AppearanceDomestic sheep are relatively small ruminants, usually with a crimped hair called wool and often with horns forming a lateral spiral. Domestic sheep differ from their wild relatives and ancestors in several respects, having become uniquely neotenic as a result of selective breeding by humans. A few primitive breeds of sheep retain some of the characteristics of their wild cousins, such as short tails. Depending on breed, domestic sheep may have no horns at all , or horns in both sexes, or in males only. Most horned breeds have a single pair, but a few breeds may have several.
Another trait unique to domestic sheep as compared to wild ovines is their wide variation in color. Wild sheep are largely variations of brown hues, and variation within species is extremely limited. Colors of domestic sheep range from pure white to dark chocolate brown and even spotted or piebald. Selection for easily dyeable white fleeces began early in sheep domestication, and as white wool is a dominant trait it spread quickly. However, colored sheep do appear in many modern breeds, and may even appear as a recessive trait in white flocks. While white wool is desirable for large commercial markets, there is a niche market for colored fleeces, mostly for handspinning. The nature of the fleece varies widely among the breeds, from dense and highly crimped, to long and hair-like. There is variation of wool type and quality even among members of the same flock, so wool classing is a step in the commercial processing of the fibre.
Depending on breed, sheep show a range of heights and weights. Their rate of growth and mature weight is a heritable trait that is often selected for in breeding. Ewes typically weigh between 45 and 100 kilograms , and rams between 45 and 160 kilograms . When all deciduous teeth have erupted, the sheep has 20 teeth. Mature sheep have 32 teeth. As with other ruminants, the front teeth in the lower jaw bite against a hard, toothless pad in the upper jaw. These are used to pick off vegetation, then the rear teeth grind it before it is swallowed. There are eight lower front teeth in ruminants, but there is some disagreement as to whether these are eight incisors, or six incisors and two incisor-shaped canines. This means that the dental formula for sheep is either 0.0.3.3/184.108.40.206
There is a large toothless gap between the front "biting" teeth and the rear "grinding" teeth.
For the first few years of life it is possible to calculate the age of sheep from their front teeth, as a pair of milk teeth is replaced by larger adult teeth each year, the full set of eight adult front teeth being complete at about four years of age. The front teeth are then gradually lost as sheep age, making it harder for them to feed and hindering the health and productivity of the animal. For this reason, domestic sheep on normal pasture begin to slowly decline from four years on, and the average life expectancy of a sheep is 10 to 12 years, though some sheep may live as long as 20 years.
Sheep have good hearing, and are sensitive to noise when being handled. Sheep have horizontal slit-shaped pupils, possessing excellent peripheral vision; with visual fields of approximately 270Â° to 320Â°, sheep can see behind themselves without turning their heads. Many breeds have only short hair on the face, and some have facial wool confined to the poll and or the area of the mandibular angle; the wide angles of peripheral vision apply to these breeds. A few breeds tend to have considerable wool on the face; for some individuals of these breeds, peripheral vision may be greatly reduced by "wool blindness", unless recently shorn about the face. Sheep have poor depth perception; shadows and dips in the ground may cause sheep to baulk. In general, sheep have a tendency to move out of the dark and into well-lit areas, and prefer to move uphill when disturbed. Sheep also have an excellent sense of smell, and, like all species of their genus, have scent glands just in front of the eyes, and interdigitally on the feet. The purpose of these glands is uncertain, but those on the face may be used in breeding behaviors. The foot glands might also be related to reproduction, but alternative reasons, such as secretion of a waste product or a scent marker to help lost sheep find their flock, have also been proposed.
BehaviorSheep are prey animals with a strong gregarious instinct, and a majority of sheep behaviors can be understood in these terms. The dominance hierarchy of ''Ovis aries'' and its natural inclination to follow a leader to new pastures were the pivotal factors in it being one of the first domesticated livestock species. All sheep have a tendency to congregate close to other members of a flock, although this behavior varies with breed. Farmers exploit this behavior to keep sheep together on unfenced pastures and to move them more easily. Shepherds may also use herding dogs in this effort, whose highly bred herding ability can assist in moving flocks. Sheep are also extremely food-oriented, and association of humans with regular feeding often results in sheep soliciting people for food. Those who are moving sheep may exploit this behavior by leading sheep with buckets of feed, rather than forcing their movements with herding.
In regions where sheep have no natural predators, none of the native breeds of sheep exhibit a strong flocking behavior. Sheep can also become hefted to one particular local pasture so they do not roam freely in unfenced landscapes. Ewes teach the heft to their lambs, and if whole flocks are culled it must be retaught to the replacement animals.
Flock dynamics in sheep are, as a rule, only exhibited in a group of four or more sheep. Fewer sheep may not react as normally expected when alone or with few other sheep. For sheep, the primary defense mechanism is simply to flee from danger when their flight zone is crossed. Secondly, cornered sheep may charge or threaten to do so through hoof stamping and aggressive posture. This is particularly true for ewes with newborn lambs.
In displaying flocking, sheep have a strong lead-follow tendency, and a leader often as not is simply the first sheep to move. However, sheep do establish a pecking order through physical displays of dominance. Dominant animals are inclined to be more aggressive with other sheep, and usually feed first at troughs. Primarily among rams, horn size is a factor in the flock hierarchy. Rams with different size horns may be less inclined to fight to establish pecking order, while rams with similarly sized horns are more so.
Sheep can become stressed when separated from their flock members. Sheep can recognize individual human and ovine faces, and remember them for years. Relationships in flocks tend to be closest among related sheep: in mixed-breed flocks same-breed subgroups tend to form, and a ewe and her direct descendants often move as a unit within large flocks.
Sheep are frequently thought of as extremely unintelligent animals. A sheep's herd mentality and quickness to flee and panic in the face of stress often make shepherding a difficult endeavor for the uninitiated. Despite these perceptions, a University of Illinois monograph on sheep found them to be just below pigs and on par with cattle in IQ, and some sheep have shown problem-solving abilities; a flock in West Yorkshire, England allegedly found a way to get over cattle grids by rolling on their backs, although documentation of this has relied on anecdotal accounts. In addition to long-term facial recognition of individuals, sheep can also differentiate emotional states through facial characteristics. If worked with patiently, sheep may learn their names, and many sheep are trained to be led by halter for showing and other purposes. Sheep have also responded well to clicker training. Very rarely, sheep are used as pack animals. Tibetan nomads distribute baggage equally throughout a flock as it is herded between living sites.
ReproductionSheep follow a similar reproductive strategy to other herd animals. A group of ewes is generally mated by a single ram, who has either been chosen by a breeder or has established dominance through physical contest with other rams . Most sheep are seasonal breeders, although some are able to breed year-round. Ewes generally reach sexual maturity at six to eight months of age, and rams generally at four to six months. However, there are exceptions. For example, Finnsheep ewe lambs may reach puberty as early as 3 to 4 months, and Merino ewes sometimes reach puberty at 18 to 20 months. Ewes have estrus cycles about every 17 days, during which they emit a scent and indicate readiness through physical displays towards rams. A minority of rams display a preference for homosexuality and a small number of the females that were accompanied by a male fetus in utero are freemartins .
In feral sheep, rams may fight during the rut to determine which individuals may mate with ewes. Rams, especially unfamiliar ones, will also fight outside the breeding period to establish dominance; rams can kill one another if allowed to mix freely. During the rut, even normally friendly rams may become aggressive towards humans due to increases in their hormone levels.
After mating, sheep have a gestation period of about five months, and normal labor takes one to three hours. Although some breeds regularly throw larger litters of lambs, most produce single or twin lambs. During or soon after labor, ewes and lambs may be confined to small lambing jugs, small pens designed to aid both careful observation of ewes and to cement the bond between them and their lambs.
Ovine obstetrics can be problematic. By selectively breeding ewes that produce multiple offspring with higher birth weights for generations, sheep producers have inadvertently caused some domestic sheep to have difficulty lambing; balancing ease of lambing with high productivity is one of the dilemmas of sheep breeding. In the case of any such problems, those present at lambing may assist the ewe by extracting or repositioning lambs. After the birth, ewes ideally break the amniotic sac , and begin licking clean the lamb. Most lambs will begin standing within an hour of birth. In normal situations, lambs nurse after standing, receiving vital colostrum milk. Lambs that either fail to nurse or that are rejected by the ewe require aid to live, such as bottle-feeding or fostering by another ewe.
After lambs are several weeks old, lamb marking is carried out. Vaccinations are usually carried out at this point as well. Ear tags with numbers are attached, or ear marks are applied for ease of later identification of sheep. Castration is performed on ram lambs not intended for breeding, although some shepherds choose to avoid the procedure for ethical, economic or practical reasons. However, many would disagree with regard to timing. Docking and castration are commonly done after 24 hours and are often done not later than one week after birth, to minimize pain, stress, recovery time and complications The first course of vaccinations is commonly given at an age of about 10 to 12 weeks; i.e. when the concentration of maternal antibodies passively acquired via colostrum is expected to have fallen low enough to permit development of active immunity. Ewes are often re-vaccinated annually about 3 weeks before lambing, to provide high antibody concentrations in colostrum during the first several hours after lambing. Ram lambs that will either be slaughtered or separated from ewes before sexual maturity are not usually castrated. Tail docking is commonly done for welfare, having been shown to reduce risk of fly strike. Objections to all these procedures have been raised by animal rights groups, but farmers defend them by saying they solve many practical and veterinary problems, and inflict only temporary pain.
FoodSheep are exclusively herbivorous mammals. Most breeds prefer to graze on grass and other short roughage, avoiding the taller woody parts of plants that goats readily consume. Both sheep and goats use their lips and tongues to select parts of the plant that are easier to digest or higher in nutrition. Sheep, however, graze well in monoculture pastures where most goats fare poorly. Like all ruminants, sheep have a complex digestive system composed of four chambers, allowing them to break down cellulose from stems, leaves, and seed hulls into simpler carbohydrates. When sheep graze, vegetation is chewed into a mass called a bolus, which is then passed into the rumen, via the reticulum. The rumen is a 19 to 38-liter organ in which feed is fermented. The fermenting organisms include bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. The bolus is periodically regurgitated back to the mouth as cud for additional chewing and salivation. Cud chewing is an adaptation allowing ruminants to graze more quickly in the morning, and then fully chew and digest feed later in the day. This is safer than grazing, which requires lowering the head thus leaving the animal vulnerable to predators, while cud chewing does not.
During fermentation, the rumen produces gas that must be expelled; disturbances of the organ, such as sudden changes in a sheep's diet, can cause the potentially fatal condition of bloat, when gas becomes trapped in the rumen, due to reflex closure of the caudal esophageal sphincter when in contact with foam or liquid. After fermentation in the rumen, feed passes in to the reticulum and the omasum; special feeds such as grains may bypass the rumen altogether. After the first three chambers, food moves in to the abomasum for final digestion before processing by the intestines. The abomasum is the only one of the four chambers analogous to the human stomach , and is sometimes called the "true stomach".
Sheep follow a diurnal pattern of activity, feeding from dawn to dusk, stopping sporadically to rest and chew their cud. Ideal pasture for sheep is not lawn-like grass, but an array of grasses, legumes and forbs. Types of land where sheep are raised vary widely, from pastures that are seeded and improved intentionally to rough, native lands. Common plants toxic to sheep are present in most of the world, and include cherry, some oaks and acorns, tomato, yew, rhubarb, potato, and rhododendron.
Sheep are largely grazing herbivores, unlike browsing animals such as goats and deer that prefer taller foliage. With a much narrower face, sheep crop plants very close to the ground and can overgraze a pasture much faster than cattle. For this reason, many shepherds use managed intensive rotational grazing, where a flock is rotated through multiple pastures, giving plants time to recover. Paradoxically, sheep can both cause and solve the spread of invasive plant species. By disturbing the natural state of pasture, sheep and other livestock can pave the way for invasive plants. However, sheep also prefer to eat invasives such as cheatgrass, leafy spurge, kudzu and spotted knapweed over native species such as sagebrush, making grazing sheep effective for conservation grazing. Research conducted in Imperial County, California compared lamb grazing with herbicides for weed control in seedling alfalfa fields. Three trials demonstrated that grazing lambs were just as effective as herbicides in controlling winter weeds. Entomologists also compared grazing lambs to insecticides for insect control in winter alfalfa. In this trial, lambs provided insect control as effectively as insecticides.
Other than forage, the other staple feed for sheep is hay, often during the winter months. The ability to thrive solely on pasture varies with breed, but all sheep can survive on this diet. Also included in some sheep's diets are minerals, either in a trace mix or in licks.
Naturally, a constant source of potable water is also a fundamental requirement for sheep. The amount of water needed by sheep fluctuates with the season and the type and quality of the food they consume. When sheep feed on large amounts of new growth and there is precipitation , sheep need less water. When sheep are confined or are eating large amounts of cured hay, more water is typically needed. Sheep also require clean water, and may refuse to drink water that is covered in scum or algae.
Sheep are one of the few livestock animals raised for meat today that have never been widely raised in an intensive, confined animal feeding operation . Although there is a growing movement advocating alternative farming styles, a large percentage of beef cattle, pigs, and poultry are still produced under such conditions. In contrast, only some sheep are regularly given high-concentration grain feed, much less kept in confinement. Especially in industrialized countries, sheep producers may fatten market lambs before slaughter in feedlots. Many sheep breeders flush ewes and rams with a daily ration of grain during breeding to increase fertility. Ewes are also flushed during pregnancy to increase birth weights, as 70% of a lamb's growth occurs in the last five to six weeks of gestation. Otherwise, only lactating ewes and especially old or infirm sheep are commonly provided with grain. Feed provided to sheep must be specially formulated, as most cattle, poultry, pig, and even some goat feeds contain levels of copper that are lethal to sheep. The same danger applies to mineral supplements such as salt licks.Sheep meat and milk were one of the earliest staple proteins consumed by human civilization after the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture. Sheep meat prepared for food is known as either mutton or lamb. "Mutton" is derived from the Old French ''moton'', which was the word for sheep used by the Anglo-Norman rulers of much of the British Isles in the Middle Ages. This became the name for sheep meat in English, while the Old English word ''sceap'' was kept for the live animal. Throughout modern history, "mutton" has been limited to the meat of mature sheep usually at least two years of age; "lamb" is used for that of immature sheep less than a year.
In the 21st century, the nations with the highest consumption of sheep meat are the Persian Gulf states, New Zealand, Australia, Greece, Uruguay, the United Kingdom and Ireland. These countries eat 14"“40 lbs of sheep meat per capita, per annum. Sheep meat is also popular in France, Africa , the Caribbean, the rest of the Middle East, India, and parts of China. This often reflects a history of sheep production. In these countries in particular, dishes comprising alternative cuts and offal may be popular or traditional. Sheep testicles"”called animelles or lamb fries"”are considered a delicacy in many parts of the world. Perhaps the most unusual dish of sheep meat is the Scottish haggis, composed of various sheep innards cooked along with oatmeal and chopped onions inside its stomach. In comparison, countries such as the U.S. consume only a pound or less , with Americans eating 50 pounds of pork and 65 pounds of beef. In addition, such countries rarely eat mutton, and may favor the more expensive cuts of lamb: mostly lamb chops and leg of lamb.
Though sheep's milk may be drunk rarely in fresh form, today it is used predominantly in cheese and yogurt making. Sheep have only two teats, and produce a far smaller volume of milk than cows. However, as sheep's milk contains far more fat, solids, and minerals than cow's milk, it is ideal for the cheese-making process. It also resists contamination during cooling better because of its much higher calcium content. Well-known cheeses made from sheep milk include the Feta of Bulgaria and Greece, Roquefort of France, Manchego from Spain, the Pecorino Romano and Ricotta of Italy. Yogurts, especially some forms of strained yogurt, may also be made from sheep milk. Many of these products are now often made with cow's milk, especially when produced outside their country of origin. Sheep milk contains 4.8% lactose, which may affect those who are intolerant.
CulturalSheep have had a strong presence in many cultures, especially in areas where they form the most common type of livestock. In the English language, to call someone a sheep or ovine may allude that they are timid and easily led, if not outright stupid. In contradiction to this image, male sheep are often used as symbols of virility and power; although the logos of the St. Louis Rams and the Dodge Ram allude specifically to males of the species bighorn sheep, ''ovis canadensis''. Sheep are key symbols in fables and nursery rhymes like ''The Wolf in Sheep's Clothing'', ''Little Bo Peep'', ''Baa, Baa, Black Sheep'', and ''Mary Had a Little Lamb''. Novels such as George Orwell's ''Animal Farm'', Haruki Murakami's ''A Wild Sheep Chase'', Thomas Hardy's ''Far from the Madding Crowd'', Neil Astley's ''The Sheep Who Changed the World'' and Leonie Swann's ''Three Bags Full: A Sheep Detective Story'' utilize sheep as characters or plot devices. Poems like William Blake's "The Lamb", songs such as Pink Floyd's ''Sheep'' and Bach's aria ''Sheep may safely graze'' use sheep for metaphorical purposes. In more recent popular culture, the 2007 film ''Black Sheep'' exploits sheep for horror and comedic effect, ironically turning them into blood-thirsty killers.
Counting sheep is popularly said to be an aid to sleep, and some ancient systems of counting sheep persist today. Sheep also enter in colloquial sayings and idiom frequently with such phrases as "black sheep". To call an individual a black sheep implies that they are an odd or disreputable member of a group. This usage derives from the recessive trait that causes an occasional black lamb to be born in to an entirely white flock. These black sheep were considered undesirable by shepherds, as black wool is not as commercially viable as white wool. Citizens who accept overbearing governments have been referred to by the Portmanteau neologism of sheeple. Somewhat differently, the adjective "sheepish" is also used to describe embarrassment.In antiquity, symbolism involving sheep cropped up in religions in the ancient Near East, the Mideast, and the Mediterranean area: Ã‡atalhÃ¶yÃ¼k, ancient Egyptian religion, the Cana'anite and Phoenician tradition, Judaism, Greek religion, and others. Religious symbolism and ritual involving sheep began with some of the first known faiths: skulls of rams occupied central placement in shrines at the Ã‡atalhÃ¶yÃ¼k settlement in 8,000 BCE. In Ancient Egyptian religion, the ram was the symbol of several gods: Khnum, Heryshaf and Amun . Other deities occasionally shown with ram features include: the goddess Ishtar, the Phoenician god Baal-Hamon, and the Babylonian god Ea-Oannes. In Madagascar, sheep were not eaten as they were believed to be incarnations of the souls of ancestors.
There are also many ancient Greek references to sheep: that of Chrysomallos, the golden-fleeced ram, continuing to be told through into the modern era. Astrologically, ''Aries'', the ram, is the first sign of the classical Greek zodiac and the sheep is also the eighth of the twelve animals associated with the 12-year cycle of in the Chinese zodiac, related to the Chinese calendar. In Mongolia, shagai are an ancient form of dice made from the cuboid bones of sheep that are often used for fortunetelling purposes.
Sheep play an important role in all the Abrahamic faiths; Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, King David and the Islamic prophet Muhammad were all shepherds. According to the Biblical story of the Binding of Isaac, a ram is sacrificed as a substitute for Isaac after an angel stays Abraham's hand . Eid al-Adha is a major annual festival in Islam in which sheep are sacrificed in remembrance of this act. Sheep are also occasionally sacrificed to commemorate important secular events in Islamic cultures. Greeks and Romans also sacrificed sheep regularly in religious practice, and Judaism also once sacrificed sheep as a Korban , such as the Passover lamb . Ovine symbols"”such as the ceremonial blowing of a shofar"”still find a presence in modern Judaic traditions. Followers of Christianity are collectively often referred to as a flock, with Christ as the Good Shepherd, and sheep are an element in the Christian iconography of the birth of Jesus. Some Christian saints are considered patrons of shepherds, and even of sheep themselves. Christ is also portrayed as the Sacrificial lamb of God and Easter celebrations in Greece and Romania traditionally feature a meal of Paschal lamb. In many Christian traditions, a church leader is called the pastor, which is derived from the Latin word for shepherd.
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While many people may think of communication as a primarily vocal or face-to-face experience, the expression of ideas, concepts, beliefs, and thoughts can occur in many different ways. While there are four primary types of communication, there is a multitude of techniques, tips, and tricks that can help facilitate effective communication among groups of people and between two individuals.
This article will explore the various aspects of communication, with a heavy emphasis on proper communication techniques. Understanding these methods can help individuals that may struggle to communicate with coworkers, friends, and family members effectively. But before diving into what forms of communication exist, and which ones are most effective in certain types of situations, it is crucial to explain the origins of human connection briefly.
A Brief History of Human Communication Techniques
Primates communicate in a variety of ways, though nonverbal communication, such as body language, tends to be more prevalent in non-human primate populations than verbal communication. Our ability to speak, which incorporates the use of many sounds to form words, is one of the defining factors that separates us from our primate cousins.
Before oral human language developed, early Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis used visual cues to express vital information. Ancient hunters would have drawn unnecessary attention to themselves and possibly lost their prey had they relied on speech, and gestures and body language became especially important.
The first step toward modern language came in the form of drawn or painted symbols. These symbols represented real objects, animals, and events and would later evolve into spoken symbolic communication. Words are forms of symbolic communication. The term ‘apple’ is not an apple, but many people will understand that this particular series of letters combine to form the written English ‘symbol’ for the tasty fruit.
Communication continues to change and adapt over time. A few hundred years ago, humans could interact with one another face-to-face, or through writing. Technological advancement has seen an increase in remote forms of communication, in addition to text-based and emoticon-based communication.
While our current society still primarily uses verbal communication, nonverbal forms are becoming more popular, prevalent, and crucial.
What Are the Basic Types of Communication?
There are four basic types of communication, and it may surprise you to learn that you most likely use them all during a typical day.
Verbal communication refers to ideas that are expressed aloud, verbally, or through sign language. This type of connection often occurs face-to-face, but receiving a phone call is also considered verbal communication.
The effectiveness of verbal communication depends on a large variety of factors, including the tone of someone’s voice, their diction, their accent, and their language. Face-to-face verbal communication is typically combined with nonverbal body language, as those listening are likely to interpret the words spoken to them in the context of the speaker’s paralanguage and body language.
As such, verbal communication can be one of the least reliable forms of communication. A study performed by UCLA once purported that verbal communication only constitutes about 7% of any face-to-face interaction or conversation, with the remainder consisting of nonverbal cues such as vocal tone and facial expression. However, it’s important to note that these findings have been challenged in recent years.
Nonverbal communication is often referred to as ‘body language,’ though it also includes gestures and facial expressions. Human children often learn to express themselves with nonverbal cues before mastering the spoken language. Teachers can benefit from the use of positive nonverbal communication, as it is the universal form of expression among human beings.
This is because primary emotions such as fear, sadness, and joy, are easily recognizable no matter what language or culture an individual adheres to. Understanding body language, facial expressions, and gestures are a significant part of effective communication. It can be challenging to communicate with someone who refuses to make eye contact, has their arms crossed, and seems to be looking aimlessly around.
Recognizing that someone is not open to communication is just as vital as understanding which communication techniques are more effective than others – after all, you could play a marvelous concerto in the park. Still, if the park is closed to the public that day, no one will hear you play. Knowing which social opportunities to take and which ones to avoid is a significant aspect of understanding and utilizing proper nonverbal communication.
Written communication is anything that comes in the form of text. Written, typed, or printed numbers, symbols, letters, or words all qualify as written communication. Common types of written communication include emails, text messages, to-do lists, notes, articles, and pretty much anything else than can be printed, sent or uploaded, and read by others.
This type of communication can be challenging to interpret, as there is little physical or verbal context given to written works. The intent of a written piece may not be effectively communicated by the writer, resulting in an argument among the readers as to the intended voice and style of the article. Ambiguity, while a buffet for English teachers and professors, does tend to make written communication less effective.
Verbal and nonverbal forms of communication have a far longer history of use among humans, with written communication being both the newest and most dubious method.
This is due, in part, to the fact that the world is divided by culture and language. A sentence that is translated from language to another may lose some of its meaning and significance, depending on the correctness of the translation and the cultural and language differences among readers.
Written communication is, therefore, one of the most challenging forms of communication to master and understand, especially on a global scale.
Images, drawings, and graphs are all fantastic examples of visual communication. This type of connection is typically used to convey abstract ideas or complex data, allowing it to be more effectively comprehended than if provided verbally.
For example, the quarterly earnings and deficits of a large company may be easier to understand with a visual aid such as a graph or chart, than by merely reading a list of figures or hearing a long-winded lecture on the subject.
The primary goal of visual communication is to make an impact upon receivers that would generally be difficult to achieve with other forms of communication. Those who work in marketing or media tend to rely heavily on visual communication to express ideas to large and diverse audiences.
Verbal Communication Techniques
Having an excellent command of verbal communication techniques can improve relationships with many groups, including coworkers, friends, and family. The most important thing to remember about verbal communication is that it is naturally a combined form of expression.
For example, vocal intonation plays a significant role in verbal communication, and face-to-face interactions tend to incorporate nonverbal cues in addition to the verbal ones. Remote verbal communication, through a telephone, computer, or similar electronic device, doesn’t include as much nonverbal information as in-person interactions do, but paralanguage still plays a vital role.
What is Paralanguage?
Before we can begin to explore verbal communication techniques and tips, we must first identify the role that paralanguage plays in proper verbal communication, and what it is.
Paralanguage refers to vocal intonation, vocal pitch, speed, the occurrence of hesitation sounds or words, gestures, and facial expressions. Emotion typically affects a person’s paralanguage, providing others with an insight into that speaker’s internal thoughts and feelings.
For example, someone who is speaking rapidly, and in a higher tone of voice than they typically use, could be expressing excitement, anger, or stress. Someone who speaks in a slow, monotone register may be expressing their disinterest or tiredness.
The diction chosen by any individual speaker is highly colored by the paralanguage that they use. Therefore, someone could be expressing regret, but unless they ‘sound sorry,’ the listener is unlikely to trust the words of the speaker, preferring instead to interpret the combination of visual cues and body language to form their conclusion regarding the intended message.
As such, paralanguage plays a massive role in verbal communication.
Verbal Communication Techniques for the Workplace
Active listening is crucial to effective verbal communication within the workplace environment. It is also an essential aspect of healthy relationships outside of work. However, mastering the art of listening can be very difficult for some, and may require practice.
Often, it is only too easy to stop listening to someone to begin forming a response. However, by doing this, we fail to actively listen to the person speaking, resulting in a loss of communication. By actively listening, not only is respect being shown and given, but information has a higher chance of being comprehended and shared, lessening additional questions or comments and making the entire interaction far more effective.
Actively listening, rather than hearing, can significantly improve general relationships with coworkers and supervisors. Not only will the people who communicate with you feel more valued while doing so, but they may also be more likely to return the kindness when it is your turn to speak.
Speaking less often, thinking before speaking, and showing humility and kindness are some of the things that all workers should practice. Though it may seem insignificant, following such practice can significantly influence workplace dynamics and the working environment.
Honesty and integrity are often things that can be expressed vocally, and it is essential to speak with absolute truthfulness, even though it may not be flattering to do so. Admitting mistakes early-on, communicating concerns with supervisors, and being honest with yourself and with others around you is one way to improve communication in the workplace.
On the other hand, showing confidence in work well-done is also essential. This does not extend to bragging, which is a negative form of social behavior.
However, individuals that struggle to comprehend societal and behavioral norms, and comply with them, may benefit from verbal modeling and imitation. People tend to feel more at ease around those who speak like them, so adopting the diction of your manager, coworkers, or workplace can help ease social anxiety relating to workplace communication.
While it may feel strange at first, it can build a feeling of community of camaraderie over time, lessening overall anxiety and potentially improving relationships with coworkers and higher-ups.
Verbal Communication Techniques for Outside the Workplace
It is often wise to separate work life from personal life, as many careers require a certain standard of professionalism. Adopting the diction and social habits of coworkers while at work is excellent, and can be helpful, but imitating friends and family to enjoy increased closeness does not always work well.
Relationships that are not business-related need a different touch, and there are a few vocal communication techniques that can help improve these relationships among friends and family members. Honesty is the first rule to follow.
Not only can close friends and family members tell when we are lying, but they can also hold onto that lie for a very long time. Liars are untrustworthy people whose words mean very little, so being dishonest is one of the worst ways to practice vocal communication.
Friendliness goes a long way. While it can be challenging to maintain an attitude of friendliness and helpfulness at all times, it is vital to practice friendliness whenever possible. Small acts of kindness can make a tremendous impact on a person’s self-esteem, self-image, and societal reputation.
Speaking more slowly, or less often, is also a great way to improve the way that we communicate with others. Instead of being in a rush to make a point, tripping over words and madly gesturing while searching for the right phrase, it is better to think about what you need to communicate beforehand, and clearly and reasonably express that idea.
Individuals that are viewed as calm and collected are far more approachable and easy to strike up a conversation with than those that seem frantic or scatter-brained.
Nonverbal Communication Techniques
Nonverbal communication, such as body language, dramatically influences the effectiveness and intent of vocal communication. As such, it is imperative to use proper nonverbal communication techniques, no matter who you are speaking with. Doing so can completely alter the interpretation of the message being given.
What is Body Language?
Body language is the primary form of nonverbal communication that people use to express their innermost feelings, thoughts, and desires. Frequently, body language presents itself as an unconscious reflection of these internal machinations. However, with practice and understanding, people can manipulate their natural body language to facilitate verbal communication and bolster the effectiveness of their intended message.
For example, those who are naturally uncomfortable in new social situations may cross their arms as a way to make themselves feel safer and more at ease. However, this sends a message to all around them that they are unreceptive to open communication. Being aware of poor body language habits is the first step to changing and improving them.
There are hundreds if not thousands of books and articles published about body language habits and practices. Still, there are a few key points that can improve any relationship, whether it be a workplace friendship or a long-lasting romance.
Nonverbal Communications Techniques for the Workplace
Posture, eye contact, and facial expression are essential components of excellent nonverbal workplace communication. Those who arrive to work slouched over, unwilling to make small talk or eye contact with coworkers, and with unpleasant or downright grumpy facial expression are unlikely to make a great impression on coworkers or supervisors.
Having and maintaining an upright posture is the first step to expressing positive nonverbal communication. It shows focus, interest, and energy, all of which are extremely attractive to employers. This sense of power can also extend to coworkers, helping them to feel more energized and more capable as they go through their day.
Eye contact is another essential body language habit to consider. Instinctually, our eyes tend to shift around erratically when taking in new information or processing an overload of sensory input. Those attempting to concoct a quick lie tend to suffer from this natural tendency, which is why ‘shifty eyes’ are typically associated with the act of being dishonest.
If a coworker or supervisor asks a question and you are not sure how to respond, it is better either immediately inform them that you are unsure, or to take a moment to think about the question before answering. You can also let your coworker or supervisor know that you need a moment to respond. The last thing you want to do is either lie or look around the room while you think of a response.
Facial expression is also significant for healthy workplace relationships. A gentle smile is typically at this is necessary when speaking with coworkers or a supervisor, and is often seen as a sign of respect, understanding, and familiarity. It can be easy to ‘zone out’ during work and adopt what is known as a ‘resting face,’ which tends to be rather grumpy.
Recognizing when this occurs and why is key to changing the habit. While it would be unsettling to find a coworker that is always grinning for no reason, ensuring that your demeanor is as pleasant and calm as possible throughout the day can have a remarkable effect on how coworkers and managers view your performance.
Nonverbal Communication Techniques for Outside the Workplace
There is a litany of nonverbal cues that people subconsciously use to express intent, desire, and emotion. From chest-pointing, toe-pointing, hair-playing, and more, there are several everyday body language habits that people use to improve relationships outside of work.
Mirroring is one of the most significant ways of telling how much a person likes you or trusts you. When out and about with friends or family, you may begin to notice that certain friends or family members start imitating your gestures, posture, stance, or expressions. This is called mirroring. It is a subconscious behavior that can help socially anxious individuals confirm the level of comfort shared among a group.
For example, if a group of friends all decides to cross their legs, they most likely feel a secure connection and affinity for one another. If their posture and stances are entirely different, they may be struggling to connect and communicate.
Toe-pointing and chest-pointing are attention-based forms of body language. When we are interested in someone or something, we tend to naturally point our whole bodies in the direction of that person or object. Not only can we express total focus by ultimately facing the person speaking with us, but we can also interpret others’ interests by acknowledging their posture as well.
Self-grooming, such as playing with hair, are nonverbal cues of attraction. When spotting a possible mate, it’s nearly impossible not to want to look as good as possible, which for many men and women means straightening the hair, checking to see if there’s anything caught in the teeth, and sucking in an overly broad gut. If your date continues to play with their hair throughout dinner, they may be subconsciously attempting to make themselves more attractive to you.
Written Communication Techniques
Writing effectively, either for work or for pleasure, requires a great deal of practice and a comprehensive understanding of your target audience. After all, an email to a manager is likely written very differently from a personal letter to a relative.
Written Communication Techniques for the Workplace
Knowing your audience, understanding your intent, and keeping things concise are the three most significant ways to improve written communication at work. Doing these three things can lessen confusion and generate quick and effective results.
A memo that was written to address a large workforce is unlikely to be appealing to any particular employee, as it is too broad. It may also be too long for many employees to digest fully. Communicating directly with specific coworkers, employers, or employees is a fantastic alternative.
It is crucial to be aware of the audience that will read any written correspondence at work. Being too informal can be viewed as unprofessional while being too formal can feel impersonal. Writing for a targeted audience, whether it be clients or coworkers, is massively important.
Intent also plays a critical role in writing for the workplace. Poor diction can turn a positive message into a sarcastic, scathing remark. As paralanguage influences the perceived intent of vocal communication, so diction influences written communication. Using the right words and phrases for the intended audience helps to minimize misunderstandings of flaws in purpose.
But keeping written communications short and concise is not only helpful in delivering an immediate or urgent notice, but it is also a sign of professionalism. Small talk with coworkers is a valuable thing to partake in, but there are a time and a place for such forms of communication.
Expressing precisely what needs to be revealed, without fluff or wordiness, is a valuable trait for any employee. Employers are bound to appreciate concise and clear messages over unnecessarily wordy ones.
Written Communication Techniques for Outside the Workplace
Those who enjoy writing in their free time for pleasure can also benefit from adopting a few fundamental written communication techniques. Whether an individual enjoys writing fiction, poetry, or non-fiction work, writing for the needs of the audience is crucial.
Understanding and writing for a particular audience requires writers to exhibit a comprehensive understanding of that audience. For example, it would be challenging to write a book about child-rearing if you didn’t have a child, had little experience with children, and didn’t know anyone with children. Excellent writing shows care and commitment toward a particular audience.
Length, style, and diction are all variable aspects of personal writing. Once the targeted audience is understood, a writer may need to perform research on that group in addition to researching genres, styles, and writing techniques that adhere to that audience’s preferences. However, because these rules tend to fluctuate and vary from audience to audience, there are very few set techniques that work for all writers.
Visual Communication Techniques
Improving visual communication techniques often involves becoming more familiar with software and programs that help facilitate the creation of graphs, charts, and spreadsheets. However, visual communication can also be images and media, which is why graphic designers and web designers consistently research new content creation software and tools.
Society judges what effective visual communication is and what it is not, so having a basic understanding of cultural trends, societal norms, and recent media innovations are crucial to improving visual communication techniques and practices.
Creating visual images or visual media on behalf of a company or business requires an understanding of client needs and product intent. Once the needs of the client have been settled, a visual communications creator must utilize a wide range of programs and tools to produce the desired visual product.
The best way to improve visual communication inside of the workplace or outside of it is to practice drawing, sketching, illustration, and graphic design skills. This is especially true of those who work in marketing or advertising.
Adopting user-friendly software that easily transfers inputted data into colorful graphs or charts is a convenient option for those who find themselves in and out of conference rooms, having to give presentations to groups of people. While proper vocal communication is imperative to the success of such ventures, the visual communication presented can significantly alter the outcome of such a meeting.
Using the four types of communication, anyone can adequately and efficiently express even the most abstract concepts or ideas. Communication isn’t limited to the words one uses to share information. It also heavily relies on posture, vocal intonation, facial expression, and so much more.
Understanding how these types of communication work, both singularly and together, can help you become more aware of your communication successes and failures and make wise changes in communication habits and techniques!


by Peter Tracy
In the 2014 film Povodyr (The Guide), director Oles Sanin tells the story of an American boy who, to survive the horrors of Soviet Ukraine, falls in with a blind minstrel and poses as his guide. It becomes increasingly clear, however, that minstrels such as the boy’s friend, often known in Ukrainian as kobzari, are actively being persecuted by Soviet authorities as a threat to their control in the region. At the end of the film, the boy witnesses a massacre of such minstrels, who are rounded up and blown to pieces unceremoniously under the cover of a dam-building project. Framed as a work of historical fiction, it is difficult not know how many of the events of Poyodyr truly took place, or whether they could realistically have occurred in the first place. Did such a massacre of kobzari really happen? And who were these minstrels that could so frighten the Soviet state?
Kobzari are the traditional bards of Ukraine, bearers of an oral tradition stretching back, some would argue, to the days of the Kyiv-centered federation known as the Kievan Rus’, which controlled much of Eastern and Northern Europe from the 9th until the 13th centuries. The term kobzar stems from the instrument known as the kobza, a plucked string instrument not unlike the lute or the oud, and some scholars see a relation between the kobza and the Turkish kobyz and komuz, two other string instruments which might have been introduced to Ukraine as part of a Turkic migration in the 13th century. Another string instrument played by early kobzari, the torban, bears a striking resemblance to the baroque theorbo.
The origins of the bards themselves are murky, but one prominent legend paints the early kobzari as military men, part of the nomadic Zaporozhian Cossack hosts which inhabited the regions of central and eastern Ukraine referred to as the “Wild Fields” in Polish-Lithuanian documents of the 16th and 17th centuries. Crimean Tatars regularly made slaving raids into the Ukrainian interior from this region, and the suffering caused by such events forms the subject of many Ukrainian folk stories. Following the Khmelnytsky Uprising against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 17th century, a polity known as the Cossack Hetmenate was established, and this fledgling Ukrainian state sparred with its Russian, Ottoman, and Polish-Lithuanian neighbors for roughly a century until it was incorporated into the Russian Empire in 1764.
In this telling of the kobzari’s origins, the bards were hardy nomadic fighters who composed songs to celebrate their fallen comrades, brave Ukrainian warrior-poets who battled Tatars, Ottomans, Poles, and Russians alike. This vision is encapsulated by the Ukrainian folk hero Cossack Mamay, a staple of Ukrainian art and storytelling who is regularly depicted as playing a kobza in rich traditional clothes, his head shaved except for one long forelock in a hairstyle known as chupryna and his rifle and sword by his side. Miniature paintings of Cossack Mamay have been found alongside religious icons, and the consistency of the composition within such images, remaining largely the same throughout centuries, implies the intense significance which the folk hero must have had for Cossack’s of the 17th and 18th centuries. As origin stories go, this semi-mythological history is a compelling one, exerting a strong pull on Ukrainians to this day.
Indeed, this vision of the early kobzari is in keeping with the subject matter of one of the more widely celebrated strains of the kobzar repertoire: historical epics known as dumy. According to Natalie Kononenko, a duma is an epic poem set largely to solo instrumental accompaniment that is chanted rather than sung, with line-lengths that can be extremely uneven and a delivery style closer to that of operatic recitative. Performance is guided by the sound of the the poetry itself rather than any fixed melody, and a duma’s subject matter is both serious and strictly defined:
“The usual division of their subject matter is into three categories: songs about the Turko-Tatar period, songs about the rebellion led by Bohdan Khmelnytskyi, and songs about everyday life. Sometimes the first category is further subdivided into songs about the field of battle and songs about captivity. Like historical songs, some epics tell about real historical figures, and others describe events in the life of an unnamed Cossack, brother, or widow.”
Another more nebulous and more fantastical group of historical songs known as Istorychni Pisni is fully sung and bears a striking resemblance to a parallel tradition of extra-liturgical religious song:
“In terms of subject matter, historical songs, like religious songs, tell of events that both the singer and the audience believed really happened. These events include the supernatural and the miraculous. As Saint Varvara survives being boiled in pitch, walking on broken glass, and being entombed for thirty years, so Baida survives being suspended by his left rib from a meat hook for three days before he dies. Likewise, Cossack heroes like Perebiinis and Nechai battle hundreds of enemy soldiers before being killed or captured. As human beings talk with Death, with angels, and with deceased and buried relatives in religious songs, so in historical songs animals speak with human voices. Horses inform the family back home that their riders are dead, and cuckoos sing laments over fallen Cossacks.”
Thus this integral part of Ukrainian folk song and the repertoire of the kobzari weaves an often spellbinding web of myths in which heroic Cossacks battle vicious foes for the sake of family, friends, and comrades, often dying spectacularly in the process. As in religious tales of martyrdom, these stories of heroic-yet-doomed proto-Ukrainian heroes allow listeners to feel a connection to the people of the distant past and can serve as allegories for similar situations in the present. One often gets the impression with such songs that their anonymous composers saw the events of which they tell with their own eyes and, like Cossack Mamay, retreated from the noisy fireside to create their epics in reflective solitude.
By the 19th century, Ukrainian minstrels were nothing like their semi-legendary Cossack fore-bearers. Indeed, they were almost exclusively blind beggars, men who relied on the charity of their neighbors to survive in a society that, as part of the Russian Empire, had turned from semi-nomadic hosts to serfdom. Russian serfs were sent to till Ukraine’s famous Black Soil, many Cossacks became farmers, and minstrels now wandered from one small town to the next offering their services. By this point, those wandering musicians who were termed kobzari played, not the kobza, but an asymmetrical lute called the bandura. Among them were also those who played the lira, an instrument akin to the hurdy-gurdy, and these lirnyky were part of the same professional guilds as their bandura-playing counterparts. These secretive organizations, each attached to a particular Orthodox church, were at the center of a minstrel’s life, mediating disputes over money and guaranteeing their members the right to perform in a certain geographical region.
A kobzar or lirnyky of this time period would be expected to undergo a period of rigorous training. The bards of the 19th century played, not just dumy or historical songs, but religious songs, erotic songs, begging songs, and songs full of satire and wit. An ideal minstrel might be expected to memorize and perform hundreds of songs and, on completing a long apprenticeship, would be initiated into the regional minstrel brotherhood or guild through an elaborate, quasi-religious ritual. Minstrels had their rituals outside of the church as well, exchanging elaborate, formulaic greetings on meeting each other for the first time. This practice could often become absurd when many minstrels congregated in one place, but it served a purpose: learned at the end of their training and incorporating a secret minstrel language called lebiiska mova, these greetings were considered essential to the credibility of a minstrel, who, if found to be performing without the proper training, might have his bandura strings cut at the behest of the local guild, or worse. It is also worth emphasizing the degree to which blindness was a prerequisite for the modern kobzar, so much so that blind children of the time were almost automatically sent to be trained under a master minstrel. Ukrainian minstrelsy in the 19th and early 20th centuries therefore amounted to its own cultural sphere, a small universe in which different rules were at play. In the words of Kononenko, “minstrels were both members of their villages and people apart”.
Although most dumy tell of a specific historical time period, Ukrainian history has provided plenty of opportunities for older song texts to resonate well beyond their original contexts. The Russian Civil War of the early 20th century was devastating for Ukraine, but the Soviet period was even more so: the famine known as Homolodor decimated the region, killing at least 3.5 million people between 1932 and 1933. The Ukrainian government in Kyiv has called for Holodomor an intentional act of genocide against the Ukrainian people, a charge which the contemporary Russian government has denied. The resonances with the old stories to be found in the dumy — of Tatar slaving raids and battles against an oppressive foreign state — are hard to miss.
Kobzari and lirnyky did not fare much better than their more sedentary neighbors under Soviet rule, and they arguably fared much worse. In the eyes of the Soviet state under Stalin, these minstrels and their songs were subversive simply by nature of their existence. The epics of the dumy contain themes of revolt and resistance which were seen as an active danger to Russian control, and the evidence which these songs offered of a regional, perhaps even national culture unique to Ukraine was antithetical to the Russian vision of the area as simply “Little Russia”. Thus the Soviet government, in an attempt to co-opt this epic tradition, ordered dumy to be composed about Soviet heroes such as Lenin and managed to make these state-sponsored dumy all but compulsory material for any kobzar wanting to keep out of trouble. Even in earlier times, minstrels were not always looked upon favorably: as Kononenko points out, “traditional minstrels were treated in opposite and extreme ways. Some considered them the successors of the Apostles, and thus, trustworthy spiritual guides. Others suspected them of drunkenness and thievery.” These conflicting views came together in Soviet persecution of minstrels, who were regularly the targets of arbitrary police violence yet could be publicly celebrated if they played along with authorities.
Still the persecution of minstrels during this period was intense. Kononenko relates the story of Ehor Movchan, a minstrel whose relationship with the Soviet police could be highly contradictory:
“Even Ehor Movchan, the composer of “Duma about Lenin,” beloved of Soviet authorities, suffered at the hands of the police. According to Pavlo Suprun, several policemen in Kiev once arrested Movchan for loitering, drove him far outside the city in the middle of a snowstorm, and left him to get back on his own. Movchan, one of the last traditional kobzari, was blind, and making it back into town through a storm was an almost impossible task. But the city police chief panicked when he learned what had happened to this emblem of the Soviet people and sent a search party to help find the old man, who returned safely. Perhaps to help him through the many times when he suffered police harassment and arrest without cause, Movchan had a special walking stick made for himself. It was a bit thicker than an ordinary blind man’s staff and hollow, with a screw cap, and it held exactly one liter of vodka. Movchan was supposedly found in his jail cell more than once, drunk from some inexplicable source.”
The more positive view of minstrels — as wise blind men who kept the truths of traditional religion and culture alive — was also very much at play when minstrels were more explicitly connected to the project of Ukrainian nationalism. The Soviet state made this connection and reacted accordingly, with violence and repression. Ukrainian ethnomusicologists and scholars of late 19th and early 20th centuries also used dumy as part of a nationalist project, connecting them to a proto-national past and a future which they hoped would bring an independent Ukrainian state into existence. According to Kononenko, “nationalism motivated many of the scholars who collected dumy and presented them to the public. The scholars could not exhibit the full extent of their nationalist feelings because Ukraine at that time was part of the Russian Empire and anyone writing about dumy needed to do so in Russian. Nonetheless, the texts themselves could be in Ukrainian. Thus, the dumy and, by extension, the kobzari and lirnyky who sing them have been intimately bound together with Ukrainian nationalism since at least the late 19th century. Today, with the kobzar tradition seeing a post-Soviet revival and Ukraine once again the subject of violent foreign interference, this association is perhaps stronger than ever.
A widespread perception persists linking dumy and Ukrainian minstrel traditions to resistance against foreign domination. Still, we must ask ourselves whether these sorts of nationalistic myths have any basis in reality: did the massacre of minstrels depicted in Poyodyr really happen, for instance? Russian imperialism in Ukraine has been and continues to be devastating, violent, and, in cases such as that of Holodomor, arguably genocidal. Thus the truth of the massacre, in practical terms, is less that it happened with certainty and more that it certainly seems it could have happened. There are indeed rumors, sometimes taken as historical fact, that a massacre of minstrels did occur in Kharkiv in 1939: a minstrelsy conference was called and bards from all over Ukraine were invited, only for them to be trucked into the forest and shot. Or so the story goes: no hard evidence of such a massacre has yet been uncovered.
The depiction of the liquidation of minstrels in Sanin’s film instills this event with all the drama of a duma, replacing rifles with explosives and concentrating the massacre into one spectacular moment. It distills a certain view of Russian-Ukrainian relations down to one violent act, holding it up as a symbol of national mourning and, ultimately, re-purposing a historical rumor as a call to resistance. Thus Poyodyr participates in a long history of such mythologizing, beginning with the dumy and stretching into the present. Can we begrudge Sanin this poetic license, when the evidence of Russian brutality against Ukrainians is so widespread, and when we see hard evidence of similar violence almost daily through our phones and computer screens? At moments in which such atrocities seem possible once again, the music and stories of the kobzari can give strength to their listeners and can alter the way they think of their place in history. Art and myth, whether traditional or contemporary, can turn stories of incomprehensibly violent and tragic events into stirring metaphors, forging kernels of truth from an overwhelmingly complex whole. Thus songs such as the dumy can, if not change the past, then at least help us to move on from it with some sense of redemption and dignity. Stories, set to music and performed with skill, can craft a narrative of struggle and allow us to hope that such trials may someday come to an end.
A playlist centered around all things kobzar, the traditional bards of Ukraine.
Chorna, Milena. “The Ukrainian folk painting” Cossack Mamay” and Cossacks’ spiritual practice.” Opera Slavica, XXV, 2015, 2: 59-70.
Grabowicz, Oksana I. “‘Dumy’ as Performance.” Harvard Ukrainian Studies 32/33 (2011): 291–313.
Kononenko, Natalie. Ukrainian Epic and Historical Song: Folklore in Context. University of Toronto Press, 2019.
Kononenko, Natalie O. Ukrainian Minstrels. Folklores and Folk Cultures of Eastern Europe. Armonk: Taylor & Francis Group, 1997.
Kononenko, Natalie. “Widows and Sons: Heroism in Ukrainian Epic.” Harvard Ukrainian Studies 14, no. 3/4 (1990): 388–414.
Noack, Christian, Janssen, Lindsay, and Comerford, Vincent. Holodomor and Gorta Mór : Histories, Memories, and Representations of Famine in Ukraine and Ireland. Anthem Series on Russian, East European and Eurasian Studies. London: Anthem Press, 2012.
Olkhovsky, A., and Ernest J. Simmons. “History of Ukrainian Music.” In Concise Encyclopedia Ukraine, edited by Volodymyr Kubijovyč, 579–93. University of Toronto Press, 1971.
Pomorska, Krystyna. “Observations on Ukrainian Erotic Folk Songs.” Harvard Ukrainian Studies 1, no. 1 (1977): 115–29.
Rudnitsky, A. “The Role of Music in Ukrainian Culture.” Bulletin of the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America 1, no. 4 (1943): 823–37.
Shapoval, Yuri, and Marta D. Olynyk. “The Ukrainian Language under Totalitarianism and Total War.” Harvard Ukrainian Studies 35, no. 1/4 (2017): 187–212.
 Natalie Kononenko, Ukrainian Epic and Historical Song: Folklore in Context. University of Toronto Press, 2019, 7.
 Kononenko (2019), 45.
 See Milena Choma, “The Ukrainian folk painting” Cossack Mamay” and Cossacks’ spiritual practice.” Opera Slavica, XXV, 2015, 2: 60.
 Natalie O. Kononenko, Ukrainian Minstrels. Folklores and Folk Cultures of Eastern Europe. Armonk: Taylor & Francis Group, 1997, 23.
 Kononenko (1997), 21-22.
 See Kononenko (1997), 68.
 Kononenko (1997), 66.
 See the chapter titled “Holodomor in Ukraine 1932– 1933: an Interpretation of Facts” in
Holodomor and Gorta Mór : Histories, Memories and Representations of Famine in Ukraine and Ireland, edited by Christian Noack, et al., Anthem Press, 2012, 19-34.
 Kononenko (1997), 27.
 Kononenko (1997), 31.
 Kononenko (2019), 4.
 See Kononenko (2019), 5.


Different Learning Styles – How to Design Learning to Accommodate our Learners?
People learn in different ways. We all have our individual preference for the ways in which we learn. In this post, we will explore different models to categorize learners into different learning styles. We will also explain how to design learning to accommodate our learners.
Understanding the different learning styles will influence the design and assessment strategies. That’s why it is important to know some models so we can cater for a wider group of learners.
What are learning styles?
There are numerous theories which discuss different learning styles. In the past few decades, educational theorists have expanded the work of psychologists in the area of individual learner differences.
As a result, a number of theories have emerged about how people can be classified into different groups based on how they learn more effectively and their preferences.
Generally most theorists describe learning styles as different aspects of the ways that people learn, process information and respond to environmental stimuli in different dimensions.
Some theorists and researchers have identified the following definitions of learning styles:
- The way that individuals attend to and integrate complex new information determines which style categorizes a learner (Dunn, 1978). Additionally, personal choice and preference play a role in what style one chooses for learning.
- Dunn (1978) indicated that learning styles are approaches to learning and studying.
- Keefe (1982) defined learning styles as characteristic cognitive, affective and psychological behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with or respond to the learning environment.
- Dunn and Perrin (1994) described learning styles as “the way in which each learner begins to concentrate on, process and retain new and difficult information. That interaction occurs differently for each individual” (p. 2).
- Gilbert and Han (1999) and Gilbert (2000) confirmed that learning preferences facilitate the way individuals learn when the learning environment considers the various learning styles of students, thereby impacting the comprehension of materials presented.
- Felder and Spurlin (2005) described learning styles as “characteristic strengths and preferences in the ways they take in and process information” (p. 1). Felder (2005) indicated that learning styles are often reflected in “different academic strengths, weaknesses, skills, and interests” (p. 3). Learning styles are often influenced by heredity, upbringing and current environmental demands. Individuals have a tendency to both perceive and process information differently.
Learning styles are not unique and fixed for each individual. They fluctuate within subject or lesson and each person will have a variety of learning styles and preferences.
There are many frameworks or models to classify learners into specific learning styles. In this article we will explore the following models:
- Multiple Intelligence Theory.
- Split Brain Theory (left-brain, right-brain).
- Global and Analytical Learner Model.
Multiple Intelligence Theory
The Theory of Multiple Intelligence was developed in 1983 by Howard Earl Gardner and it was first published in his book Frames Of Mind: The Theory Of Multiple Intelligence.
Its basis opposes the idea of a single dominant type of intelligence, and instead acknowledges the existence of multiple intelligence, that compose a unique blend in each individual.
The Multiple Intelligence Theory indicates that each type of human intelligence represents a different way of processing information. The different intelligence are:
- Verbal-linguistic: refers to an individual’s ability to analyse information and produce work that involves oral and written language, such as speeches, books and memos.
- Logical-mathematical: describes the ability to develop equations and proofs, make calculations and solve abstract problems.
- Visual-spatial: allows people to comprehend maps and other types of graphical information.
- Musical: enables individuals to produce and make meaning of different types of sound.
- Naturalistic: refers to the ability to identify and distinguish among different types of plants, animals and weather formations found in the natural world.
- Bodily-Kinaesthetic: entails using one’s own body to create products or solve problems.
- Interpersonal: reflects an ability to recognize and understand other people’s moods, desires, motivations and intentions.
- Intrapersonal: refers to people’s ability to recognize and assess those same characteristics within themselves.
Design Strategies for Multiple Intelligence Theory in eLearning
The following picture shows the different multiple intelligence and some strategies that can be used to implement them.
Another set of activities suitable for the different multiple intelligence is shown below:
And finally, more design strategies are listed in the following table:
|Verbal-linguistic||Scenarios, discussions on forums, links to additional information concerning the subject matter.|
|Logical-mathematical||Graphics, charts, tables, critical thinking branching scenarios, where learners are required to find the answer using a series of clues.|
|Visual-spatial||Use of color, images, illustrations, graphics, games and multimedia that are visually appealing.|
|Musical||Music and sound, such as multimedia presentations with audio, narrations, podcasts, voice recordings.|
|Bodily-Kinaesthetic||Include virtual environments and activities that require physical involvement, such as drag and drop interactions, eLearning games, and simulations. Include several interactive methods and techniques to encourage kinaesthetic learners feel, touch, move, and manipulate objects. Here some VR/AR experiences might be a good option too.|
|Interpersonal||Forums and chats to encourage the exchange of ideas and social learning. Prompt learners to share their own experiences, views and ask them to make decisions while putting themselves in someone else’s shoes in scenario-based activities.|
|Intrapersonal||Scenarios that offer real world benefits is ideal for them, as they become more engaged when introspecting and reflecting. Moreover, don’t hesitate providing your intrapersonal learners with material for further private study, as it will help them gain a sense of what they want to achieve or what are the mistakes to avoid in their personal or professional lives.|
Split Brain Theory
In the 1960s, neuroscientist Roger W. Sperry discovered that by cutting the corpus callosum, a large bundle of fibres that connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain, he could reduce seizures in patients with epilepsy. The results of these experiments also revealed that the 2 sides of the brain performed different tasks.
Anatomically, the brain is divided into 2 hemispheres; the left and right. Studies have indicated that the 2 hemispheres have different functions and characteristics.
Based on these studies and the lateralization of the brain function, we have the theory of left-brain or right-brain. According to the theory of left-brain or right-brain dominance, each side of the brain controls different types of thinking. Additionally, people are said to prefer one type of thinking over the other.
According to the left-brain, right-brain dominance theory, the right side of the brain is best at expressive and creative tasks. Some of the abilities popularly associated with the right side of the brain include:
- Recognizing faces.
- Expressing emotions.
- Reading emotions.
The left-side of the brain is considered to be adept at tasks that involve logic, language, and analytical thinking. The left-brain is described as being better at:
- Critical thinking.
Design Strategies for Split Brain Theory in eLearning
For learners with more tendency to the left hemisphere, some activities would include presenting information in numerical tables, with facts, figures, statistics, showing content in a logical order and sequences.
The assessments would require learners to organize facts, accurate responses involving recall of information and solutions of specific problems.
For right hemisphere learners, I would include activities that involve presenting images, asking for emotions, opinions and feelings in regards to the information presented rather than factual responses. I would include scenarios or case studies to let learners imagine possible responses and suggest different solutions, predict outcomes and apply solutions to hypothetical problems.
Every eLearning module would include activities for both styles.
Global and Analytical Learner Model
In the Global Learner Model, the learner takes in information holistically. Begins with understanding concepts first, with mastery of details to follow. On the other hand, in the Analytical Learner Model, the learner takes in information sequentially, step-by step, preferring to learn a series of facts that lead toward an understanding of a larger concept.
Global learners need to see the big picture first and know the end result before beginning. While the analytical learners like to learn one piece at a time; they enjoy a clear sequence that starts at the beginning and moves to the end one step at a time.
In my workplace, I would design and adapt the eLearning modules to cater both styles as follows:
- Include the learning objectives of the training.
- Present a list of what learners will achieve at the end of the course.
- Start with the basic concepts, one step at a time and then build up the complexity of the content as the learner progresses.
Identify your Own Learning Style
There are different tests and tools you can use to determine your learning style and preferences.
The DISC assessment is an inventory model of learning styles which is composed of four quadrants classified by behavior. DISC is an acronym for Dominance, Influence, Steadiness, and Conscientiousness.
Other tool I have used is called “HBDI – Herrmann Brain Dominance Instrument”. This instrument was developed by Ned Herrmann after investigating split-brain theory and using technologies such as Electroencephalography (EEG), Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). HBDI allows you to become aware of your thinking preferences in order to use them better in your professional and personal life.
The HBDI test consists of 120 questions and the results and then categorized in four quadrants.
Other test you can do completely free is in this link https://personalitymax.com/
They will also provide with a snapshot on your preferences and your learning styles.
Designing eLearning for All Learning Styles
I believe it is possible in a post-modern world to provide instruction that will serve a wide range of learners without getting too tangled in the maze of learning style theories.
Basically, exposure to different instructional approaches is important. Incorporating a variety of teaching and assessment methods, being aware of cultural differences and providing students with opportunities to reflect on thinking will improve learning outcomes.
The type of instruction needed depends significantly on the discipline, the context and the content of what is being taught (Paschler, McDaniel, Rohrer, & Bjork 2008). A thorough analysis of these elements ensures that instruction will be aligned with expected outcomes.
A geometry course, for example, will likely have a much different presentation than will a writing course. Independently of the course, I would provide learners with plenty of opportunities to engage in critical thinking as a way to deconstruct and reconstruct the desired content in any discipline.
When a learner is exposed to different media in an instructional module, they will develop multiple schemas while working together for mastery of content.
Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning proposes that the best instruction includes information presented both visually and aurally, without redundancy or overload. We discussed these multimedia strategies in the post “Richard Mayer on Multimedia Learning”.
For digital environments, designers need to have a sundry toolbox to make the instruction clear and adaptable.
Approaches and Implementation Techniques for Developing Multiple Intelligence Content
Verbal / Linguistic Intelligence
|Descriptive Writing||Summaries, procedures, problem solving, narrative.|
|Creative Writing||Stories, history, wordplay, metaphors, myths, legends, plays, prose, poetry.|
|Details||Facts, names, places, trivia.|
|Vocabulary Focus||Keywords, origins and definitions of terms.|
|Puzzles||Word puzzles and games.|
Logical / Mathematical Intelligence
|Numbers||Mental arithmetic, calculations, measurements.|
|Mathematical Order||Steps, procedures, sequences, patterns.|
|Logic||Scientific, deductive, syllogisms, Venn diagrams, inductive, analogies.|
|Visual Representation||Graphs, charts, pie charts, grids, matrices.|
|Maths Representation||Codes, symbols, formulas.|
|Puzzles||Logic puzzles and games.|
|Problem Solving||Estimations, predictions, exploration.|
|Causal Knowledge||Questioning, cause and effect, logical meanings and relationships.|
|Classification||Compare/contrast, attribute identification, categorizations, ranking.|
|Outlining||Logical explanations, logical thought maps, sequence charts.|
Visual / Spatial Intelligence
|Pictures||Drawings, maps, diagrams, artwork, photography, videos, slides, movies.|
|Visual Organizers||Flowcharts, visual outlines, concepts maps, mind maps.|
|Internal Visualization||Visual thinking exercises, imaginations, guided imagery, visual memory.|
|Visual Variety||Patterns, designs, color, texture, geometric designs, unusual positions.|
|Puzzles||Visual puzzles, mazes, games.|
Musical / Rhythmic Intelligence
|Music Tuning||Background music, mood setting, sound breaks and jingles.|
|Content Illustration||Songs, raps, chants.|
|Musical Metaphor||Tones, notes, rhythms, clapping.|
|Sounds||Instrumental, environmental, nature.|
The Challenge for Instructional Designers
An instructional designer would find challenging to determine which system of learning-style classification would be most appropriate for a particular project. There are so many style inventories that, in their own right, seem logical and suitable for dividing people into groups for instructional planning purposes.
However, no one model is going to fit or match the potential range of learners.
Instruction that is engaging, flexible and relevant to the intended audience, and that is presented in ways that encompass varied avenues of access is likely to meet the needs of diverse learners, no matter what their current or preferred style may be (Paschler, McDaniel, Rohrer, & Bjork 2008).
A person’s thinking about and attention to their individual learning preferences may be useful in developing a metacognitive awareness of how best to approach a particular learning goal, which is highly dependent on the discipline, the content and the context of the task.
But it is not useful to lock oneself into a learning style that limits participation in engaging learning experiences offered through a variety of well-designed instructional strategies.
It is important not to label a learner within a preferred style but to challenge them to try using different learning materials. Also encourage your students to use a range of activities in an eLearning environment to cater for all styles.
Learners stereotyped as having one particular learning style may find themselves locked into one kind of learning experience, discouraging experimentation with other learning approaches.
Rather, all learners will likely benefit, over time, by being exposed to and using a varied toolbox of cognitive strategies to access content knowledge.
To face these challenges of multiple intelligence and learning styles I would suggest two practices.
Firstly, I would focus on promoting among the learners metacognition strategies for learning effectively such as elaboration, comprehension monitoring, and mnemonics.
And secondly, I support the idea of designing learning experiences that incorporate a variety of methods to cater for all learning styles and that promote the development of multiple intelligence.
When designing instructional systems I would keep in mind the use of technologies to support different learning strengths. For example, there is in the market software to stimulate verbal/linguistic intelligence, or calculus activities to develop logical/mathematical intelligence, logic puzzles and games, or drawings and artwork to promote visual/special intelligence.
Technology can be used in the classroom along with traditional activities to help students develop their intelligence (Bennett & Tipton, 1996).
In the online environment, on the other hand, as internet technologies become more user-friendly and accessible, instructional designers can create learning experiences that incorporate activities that appeal to the different intelligence and thus increasing learner responsiveness (Osciak & Milheim, 2001).
Each strategy in the learning experience will benefit learners in a different way, and learners will get out more or less from a particular strategy, but the important point to keep in mind is to include a variety of instructional methods and encouraging learners to use effective learning habits.
The key message at the end is “to offer variety and learners will be happy” 😀
I hope you liked this post. Feel free to leave your comments below and tell me what are your preferences and learning styles?
See you next time,
Bennett, C.K. & Tipton, P.E. (1996). Using technology to develop multiple intelligence in the classroom. In B. Robin et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 1996 (pp. 976-978). Chesapeake, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE).
Dunn, K. & Dunn, R. (1978). Teaching students through their individual learning styles: A practical approach. Reston, VA: Reston Publishing.
Dunn, R., Dunn, K., & Perrin, J. (1994). Teaching young children through their individual learning styles. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, Inc.
Felder, R. M., & Spurlin, J. E. (2005). Applications, reliability and validity of the Index of Learning Styles. International Journal of Engineering Education, 21(1), 103-112.
Gilbert, J. E., & Han, C. Y. (1999). Adapting instruction in search of a significant difference. Journal of Network and Computing Applications, 22(3), 149-160.
Gilbert, J. E. (2000). Case based reasoning applied to instruction method selection for intelligent tutoring systems. Workshop Proceedings of ITS’ 2000: Fifth International Conference on Intelligent Tutoring Systems, Montreal, CA.11-15.
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Kelly, D. Brendan, T. (n.d.). A Framework for using multiple intelligence in an ITS.
Khalsa, G. (2013). Should Instructional Designers Accommodate Learning Styles?. In R. McBride & M. Searson (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2013 (pp. 1350-1355). Chesapeake, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE).
Osciak, S. & Milheim, W. D. (2001). Multiple intelligence and the design of web-based instruction. International Journal of Instructional Media (pp. 355-361). Retrieved from http://www.acdowd-designs.com/sfsu_860_11/MI and design of web-based instruction.pdf
Pappas, C. (2015). Multiple Intelligence in eLearning: The Theory and its impact. [Web]. Retrieved from https://elearningindustry.com/multiple-intelligence-in-elearning-the-theory-and-its-impact
Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2008). Learning styles: Concepts and evidence. Psychological Sciences in the Public Interest, 9(3), 103-119.
I always joke with my mom about being a right brain and her DEFINITELY being a left brain. I’m artistic, semi-dramatic (lol), more expressive and social. My mom is an analytical thinker, she does numbers for a living and is a bit of an introvert. I enjoyed learning more about my mom and I in your post as well as seeing in more detail exactly what kind of learner I am. I’ve always learned better by being shown rather than reading it in a book, etc. I’d also never heard of the naturalistic/spiritual grouping. I fit into that and the visual/spatial category for sure. Thanks for the great info!
Hi Jennifer, I’m glad you discovered other intelligence styles here. It is good to know out styles so we know more how we are happier to consume training and content in general.
I’ve always leaned more toward kinesthetic learning and my least favorite learning method is auditory. If someone tries to teach me something just by talking, I might forget 99.9% of what they just said unless the subject matter is interesting to me. If I’m moving, role playing, using any kind of physical action, I’m so much better at gripping something. Even at my day job, they try to onboard us with auditory and visual learning and it couldn’t have been more confusing. However, once I gained hands-on experience, I was fine and picked up faster than most.
Hi Todd, that is a such a cool way to learn. Hands on training and practicing knowledge is so valuable for learning. Lots of technical careers are best learned this way. You might need some more technological tools like VR/AR experiences to have a more engaging learning experience for your preferences. Thanks so much for reading and commenting.
I love this as it really gives insight to just how man different ways there are to learn! I myself learn best I feel by visuals but after reading this I may have to give a few others a try as well!
I’m happy to see that you might give other styles a try. That’s so important! We need to challenge ourselves all the time and also we will have more opportunities to discover other ways to consume content and education. Thanks for reading and commenting 🙂
This is really quite interesting. I never realized that there were so many ways people learn and we each have our own particular way. I went over to check out the test because I thought it would be good to find out how I learn. I’ll have to try it later when I have more time, because it says it takes 25 minutes. So I will be doing that. Thanks so much for the information.
Hi Lynn, I’m glad you found something useful in the post. The test will also tell you which careers are more aligned with your preferences. That’s such a good resource for students in high school when they don’t know what to do next.
That is so cool! Human body is so magical! Thank you for sharing this! I like to see a picture that makes me simple to understand this, great article!
Thanks so much 😀 I’m glad you like it.
Really enjoyed this post and the explanation of all the learning types.
I especially appreciated your conclusion about the importance of variety in learning for every type of learner to stretch each individuals ability to adapt to different learning styles.
I personally struggled with traditional classroom learning because of the difficulty I experienced focusing in a large classroom setting. but I excelled at online learning which was much more personally engaging and allowed me to focus. I think technology and e-learning have opened the doors to learning for many people that once fell through the cracks of the traditional learning models.
Hi Joe, I’m the same! I struggled so much in uni with the traditional lessons. In the online environment I feel more comfortable.
Yep, for me, it’s logical. I’m very conceptual in nature and HATE memorizing stuff. It forces me to do so much work and wastes my energy. But with concepts, I can understand the know how and let everything else fall into place. Great post and very educational!
Memorising is a waste of time, you are right. And even more now where information is so easy to access. The important piece of knowing how to apply concepts 🙂
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Helpful posts. Thanks a lot.