This post was first published in 2017. It was updated in March, 2019.
Technology is changing the way we live, work, and learn. The lines between our online and offline worlds continue to merge and blur.
This is exciting! It means students can be more empowered than ever before to connect, create, grow, and make the world a better place.
Of course, as our world becomes increasingly digital, our challenges, rights, and responsibilities are changing too. Teaching students about digital citizenship and internet safety is more important than ever.
This post breaks down the theory of digital citizenship and offers practical tips that you can use in your classroom tomorrow, whatever your level of experience.
Scroll down to find a set of 11 summary posters.
How Can I Teach This Subject?
Feeling daunted by the thought of teaching students how to be safe online? There’s no need to be. You don’t need to be an expert to help your students become safe, responsible, and productive users of technology.
Adults play a crucial role in guiding young people to navigate life offline and online. You can make more of a difference than you might know!
Digital Citizenship? Internet Safety? Cyber Safety?
Not so long ago, our school “internet safety” programs were pretty narrow. We’d talk about “cyber safety” or “cyberbullying” without exploring the broad range of important concepts associated with using technology.
Because we’re now using technology differently and more immersively, there are many important concepts that need to be explored. These concepts are defined as coming under the umbrella of digital citizenship.
What is digital citizenship?
This term has evolved and become more well-known in recent years.
Many years ago Mike Ribble described 9 elements to digital citizenship, which he called, “The norms of appropriate, responsible behavior with regard to technology use.”
ISTE now tells us that, “digital citizens are learners who use their technology-driven powers conscientiously — and with empathy — to help make the world a better place.” They divide digital citizenship into three spheres: Digital Agent, Digital Interactor, and Digital Self.
Common Sense Education describes digital citizenship simply as, “the responsible use of technology to learn, create, and participate”.
Common Sense Education’s lesson resources for digital citizenship are now divided into these six topics:
- Media balance and wellbeing
- Privacy and security
- Digital footprint and identity
- Relationships and communication
- Cyberbullying, digital drama, and hate speech
- News and media literacy
I like to think that being a “good digital citizen” is similar to being a “good citizen” in general — just with the addition of technology!
Why is digital citizenship so important?
Just like in the offline world, we want our students to be safe, secure, happy, kind, and ethical online.
Students don’t always have the life experience or brain development to navigate digital dilemmas or use technology safely and effectively. So, like many other areas of life, they need guidance from trusted adults, including teachers and family members.
Even if students are not online very much during the school day (or online on “protected platforms”), many begin connecting, sharing, creating, and viewing as soon as they step out of the classroom.
As educators, we can’t ignore this fact or waste the opportunity to tap into students’ interests and lives, and help steer them in the right direction.
How Do You Teach Digital Citizenship?
All teachers want the best for their students, but many educators feel like they don’t have the skills or confidence to include digital citizenship in their curriculum. This can be one area where teachers are afraid that their students know more than they do.
The good news is, you don’t need to be an expert. You just need to be willing to listen, talk, and learn.
A Teaching Approach Beyond “Dos and Dont’s”
We live in a digital world where we can’t avoid using technology. And why would we want to? The amazing potential to connect, learn, and create shouldn’t be avoided.
So, we obviously don’t want to either block technology or create an atmosphere of fear.
With technology use comes a responsibility to put digital citizenship education on the agenda. But what is the best approach for teaching about digital citizenship?
I don’t think providing students with a list of dos and don’ts around digital citizenship and cyber safety is powerful enough.
I do think it’s a good start and I have created a series of posters with this blog post as handy reminders to use in your classroom. However, I believe the topic has the most impact when the following four areas are covered:
- INTEGRATION: Digital citizenship is embedded into the curriculum in an ongoing and authentic way.
- STORYTELLING: Students are presented with “real-life” scenarios to consider, discuss, and learn from.
- STRATEGIES: Practical strategies are taught so students build a toolkit of actionable ideas and skills.
- COMMUNITY: Messages from parents and educators overlap and there is ongoing communication.
Let’s take a look at each layer…
1) INTEGRATION: Gain real world experience
“Okay students, put away your maths equipment; it’s time for reading.”
“Art class is over now; it’s time to head to sport.”
In the traditional curriculum, a lot of subjects are seen as separate areas. Digital citizenship is not like this.
Some standalone lessons can certainly be useful, but I strongly believe elements of digital citizenship need to be weaved into the curriculum frequently and authentically.
I have always found blogging to be an excellent way to teach students about being responsible digital citizens and members of online communities.
Of course, blogging is not the only tool that can be used to promote positive internet behaviours. Many online platforms can be used as vehicles to drive messages about digital citizenship.
This will be especially powerful when those tools or platforms are open to the public. In Ross Cooper’s discussion of closed platforms, he wisely states,
We’d be a bit hypocritical by first declaring, “Digital citizenship is important; let’s practice it!” and then saying, “Use this, because we don’t want you to experience what’s out there.”
I’ve always been an advocate for public classroom blogs but they’re not for everyone. In 2018, I published an article about the pros and cons of public blogs.
It’s not a black and white issue but it’s worth considering how you can incorporate some authentic, public experiences into your classroom program, even if it’s heavily moderated and teacher-controlled initially.
2) STORYTELLING: Discuss scenarios and real-life situations
Lecturing students about dos and don’ts isn’t enough for digital citizenship messages to have an impact.
We all know the power of storytelling. Sometimes messages can seem abstract or less important when delivered as simple statements or advice.
For example, you might hear facts and statistics about sufferings in war-torn countries that you barely pay attention to, but when you read or watch a story about real people you may feel deeply impacted. Furthermore, if you were to hear someone’s story in real life, you may feel even more moved and transformed.
Stories can stay in your memory and leave a lasting impact.
Stories, scenarios, and real-life situations involving digital dilemmas are ideal for classroom use. Students can relate and reflect on issues, and may even feel comfortable sharing their own experiences.
There are a number of places online where either videos or written scenarios are published. These can be ideal prompts for discussions, responses, reflections, or role plays.
Check out my Pinterest board for a collection of digital citizenship scenarios. Please let me know if you have anything to add!
3) STRATEGIES: Build a practical toolkit
Apart from teaching students what we should not do, we need to equip them with practical strategies so they know what to do instead.
- You can’t use any image off Google to illustrate your digital work, so we need to teach students about using Creative Commons.
- We don’t want students sharing their YAPPY (personal) information online, so we need to help them generate ideas of safer information to share with others in their online communications. Brainstorm nicknames, safe topics to talk about and so on.
- We don’t want students creating short passwords with identifiable information, so we need to help them understand what a strong passphrase is.
- We don’t want students accessing inappropriate content, so we need to teach them what to do if they come across a website that doesn’t look safe or appropriate (e.g. closing tabs, telling adults, not clicking on random links etc).
- We don’t want students to leave a negative digital footprint, so we need to teach them about creating a positive online presence. Having no digital footprint at all probably isn’t the answer.
Many of these ideas can be mini-lessons that are touched on as part of your regular curriculum.
4) COMMUNITY: Involve families
Research tells us that family participation in schooling is one of the biggest predictors of a child’s success. When schools and families work together there can be positive outcomes for all.
Digital citizenship education is no different. We need to bring parents into the conversations we are having in our classrooms.
Digital citizenship education should be a community effort. The impact will be more powerful when students have multiple trusted adults they can discuss issues with, and when they’re hearing the same messages reinforced from both home and school.
This can create a holistic approach where everyone can feel supported and involved.
LEARN MORE: Check out this post with lots of information and tips about involving parents in your digital citizenship education. There’s even a poster to distribute to parents or display on your school website.
10 Digital Citizenship and Internet Safety Tips for Students
The following is certainly not an exhaustive list but are key messages that I believe all students should be aware of.
Scroll down to find a set of 11 posters to print or embed on your blog!
1) CHECK LAWS
Many sites have age restrictions and you’re not allowed to sign up for an account if you’re not old enough (e.g. Facebook, Snapchat, YouTube, Instagram, Musical.ly etc.). Often these age restrictions are 13+ or 18+. An adult can help you check in the terms and conditions on the website if you’re not sure.
Most of the images, text, and videos you find online are protected by copyright unless stated otherwise. This means you can’t reuse them. For example, you can’t take an image you find off Google Images and put it in your website or project. There are some sites where you can find free content to use. Read more about that there.
Talk to your parents about what you’re doing online and let them know when you’re going on the internet.
If anything you see online makes you feel uncomfortable, worried, sad, or unsure, leave the site and talk to a trusted adult.
Don’t add people as online friends unless you know them in real life or have parent permission. Never arrange to meet an online friend without talking to a parent.
Don’t send personal information or photographs to an online friend. Never send private photos or videos of yourself to anyone (whether you know them in real life or not).
Remember, you can’t trust everything online friends tell you. Anyone can pretend to be anyone on the web.
Keep your personal information private online.
YAPPY is a useful acronym to help you remember the personal information you should not share online…
- Your full name
- Address (including your home address, email address, and school name/address)
- Phone number
- Your plans and birthday
Don’t publish this information or provide it in response to questions in emails, private messages, chat rooms, or forums. Even if you think these are private.
Protect your digital footprint and don’t publish anything online that you wouldn’t want all your friends, family, teachers, and future employers to see.
You can read more about digital footprints and explore a poster with 10 tips in this post.
You cannot believe everything you read or see online. Publishing online is easier than ever so there is a lot of inaccurate or biased information out there.
When you come across information, question who wrote the message and why it was created. Find more advice about evaluating websites here.
Know what cyberbullying is and tell someone if you think it’s happening to you or others. Cyberbullying is when someone picks on you, annoys, embarrasses, hurts, or threatens you repeatedly using technology, such as the internet or a phone.
There are things adults can do to deal with cyberbullying or inappropriate online behaviour:
- Talk to your school
- Report the abuse to the social media platform
- Don’t delete the content until it’s dealt with. Collect your evidence
- Report the behaviour to a government organisation (for example, eSafety Office in Australia)
8) ACCOUNTS, PASSWORDS, AND USERNAMES
Think carefully when choosing your username for your online accounts and email address:
- You don’t want to choose anything that identifies your full name or personal information.
- You also don’t want to choose a silly or funny username or email address. You might regret this later when you’re connecting with teachers or applying for a job.
Being a digital citizen means you’ll need to have a lot of passwords. Tempting as it is, avoid using the same password for all your accounts. You need to use a password that you can remember but is not easy to guess.
One strategy is to use a modified passphrase.
Here’s some advice on creating a passphrase I wrote for The Edublogger:
- Come up with four or more words such as mysterious triangle bingo nurse
- Avoid using personal information or well-known quotes or song lyrics (these can be easily guessed)
- Add some uppercase letters, symbols, or numbers if you wish eg. #MYsteriousTr1angle=Bin.go.nur5e
- Avoid making the passphrase too complex when you add the punctuation and numbers. It’s important that you can still remember it!
It’s extremely important that you never share passwords with others. Even your best friends!
Be polite and respectful online just as you would be offline. Always treat others the way you like to be treated.
Before posting, ask yourself:
- Would you say that to someone’s face?
- Could someone take your message the wrong way?
- How would you feel if someone said that to you?
Life is all about balance. It’s not good for our health and wellbeing to be online all the time.
Balance screen time with green time. Get outdoors, move, play, and interact face-to-face.
Don’t let life pass you by!
Posters: 10 Tips for Students
Here are 11 posters summarising the digital citizenship and internet safety tips. I hope these are useful to use in your classroom!
Click here to download a PDF copy.
A lot of these ideas come down to “think before you post”.
- Slow down and think about your choices.
- Talk to someone about your dilemma before posting or acting.
- Your initial response might not be the best one.
Useful Resources and Lesson Ideas
There are many digital citizenship resources available online for educators, parents, and students.
The following sites are particularly useful, and I have also curated more on a Pinterest board.
A very comprehensive US non-profit organization with resources, information, and advice.
They’ve recently updated their digital citizenship resources and there are lots of lesson ideas you can use with all age groups.
An Australian government site with lots of resources for educators, parents, and children. Also includes a complaints service.
The classroom resources section has helpful multimedia and lesson plans for primary and secondary school educators.
Resources such as videos, games, and presentations for children, educators, parents, and law enforcement. This is a US site run by National Center for Missing & Exploited Children.
The teaching resources section has some useful lesson plans, presentations, and tip sheets. You do need to register for a free account to access these.
Google’s digital citizenship program. It includes games, curriculum, and courses for teachers and students to learn about navigating the online world safely and responsibly.
Another useful discussion starter from Google for older students (or staff) is their Phishing Quiz (phishing is an attempt to trick you into giving personal information by pretending to be someone you know or recognise).
Final Thoughts: Start early, don’t stop, involve others
Digital citizenship is a topic that’s important for all ages.
Common Sense Media reports that children are accessing devices and the internet at increasingly younger ages, well before coming to school. The amount of time young people are spending on screens is also increasing to a significant amount — about 6 hours a day for tweens and 9 hours a day for teens.
Along with learning about opportunities, children need to learn about the responsibilities that come with using technology. When students develop habits and behaviours without guidance, problems are sure to occur.
My hope is that teaching students some key messages from a young age will help them navigate their way safely through the online world as they grow older.
While it’s unlikely young people will never experience an issue online, I believe it is a good aim to both minimise potential harm and ensure students feel like they always have someone to talk to.
Digital citizenship education is an ongoing process, and the work of one teacher is not enough. Ideally, we need parents, students, educators, community members, and school leaders to unite.
Most of all, we need to create a positive culture where students feel empowered to use technology safely and purposefully.
As ISTE tells us,
Respect, education and protection are still important foundations of digital citizenship, but today’s digital learners also need to understand the power they have to advocate, collaborate and drive change through technology.
Leave a Comment
What other ideas or tips would you add?
How do you teach digital citizenship in your classroom or school?
Scroll down to find the comment box. I’d love to hear from you.
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The history of Cambodian culture and art stretches back centuries to ancient pottery, silk/ basket weaving, and stone carving. The height of Khmer art occurred during the Angkor period; much of the era’s stone carving and architecture survive to the present. In ancient times, art and crafts were generally produced either by rural non-specialists for practical use or by skilled artists producing works for the Royal Palace. In modern times, Cambodian culture and art have been carefully considered as the tourist market has increased and governments and NGOs have contributed to the preservation of Cambodian culture.
The Cambodian produce many hand-made items including rattan furniture, intricate stone and wood carvings, colorful woven mats and baskets, and a variety of silver and silk ware. Many of these items are used regularly in the daily lives of the Cambodian people.
You can readily witness master artisans at work and purchase such gifts in markets and specialty shops throughout the Phnom Penh Capital, Siem Reap Province, Preah Sihanouk Province, and other potential provinces of Cambodia.
- Cambodian Dancing
The Cambodian dancing comes into three categories, namely classical dance that is performed in the royal courts and at cultural festivals, folk dance that portrays everyday life, and vernacular dance which is performed for social functions.
1.1. Khmer Classical Dance or Cambodian Royal Ballet
(Declared “Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity” by UNESCO on 7 November 2003)
The Khmer Classical Dance, also known as the Cambodian Royal Ballet, was originally performed only for royalty, but now is also held for dignitaries and the public at major official festivals and at theaters. It is called “Rabam Preah Reachea Troap” in the Khmer language, which means the dance of royal property.
The classical dance, playing a significant role in Khmer literature, encompasses Apsara, Tep Monorom, Sovann Machha, Moni Mekhala, Makara, Neary Cheachuor, Phuong Neary, etc.
- Apsara Dance
Involving a fragment of the Ramayana “the ancient Indian epic”, the Apsara Dance has had its roots in Hindu animism since the 1st century.
During the Angkor era (the reigns of King Jayavarman II to VII), this dance took on its own unique form, graceful movements, and deep meaning. By the 13th century, it was the typical Khmer than the Indian. The images of wanton dancers, adorned with gold headdresses and silken tunics and skirts, were carved on the walls of Angkor Temple and many other temples. Three thousands of Apsara images were found on the walls of the 12th-century court of King Jayavarman VII.
Over the centuries, classical Khmer dancing lent its influence to the classical ballet of the neighboring countries. Some of its postures and movements are similar to other Southeast Asian dancing. However, Princess Bopha Devi said, “The Khmer kingdom started its cultural tradition in the 8th century, 500 years before Thailand.”
Based on Khmer mythology on bas-relief on the walls of the Angkor Temple, all of Apsara dancers “heavenly women” were born from the foam surface of the ocean of milk when Devoda (heavenly beings) and Assura (demons) churned the ocean of milk with the gigantic Naga in search for the elixir of immortality.
This dance portrays Mera dressed in white for purity, dancing in her garden. She is accompanied by her handmaidens “Apsara”. They all produce flowers expressing great love of the people and the country.
The Apsara Dance is deemed to be a main part of the Royal Ballet of Cambodia, which was declared “Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity” by UNESCO on 7 November 2003, and it is particularly valued as a national art treasure.
- Tep Monorom Dance or Happiness Dance of the Gods
The Tep Monorom Dance typifies all the grace, elegance, beauty and refinement that define the Cambodian classical dance repertoire. It reflects the highly formalized and ritualistic relationships between male and female gods. The dancers portray the Cambodian gods and goddesses of antiquity descending from the heaven and enveloping the earthly realm in happiness and joy.
The mannerisms of the gods are adopted as part of the Cambodian court ritual and as an artistic courtship ritual.
- Sovann Machha Dance or Golden Mermaid Dance
Sovann Machha Dance is a short scene of the classical ballet, actually excerpted from a famous Cambodian legend called Reamkér (Ramayana), on the episode of King Ream mobilizing monkey forces to build a stone bridge to liberate Neang Sita who had been captured by Rahwana, the giant king of Lanka.
In this dance, Hanuman, the white monkey general, led an army of monkeys to build a bridge across the ocean to rescue the captive princess. As they piled up stones for the bridge, the stones mysteriously disappeared. Hanuman dived into the sea to investigate and discovered a beautiful golden mermaid, named Sovann Machha, who had ordered shoals of fish as her entourage to bring out the stones obstructing their traffic. When he saw her, he fell in love with her and soothed her. With his clairvoyance, Hanuman persuaded her to order shoals of fish to transport stones to rebuild the bridge, leaving an appropriate passage in the center to let her and her entourage go through. After they rebuilt the bridge successfully, he disguised himself as big to fill that passage and ordered his army to cross this bridge to fight against the enemies. He eventually defeated Rahwana and liberated the princess.
- Moni Mekhala Dance or Moni Mekhala Drama
Moni Mekhala Dance, or Moni Mekhala Drama, is the story involving two of the Cambodian deities, Moni Mekhala (Goddess of Water) and Ream Eysor (Storm Spirit). These two have been engaged in a celestial contest of wills as the Storm Spirit tries to steal a magic crystal ball from the Water Goddess, the source of her enormous power. At first, the Storm Spirit tries to beguile Moni Mekhala with flattery and charm. The Water Goddess will not have any of it. Wise to the ways of the Storm Spirit, she rejects his advances and makes a mockery of his efforts. This enrages the Storm Spirit and the battle is joined. As he advances toward the goddess, Eysor brandishes his magic axe. With precision and grace, the goddess counters him by displaying her crystal ball, by blinding the Storm Spirit, and by staggering him. Frustrated by one repulse after another, the Storm Spirit is forced to concede defeat and withdraw, muttering that he will seek his revenge another time.
According to the popular Cambodian legend, the thunderstorm is all that we mortals are allowed to see of this recurrent battle in the heaven, with lightning representing Moni Mekhala’s crystal ball and thunder representing the Storm Spirit’s magic axe clattering across the heaven as it slips from his nervous fingers.
This dance is said to symbolize the victory of virtue over seduction. The Moni Mekhala drama represents Cambodian storytelling at its best.
- Makara Dance or Mkor Dance
Makara Dance, or Mkor Dance, is one of the great sacred dances of the court repertoire relevant to the domain of gods, symbolizing water, earth, fire, and wind. It is performed to remind us of the victory of the Khmer Navy during the Angkor period.
Annually, this dance is performed for His Majesty Preah Bat Samdech Preah Baromneath Norodom Sihamoni, the King of the Kingdom of Cambodia, and Samdech Preah Maha Ksatrei Norodom Monineath Sihanouk, Cambodian Queen-Mother with Freedom, Dignity and Happiness, at the royal banquet in the Chann Chhaya Pavilion during the final day of the Water Festival.
As regards the above-mentioned dance, Mkor is an aquatic creature symbolizing bliss. Mkor in full regalia opens its mouth and bites a crystal ball to please the eyes of all on-lookers.
- Neary Cheachuor Dance
Neary Cheachuor Dance is a Khmer classical dance describing the beauty of young women in their elegant costumes. This dance reminds the Khmer people of the rich culture that has been kept and nourished through generations, and it is well known among the neighboring countries.
- Phuong Neary Dance
The Phuong Neary Dance accompanied by the music and the melodic song admirably describes the great beauty of a Khmer woman compared to a golden flower. Although she is practical and strong, she is admirable and soft.
- Fan Dance
The Fan Dance is performed to represent Indra’s blessing and to express best wishes to Khmer sovereigns and their people.
- Seven-Day Color Fashion Show
It shows seven beautiful Cambodian women dressed in vibrant color Phamuong for seven days of the week: Sunday – Red, Monday – Yellow-Orange, Tuesday – Purple, Wednesday – Mustard-Green, Thursday – Green, Friday – Blue, and Saturday – Burgundy. On special occasions, the Cambodian people believe that choosing the right color of clothes in accordance with the color chart will bring good luck and happiness.
1.2. Folk Dance
The folk dance here refers to a performing art, which is performed for an audience. This dance is fast-paced. The movements and gestures are not as stylized as the Khmer classical dance.
The folk dance comes into two forms: ceremonial and theatrical. Generally, the theatrical folk dance is presented in public performances, and the ceremonial folk dance is reserved for particular rituals, celebrations and holidays. The theatrical folk dance, such as the popular Harvest Dance and the romantic Fishing Dance, is usually inspired by rural life and practices of hill tribes, farmers, and peasants. Some folk dances are about love, or are folktales about animals.
The folk dance music is played by a Mahori orchestra, which is similar to a Pinpeat orchestra except that it contains many stringed and plucked instruments and a type of flute in place of the Sralai (an oboe-like instrument).
- Peacock Dance
The Peacock Dance shows a courting scene between a peacock and a peahen, representing happiness and prosperity of the Pailin province of Cambodia. During the Khmer New Year and other festivals, this dance is performed to show the Kola people’s tradition and their exploitation of precious gems in Pailin Province.
- Buffalo Sacrifice Dance
The Buffalo Sacrifice Dance is inspired by rural life and practices of Phnorng hill tribes living in Rattanak Kiri and Mondul Kiri provinces located in the northeastern part of Cambodia. A buffalo sacrifice is to express their gratitude to tutelary spirits for blessing their crops. They drink rice wine and dance around the jar as a libation for perfect harmony and supernatural power.
- Fishing Dance
The Fishing Dance is a dance symbolizing love and romance of the young people in a fishing quarter. Love and romance are favorite themes in Khmer stories and dance. In the traditional Cambodian society, young people are carefully watched and do not have many opportunities to get to know one another. However, the fishing quarter is one place where they have the chance to meet.
- Cardamom-Picking Dance
The Cardamom-Picking Dance is performed to show livelihood of the Poar people inhabiting the highland in Pursat Province, Cambodia. Their farming includes growing teas, picking cardamoms, harvesting fruits, and extracting sap.
- Coconut Shell Dance
The Coconut Shell Dance is <a Khmer traditional dancing with dancers knocking coconut shells together to sound sweet. It is truly held to mark the harvest season in Cambodia and to show a close romantic relationship between young men and women during the harvest.
- Pestle Dance
The Pestle Dance has originated from the ethnic minority, Kuoy, who have derived the dance style from their daily life activities. It is usually performed during the Khmer New Year and during the post-riceharvest time.
Phloy is a gourd-shaped wind instrument the ethnic groups always use and preserve. Originating in Kampong Speu Province of Cambodia, the Phloy Dance is a kind of folk dance with dancers blowing Phloys. This dance is performed to commemorate the origin of time and the myth of the eternal return. It is associated with legends from India to Southeast Asia.
- Butterfly Dance
The Butterfly Dance illustrates a story of bug busters working diligently to maintain the garden and keeping unwanted bugs away. At the same time, a group of young female butterflies is flying, singing, and looking for pollen to extract in the garden. To their surprise, the butterflies are quietly caught by the bug busters. They try to convince the bug busters to release them by claiming they were just beautifying the garden.
- Mantis Dance
The Mantis Dance has originated in Svay Rieng Province, Cambodia. This dance imitates a mantis’s gesture. During the dance, the dancers beat coconut shells to produce an attractive sound. Each dancer uses three pairs of coconut shells, one pair in hands, one pair on the elbows and another pair on the knees. It is performed during Khmer ceremonies to show happiness and prosperity nationwide.
- Kantèrè Dance
The Kantèrè Dance is a traditional Khmer dance representing ancient Khmer civilization. Once upon a time, there was a daughter of Neak Sachaing named “Kantèrè”. One day, she was bored and decided to pass time under a tree with her two tiger-followers. While Kantèrè was dancing, two tigers tapped their feet in rhythms. She was dancing while caressing the tigers to the left and to the right. That time, a hunter observed the scene and reported to the king. The king ordered the followers to invite her to perform for him. Since then, it has become a traditional Khmer dance.
- Kèn Dance
The Kèn Dance has originated in the northeast province of Cambodia. It is traditionally performed when the Cambodian gather to celebrate the Khmer New Year. Like many Cambodian folk dances, the Kèn dance has a courtship theme. Many of the young men in this part of the country play a mouth organ called “Kèn” made of strips of bamboo and decorated with flowers. The dance demonstrates how men would play music in the open area of villages to attract young women passing by.
- Drum Dance or “Chhay Yam Dance”
The Drum Dance is a kind of folk dance the Cambodian people believe that whenever drums are beaten together, they always take away the evils from the village. The dance with a comic is performed during traditional Khmer festivals to bring happiness, prosperity, and victory back to their whole family. It makes the audience laugh, enjoy, and forget all of their sadness.
- Palm-Leaf Hat Dance
The Palm-Leaf Hat Dance, a sense of Khmer national identity, is impressively performed to promote artistic creativity in the Khmer ancestral palm-leaf hats and to attract support for the protection and conservation of Khmer sugar palms.
1.3. Vernacular Dance or Social Dance
The vernacular dance, or social dance, is performed at social gatherings, including Ram Vong, Ram Kbach, Saravan, Lam Leav (literally, “Lao dance”) and so on. Some of these dances have much influence from the traditional dances of Laos. Nevertheless, Ram Kbach, for example, takes heavily from the classical dance of the royal court. Ram Kbach is a simple dance performed with hand gestures similar to the classical dance and with classical songs combined with traditional Khmer and Western instruments.
Other social dances from around the world, including Chha-chha, Bolero, and Madison, have had an impact on the Cambodian social culture. Such dances are often performed at Cambodian wedding receptions and banquets.
- Khmer Shadow Theater
The Khmer Shadow Theater comes into two forms: Sbèk Thom (big puppets that are actually panels depicting certain characters from the story) and Sbèk Toch (small articulated puppets). The black leather puppets are held in front of a light source, either in front of or behind a screen, creating a shadow or silhouette effect. Sbèk Thom is the more unique feature, restricting itself to stories from the Reamker. The performance is accompanied by a Pinpeat orchestra and by narration, and the puppeteers move the panels like a dance. Sbèk Toch, having a far lighter feel, presents popular stories of heroes, adventures, love and battles, with or without orchestra and with the puppeteers often doing the narration.
The Khmer Shadow Theater “Sbèk Thom” was declared “Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity” by UNESCO on 25 November 2005, and it is particularly valued as a national art treasure.
The Cambodian produce many hand-made items including rattan furniture, colorful woven mats and baskets, pottery, ceramics, and a variety of silver and silk ware. Many of these items are used regularly in the daily lives of the Cambodian people.
- Work of Silversmiths:
The work of silversmiths reached its height during the 11th century when artisans attained perfection. Workshops supported by the Royal Palace and the School of Fine Arts also flourished from the 19th century to the early 20th century.
Today, riparian artisans predominate in Kampong Luong District, Kandal Province. They use silver imported from Laos and China. It varies in purity from 70-92 percent. Artisans produce objects such as Buddha images, jars, chopsticks, jewelry, knives, forks, and tiny ankle chains “Chang Krang Cheung” for babies. Small betel nut boxes in animal motifs such as rabbits, ducks, cats, deer and citrus fruits are most popular. Ornate filigree work is in the Khmer traditional style. Contemporary silverware can be found at various markets and shops in Phnom Penh and Siem Reap.
- Silk Weaving:
Silk weaving can be seen in Koh Sotin District, Kampong Cham Province; Kean Svay District, Kandal Province; Bati and Prey Kabas Districts, Takeo Province; Prèk Changkran District, Prey Vèng Province; and Prèk Luong and Koh Dach Districts, Kandal Province.
The traditional silk weaving of Cambodia is purely decorative. Weavers form sophisticated patterns of birds and flowers, mythical and realistic, often depicting Khmer tales, scenes from Angkor Temple, and the life of Lord Buddha. They today produce a style of intricately patterned and dyed silk called “Kha Bang Neang Sok Kra Ob”.
Designs incorporate images of flowers, animals, peacocks, crowns, jewels and other motifs inspired by the Angkor era, or handed down from previous generations. Dyes are made from plants in glowing hues of greens, blues, violets, ochres and reds.
The technique involves wrapping strands of raw silk on to a frame, and then tying the strands with banana-leaf threads into patterns. The silk is removed, dyed, and remounted on the frame to be re-tied for the other colors in the pattern, up to five times. Base color silk is strung lengthwise on to the loom. The dyed threads are the wefts, the crosswise threads, woven into the pattern originally created by the tie-dying process.
It takes a week to string the warp threads onto the loom, and two weeks to weave a length of silk for a Sarong. Various silk products include checkered Sarong and Sampot worn at home and patterned Hol and Phamuong worn on formal occasions.
- Scarf Weaving:
Cotton and silk scarf weaving is very popular with Cambodian residents inhabiting Kandal, Takeo, and Kampong Cham provinces. Since ancient times, Cambodian farmers have used a scarf as a bathing cloth, a piece of fabric worn for warmth, or a decoration around the neck or over the shoulders or hair. Furthermore, this scarf is generally used to wrap their food in when they go to field.
- Non-textile Weaving:
Many Cambodian farmers weave baskets (Tbanh Kantrak) for household use or as a supplemental source of income. Most baskets are made of thinly cut bamboo. Regions known for basketry include Siem Reap and Kampong Cham. Mat weaving (Tbanh Kantél) is a common seasonal occupation. Mats are most commonly made from reeds, either left a natural tan color or dyed in deep jewel tones. The region of Cambodia best known for mat weaving is the Mekong floodplain, especially around Lvea Em district. Mats are commonly laid out for guests and are important building materials for homes. Wicker and rattan crafts (Tbanh Kanhcheu) are also significant. Common wicker and rattan products include walls, mats, furniture, and other household items.
Cambodian pottery traditions date to 5000 BCE. Ceramics in the shape of birds, elephants, rabbits, and other animals were mostly used for domestic purposes such as holding food and water. It was very popular with the Cambodian people, especially members of the royal families between the 11th and 13th centuries.
Potting traditionally was done on a pottery wheel or using shaping tools such as paddles and anvils. Firing was done in clay kilns, which could reach temperatures of 1,000-1,200 °C, or in the open air, at temperatures of around 700 °C. Primarily green and brown glazes were used. In rural Cambodia, traditional pottery methods remain. Many pieces are hand-turned and fired on an open fire without glaze. The country’s major center for pottery is Kampong Chhnang Province.
- Wat Murals
Few historic Wat murals remain in Cambodia. The best-known surviving murals are at the Silver Pagoda in Phnom Penh, Wat Rajabo in Siem Reap province, and Wat Kampong Tralach Leu in Kampong Chhnang Province. Cambodia’s surviving older murals are generally more refined and detailed.
- Lacquer Ware
Cambodian traditional lacquer ware reached its height between the 12th and 16th centuries. Some examples of work from this era, including gilded Buddha images and betel boxes, have survived to the present day. Lacquer ware was traditionally colored black using burnt wood, representing the underworld, red using mercury, representing the earth, and yellow using arsenic, representing the heaven. Lacquer on Angkorian stones dates to the 15th or 16th century.
In modern Cambodia, the art of lacquer work nearly faded into oblivion: few lacquer trees survived, and lacquer was unavailable in local markets. Today’s revival is still in its infancy, but 100 lacquer artists have been trained by a French expert under the guidance of Artisans d'Angkor, a company that produces traditional crafts in village workshops. Some artists are beginning to experiment with different techniques and styles to produce modern and striking effects.
- Stone Carving
Cambodia’s best-known stone carving adorns the Angkor temple renowned for the scale, richness and detail of its sculpture. During the late 20th century, efforts to restore Angkor resulted in a new demand for skilled stone carvers to replace missing or damaged pieces, and a new tradition of stone carving is arising to meet this need. Most modern carving is traditional-style, but some carvers are experimenting with contemporary designs. Interest is also renewing for using stone carving in modern pagodas. Modern carvings are typically made from Banteay Meanchey sandstone.
- Martial Arts
Khmer martial arts date back more than a thousand years, as evidenced by carvings and bas-reliefs in the Angkor temple. The martial arts include Bokator, Pradal Serey, Baok Chambab, Kbach Kun Dambong Vèng, etc. Nowadays, they are particularly popular with youths and visitors.
- Bokator “an Ancient Khmer Boxing Art”
Bokator, known formally as Lbokkator (which means wielding a wooden stick to fight lions), is an ancient Khmer martial art said to be the predecessor of Southeast Asian kickboxing styles. Depicted on the bas-relief on the walls of Angkor Temple, Bokator was the close quarter combat system used by the armies during the Angkor era. It is believed that King Jayavarman VII, the illustrious ruler of the Khmer Empire, was a practitioner of Bokator. Bokator weaves together ancient Cambodian religious traditions of Buddhism and Brahmanism.
Unlike kickboxing that is a sport fighting art, Bokator was a soldier’s art used on the battlefield. It can be considered a complete martial art, using strikes, throws, drags, trapping, locking, and some elements of ground fighting. Every single part of the body can be used as a weapon. Bokator practitioners are trained to strike with knees, hands, elbows, feet, shins, and head. Even the shoulders, hip, jaw, and fingers can be used to fight an opponent to submission or death.
When fighting, Bokator practitioners still wear the uniforms of ancient Khmer armies. A Kroma (scarf) is folded around their waist and blue and red silk cords called Sangvar are tied around the combatants’ head and biceps. In the past, it is said that the cords were enchanted to increase strength, although now they are just ceremonial.
The Kroma shows the fighter’s level of expertise. A series of grades, each taking at least five months to complete training seven days a week and two hours a day, are represented by different colors. The first grade is white, followed by green, blue, red, brown and then black which has ten degrees.
After completing their initial training, fighters wear a Black Kroma (scarf) for at least ten years. To attain the Gold Kroma you must be a true master and must have done something great for Bokator. Moreover, to become a true master, it will definitely take some time as just in the unarmed portion of the art there are between 8000 and 10000 different techniques, only 1000 of which you have to learn to attain the black Kroma.
The art contains 341 different styles some of which are the duck, crab, horse, bird, dragon, eagle, crane, wind, fire, water, earth (or stone), king monkey, lion, elephant, Apsara (traditional Hindu sacred nymph), and crocodile.
Because of its visually similar style, Bokator is commonly wrongly described as a variant of modern kickboxing. Bokator has many forms based on styles as well as practical fighting techniques.
- Pradal Serey “Khmer Kickboxing”
Pradal Serey is a traditional Khmer kickboxing. A match consists of five rounds and takes place in a boxing ring. There is a one- or two-minute break between each round. Before a match, boxers perform the praying rituals known as Kun Krou. Traditional Cambodian music is played during the match. The instruments used are Skor Yaul (a type of drum), Sralai (a flute-like instrument), and stringed Chhing. Boxers are required to wear leather gloves and shorts.
- A boxer is not allowed to strike his opponent while he is on the ground.
- A boxer is not allowed to bite.
- When an opponent cannot fight anymore, the referee stops the fight.
- Blows to the back of the opponent are not allowed.
- A boxer may not hold on to the ropes.
- Blows to the genitals are prohibited.
Victory is instantaneously granted when a boxer knocks another boxer out and the boxer knocked down is unable to continue fighting after a 10-second count by the referee. Victory is also determined at the end of the match when judges decide by a point system which a fighter was more effective. If fighters end up with the same score, a draw is called.
Pradal Serey has made a strong comeback since its banishment back in the 70's. Numerous gyms have opened and large masses of students, local and foreign, have come to train in Cambodia. There are currently about 70 boxing clubs.
Matches are held weekly at CTN Station, Bayon Television Station, Phnom Penh Municipal Television Station, and Kong Yothapol Khemara Phoumin Television Station, and these are televised live.
- Baok Chambab “Khmer Wrestling”
Baok Chambab is Khmer wrestling in which two opponents try to pin (hold) each other's back to the ground. A match consists of three rounds. Wrestlers perform pre-match ritual dancing. A wrestler wins a match by two of three rounds. However, after each round, the loser is asked if he wishes to continue with the match. The match is accompanied by the music of two drums known as Skor Nhy and Skor Chhmol “female drum and male drum”.
Traditional matches are held at the Cambodian National Olympic Stadium during the Khmer New Year and other Cambodian holidays.
- Kbach Kun Dambong Vèng “Long Staff Art”
Kbach Kun Dambong Vèng literally refers to an ancient Cambodian martial art form involving the use of a long staff. It has traditionally been practiced to prepare to fight against enemies bearing eventual malice towards their villages and their country. Nowadays, it is particularly popular with youths in main sport clubs in Cambodia.
Cambodia’s kite-making and kite-flying tradition, which dates back many centuries, was revived in the early 1990s. It is now extremely popular throughout the country. Kites (Khlèng Ek) are generally flown at night during the northeast monsoon season. A bow attached to the kite resonates in the wind like a musical sound.
- Traditional Games
Cambodia is home to a wide variety of games played to transform the dullest days into a memorable occasion. Throughout the Khmer New Year, street corners are often crowded with friends and families enjoying traditional Khmer dancing and games. Typically, Khmer games help maintain mental and physical dexterity of humans.
A game is played by throwing and catching a ball with one hand while trying to catch an increasing number of sticks with the other hand. Usually, chopsticks are used as the sticks to be caught.
- Chaol Chhoung
A game is played by two groups of boys and girls on the first nightfall of the Khmer New Year. Each group comprising 10-15 people stands in two rows opposite each other. One group throws the "Chhoung" to the other group. When it is caught, it will be rapidly thrown back to the first group. If someone is hit by the "Chhoung," the whole group must dance to get the "Chhoung" back while the other group sings.
- Chab Kon Khlèng
A game is played by imitating a hen as she protects her chicks from a kite. Adults typically play this game on the night of the first New Year. Participants usually appoint a person with a strong build to play the hen leading many chicks. Another person is picked to be the kite. While both sides sing a song of bargaining, the kite tries to catch as many chicks as possible as they hide behind the hen.
- Bos Angkunh
A game is played by two groups of boys and girls. Each group throws their own "Angkunh" to hit the master "Angkunhs," which belong to the other group and which are placed on the ground. The winners must knock the knee of the losers with the "Angkunh." "Angkunh" is the name of an inedible fruit seed, which looks like the knee bone.
- Leak Kansèng
A game is played by a group of children sitting in circle. Someone holding a "Kansèng" (Cambodian scarf) twisted into a round shape walks around the circle while singing a song. The person walking secretly tries to place the "Kansèng" behind one of the children. If that chosen child realizes what is happening, he or she must pick up the "Kansèng" and beat the person sitting next to him or her until the person runs a circle back to his/her place.
- Bay Khom
A game is played by two children in rural or urban areas during their free time. Ten holes are dug in the shape of an oval into a board. The game is played with 42 small beads, stones or fruit seeds. Before starting the game, five beads are put into each of the two holes located at the tip of the board. Four beads are placed in each of the remaining eight holes. The first player takes all the beads from any hole and drops them one by one in the other holes. He or she must repeat this process until they have dropped the last bead into a hole lying beside an empty one. Then they must take all the beads in the hole that follows the empty one. At this point, the second player begins to play. The game ends when all the holes are empty. The player with the greatest number of beads wins the game.
- Khla Khlok
A gambling game is fun for all ages. There are three dice of which each has six angles with six animal pictures and a paper with each of six animal pictures that is put inside a four-angular line. Six animal pictures comprise deer, lobster, rooster, gourd, crab, and fish. You put money on an animal picture that you believe the person rolling the dice (which are usually shaken in a bowl) and you wait. If an animal picture faces up on the dice at the same as the picture you put money on, you will get an amount of money as the amount you bet. If two animal pictures face up on two dice at the same as the picture you put money on, you will get double paid. In addition, if three animal pictures face up on three dice at the same as the picture you put money on, you will get triple the amount of money you bet.


The music of the Lesser Antilles encompasses the music of this chain of small islands making up the eastern and southern portion of the West Indies. Lesser Antillean music is part of the broader category of Caribbean music; much of the folk and popular music is also a part of the Afro-American musical complex, being a mixture of African, European and indigenous American elements. The Lesser Antilles' musical cultures are largely based on the music of African slaves brought by European traders and colonizers. The African musical elements are a hybrid of instruments and styles from numerous West African tribes, while the European slaveholders added their own musics into the mix, as did immigrants from India. In many ways, the Lesser Antilles can be musically divided based on which nation colonized them.
The former British colonies include Trinidad and Tobago, whose calypso style is an especially potent part of the music of the other former British colonies, which also share traditions like the Big Drum dance. The French islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe share the popular zouk style and have also had extensive musical contact with the music of Haiti, itself once a French colony though not part of the Lesser Antilles. The Dutch colonies of Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba share the combined rhythm popular style. The islands also share a passion for kaseko, a genre of Surinamese music; Suriname and its neighbors Guyana and French Guiana share folk and popular styles that are connected enough to the Antilles and other Caribbean islands that both countries are studied in the broader context of Antillean or Caribbean music.
While Lesser Antillean music is very often discussed as a music area, this division is of limited usefulness. The islands of the Lesser Antilles divide musically along linguistic lines, with the most significant overlap coming from Dominica and Saint Lucia, both primarily Anglophone but strongly influenced by a French colonial past. Because the islands are divided linguistically, the term Antillean music is usually used in reference to one such music area. Thus, for example, the Rough Guide to World Music features a chapter on "Antillean music", which is entirely about the French Antillean islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe, with a brief sidebar specifically about the Dutch Antilles.
In the context of Anglophone music, the term Antillean music most commonly refers to Trinidad and Tobago, home to the well-known calypso style. Music author Peter Manuel, for example, treats all the Anglophone islands as a subject of Trinidadian calypso traditions, while using the title Music of the Lesser Antilles for Francophone Antillean music. Manuel also, like many authors, treats Suriname and Guyana as integral aspects of Caribbean music; due to the Dutch colonial history of both countries, they are often grouped with Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles.
Nevertheless, Antillean music can be characterized by the prominence of the Carnival celebration (prominently from Trinidad and Tobago), and the importance of calypso-like song traditions. The Lesser Antilles is also home to a strong Indo-Caribbean population; though Indo-Caribbean music is found elsewhere in the Caribbean, the prominence of Indian-influenced styles is a hallmark of the Antillean music scenes. Regional forms can also be found outside of the Caribbean entirely, most notably in New York City, where Brooklyn's Labor Day Carnival features music and parades, mas and steel bands; this Carnival is distinct to New York, and reflects elements of a pan-Caribbean nature.
Calypso is most closely associated with the island of Trinidad, but it has spread throughout the Lesser Antilles, and abroad. Similar traditions can be found natively on many of Caribbean islands. Within the Antilles, most of the popular calypso stars have come from Trinidad and Tobago; the majority of the exceptions, such as Arrow from Montserrat, have come from other Anglophone islands. Music author Peter Manuel has argued that, despite the modern Anglophone focus to calypso-like song forms, their origins lie in the "Afro-French creole culture", and notes that the ancestor of the word calypso, cariso, was first used to refer to a Martinican singer.
The calypso song complex is characterized by satirical, political, risque and humorous lyricism, a competitive and celebratory nature and its function in social organization and informal communication. Jamaican mento is perhaps the most well-known form of calypso-like music. The island of Carriacou is home to a calypso-like song style, as well as canboulay feasts, calinda songs and steel bands, all similar to though distinct from the related Trinidadian traditions. Modern influences from Trinidad have organized the Carriacou song style, and there are competitions similar to calypso tents on the island. The Antiguan benna is part of the same song complex, featuring news-oriented and ribald, often satirical lyrics and a rhythmic, uptempo style.
Annual Carnival celebrations are an important part of the culture of all the Lesser Antillean islands. Carnival is celebrated at varying times of year, either pre-Lent, Christmastime or in July and August, and feature a wide variety of dances, songs and parades. Contests are common, especially Calypso King and Queen contests, which are held on most of the British Antillean islands, the U.S. Virgin Islands as well as French Saint Martin and elsewhere. The British Antillean Carnivals are also mostly united by the J'ouvert tradition, which involves calypso and soca band parades and are the highlight of their celebrations.
Summer Carnivals include those on Antigua, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Sint Eustatius, Saint John, Saint Lucia, Grenada, Saba, Nevis and Anguilla, the latter two of which are especially known for popular calypso competitions. Christmastime Carnivals are held on Montserrat, Saint Croix, Saint Martin and Saint Kitts; Montserrat's distinctive Carnival includes masquerades and steelbands, and both islands also feature calypso competitions. The Carnival of Sint Maarten, which takes place a month after Easter, is known for the burning of King Moui-Moui as the culmination of the festival. Many islands, especially the French and Dutch Antilles, are home to pre-Lenten Carnivals, including Martinique, Aruba, Saint-Barthélemy, Bonaire, Curaçao, Dominica, Saint Thomas and Guadeloupe.
There are many popular traditions common to the English-speaking islands of the Lesser Antilles. Calypso, originally an old folk music–based genre from West Africa, is popular throughout the islands; other popular traditions, like soca originally from Trinidad, are also well known throughout the region. Steel drum ensembles is also found throughout the English-speaking Lesser Antilles (and abroad), especially in Trinidad and Tobago as well as Antigua and Barbuda. The British Antilles also share in certain folk traditions. Eastern Caribbean folk calypso is found throughout the area, as are African-Caribbean religious music styles like the Shango music of Trinidad. Variants of the Big Drum festival occur throughout the Windward Islands, especially in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. Carnival is an important folk music celebration on all the islands of the Lesser Antilles, and the rest of the Caribbean.
Calypso is part of a spectrum of similar folk and popular Caribbean styles that spans benna and mento, but remains the most prominent genre of Lesser Antillean music. Calypso's roots are somewhat unclear, but we know it can be traced to 18th-century Trinidad and other Caribbean islands like Saint Lucia. Modern calypso, however, began in the 19th century, a fusion of disparate elements ranging from the masquerade song lavway, French Creole belair and the stick fighting chantwell. Calypso's early rise was closely connected with the adoption of Carnival by Trinidadian slaves, including camboulay drumming and the music masquerade processions. Popular calypso arose in the early 20th century, with the rise of internationally known calypsonians like Attila the Hun and Roaring Lion. calypso remained popular throughout the Caribbean in the later 20th century, the islands began producing calypso stars. In the 1970s, a calypso variant called soca arose, characterized by a focus on dance rhythms rather than lyricism. Soca has since spread across the Caribbean and abroad.
Steel drums are a distinctively Trinidadian ensemble that evolved from improvised percussion instruments used in Carnival processions. By the late 1930s, bamboo tubes, a traditional instrumental, were supplemented by pieces of metal used percussively; over time, these metal percussion instruments were pitched to produce as many as twenty-some tones. Steel bands were large orchestras of these drums, and were banned by the British colonial authorities. Nevertheless, steel drums spread across the Caribbean, and are now an entrenched part of the culture of Trinidad and Tobago.
Though Trinidadian popular music is by far the most well-known style of Lesser Antillean music, the other Anglophone islands are home to their own musical traditions. Carriacou and Grenada are home to Carnival celebrations that feature distinct form of calypso, canboulay feasts, calinda stick-fighting songs and the steelband accompanied jouvert, as well as the Big Drum dance, which is also found in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. Grenada and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines share other musics as well including the funereal music of the saraca rite, a call-and-response form with both European and African lyrics.
French Creole music is most famously associated with Martinique and Guadeloupe, though the islands of Saint Lucia and Dominica are also home to French Antillean music. Creole music is characterized by the prominence of the quadrille dance, distinct from the French version and related to the Haitian mereng. The quadrille is a potent symbol of French Antillean culture.
Martinique and Guadeloupe are also home to their own distinct folk traditions, most influentially including Guadeloupan gwo ka and Martinican tambour and tibwa. Gwo ka is a type of percussion music which consists of seven basic rhythms and variations on them. It has been modernized into gwo ka moderne, though traditional rural performances (lewoz) are still common. Tambour and ti bwa ensembles are the origin of several important Martinican popular styles, including chouval bwa and biguine, and also exerted an influence on zouk. Lucian folk music features ensembles of fiddle, cuatro, banjo, guitar and chak-chak (a rattle), with the banjo and cuatro being of iconic importance, and recreational, often lyric song forms called jwé. The French Creole folk music of Dominica is based on the quadrille, accompanied by ensembles called jing ping. Folk storytelling (kont) and songs (bélé) are also a major part of the country's musical identity.
In the 1970s, a wave of Haitian, mostly musicians, to Dominica and the French Antilles (Guadeloupe and Martinique) brought with them the kadans, a sophisticated form of music that quickly swept the island and helped unite all the former French colonies of the Caribbean by combining their cultural influences. These Haitians drew upon previous success from mini-jazz artists like Les Gentlemen, Les Leopards, and Les Vikings de Guadeloupe.
Later in the decade and into the 1980s, the French Antilles became home to a style of cadence music called cadence-lypso. Gordon Henderson's Exile One innovated this style, as well as turned the mini-jazz combos into guitar-dominated big bands with full-horn sections and keyboard synthesizers, paving the way for the success of large groups like Grammacks, Experience 7, among others. Drawing on these influences, the supergroup Kassav' invented zouk and popularized it with hit songs like "Zouk-La-Se Sel Medikaman Nou Ni". Kassav' formed from Paris in 1978.
Cadence-lypso is the Dominican kadans of the 1970s. The leading figure in the promotion of the Cadence-lypso was the Dominican group Exile One (based on the island of Guadeloupe) and Grammacks that featured the Haitian Cadence rampa or compas with the Trinidadian calypso, hence the name cadence-lypso; however, most of the bands repertoire was kadans
This fusion of kadans and calypso accounts only for a small percentage of the band's repertoire: Exile One like all Dominica kadans bands featured reggae, calypso and mostly kadans or compas music.
The Dominican kadans has evolved under the influence of Dominican and Caribbean/Latin rhythms, as well as rock guitars, soul-style vocals and funk bass and horn styles - music from the United States. By the end of the 1970s, Gordon Henderson defined Cadence-lypso as "a synthesis of Caribbean and African musical patterns fusing the traditional with the contemporary". It was pushed in the 1970s by groups from Dominica, and was the first style of Dominican music to find international acclaim.
Exile One, based in Guadeloupe, is a leading Dominican kadans group of the 1970s that was very influential in the development of caribbean music. The full-horn section kadans band Exile One led by Gordon Henderson was the first to introduce the newly arrived synthesizers to their music that other young cadence or compas bands from Dominica, Haiti (mini-jazz) and the French Antilles emulated in the 1970s. Exile One was the most promoted creole band of the Caribbean. The first to sign a production contract with major label Barclay Records. The first to export kadans music to the four corners of the globe: Japan, the Indian Ocean, Africa, North America, Europe, The Cape Verde islands.
The inspiration for Zouk's style of rhythmic music comes from the Haitian compas, as well as music called cadence-lypso - Dominica cadence popularized by Grammacks and Exile One. Elements of gwo ka, tambour, ti bwa and biguine vidé are prominent in zouk. Though there are many diverse styles of zouk, some commonalities exist. The French Creole tongue of Martinique and Guadeloupe is an important element, and are a distinctive part of the music. Generally, zouk emphasises star singers, with little attention given to instrumentalists, and performances consist almost entirely of studio recordings.
Ethnomusicologist Jocelyn Guilbault believes zouk's evolution was influenced by other Caribbean styles especially Dominica cadence-lypso, Haitian cadence and Guadeloupean biguine. Zouk arose in the late 1970s and early 1980s, using elements of previous styles of antillean music, as well as importing other genres.
The band Kassav' remain the best known zouk group. Kassav' drew in influences from balakadri and bal granmoun dances, biguine's and mazurka's, along with more contemporary Caribbean influences like compas, reggae and salsa music. Zouk live shows soon began to draw on American and European rock and heavy metal traditions, and the genre spread across the world, primarily in developing countries.
Zouk has diversified into multiple subgenres. These include zouk-love, pop ballads by artists like Edith Lefel and Gilles Floro, Zouk-R&B, and ragga-zouk bands like Lord Kossity who fused the genre with other influences.
The music kizomba from Angola and cabo-love from Cape Verde are also derivatives of this French Antillean compas music style, which sounds basically the same, although there are notable differences once you become more familiar with these genres. A main exponent of this subgenre is Ophelia Marie. Other Zouk Love artists come from the French West Indies, the Netherlands, and Africa.
Bouyon (Boo-Yon) is a form of popular music of Dominica, also known as jump up music in Guadeloupe and Martinique. The best-known band in the genre is Windward Caribbean Kulture (WCK), who originated the style in 1988 by experimenting elements of kadans (or cadence-lypso), lapo kabwit drumming, the folk style jing-ping, and a quick-paced electronic drum pattern. From a language perspective, Bouyon draws on English and Dominican Creole French. More recently, deejays with raggamuffin-style vocals (bouyon-muffin) have moved to the fore, updating the sound for the New Generation.
Due to the popularity of Triple K International, Ncore, and the New generation of bouyon bands who toured the French Antilles, a popular offshoot of bouyon from Guadeloupe is call bouyon gwada. The jump up had its heyday from the 90s with songs such as Met Veye WCK, but remained stamped background music or carnival. Over the years, thanks to inter-trade with the Dominicans and the mass participation of Guadeloupe at the World Creole Music Festival, the flagship group as Triple kay and MFR band began to democratize and local artists were inducted including the remix Allo Triple kay with Daly and "Big Ting Poppin 'Daly alone.
A popular offshoot within the bouyon gwada is call bouyon hardcore, a style characterized by its lewd and violent lyrics. Popular Bouyon gwada musicians include, Wee Low, Suppa, Doc J, Yellow gaza, etc.
Though zouk is the most well-known form of modern French Antillean music, the island of Martinique has also produced the chouval bwa and biguine styles, which were especially popular in the early 20th century. Chouval bwa is includes multiple distinctive instruments and internationally famous performers like Claude Germany, Dede Saint-Prix, Pakatak and Tumpak, while biguine has achieved international fame since the 1920s and has since been modernized and adapted for pop audiences, making it a major influence on zouk. Between the 1930s and 1950s, the dance biguine was popular among the islands' dance orchestras. The biguine uses a cinquillo variant related to that found in other Caribbean genres like méringue and Compas. In the 1940s and 1950s, these dance bands absorbed influences from Cuban, American and Haitian popular music.
The islands of Curaçao, Bonaire, Aruba, Sint Eustatius and Saint Martin share musical styles, as well as maintain their own sets of folk and popular dances, ranging from the impromptu Statian road block to calypso, zouk and soca. African, indigenous and European ancestry predominate, though more recent immigrants have brought musical styles from Lebanon, China and India. In popular music, the islands are known for the Combined Rhythm, like local favorites the Happy Peanuts and Expresando Rimto i Ambiente. Kaseko music from the mainland country Suriname is also popular. Traditional music of Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles, however, is primarily African, characterized by the use of complex, highly developed polyrhythms, dance styles and drums like the tambú. Other African-derived instruments include metal percussion rods, agan, the rasp wiri, aerophones like the cachu trumpet, becu transverse double-reed wind instrument, and the bow benta.
The tambu is an instrument, and a form of music and dance found on Aruba, Bonaire (where it is sometimes known as bari), and Curaçao. The tambu is an especially important symbol of Curaçaoan identity. Instrumentation for the tambu uses the agan, chapi, triangle, wiri and other instruments, many of which are also part of the African-derived muziek di zumbi, or spirit music, of Curaçao. Curaçao's folk music also includes a rich tradition of work songs with apentatonic lyrics sung in Guene or a Papiamento variant called seshi. The Simadan harvest festival is found across the islands, and features the cachu trumpet, made from a cowhorn. Bonaire's Simadan festival is also notable for the use of the becu, an aerophone made from the stalk of a sorghum plant, and the kinkon, made from a conch shell and known elsewhere as the carco. Folk song forms range from the harvest seu, simadan and wapa. Other songs were imported beginning in the 19th century, including the South American joropo and pasillo, Spanish Caribbean merengue and other new songs, dances and instruments. This diverse mixture was the origin of the Dutch Antilles' most distinctive and long-standing popular tradition, the tumba.
The smaller islands of Saint Martin, Saba and Sint Eustatius largely share in the same folk instruments, dances and songs as their neighbors; however, these islands remain largely unstudied. Saba is home to a vital percussive music tradition, most closely associated with private parties, using instrumentation similar to Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba. Saint Martin is home to a national dance form called the ponum, which dates to the 19th century and was only displaced by string bands in the mid-20th century. Saint Martin is also home to a calypso-like quimbe song form, that remains a major part of the island's culture.
Indo-Caribbean people in the Lesser Antillean music area are clustered in Guyana, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago. Indo-Caribbean folk traditions include the chowtal songs from the springtime festival phagwa, and Hindi bhajans which are still sung at temples despite there being few people who understand Hindi. Guyanese and Trinidadian Indo-Caribbeans developed a tradition that fused elements of calypso with the folk music of North India, a style that was referred to as local music.
Indo-Caribbean music plays a vital role in various annual festivals like the springtime phagwa, where chowtal is traditionally performed competitively and in teams. Indo-Caribbean Shia Muslims celebrate Hosay (Muharram) with floats accompanied by barrel drums called tassa. Wedding music is another important part of Indo-Caribbean music, and is dominated by tan singing. Tan singing is accompanied by the dholak drum and dhantal, and sometimes includes verbal duels influenced by picong. Indo-Caribbean popular music gained international attention in the late 1980s, with the rise of chutney music. Chutney is a dance music, in its modern form accompanied by soca instrumentation, such as synthesizers and pressure drums. This style is called chutney-soca.