Globe Theatre company is the city's oldest theater and performs in the old city hall downtown. Saskatoon also has a symphony orchestra and several theaters. Filmpool in Regina is an artist-run center for the promotion of independent film-making. There are also writers and artists' colonies, a storytelling festival, and many art galleries in the province. Per capita provincial spending on the arts in Saskatchewan in 2000/01 was C$71.
The largest public libraries are Regina Public Library, with nine branches, and the Saskatoon Public Library, with seven branches. Seven regional systems—Chinook, Lakeland, Palliser, Parkland, Southeast, Wapiti, and Wheatland—provide public library services to other parts of the province. Regina has the Plains Historical Museum, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Centennial Museum, the
Saskatchewan Museum of Natural History, and the Saskatchewan Science Centre. Saskatoon is the home of the Western Development Museum and the Ukrainian Museum of Canada. The Right Honourable Diefenbacker Canada Centre in Saskatoon maintains the collection of papers, letters, and memorabilia of the late prime minister John G. Diefenbacker.
As of 2002, Saskatchewan had 28 AM and FM radio stations, and 50 television stations. The Regina metropolitan area has 7 local AM and 9 FM radio stations (including CBC French) and 4 broadcast television stations; Cable Regina offers Canadian and American cable stations.
Daily newspapers include The Leader-Post (Regina), The Star Phoenix (Saskatoon), the Times-Herald (Moose Jaw), and the Daily Herald (Prince Albert).
Named after Queen Victoria (Victoria Regina), the capital is the site of Wascana Centre, one of the world's largest urban parks. Regina also has Buffalo Days, a week-long provincial exposition and summer fair. Festivals in Saskatoon include Folkfest (an ethnic heritage event), Winter Festival, and the Northern Saskatchewan International Children's Festival. Authentic powwows at Indian reservations, although not tourist events as such, are a cultural highlight of Saskatchewan in the summer.
Saskatchewan is home to two national parks and 26 provincial parks. There are more than 250 golf courses in Saskatchewan. Tourism is a C$1 billion-a-year industry in Saskatchewan, and more than 50,000 people are employed in tourism-related jobs.
Professional sports teams in Saskatchewan include the Saskatoon Blades and the Regina Pats of the Western Major Hockey League. Saskatoon also was home of the Saskatchewan Storm of the World Basketball League until the league disbanded in 1992. Regina hosts the Saskatchewan Roughriders of the Canadian Football League (CFL). The Roughriders are the oldest professional football team in North America and were the CFL champions in 1966 and 1989. The University of Saskatchewan Huskie football team won the national championship in 1990. Popular recreational sports include baseball, football, soccer, and curling (a game imported from Scotland in which large rounded stones with attached handles are slid down an ice-covered playing area toward a circular target).
Almighty Voice (1874–97) was a famous hero/outlaw and martyr who led a Cree Indian band resisting European settlement on the Saskatchewan prairie. T. C. "Tommy" Douglas (1904–86) was a famous political figure who led the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) to victory in the 1940s, thus establishing the first socialist government in North America. Gerhard Herzberg (1904–99), recipient of the 1971 Nobel Prize in chemistry, was a professor at the University of Saskatchewan from 1935 to 1945.
Noted Saskatchewaners in entertainment include emcee and producer Art Linkletter (b.1912) and actor Leslie Nielsen (b.1926), and singer and song-writer Buffy Sainte-Marie (b.1941). Folk singer and songwriter Joni Mitchell (b.1943) grew up in Saskatoon. Distinguished Saskatchewan authors include novelists W. O. Mitchell (1914–98), Rudy Wiebe (b.1934), L. R. Wright (1939–2001), and short story writer Guy Vanderhaeghe (b.1951).
Hockey legends from Saskatchewan include Eddie Shore (1902–85), Emile Francis (b.1926), Gordon "Gordie" Howe (b.1928), Glenn "Chico" Resch (b.1948), and Bryan Trottier (b.1956). Sandra Schmirler (1963–2000) led the curling team that won the first-ever Olympic gold medal in women's curling at the 1998 Olympics in Nagano, Japan.
Caswell, Maryanne. Pioneer Girl: Maryanne Caswell. Plattsburgh, NY: Tundra Books, 2001.
LeVert, Suzanne. Saskatchewan. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2001.
Margoshes, Dave. Discover Canada: Saskatchewan. Toronto: Grolier, 1992.
Mayell, Mark. Saskatchewan. San Diego: Lucent Books/Thomas Gale, 2003.
Richardson, Gillian. Saskatchewan. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications, 1995.
Canada Tourism Commission. Canada. http://www.canadatourism.com/ctx/app (accessed on March 20, 2004).
Government of Saskatchewan. http://www.gov.sk.ca (accessed on March 20, 2004).
Saskatchewan Agriculture, Food, and Rural Revitalization. http://www.agr.gov.sk.ca (accessed on March 20, 2004).
Saskatchewan Tourism. http://www.sasktourism.com (accessed on March 20, 2004).
Statistics Canada. http://www.statcan.ca/english (accessed on March 20, 2004).


Experiential Knowledge vs. Book/Classroom Knowledge
From generation to generation the knowledge of language, religion, skills and survival methods has been passed on in the Sami culture. In describing the Sami ideas about knowledge, it is important to include the fact that they put a lot of importance on utility and things that were important on a day-to-day basis. Unlike the formal education in the West, classroom/book learning, which is theoretical, the Sami taught their young through experience. This type of learning is hands-on and very different than formal learning. Written documentation is a relatively new thing to the Sami. For millennia, the traditional knowledge was passed down orally. Storytelling and informal discussions are two examples of how knowledge was passed down. Unlike Western learning, which is primarily theoretical and taught in a classroom or learned from books, the Sami taught empirically, through experiential learning. The young student would join an older person, usually a parent, in doing different tasks. They would observe the older person, listen to what they were saying, ask questions and then proceed to try their own hand. These tasks could include anything from fishing and hunting ptarmigan, to picking cloudberries and sewing a gakti. In the arctic tundra and along the coast where the Sami lived, life was difficult and survival was of the utmost importance. Therefore, the traditional knowledge that was passed down from parent to child was primarily a series of recipes for survival. Young people learned from the life experience of older people who had in turn learned their knowledge from the generations that came before them. Observations were also an integral part of the Sami’s experiential learning. It was important for the young person to observe things for himself and to learn to think for himself. This fits in with the model, as the knowledge that was being passed down to the student was based on thousands of years of observation. The Sami’s close ties to nature were prevalent in every aspect of life. Their spirituality was based on a respect for everything found in nature, believing that everything had a spirit. Being one with nature also meant that they had no desire to destroy it. Instead they wished to live on earth and die without leaving a trace. The Sami’s livelihoods depended on gleaning the necessary resources from nature in order to live. In the old days they were a hunting and gathering people. In the 1600’s, the Sami in the tundra became reindeer herders. The knowledge needed to perpetuate this way of living would be difficult to learn if one wasn’t actually present to experience how it is done. While the western system of classroom/book learning leans on theoretical learning methods and places a value on how you fulfill the expectations put on you, the Sami way of learning is more of a truth, one that is tested on a day-to-day basis.
When talking about Sami knowledge, it is first important to look at the essential nature of the language. Communication is survival. For instance, in Sapmi, language would be necessary in order to tell someone how not to freeze to death. Since the language deals with survival, most of the words are life affirming, which goes along with the ideas the Sami have about nature. Even the words possess spirits. The language is also usage-oriented. For example there are a multitude of words for such things as snow, reindeer, and landscapes, but there is only one word for something like a songbird, which is not as relevant to them in day-to-day life. The Sami view of aesthetics further illustrates this point. A Sami person would choose a field of lichen as being more beautiful than a field of flowers because a field of lichen would lend itself to being an ideal grazing ground for reindeer, while a field of flowers serves no useful purpose. Similarly, a female who is bigger and has more meat on her bones would be considered more desirable than a thinner female. The more robust woman would be able to better tolerate the cold.
In one Sami word, you can express a detailed account of the weather conditions outside. An example of this would be the word joavgga, which means a deep snow, which lies undisturbed, that which is in shelter from the wind and doesn’t get blown away. Suffixes can be added to a root word to completely change the meaning of the word. For this reason, Sami is a very difficult language to learn. The Sami language is also very rich in description. Since much of the language embodies aspects of nature and the surrounding environment, it would be difficult merely to learn Sami in a classroom environment. Due to the language’s rich nature, it is better to learn it through use, experiencing the word through all the senses, as one does when learning a mother tongue. Similar to Sami, the words that are most important to be able to communicate when learning a mother tongue are words dealing with survival. Thirst, hunger, and pain are three examples of feelings experienced that are important to be able to communicate. As for the vocabulary dealing with the environment, it may be necessary to actually be in Sapmi to experience it. For example, while out on a trip hunting, the teacher could point to the ground ahead and say, “lavki” and demonstrate that lavki means that the ground ahead is slippery and to be careful because it’s difficult to get a good foothold. In this way the language is learned. As the student connects observations and experiences, the knowledge is verbalized, systemized, and committed to memory.
Storytelling was a valuable way to transmit knowledge. The Western world for the most part has devalued storytelling, belittling it to fantasy or useless old wives’ tales. When storytelling, Sami parents or grandparents would be teaching the young person concepts while at the same time interweaving their own personal life experience into the story. Ethics and morals were also passed along in this way.
When a skill is being taught, technical terms are used. In this way, the professional lingo is passed on to the student. The words and skills are linked. A similar idea to this in the West is when a person is apprenticing to learn a trade. For example, if a person were apprenticing to become a welder, they would learn about the tools and how to properly use them. They would learn the tricks of the trade from the more experienced craftsman and also pick up technical vocabulary along the way. This method of learning is very similar to the Sami way of learning and is one of the only places where the Western learning methods cross paths with the Sami methods. In The Salt Bin, Agnar ventures out on a fishing expedition with his uncle. His uncle promises to teach Agnar to fish in the big seas, where he has never fished before and hasn’t the knowledge of how to maneuver the large nets.
In Sapmi, since the young student is out all the time, learning words and experiencing different things, they are able later to partake in the household discussions and to articulate their observations and opinions. Having this knowledge and being able to correctly articulate it, makes the opinions of young people valuable in conversation. Through conversing in these informal discussions, the young person is also improving their own vocabulary and terminology. Since learning the language entails such a deep understanding of it, it is considered to be an important part of the cultural identity of the Sami.
In the 19th century when kids were taken away from their parents in order to be sent to boarding schools, an important part of their cultural identity was taken away from them. They were not allowed to speak Sami and were often punished if they disobeyed. Often teachers didn’t speak Sami and considered it to be dirty. The ridicule the Sami received about their speech made it seem disgraceful and many were ashamed of their language. In this atmosphere, even other Sami made fun of each other for their inabilities to learn the foreign language. This act of assimilation caused many Sami to lose their mother language altogether. While some were ashamed of their mother tongue, others reveled in the fact that they could speak in Sami to each other and not have the others know what they were saying.
There has recently been a resurgence in Sami culture where more and more young people have the desire to again speak Sami. If people continue to speak Sami, the language will not die out. However for those whose first language is now Norwegian or Finnish, it will be difficult and will require a Sami teacher and most likely some experiential learning.
The Sami’s oneness with nature also plays a huge part in their traditional knowledge. Their spirituality started as animism where everything in nature has a spirit and is respected. Certain stones were picked out as sieidi, stones that had a powerful spirit and were considered to be sacred. When an animal was killed for food, every part of its body was used and nothing was wasted. Even though it was accepted that one life form must die in order for another to live, the Sami would still have a ceremony after the killing, out of reverence for the animal’s spirit. Animals were killed out of necessity as opposed to the West, where animals are exploited and parts of animals are wasted.
The old Sami religion was polytheistic, with gods taking the forms of things in nature like the sun, moon, water, and animals. This is in direct contrast to Christianity’s monotheistic beliefs. Unlike the western world, which feels that because of their intellect they are superior to other things in nature and can therefore destroy what they like, the Sami feel a oneness with nature and therefore would be reluctant to do anything to disturb the balance. They didn’t even disturb the earth by burying their dead. Rather, they feel that the earth has been lent to them for a short period of time and they would prefer to live peacefully on the earth, die, and leave no trace that they had ever been there. Unlike the mentality of Westerners who want to live forever and be memorialized after death, the Sami have had these life/death cycle ideas for thousands of years. The idea of ‘no beginning, no end’ enters the picture here because the Sami don’t feel like they are gone when they die. There is an afterworld called Saivo where the Sami go when they die. Saivo is much like life on earth, but better. There are large healthy reindeer herds and abundant cloudberry patches in Saivo. The vision of this afterworld is very different than Christianity’s ideas of heaven and hell.
In addition to the humane treatment of animals, the Sami were also very humanitarian to each other. In Pathfinder, they talk about the air forming bonds between people. The Sami were peaceful and had a connectedness between them. Several families would live together in a siida. The lavvu or portable tepee can be thought of as the Sami University because it is here that many things take place and where much is learned. Children watched while adults did daily tasks, listened to stories and took part in conversations. Also, it was common for relatives or other members of the siida to take on the role of teacher to the young, particularly if there was something that they excelled in.
Only the most critical knowledge was important to the Sami. They may not know every detail about a certain subject, but they do take into account the behavior that will be important to their livelihood. In Western classroom learning, a vast array of information is learned. This information is not directly imperative to their livelihoods, but is more a prescribed formula for what the board of education thinks students should learn, in order to be on par with everyone else. Everybody is learning the same set curricula. In elementary school, the basic subjects of reading, writing, and arithmetic are learned which further enables a student to go on to learning such subjects as history, science, literature, and geometry in secondary school. An extraneous amount of knowledge is learned in class. Students must complete tedious homework assignments and study hard in order to do well on tests. Some of the concepts that are learned are preparatory concepts for learning more advanced subjects, as a high level of education is valued. But with all that information that is packed in and then not ever used on a day-to-day basis, much is forgotten. A student that excels in the classroom may have a high intellect, but may not have many survival skills. The Sami have survival skills and livelihood techniques that have been passed down to them for thousands of years. Hunting, fishing, and reindeer herding are all forms of livelihoods that are learned through experiential methods.
Observation is also a big part of learning in the Sami culture. At an early age, the Sami are encouraged to observe things for themselves and think on their own behalf, as well as learning things from their elders. Instinct and intuition are also assets that are considered valuable. Their spirituality and ties with nature probably heighten these senses. In the western world, people are taught not to trust their gut feelings. They are taught that it is better to think rationally and logically and rely on the ideas that they have learned in books. Rather than feeling that what is going on inside has importance, people are taught that all the rules that are enforced on us have more clout. Unfortunately, rules are often made by a select few people who are abusing their power in order to suppress peoples’ thoughts and feelings. Rather than to think for yourself, it is better in the West to conform and act like a herd of sheep. The increased intellectual knowledge often corresponds with depleted common sense. The lack of a strong relationship with nature has probably lessened the natural instinctual nature that humans are born with. Also the stress on intellectual knowledge has made us seem to be more separate from what we really are, just another animal. Also, the lack of spirituality or the following of strict organized religion has lessened the value of intuition. Paying attention to one’s intuition in the West would be considered superstitious or hocus pocus, since ‘rational logic’ tells us that it has no value. In the Sami culture, if one has an intuitive dream or a vision, it is probable that it will be taken into consideration, as any other piece of information learned would be. Perhaps this stems from the old religion, where noaidis went into shamanistic trances and could use the sacred drum to travel between worlds to observe other truths. It was even possible to communicate with those who had passed on, who were thought to be living in Saivo. Since these types of shamanistic journeys were known to the Sami, they were quite open-minded about things. They thought that anything was possible, while Westerners in comparison are quite close-minded.
The Sami had ties to their ancestors, often feeling that their ancestors were a part of them, who they were, and that their ancient knowledge was a part of their own knowledge. There were also feelings among the Sami of genetic memory, where they felt like they possessed knowledge of something that they had never experienced or been told about. In the Western world, ancestral ties are often unknown or severed. With modern transportation, one can easily move to other countries and through things like name changes, ties can be easily lost.
Since the young Sami were in constant contact with family members, familial ties were strong. Parents, grandparents, aunts, and uncles were all teachers and also people to converse with. Siblings were companions since they spent a lot of time together. A cloudberry trip for example would perhaps entail a father taking the kids out for a few days in the swamps. In The Cloudberry Trip by Jovnna-Ánde Vest, the father does just that. Once he is out of the house, he becomes jovial and talkative to the children. This behavior is unlike his usual sullen behavior at home. Throughout the expedition, he tells them an exciting story that his kids can’t get enough of. In the West, it is common for a person to separate from their family as soon as they are possibly able to make it on their own. In the Western school system, children start attending school around the age of four (if they go to nursery school, even earlier) and legally must attend school until around the age of sixteen. This is a minimum of 12 years where five days a week, the child is in a classroom environment for approximately 6-8 hours a day. Parents, needing to support their families, often work a typical 40 hour-a-week (or more) full-time job. This means that they spend a significant amount of time at work, away from the home. Often when a child gets home from school, the parents are still at work. Parents and children often can only share a few hours a day together. And after the stress and exhaustion of school and work, there is no guarantee that it will be quality time. Oftentimes daycares or babysitters are employed to care for the child. Usually these caretakers are of no relation and are essentially strangers. The television has also become a convenient babysitter.
In Western culture, the nuclear family is most common. Because of modern technology and the commonness of moving long distances, away from the rest of the family, it’s common for extended families to see each other only a few times a year, if that. Ageism, incidentally also devaluing children’s opinions, devalues the elderly. Since elderly people are often considered burdensome, it is rare to see three generations in one household. Instead, the elderly are often sent to live in old folks’ homes, where the setting ranges from decent to very unhealthy in terms of living/social conditions. In the Sami culture, the elderly were highly respected and revered for their years of experience and vast knowledge. They lived with their children and their grandchildren and were very important in regards to the transmission of knowledge. They were often great storytellers, intertwining their own life experiences into their stories. Since they had lived for so many years, they could also tell the children about things from their childhood and about their parents and grandparents, thereby educating the children about history and giving them a sense of who their ancestors were as well. Also, with an extended family living together, there is more love given and children are less likely to have emotional problems. In a Western classroom where a child spends much of his day, there are often 20 students to one teacher. It would be almost impossible for the teacher to give each student any significant one-on-one time. Troubled children often slip through the cracks in school systems.
The Sami didn’t believe in private property. They didn’t own the earth; therefore, they couldn’t own pieces of land. Land was used collectively. For example, an ideal spot for reindeer grazing would be shared by everybody’s reindeer. In the West, materialism runs rampant. People strive to own private property. For example, the “American Dream” includes owning your own house and your own car. These ideas of individualism lead to a lack of community and a lack of trust. An example would be the concept of trespassing. In Sapmi, it is common to just show up at a siida and be taken in by the people there.
The Sami’s systems of direction and time are also different from the West’s. In the West, there are four directions: North, East, South, and West, with North and South corresponding to where the two Poles are. In Sapmi, the directions are completely different. North corresponds to the coastal regions and East is nuorta. The Sami concept of time is based on cycles. With the changes of season, things are done. Migration of reindeer, mating times, and the picking of cloudberries are all dependent on the time of the year. There are no finite units of time, such as weeks, months, or years. Things are done whenever it feels right to do them. For this reason, it would seem to an outsider that a Sami person is often late and therefore unreliable. In actuality, the Sami person is just doing things according to a more natural clock. The West’s linear version of time lends itself to the calendar, with weeks, months, and years. Furthermore the day can be separated into hours, minutes, and seconds. There are certain times of day when things are supposed to get done and things are often rushed. In Boarding School by Ellen Marie Vars, it mentions the fact that the children were supposed to eat at certain times of the day, even if they weren’t hungry. Between mealtimes, if a child were hungry, there was no food to be had. For Katja, the main character, a Sami girl, this seemed very unnatural.
The yoik is an important part of the Sami culture. It is a type of music that is sometimes similar to poetry. Many of the traditional yoiks were just sounds, not words. The yoik is often given to others, whether it be a person, animal, or place. They are used to express feelings of joy, sorrow, anger, etc…and they are often started and finished spontaneously, thus not having a definite beginning or end. Traditionally, it was usually only vocal, with one or more people yoiking. The typical Western style of music follows a pattern with a definite beginning, middle, and end. Most songs are comprised of a singer, who sings words, and then one or more instruments accompanying them. The more modern yoiks by such artists as Mari Boine do contain lyrics, and a message. Issues such as the environment and the oppression of the Sami are vocalized in her music. Also, instruments and sound effects have been incorporated into modern yoiks. When going into a trance, the noiadi would yoik. At the time of missionaries and Christian oppression, the noiadis were burned, sacred drums were destroyed, and the yoik was forbidden as Christians believed them to be Satanic chants.
Assimilation was another of the many difficult obstacles that the Sami had to suffer through and struggle to overcome. Denmark-Norway, Sweden-Finland and Russia all exploited the Sami by imposing unfair taxes on them. Then they formed boundaries between the nations that were impassible. The Sami way of life, being migratory during different seasons, was disturbed by this change. For hundreds of years, the reindeer herds had traveled between regions in order to get to ideal grazing and birthing spots. With this unexpected change, the Sami feared the threat of starvation. Efforts to make the Sami citizens of these countries were made. Norway was especially harsh in trying to assimilate the Sami into their own culture. One technique of forcing people to become citizens was to offer them government welfare.
Boarding school was another way to assimilate the Sami. Young children were plucked from their families in order to start them in the Norwegianization process early. Speaking the Sami language was forbidden and often children were disciplined with a beating if they disobeyed. They were forced to speak only Norwegian, which at first, of course, they could not speak or understand. When they did learn to speak it, out of the need to communicate, at least during class, they were ridiculed because they could not pronounce certain letters and certain sounds. Even other Sami ridiculed each other. In Boarding School, Katja was ridiculed by other Sami kids because her family had not owned reindeer. She was even said to not be a real Sami, just poor trash. An environment like this, with its strict schedule, unfamiliar language and food, uncaring teachers, and constant fear of being ridiculed or beaten up, makes for a strong feeling of isolation. A loss of cultural identity is the outcome, developing from feelings of shame about one’s background and identity, and feelings of low self-worth. In Katja’s case, she resisted the assimilation, but as a result of the conditions at school, she became very bitter and violent herself. In self-defense, she became a fighter and others were intimidated by her. Teachers saw that she had become hardened, but they did not care enough to interfere. The boarding school experiences of many Sami were similar to Katja’s. The pain and shame from boarding schools left deep scars in many of the Sami.
Children were sent to boarding schools until about the 1960’s. Since then, schools have been developed that teach in Sami. Many young people now speak both Sami and Norwegian. Biculturalism seems like the only real solution to the dilemma of the modern Sami lifestyle. In order to be able to live in the modern world, it seems that one must take part in Western systems. Money is now necessary in order to survive. In the old days, the Sami were primarily self-sufficient, trading with foreigners for resources that were unavailable in Sapmi. With the spread of technology, things like electricity and motorized vehicles were introduced to the Sami. Along with this technology comes the need to supply the resources that are necessary to generate the power. So natural resources must be exploited on a much larger level. Many Sami embrace new technology, believing that, by incorporating technology into their lives, they are getting the best of two worlds. For example the multimedia artist, Nils-Aslak Valkeapää, encourages incorporating modern technology into daily life, believing that a culture must either evolve or die out.
The Sami struggle in modern times in trying to break through all the red tape. Bureaucracies make it difficult for the Sami to get the rights that they deserve, being that they are indigenous to the area and were there long before the nations formed. Issues such as protecting the environment and letting only Sami use certain water and land that they have depended on for food and not depleted for thousands of years are at the forefront. Sami schools and other Sami institutions now promote a strong sense of Sami identity. There are classes on the Sami language, in how to make duodji, and about the history of the Sami. It is difficult demanding rights in such a country as Norway, where many Sami are collecting welfare from the government. Being given welfare is almost worse than not getting anything because it makes the government seem caring and helpful, when really there is still a lot of underlying racism towards the Sami. Doling out welfare also gives the government the upper hand.
The Sami are politically active when it comes to issues of the environment. Their protests against the damming of the Alta River is what first gave them the publicity it took to become a known politically active group. Since then, they have spoken out on their views in regard to respecting nature and protecting the environment and they have gained a voice. Relying on knowledge of survival methods for thousands of years means that the Sami would have a good idea of how to survive if suddenly there was a colder world climate. Environmental disasters that deal with modern technology, they would not be able to solve, however, being that they do not have knowledge in dealing with chemicals and such. One of the many injustices through which the Sami have suffered, was the devastating effects from Chernobyl. The reindeer meat in Southern Sapmi was found to be contaminated, so thousands upon thousands of reindeer had to be slaughtered. The Sami again faced the threat of starvation.
In addition to speaking out about the environment, the Sami have also joined forces with other indigenous groups all over the world. They are an important influence and inspiration to such groups as the Native American Indians because through it all, the Sami have had many successes, especially compared to other indigenous cultures. The Sami speak out against racism, having had experienced so much of it, even though they are primarily light-skinned. They also speak about feminism. With the advent of Christianity, suddenly women were not revered as they once had been because Christianity considers the woman to be weak and inferior to her male counterpart. In many cases, especially because of the increase in alcoholism (a substance that was introduced to the Sami)in men, women are holding households together by themselves. Women have always played a strong role in the family and still do today.
As the environment gets more and more damaged and resources are being depleted, it is hoped that the powerful nations of the world will start listening to the wisdom of indigenous groups. Over the past century alone, industrial countries such as the U.S. and those in Europe have irreversibly depleted much of the earth’s resources. As resources run out and the effects of such negligent behavior becomes apparent, it is hoped that Western countries will turn to the knowledge like the Sami have, to find alternative ways of living. Respecting nature and everything in it, including people, would be a nice change from the rat race that life has become in the West. In the U.S., for example, many people go to college for the main goal of getting a high-paying job. Money is what is valued in this society because it is money that buys things, and material wealth is equated with happiness. People care more about personal gain than they do about the environment or each other. Otherwise, how could one explain the disparity between all the homeless people in one of the wealthiest nations? Corporations are a huge factor in the Western demise. With no regards to nature, they pollute the air, water, and land, just to make a profit. They exploit people in other countries for the same reason, to make a profit. The connectedness between people is not there. Otherwise, how can one explain sweatshop conditions were people work for almost nothing in unsanitary, unsafe workplaces, just so Americans and Europeans can wear designer clothing and big corporations can get even richer? Also, if the Sami can survive through all the horrible obstacles that other people have put on them, and still maintain their peacefulness, it seems that logically countries should be able to refrain form going to war with each other over something like oil.
As Western ways seep into such indigenous cultures as the Sami, concepts such as capitalism, materialism, private property, and individualism are sure to follow. It’s now necessary to have money in Sapmi and most people have become accustomed to the convenience of electricity and motorized vehicles. The present day Sami, especially the youth, seem to be developing footing in both Sami identity and modern Western identity. Hopefully, with their version of biculturalism, they will be able to maintain this compromise with a strong Sami identity and also be able to share their views and knowledge with the rest of the world.
1) Gaski, Harald. In the Shadow of the Midnight Sun: Contemporary Sami Prose and Poetry. University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1997.
2) Gaski, Harald. Sami Culture in a New Era: The Norwegian Sami Experience. University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1997.
3) Helander, Elina and Kaarina Kailo. No Beginning, No End: The Sami Speak Up Canadian Circumpolar Institute, 1998.
4) Jenssen, Frank A. The Salt Bin, 1981.
5) Stien, Laila. Antiphony, 1997.