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Join me on a brief journey through the eyes of these strangers.
Somewhere on earth, all five characters land close by one another, open their eyes, and begin to converse about the differences in each other and all the people passing by.
African: " That person is different from me because his eyes are slanted."
Angel: " That person is different from me because she's having a Batmitzva."
South American: "That person is different from me because her skin is darker than mine"
African: " That person is different from me because his skin is lighter than mine."
Alien: " Well that person is the same as me because he's got four legs, a looong neck, and short antennae on his head."
African: "That's not a person, It's a giraffe!"
God: "Every single person is different from every single person. Similar sometimes, different definitely."
All: " We must be in America!"
This simple scene tells of the journey of how five people/ beings arrived in America. It is clear why they came; they were all seeking change. It is clear how they got there. God simply dropped them there.
What about us? In order to understand who we are today better, we must delve into the roots of our heritage. How did we come to be American? The answer to this question will be the basis of the curriculum unit New Beginnings. This unit will integrate the art of drama with the immigration process. Very often you can't fully understand what would prompt another person to such a life altering decision as to leave their homeland unless you've experienced the details of the situation first hand.
Freshman drama students will utilize this unit. As these students embark on their high school career, they may find a common ground between themselves entering a new atmosphere, and the characters they will create who will make their way throughout the course to a new land called America. Through the exploration of character work, basic acting skills, and essay writing, the students will create a character from somewhere other than America. By exploring the specific details, either factually, or imaginatively, of their characters' daily life in their homeland, combined with the immigration procedures within a given time frame, the students will recognize the obstacles, advantages, and many possible reasons for becoming an American citizen.
In the short piece I have written in the opening of this unit I chose to include an alien, and an angel. My thought being, never say never. Everything is possible. One or two students might entertain a similar philosophy, and limiting them to the obvious may only hinder their creativity. The objective is to show the students that as Americans we all originate elsewhere, and by ultimately putting them in someone else's shoes, they may gain a greater acceptance toward others who are so called "different" from them.
For the first three days of class, pose to the students the following question: If you could have been born anywhere besides America, in any year, and be any type of person, besides yourself, where, when, and who would you be? Have the students write their ideas in as much detail as possible. Give them free reign to be as imaginative, or as obvious as they wish to be as long as they are detailed and specific. Each student will read their ideas aloud and should be permitted to share physical character examples of the character. On the fourth day, the students will be asked to choose one of the three characters they may want to be as a basis of their character work. For example, suppose the student ultimately chooses intergalactic space traveler, Andromeda, 1983. Their initial description of that character might read as follows:
I am an intergalactic space traveler. I soar through the universes in a V shaped, multi-colored light, slow craft. It travels beyond human comprehension through the galaxies until it reaches the earth's orbit than it kicks into slow gear. I observe human beings and study the way they act and react to each other and their ever-changing environment. My species does not age. I receive nourishment from mineral rocks that grow in the black holes in space, but my favorite snack food is cheese from the earth's moon.
Library access will now be set up for the students to begin researching information on their chosen birthplace, but this does not have to be their only means. If they know someone originally from their chosen birthplace, the student might want to set up interviews with them. Poems and short stories are also encouraged as accessible information. A basic questionnaire outline will be given as a guideline, but they will be expected to access as much information as possible. At the completion of their research, the students will be given a character analysis worksheet. (1) This worksheet will be used in two ways. First, the student must answer the questions based upon their own selves giving them a greater understanding of their own characteristics. Second, the student must answer the questions based upon their unit character. Answering these questions from two points of view allows them to make clear and concise choices for the characters further development throughout the unit.
At this point the students will begin to write a three- part essay. Essay writing will be encouraged throughout the unit, and all work will be kept in individual folders for the students to reference and to guide their progress.
Using the same intergalactic space traveler as an example, the character may now be perceived in a more extensive manner, and the description might possibly now be elaborated upon as follows:
My name is Io (4). I am an Intergalactic Space Traveler. That is my job. I am named after one of the 16 satellites that orbit Jupiter. I come from a galaxy called Andromeda. It is 2.2 million light years from earth. The exact name of my birth-place is Brightonox in the land of Vindemiatrix. The atmosphere is cool and gelatin-like. The surface of the land is spongy, so instead of walking, we bounce. We have weather similar to earth. As earth is the third planet from its' sun, we are the third land from Betelgeuse. Betelgeuse is our closest star, and is three times the size of the sun. When Betelgeuse shines well upon us we call this span a geusey span. We get showers in our weather as well, only it is our ground that breaks open and stones pull upward and fly straight into the atmosphere. This doesn't happen too often. On Vindemiatrix, we communicate with a language called Monocerus, but we have a heightened communication ability that allows us to understand every known language in the universe. There are 300,000 Vindemiatrixian in our sector. We have no need for laws because we are unified peaceful beings. Our main source of nourishment comes from Betelgeuse. When we get the signal that we need to be nourished, which is when liquid flows from our visual receptors, we simply stand outside and face the gigantic star, and we become full. Our most frequent tradition is to visit the earth to celebrate our creators' greatest masterpiece: the human being. We visit earth at least once a month, their time. We celebrate by throwing glowing rocks through their sky. Wur arrivals are often very noisy and create electrical flashes throughout their firmament. To compensate for the commotion, we release multi-colored arches in their sky for their viewing pleasure.
With these sample essays I have combined basic facts with imagination to demonstrate the beginnings of how this unit will play out. The students may choose a character more common or more extraordinary. Keep in mind that this is a drama class, the possibilities are endless.
Students will write an initial essay of the lifestyle and culture of their chosen birthplace. This essay will include facts listed from the questionnaire outline in as much detail as possible.
Students will write a detailed essay of their character based upon the choices they've made. This essay will include the specifics listed in the character analysis worksheet. Again in as much detail as possible.
Students are ready to begin combining the previous essays to create a story of what their characters daily life was like growing up. This is absolute imagination, and only the facts of their birth-place need to coincide.
When all essays are complete, the students will assemble into groups of four. Each member of the group will read their essays aloud. A question and answer period will follow each reading to promote further ideas that may have been overlooked. The students will now collaborate on ideas about possible reasons why each character would choose to leave their birth-place and venture to America. Each student will then choose one primary reason on which to base his/her further character work. Throughout the course of this unit, students may, and hopefully will, ultimately find many reasons as they develop a thinking character.
Relaxation- Releasing unnecessary tension from the muscles
By practicing this process, the students will eventually be able to assess and relax their bodies under any circumstances within five minutes.
The purpose for relaxation to an actor is not for rest. What use would an actor be on stage or in film if they were half asleep? Relaxation is used to release stored tension in the muscles and should always be practiced in an active and energized manner. Begin by having the students sit in their chairs as comfortably as possible without holding on with their arms or legs, etc. Remind them to pay close attention to their breathing, inhaling through the nose filling the diaphragm with air, and slowly releasing the breath through the mouth. They may now begin to assess the muscles from the tip of their toes to the top of their head. In order for them to release the tension, they must move each area of the body slowly and specifically, acknowledge the tension, focus their breath to the area, and tell that area to relax. To maintain the relaxation, we test the previous areas by once again moving it, this time using only the energy required. Once the entire body has been assessed you may stand up, shake out each muscle, and bounce lightly on the balls of the feet. Always maintain a steady breathing pattern. Students will feel relaxed, refreshed, and awake.
Concentration- Focused exploration and assessment
Student will understand that in order to create believability as a character, concentration is a must.
Give the student an everyday object. One with weight, texture, color, and fragrance is preferred. Ex: A glass of soda. Have them hold it and study the physical attributes of the object for five minutes. Take the object away, and ask them to recreate holding the object trying to remember the details. This is not a miming exercise, but one of exploration. Therefore, in this exercise, as in all acting exercises, the students should not be trying to obtain a result.
Sensory Awareness- Heightening the abilities of the five senses
Students will understand that sharpening the five senses breathes a more believable life into a character.
Heightening sensory awareness is useful to every actor in that we absorb and remember all daily information through our senses. Keeping senses sharp allows an actor to work with more than words from a script by aiding him/her in creating a believable environment. For example, suppose the given circumstances in a scene are that it is raining and you have no umbrella. The rain is making you chilly. By recreating the effects of the rain sensorially, that is how it looks, sounds, tastes, feels, and smells, the body will naturally react the way it would if it were actually raining. Therefore instead of a character indicating that it is raining, maybe by pulling a jacket over his/her head, you will instead have a character responding in the moment to the affects of the rain. Once again begin by sitting relaxed, and focused on breathing. Dealing with the immediate classroom environment, begin with the sense of sight. How many different things do you see? Are the colors vivid? What are the details of objects around you? What can you see through your peripheral vision? Can you extend that vision further, and see more clearly? Move to sound, taste, touch, and smell in the same way, always questioning yourself to gain more detail, always striving to reach a higher level. This exercise should be done on a daily basis to keep the process sharp.
To free up the students' own habit of expression.
To prevent any two actors from developing the same characteristics.
Students will learn to make quick decisions as another character.
Students will begin to apply relaxation, concentration, and sensory technique into their stage work.
People watching- Students will choose one person for one day. They will study the details of their walk, body language, facial expression, vocal quality, posture. The student will recreate the subject in class.
Animal exercise- Students will choose and study their favorite animal, also recreating its' physical attributes in class. They will incorporate the animals' movement with their own. This exercise should not be rushed, and may be done over a period of a few classes.
Whose hat is this? - Students will be given an array of hats to choose from. By answering the questions: occupation, age, and location, the students will define what type of character would wear each hat. Students will move about the room wearing the hat as others ask ten random questions about who the person in the hat is?
Coming to America
Students will understand how improvisation aids in character development.
Students will incorporate sensory exercises into their scene work.
Students will learn basic problem solving.
This improvisation will incorporate the elements of objective, conflict, and resolution, and these should be there only guideline. Remind them that we are not seeking particular results. The purpose is discovery. Begin with allowing the students time to create their sensory environment and to establish their own space within the classroom. The character is ready to board the craft of choice that will take them to America. They are bidding farewell to your loved ones. Objective- To discover their characters' reactions to a highly emotional situation. Conflict- You realize that you left your ticket at home. Resolution- The improvisation cannot conclude until the character has fully played out the events, and resolves the issue. There is no right or wrong, only different choices.
The characters have arrived in America. Once again have them establish their own space within the classroom. Let them know that they will all arrive in the same place at the same moment in full character. Let them move about the room in silence. Each character will have their own image of America, and they should respond fully to their new environment. Now allow them to verbally react to the other characters in there surroundings. This would be a good point for the students to begin a character journal to be written in on a weekly basis, or as often as possible. The journal should include both the characters thoughts, feelings, and circumstances. The students may also want to record their notes on process and their personal progress. Following improvisations, students should discuss the outcomes, always focusing on what they were able to extract for further use.
A View from the Bridge - Set in the 1950's this play depicts illegal immigration and its consequences.
A Bintel Brief - Letters from Jewish immigrants to the editor of the Jewish Daily Forward.
Men In Black - Tommy Lee Jones, and Will Smith play the 90's version of intergalactic immigration officers.
City of Angels - An angel must relinquish his immortality in order to love a woman.
Throughout the readings and viewings, the students will be encouraged to put aside their created characters in order to experiment with some of the scripted characters. This will allow them to work on more than one character at a time.
As part of their grade, students will turn in their journals, which should include the characters trials and tribulations from their moment of leaving their homeland, to achieving their ultimate goals in America. Through the series of essay writing, improvisations, and journal writing, the students will ultimately script a short play that will include each created character.
Students will find alternative solutions through debate.
Upon reading and establishing the logical breakdown of A View From The Bridge (1) students will be set up in character pairs as follows: Catherine versus Rodolpho, Catherine versus Uncle, Uncle versus Rodolpho. Students may take turns playing each role. The rest of the class will act as moderators. Characters will engage in a conversational debate according to their own viewpoint. As the debate plays out, students in the audience may randomly ask questions pertaining to the conversation at hand. The actors must acknowledge the questions by motivating the conversation toward a logical conclusion. The lesson will continue until every student has a chance to participate.
Students will refer back to the script and play out scenes in accordance with motivations extracted from the debate.
A copy of A View from the Bridge
Students will utilize the brainstorming process to discover a form of problem solving.
Using the Bintel Briefs (2) as a guideline, students will compose a help letter pertaining to a difficult situation which their character is facing. Students will assemble into groups and improvise a scenario based on their letter. Other members of the group will enter the improvisation with possible means for a solution.
Students will incorporate this exercise into the short play that will be written as part of their final grade.
A copy of any page from A Bintel Brief.
Paper and pen.
Character Swap Day-After viewing the works of the other students, take one day to allow the other students to do impressions of someone else's character. This will give the students another view upon which they may wish to expand.
Ellis Island Day Trip-Teacher will set-up the necessary itinerary. This activity may be more beneficial if done early on in the course. A follow up to this trip might be an improvisation based upon the physical inspection process that the immigrants had to endure.
Immigrant Chat Day- Perhaps a great deal of impact would be gained from speaking to a survivor of a Nazi concentration camp who found relief in America. This may be possible through the Holocaust museum in Queens, N.Y.
3. Geographical Location
5. Language/s Spoken
7. Form of Government
8. Natural Resources
9. Main Source of Food
- 1. Characters age, weight and height
- 2. Type of speech
- 3. Characteristic way of walking
- 4. Particular mannerisms or idiosyncrasies
II. Character Biography
- 5. Nationality, section of the Country
III. Psychological Silhouette
- 1. Childhood
- 2. Educational background
- 3. Occupation
- 4. Hobbies
- 5. Home-Life
- 6. Social Life
- 7. Style of dress
- 8. Level of I.Q.
- 1. What is the character's environment like?
- 2. What is his/her self-concept?
- 3. How does the character behave under emotional stress?
IV. Sensory of Physical Images
- 4. What is the character's outlook on life (optimistic/pessimistic)?
- 1. Animal
- 2. House
- 3. Color
- 4. Music
- 5. Type of beverage
- 6. Season of year
- 7. Odor
- 8. Type of literature
- 9. Furniture
- 10. Transportation
2Metsker, Isaac, A Bintel Brief, Doubleday and Co. 1971
3Character Analysis Worksheet This worksheet is used at Hamden High School, and is believed to be the work of Julian Schlusberg.
4National Geographic Atlas of the World Revised 6th Edition, National Geographic Society, Washington D.C. 1992
Isaac Metsker, A Bintel Brief, Doubleday and Co. 1971
F. Paul Miceli, Pride of Sicily, Theo Gaus Sons Inc. 1950
F. Paul Miceli, Where Democracy Triumphs, New London, Conn. 1931
Metsker Isaac, A Bintel Brief Doubleday and Co. 1971- This collection of letters from Jewish immigrants in the early 1900's sent to the editor of the Jewish Daily Forward ask for help with daily struggles in the format of Dear Abby.
Sonnenfeld Barry, Director, Men In Black 1997- Two top secret immigration agents protect the planet from dangerous extraterrestrials and intergalactic terrorists.
Siberling Brad, Director, City of Angels 1998- An angel must give up his immortality and live as a human, no matter what fate has in store, in order to love a woman.
Contents of 1999 Volume III | Directory of Volumes | Index | Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute


Brainstorming is a group creativity technique designed to generate a large number of ideas for the solution of a problem. The method was first popularized in the late 1930s by Alex Faickney Osborn in a book called Applied Imagination, in which he proposed that groups could double their creative output with brainstorming. The technique typically involves gathering a group of up to 10 people, including some invited guests from other fields, posing a question, and asking them to respond with as many answers as possible. Their responses are recorded, and later sorted and evaluated. The theory is that members of the group will be stimulated by each others’ ideas to come up with new suggestions. Of the multiple ideas, one or more will be a good solution for the problem.
Recent studies have show that because of such problems as distraction, social loafing, evaluation apprehension, and production blocking, brainstorming groups are little more effective than other types of groups, and they are actually less effective than individuals working independently. Numerous attempts have been made to improve brainstorming or use more effective variations of the basic technique. Modern methods such as the use of email to collect and distribute participants’ ideas, or computer applications that allow group members to log in and record their own contributions, may overcome these obstacles and increase the effectiveness of brainstorming. Although traditional brainstorming does not increase the productivity of groups, it provides other benefits, such as boosting morale, enhancing work enjoyment, and improving team work.
There are four basic rules in brainstorming. These are intended to reduce social inhibitions among groups members, stimulate idea generation, and increase overall creativity of the group.
- Focus on quantity: Following the maxim, quantity breeds quality, participants are urged to generate as many ideas as they can during a brainstorming session. The assumption is that the greater the number of ideas generated, the greater the chance of producing a radical and effective solution to the problem being discussed.
- Withhold criticism: During brainstorming, criticism of ideas generated should be put 'on hold.' Instead, participants should focus on extending or adding to ideas, reserving criticism for a later 'critical stage' of the process. When judgment is suspended, participants will feel free to generate unusual ideas.
- Welcome unusual ideas: In order to follow the first rule and generate as many ideas as possible, unusual ideas are welcomed. Participants are encouraged to look from new perspectives and suspend assumptions. These new ways of thinking may provide better solutions.
- Combine and improve ideas: Good ideas may be combined to form a single, even better good idea, as suggested by the slogan "1+1=3." Brainstorming is believed to stimulate the building of ideas by a process of association.
Set the problem
Before a brainstorming session, it is critical to define the problem to be discussed. The problem must be clear, not too big, and captured in a specific question such as, "What service for mobile phones is not available now, but needed?" If the problem is too big, the facilitator should break it into smaller components, each with its own question. Some problems are multi-dimensional and non-quantified, for example, "What are the aspects involved in being a successful entrepreneur?" Finding solutions for this kind of problem can be done with morphological analysis (problem-solving).
Create a background memo
The background memo is the invitation and informational letter for the participants, containing the session name, problem, time, date, and place. The problem is described in the form of a question, and some example ideas are given. The ideas are solutions to the problem, and can be used when the session slows down or goes off-track. The memo is sent to the participants well in advance, so that they can think about the problem beforehand.
The facilitator composes the brainstorming panel, consisting of the participants and an idea collector. A group of 10 or fewer members is generally more productive. Many variations are possible but the following composition is suggested.
- Several core members of the project who have proved themselves.
- Several guests from outside the project, with affinity to the problem.
- One idea collector who records the suggested ideas.
Create a list of lead questions
During the brainstorm session the level of creativity may decrease. At this moment, the facilitator should stimulate creativity by suggesting a lead question to answer, such as Can we combine these ideas? or How about looking from another perspective? It is best to prepare a list of such leads before the session begins.
The facilitator leads the brainstorming session and ensures that ground rules are followed. The steps in a typical session are:
- A warm-up session, to expose novice participants to the criticism-free environment. A simple problem is brainstormed, for example What should be the CEO retirement present? or What can be improved in Microsoft Windows?.
- The facilitator presents the problem and gives a further explanation if needed.
- The facilitator asks the brainstorming group for their ideas.
- If no ideas are forthcoming, the facilitator suggests a lead to encourage creativity.
- All participants present their ideas, and the idea collector records them.
- To ensure clarity, participants may elaborate on their ideas.
- When time is up, the facilitator organizes the ideas based on the topic goal and encourages discussion.
- Ideas are categorized.
- The whole list is reviewed to ensure that everyone understands the ideas.
- Duplicate ideas and obviously infeasible solutions are removed.
- The facilitator thanks all participants and gives each a token of appreciation.
- Participants who have ideas but were unable to present them are encouraged to write down the ideas and present them later.
- The idea collector numbers the ideas as they are presented, so that the facilitator can use the number to encourage an idea generation goal, for example: We have 44 ideas now, let’s get it to 50!.
- The idea collector should read back each idea as it has been recorded, to confirm that it expresses the meaning intended by the originator.
- When participants are expressing several ideas at once, the one with the most associated idea should have priority. This encourages elaboration on previous ideas.
- Managers and other superiors may be discouraged from attending a brainstorming session, as their presence may inhibit and reduce the effect of the four basic rules, especially the generation of unusual ideas.
Brainstorming involves more than just the generation ideas for others to evaluate and select. Usually the group itself will, in its final stage, evaluate the ideas and select one as the solution to the problem proposed to the group. If the group itself is to carry out the solution:
- The solution should not require resources or skills the members of the group do not have or cannot acquire.
- If it is necessary to acquire additional resources or skills in order to implement the solution, they should be incorporated as the first part of the solution.
- The solution must include a way to measure progress and success.
- The steps to carry out the solution must be clear to all, and amenable to being assigned to the members so that each will have an important role.
- There must be a common decision making process to enable a coordinated effort to proceed, and to reassign tasks as the project unfolds.
- There should be evaluations at milestones to decide whether the group is on track toward a final solution.
- There should be incentives to participation so that participants maintain their efforts.
Nominal group technique
The nominal group technique is a type of brainstorming that encourages all participants to have an equal say in the process. It is also used to generate a ranked list of ideas.
Participants are asked to write their ideas anonymously. The moderator then collects the ideas and each is voted on by the group. The vote can be as simple as a show of hands in favor of a given idea. This process is called distillation.
After distillation, the top-ranked ideas may be sent back to the group or to subgroups for further brainstorming. For example, one group may work on the color required in a product. Another group may work on the size, and so forth. Each group will come back to the whole group for ranking the listed ideas. Sometimes ideas that were previously dropped may be brought forward again once the group has re-evaluated the ideas.
It is important that the facilitator be trained in this process before attempting to facilitate this technique. The group should be primed and encouraged to embrace the process. Like all team efforts, it may take a few practice sessions to train the team in the method before tackling the important ideas.
Group passing technique
Each person in a circular group writes down one idea, and then passes the piece of paper to the next person in a clockwise direction, who adds some thoughts. This continues until everybody gets his or her original piece of paper back. By this time, it is likely that the group will have extensively elaborated on each idea.
The group may also create an "Idea Book" and post a distribution list or routing slip to the front of the book. On the first page is a description of the problem. The first person to receive the book lists his or her ideas and then routes the book to the next person on the distribution list. The second person can log new ideas or add to the ideas of the previous person. This continues until the distribution list is exhausted. A follow-up "read out" meeting is then held to discuss the ideas logged in the book. This technique takes longer, but it allows individuals time to think deeply about the problem.
Team idea mapping method
This method of brainstorming works by the method of association. It may improve collaboration and increase the quantity of ideas, and is designed so that all attendees participate and no ideas are rejected.
The process begins with a well-defined topic. Each participant brainstorms individually, then all the ideas are merged onto one large visual idea map. During this consolidation phase, participants may discover a common understanding of the issues as they share the meanings behind their ideas. During this sharing, new ideas may arise by the association, and they are added to the map as well. Once all the ideas are captured, the group can prioritize and take action.
Electronic brainstorming is a computerized version of the manual brainstorming technique. It can be done via email and may be browser based, or use peer-to-peer software.
The facilitator sends the question out to group members, and they contribute independently by sending their ideas back to the facilitator. The facilitator then compiles a list of ideas and sends it back to the group for further feedback. Electronic brainstorming eliminates many of the problems of standard brainstorming, such as production blocking and evaluation apprehension. An additional advantage of this method is that all ideas can be archived electronically in their original form, and then retrieved later for further thought and discussion. Electronic brainstorming also enables much larger groups to brainstorm on a topic than would normally be productive in a traditional brainstorming session.
Other brainstorming techniques are web-based, and allow contributors to post their comments anonymously through the use of avatars. This technique also allows users to log on over an extended time period, typically one or two weeks, to allow participants some "soak time" before posting their ideas and feedback. This technique has been used particularly in the field of new product development, but can be applied in any number of areas where collecting and evaluating ideas would be useful. Extensive research conducted by Olivier Toubia of Columbia University indicates that the use of incentives is very effective within the context of brainstorming.
Directed brainstorming is a variation of electronic brainstorming (described above) that can be done manually or with computers. Directed brainstorming works when the solution space (the criteria for evaluating a good idea) is known prior to the session and can be used to intentionally constrain the ideation process.
In directed brainstorming, each participant is given one sheet of paper (or electronic form) and told the brainstorming question. They are asked to produce one response and stop, then all of the papers (or forms) are randomly swapped among the participants. The participants are asked to look at the idea they received and to create a new idea that improves on that idea based on the initial criteria. The forms are then swapped again and respondents are asked to improve upon the ideas, and the process is repeated for three or more rounds.
In the laboratory, directed brainstorming has been found to almost triple the productivity of groups over electronic brainstorming.
“6-3-5 Brainwriting” (also known as the 6-3-5 Method, or Method 635) is a group creativity technique used in marketing, advertising, design, writing and product development originally developed by Professor Bernd Rohrbach in 1968.
The aim of 6-3-5 Brainwriting is to generate 108 new ideas in half an hour. The technique involves 6 participants who sit in a group and are supervised by a moderator. Each participant thinks up 3 ideas every 5 minutes. Participants are encouraged to draw on others' ideas for inspiration, thus stimulating the creative process. After 6 rounds in 30 minutes the group has thought up a total of 108 ideas.
"Individual Brainstorming" is the use of brainstorming on an individual basis. It typically includes such techniques as free writing, free speaking, word association, and the use of a "spider web," or “bubble maps” to organize ideas visually. Individual brainstorming is a useful method in creative writing and has been shown to be superior to traditional group brainstorming.
Defining the problem itself and identifying the best questions to ask can be the focus of a brainstorming session. This has been called questorming. Another topic for brainstorming can be to find the best evaluation methods for a problem.
Effectiveness of brainstorming
Although brainstorming has become a popular group technique, researchers have not found evidence of its effectiveness for enhancing either quantity or quality of ideas generated. When placed in a group setting, colleagues or co-workers may be inhibited from speaking out by fear of criticism (evaluation apprehension), or because they believe that their ideas are not important or that others will make up for their lack of participation (social loafing). A brainstorming session is most effective if the participants are deeply motivated and believe that they have something important to contribute.
“Production blocking,” the tendency for one individual to block or inhibit other people during a group discussion, is a common problem in brainstorming groups. If six people are in a group and one person is talking at length about his or her idea, then the other five people are "blocked" and less able to provide their own creative input. They may not have time to think of an idea, or they may be distracted or forget about their idea before they have an opportunity to share it. Production blocking becomes more of a problem as the size of the group increases.
Studies have shown that brainstorming groups are little more effective than other types of groups, and they are actually less effective than individuals working independently. Newer versions of brainstorming, in which individuals write down their ideas and submit them for other members of the group to review, or the use of email and computer applications that allow individuals to think creatively over longer periods of time, overcome barriers like production blocking and social inhibitions. These forms may be more effective in tapping the creativity of individual members of a group and arriving at substantial solutions. How well these newer methods work, and whether or not they should be classified as brainstorming, are subjects for further research.
Although traditional brainstorming does not increase the productivity of groups, it may provide other benefits, such as boosting morale, enhancing work enjoyment, and improving team work. Members of the group may become more creative when they are removed from their customary work environment. One of the most valuable benefits is exposure to the views of invited guests from outside the project, who may be able to provide new insights and perspectives from their professional or personal experience.
- ↑ A.F. Osborn, 1963, Applied imagination: Principles and procedures of creative problem solving (Third Revised Edition). (New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons).
- ↑ Olivier Toubia, 2006, "Idea Generation, Creativity, and Incentives," Marketing Science.
- ↑ E. Santanen, R. O. Briggs, and G-J. de Vreede, 2004, “Causal Relationships in Creative Problem Solving: Comparing Facilitation Interventions for Ideation.” Journal of Management Information Systems. 20(4): 167-198.
- ↑ Rohrbach, Bernd: "Kreativ nach Regeln – Methode 635, eine neue Technik zum Lösen von Problemen." Creative by rules - Method 635, a new technique for solving problems first published in the German sales magazine "Absatzwirtschaft," Volume 12, (1969): 73-75 and Volume 19, October 1, 1969.
- ↑ A. Furnham and Yazdanpanahi, T., 1995, “Personality differences and group versus individual brainstorming.” Personality and Individual Differences, 19: 73-80.
- ↑ Questorming: An Outline of the Method, Jon Roland, 1985. Retrieved February 12, 2009.
- ↑ B. A. Nijstad, W. Stroebe, H. F. M Lodewijkx, 2003, “Production blocking and idea generation: Does blocking interfere with cognitive processes?” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39: 531-548.
- ↑ M. Diehl and W. Stroebe, 1991, “Productivity loss in idea-generating groups: tracking down the blocking effect.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61: 392-403.
- ↑ B. Mullen, C. Johnson and E. Salas, 1991, “Productivity loss in brainstorming groups: a meta-analytic integration.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 12: 3-23.
- ↑ In the Encyclopedia of Creativity, Tudor Rickards, in his entry on brainstorming, summarizes its controversies and indicates the dangers of conflating productivity in group work with quantity of ideas. T. Rickards, 1999, Brainstorming, M. Runco and S. Pritzker, Eds, Encyclopedia of Creativity, (San Diego: Academic Press Vol 1), 219-228.
- Correll, Linda Conway. Brainstorming Reinvented: A Corporate Communications Guide to Ideation. New Delhi: Response Books. 2004. ISBN 9780761932703
- Diehl, M. and W. Stroebe. "Productivity Loss in Idea-Generating Groups: Tracking Down the Blocking Effect." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 61 (1991): 392-403.
- Furnham, A. and T. Yazdanpanahi, "Personality differences and group versus individual brainstorming." Personality and Individual Differences. 19 (1995): 73-80.
- Mullen, B., C. Johnson and E. Salas. "Productivity loss in brainstorming groups: a meta-analytic integration." Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 12 (1991): 3-23.
- Nijstad, B. A., W. Stroebe, H. F. M. Lodewijkx. "Production Blocking and Idea Generation: Does Blocking Interfere With Cognitive Processes?" Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 39 (2003): 531-548.
- Osborn, Alex F. Applied Imagination: Principles and Procedures of Creative Problem-Solving. Buffalo, NY: Creative Education Foundation. 1993. ISBN 9780930222734. *Portfolio brainstorming brainstorm, brainstorming, inspiration for your idea. [Korea]: CA Press. 2008. ISBN 9788977483309
- Rawlinson, J. G. Creative Thinking and Brainstorming. New York: Wiley. 1981. ISBN 9780470270912
- Rickards, T. "Brainstorming," Mark A. Runco, and Steven R. Pritzker. Encyclopedia of creativity. Vol 1 219-228. San Diego, Calif: Academic Press. 1999. ISBN 9780122270758
- Roland, Jon. "Questorming: An Outline of the Method", 1985. Retrieved February 12, 2009.
- Santanen, E., R. O. Briggs, and G-J de Vreede. “Causal Relationships in Creative Problem Solving: Comparing Facilitation Interventions for Ideation.” Journal of Management Information Systems. 20(4) (2004): 167-198.
- Toubia, Olivier. "Idea Generation, Creativity, and Incentives," Marketing Science (2006)
- Warmke, Clare and Lisa Buchanan. Idea revolution: guidelines and prompts for brainstorming alone, in groups or with clients. Cincinnati, Ohio: HOW Design Books. 2003. ISBN 9781581803327
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Tips for writing papers (adapted from www.writinglabedge.com/guidelines/course)
For easy ways to improve your paper, please see my English Matters page.
The thesis statement is the single most important aspect of your paper; it is, essentially, the justification for its very existence. A good thesis sentence should contain:
Your basic argument
The blueprint for the organization of your supporting details
Developing the Argument
Topic versus statement - At the outset of your brainstorming, you will likely first decide on a topic for your paper; namely, the particular subject you plan to address in response to the assignment (in some cases, the assignment will already include a specific topic). Your job in formulating a thesis is to find a specific statement to make about that topic.
Examples of Topics: "Natural Imagery in Wordsworth and Coleridge"; "Plato's Treatment of Gender Roles in The Republic."
Examples of Statements: "In The Prelude, Wordsworth uses natural imagery to reflect his increasing awareness of divinity, while in "This Limetree Bower My Prison,” Coleridge's treatment of nature serves to establish his relationship with fellow human beings"; "In The Republic, Plato's arguments for gender equality are characterized by sameness of role, yet still subject to a male-dominated hierarchy."
Using your sources to find your argument - Rather than making an opinion statement (one thing is "better" than another, etc.) your argument must be pulled from textual evidence. Conversely, however, it cannot be a restatement of what your source tells you, but must be an original thought arising from some point of interest, contradiction, or vagary within the text.
Specificity - In writing your statement, be sure to say exactly what you're arguing- do not make a broad generalization. Your reader should know from your thesis what your specific arguments are, not just roughly what they prove. Also, take into account the length you intend your paper to be. In the space of six pages, for example, you can't thoroughly discuss the effects of, say. World War II on America, but you might be able to analyze one aspect of its impact on a specific industry or social group.
Too General: "There are many similarities between Madame Bovary and Anna Karenina, but there are some differences as well."
More Specific: "Though both Madame Bovary and Anna Karenina pivot around the tension between individual liberty and societal mores, Flaubert concerns himself with the decadence of self-indulgence, while Tolstoy focuses on the notion of feminine entrapment."
Tension - Perhaps most important, make sure that your argument can be controversial. If you set out to prove something that is a given (like "the 1960s were an era of American cultural upheaval" or "Hamlet undergoes numerous psychological changes") your paper is not only uninteresting, but entirely pointless. When you think you've decided on a statement, see if you can make a counterargument to refute it. Your job is to show how the evidence of your sources should be interpreted in a particular light, but crucial to its being worth reading is the fact that other interpretations are possible.
Framing your paper - In addition to stating your argument, your thesis should give an indication of the particular components thereof. Though it is not necessary for you to include the gist of each subsequent topic sentence in your thesis, it is important that the basic prongs of your over-arching idea be addressed.
Incomplete thesis: "In Moby Dick. Melville renders Ahab as a diabolical figure”
Complete thesis: "In Moby Dick, Melville renders Ahab as a diabolical figure through the contrasting Christ imagery of the Whale, omnipresent Biblical mythology, and a psychological descent analogous to the Fall."
One more note: Contrary to popular belief, your thesis does not have to be just one sentence. If you cannot construct an adequately complex thesis without making a heinous run-on, by all means, break it up.
Once you've decided what your thesis is going to be, you must be able to frame it in a manner that provides an effective entry into your work. No matter how great your argument is, it will not do much good if no one is enticed into reading it. The two most important functions of your introduction are to serve as a grabber (a stylish, creative lead-up to what you’re trying to say) and as justification (an explanation of why your argument is even important in the first place).
Some Basic Guidelines
DON’T summarize - Though it might seem easy to preface your thesis with only a synopsis of the texts you’re writing about, this is a particularly dull way to begin a paper.
DON'T keep reiterating your thesis - Your thesis should appear in your intro as the culmination of the previous thoughts, not just something you mention and then keep restating to fill up a paragraph.
DO ask yourself questions - Why is your thesis relevant? How is its being proven important to the understanding of either text or fact? By linking your argument to a larger issue, you will give your argument both universality and interest.
DO be creative - Think about what aspect of your topic you find the most interesting, and figure out why. Use this to make it interesting to your reader.
(The following are some pre-packaged introduction ideas. It is important, however, not to just adopt one and use it for every paper, particularly for the same instructor. This practice will become trite very quickly.)
The quotation - Find a quote from one of your sources or, even better, from elsewhere that seems to get at the problem you're dealing with. State it at the beginning of your intro and discuss how it relates to what you're trying to prove.
The question - Throw out a broad question of universal interest, and demonstrate how a possible answer can be related to your thesis (Example: "What do women want? It's a question that's plagued mankind since the dawn of history . . . the works of Emily Dickinson and Sylvia Plath yield two different paradigms of feminine self-realization").
The anecdote - This works particularly well for a historical essay, and even better if you have some ability at creative writing. Pick a specific incident that represents the underlying conflict of your piece, and briefly narrate it like a story. Explain afterwards how the instance reflects a problem you're attempting to solve.
Each body paragraph of your paper builds towards proving one particular aspect of your thesis, and each of these aspects should be crystallized into a strong topic sentence.
If your paper is quite short, these sentences might represent the main points you mentioned in the blueprint part of your thesis, but they might each be more specific aspects of one of those points, particularly if your paper is longer.
Defining your topics - First and foremost, a topic sentence is a piece of analysis, NOT summary. Think of it in a similar manner to how you thought of your thesis; in other words, an original interpretation based upon the textual evidence of your source. The first of the following examples illustrates a statement of fact, rather than an argumentative topic sentence.
Weak Topic Sentence: "Book Five of Paradise Lost concentrates on the conversation between Adam and the archangel Raphael.”
Strong Topic Sentence: "Throughout Book Five, Milton utilizes images of gardening and nourishment to convey man's maturing relationship to the divine."
Relationship of topics to thesis - Your topic statements should each provide a solid area of analysis by which your thesis is true. They should, however, be more specific than a mere restatement of part of it.
Thesis: "In Journey Through the Twelve Forests, David Haberman apprehends the Ban-Yatra pilgrimage as a realization of the god Krishna's omnipresence, through separate realizations of the journey's cyclical nature, the externalization of the divine, and the relationship between asceticism and pleasure."
Topic Sentence for Second Paragraph: "Throughout the narrative, the physical relationship of the pilgrim to the natural landscape of Braj, as well as worshipped images of Krishna and other deities, reflects the presence of Krishna as an interactive externality, rather than the occupant of an inaccessible sphere."
|Building Your Argument Part One: Close Readings|
Click here for an introduction to critical thinking that will help you (1) analyze what you read and (2) write persuasive papers.
Close reading is a term used to describe how you ought to be using your sources. The most important element of close reading is questioning; it is imperative that you actively engage the text in order to develop your own ideas to use as arguments.
If at all possible, make your close reading your second reading of the source. If you've read it once already, you will have a basic understanding of the text, and you can focus on a more intensive questioning.
Use highlighters - Take note of any and all points of interest in the text. If you've got a thesis in mind already, use several different colors of highlighter, each for information relevant to a separate prong of your argument. This will make your life much easier when you go back to integrate your sources, particularly if you've got an extensive amount of text to cover.
Look for patterns - Be aware of recurring techniques-both literary and rhetorical-which the author uses to illustrate a concept. Specific sorts of imagery, allusion, or dialogue, which seem to be similar or related inevitably, reveal a larger intention that can be made into an argument.
Ask questions - In expository work, continually ask yourself "Is this true? What evidence supports this statement? Can other conclusions be drawn from the facts of this text?" By deciding whether or not you agree with the arguments of your source, you'll begin to crystallize more subtle arguments of your own. In literature, question the author's purpose in using particular narrative structures. "Why is this metaphor used? What does the comparison signify? Why do we learn this particular piece of information in such a manner? Why is the setting dwelled on so much in this passage? What is the relationship between setting and character?” Write these questions in the margins as you go along.
Get down to the details - One of the most sophisticated close reading techniques you can incorporate into your work is an analysis of the multiple connotations of a specific word. Be aware of every single word the author uses. When you find one of particular interest, literally look it up in the dictionary and consider how each and every definition might be applied to the text. Even if the author uses it with one literal definition in mind, see if the connotations of the other definitions can be applied to your idea (This is particularly true of Shakespeare).
Consider the source in relation to other texts - If something in the work reminds you of something else you've read, there's quite possibly a good reason why. Consider how your source is a response to or a continuation of other texts. Always be on the look out for Christ symbolism and Greek mythological allusions; both are fairly easy to spot and can be effectively analyzed in support of a particular interpretation.
From Coleridge's Kubla Kahn: "In Xanadu did Kubla Kahn a pleasure dome decree; Where Alph the sacred river ran through caverns measureless to man; into a sunless sea."
Your assignment is to write about how the poem illustrates the power of human creativity. In light of this, here are some questions to ask yourself right off the bat:
Why does Coleridge select an Oriental locale and a historical figure to open his work?
What is the significance of the word "pleasure," "measureless," "sunless"?
What is Alph, and does Coleridge use it as the setting for his poem?
Answering these questions might involve a consideration of distance, in both time and space, related to the vastness of human capacity. You might also consider "measureless" and "sunless" as descriptive of types of knowledge or ignorance; in breaching the "sunless" sea with his dome, what sort of power is Kubla Kahn exhibiting? A trip to the dictionary (or, more likely, a glance at the inevitable foot note) will provide the information that the Alph is a magical river in mythology. This begs the question, "how does a fantastic setting relate to Coleridge's view of the imagination?”
|Building Your Argument Part Two: Integrating Sources|
Click here for an introduction to critical thinking that will help you (1) analyze what you read and (2) write persuasive papers.
The meat and potatoes of your body paragraphs will be a mixture of textual summary and your analysis of it.
Once you've done your close reading and structured your topic sentence for a paragraph, go back and pull out the details you've highlighted.
In putting these details into your paper, it is absolutely imperative that you balance each one with YOUR analysis of their significance. It might help, at least until you're used to the idea, to maintain a mental ratio: three sentences of your interpretation for every one concrete detail of the text.
The concrete detail - Paraphrase the gist of the actual textual information as CONCISELY as possible. It is important for your reader to understand what you're talking about, but only as an illustration for your own ideas.
The interpretation - Go back to the questions you've asked yourself during the close reading. What answers have you found that you can explain here? As always, remember that good interpretation avoids both summary and opinion—your arguments must be original but crafted from actual evidence.
Example: "Coleridge opens his poem with an immediate statement of locale: ‘In Xanadu’. This fable-like invocation makes the reader immediately conscious of distance, as well as the mystical connotations of the Orient in the context of Victorian imperialism. By choosing a setting with such dual reverberations of reality and fantasy, Coleridge creates a landscape parallel to his view of the imagination—vast in breadth, yet potently accessible."
Note how very little textual detail was necessary to come up with quite a bit of interpretation.
Keep an eye on the big picture - As tempting as it is to fill space with any interesting idea you come up with, do not put a single thought onto the page that you cannot relate directly to the proving of your topic sentence.
Remember, your paper must act as the impetus for an idea, not merely a description of your sources, however subtle that description might be.
Integrating quotes - Sometimes the textual details you include will necessarily take the form of direct quotation, particularly when analyzing language. It is always best to do so as inconspicuously as possible. The quotes should serve only to prove your ideas, not to supplant them. Rather than using big block quotations, wherever possible include only that which is specifically necessary to your point, within the framework of your own sentence.
Bad Integration: Keats describes the Grecian urn as follows: "Thou still unravish'd bride of quietness; Thou foster child of silence and slow time; Sylvan historian who canst express; The flowery tale more sweetly than can rhyme."
Good Integration: Keats begins by personifying the urn in terms of human innocence, as an "unravish'd bride" and a "foster child of silence and slow time".
|Building Your Argument Part Three: Strategy|
Click here for an introduction to critical thinking that will help you (1) analyze what you read and (2) write persuasive papers.
Now that you've done some good analysis within your paragraphs, it's necessary to examine how they fit in to the goal of your overall paper.
Avoid Chronology - When looking at your paper as a whole, it is much better for your paragraphs to relate according to a process of thought, rather than of chronology. If it seems as though your paragraphs are divided according to the order of your source (In other words, "first this happens," then "this happens," then "and finally . . .”), there's a good chance you're lapsing into plot summary.
Ordering according to thought process - Here's where your highlighting becomes useful again. Follow each of the ideas you developed throughout the text individually. If you highlighted in different colors, make all your pink highlights one section, your blue highlights another, and your yellow ones a third. In this manner your writing flows in an ordered progression, but according to the development of an argument, rather than recapitulation of the text.
Make your paragraphs build off of each other - It's best to try to arrange your paper in a manner that grows increasingly more specific. In subsequent paragraphs, try to refer back to what you mentioned in previous ones, and explain how your current subject extends or re-examines it in a new light.
Transitions - In order to give your paper unity and flow, it's important to always make smooth transitions between paragraphs. Consider the relationship between the two paragraphs, and use it as a way of moving from one to the other. You might address a similarity in argument, by saying "In a similar manner . . .", "This argument may be allied to "subject B" in terms of . . .", "Likewise . . .", or "The idea of X recurs again with respect to . . ." To express a dissimilarity, you might use "In contrast . . .", "On the other hand . . .", or "Nevertheless".
|Issues of General Structure|
Before putting pen to paper (or finger to keyboard) it will make your job much easier to have an idea in mind of exactly how your paper is going to be framed.
"Discuss” and "Analyze” prompts
If you're writing on a pre-assigned topic, its nature will likely affect the way in which your paper is structured.
If you're asked to "discuss" or "analyze" something (for example, "Discuss the effects of the Enlightenment on the French Revolution), it means you need to treat a specific aspect of a broad topic. It is important, in these cases, to stick to the specific focus of the prompt: don't talk about the Enlightenment itself or other aspects of the French Revolution. You must confine your paper solely to the specific relationship between the two.
When thinking about your structure, then, it's best to come up with the general areas you'd like to discuss (this will largely be determined by the amount of space you have), and to divide your paper mentally between those.
The Comparative Analysis
Very often you'll be asked to compare two pieces of literature, and there are several ways in which to effectively set up this sort of essay.
The first thing to remember (which will be explored more extensively in the thesis section) is that your paper cannot just compare the two pieces in general, exhaustively mentioning all similarities and differences with no specific argument.
Once you know exactly what your argument is, your structure will be crucial to the techniques you use to make it.
The sequential method - This means discussing all of text A and then moving on to text B.
Example: The prompt says "Compare Milton's view of Hell in "Paradise Lost" with that of Marlowe in "Dr. Faustus." It might be easier, here, to spend your first pages thoroughly analyzing Milton's view and then moving on to Marlowe's independently. It is then key, however, that your conclusion be a successful integration off he two or else you won't have a unifying argument.
The point-by-point method -This method works well if you have a number of parallel specifics to deal with in both texts, and involves discussing each one in turn, with respect to both texts at once.
Example: The prompt says "Discuss the relationship between symbolism and character in Faulkner's Light in August and Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath." In this case, it might be easier to discuss the individual relationships one at time. You could discuss Christ imagery in both texts first, for example, and move on to erotic symbols and so forth.
The Lens Paper
This type of comparative paper concentrates on one particular text, but views it through the “lens” of another.
Example: Discuss "The Rape of the Lock” in terms of mock epic, with reference to Homer's Illiad.
In this case, the second text should be used as a continual reference point, but should not be analyzed in and of itself.
A way to structure this sort of paper is to break down your argument with respect to your main text into a number of points, as you normally would with a "discuss" paper. Within each paragraph, insert segments of analysis as to how your new arguments function within the paradigms established by the lens text.
|Some General Grammar and Style Tips|
Vary your sentence structure - Nothing seems more unsophisticated than an uninterrupted succession of subject-verb constructions. Take a series of sentences like the following as an example: "Moby Dick can symbolize both a manifestation of God or of the ultimate evil.” Here are just a few of the variations you can make:
Melville renders Moby Dick as simultaneously a manifestation of God and as a symbol of the ultimate evil.
That Moby Dick is subject to a dichotomy of interpretations is evident in his depiction as both a manifestation of God and of the ultimate evil.
We may intimate that Moby Dick is a juxtaposition of both the divine and the diabolical.
Combine short sentences - Try reading your paper out loud. If it seems choppy it can likely be remedied by your grouping short sentences into longer, more complex ones. For example:
"Gatsby’s obsession with Daisy has deeper implications. He becomes obsessed with escaping his own past."
This would be much stronger if combined:
"Gatsby's obsession with Daisy eventually translates into a yearning to escape his own past."
Don’t use passive voice - Plain and simple. It makes your writing weak.
Bad: "This fact was proven by Napoleon's subsequent actions."
Good: "Napoleon proved this fact through his subsequent actions." The object of the sentence should never be turned into the subject.
Maintain consistency in tense - Don't drift from the present to the past to the conditional (from "he is" to "he was" to "he would have").
Some things to avoid wherever possible:
Starting a sentence with "there are" or "there were".
Using the phrase "this shows" (as a substitute say "evident in this fact is" or "This interpretation belies the idea that").
Using the word "quotation" when incorporating a direct quote. This makes for an awkward break from your natural thoughts, and creates an aura of self-consciousness in your writing.
The first person or second person tense. Sometimes using the first person plural (as in the previous example of "we may intimate") is generally acceptable, in that it conveys a universality that the "I" or "you" voices preclude.
Confusing commas and semi-colons. A semi-colon can be used to connect two short, related sentences into a longer one: ”Trench warfare became standard during World War One; it was used in all the major confrontations." A comma cannot be used in this way.
Confusing "who" and "whom"; the former is a subject, the latter an object.
Broad, non-specific words like "good," "bad," "nice," "important," "vivid," and "thing". If those are the only words you can use to express what you're saying, it's likely not subtle enough to make for a very good argument.
As the very last impression your reader gets of your paper, the conclusion is your opportunity to sell your argument once and for all. It's a place for reflection, for looking back at the relationship between the numerous ideas of your paper. Most importantly, however, it ought to be the site of your most complex analysis; that which incorporates everything that's gone before.
Some General Cautions
DON'T allow the conclusion to become merely a restatement of the thesis with a couple of linking sentences beforehand.
DON'T view it as merely an ornamental way to end your paper - its role should be to justify your paper at the highest level.
DO analyze how your argument has changed as your paper has progressed. If you haven't proven anything more than merely what you mentioned in your introduction, you haven't really said anything at all. Throughout the course of a good paper new subtleties of argument ought to have manifested themselves, and the place to integrate all these subtleties into a new, more powerful statement of your thesis, is right in the conclusion.
DON'T begin your conclusion with the opener "In conclusion . . .". That makes your paper awkwardly self-conscious and contrived, rather than naturally unfolded.
DO attempt some sort of unified closure, with respect to what you set up in the introduction. If you used one of the previously mentioned clever introductions, make reference again to the quote, questions, or anecdote you incorporated.
DO consider linking your argument to a more universal idea, analyzing its relevance with an eye on the new angle your argument proved.
It’s important to remember that every single piece of information you obtain from a source must be cited in your paper. This applies not only to quotes, but to every single fact you incorporate. There are several methods for doing citations, but it's best just to choose one and remain consistent. Below are directions for doing citations in the MLA style, one of the most widely recognized formats.
The first step is to make a bibliography, inclusive of all works you've cited in your paper. Click here to see examples of proper citations (according to the Chicago Manual of Style).
|Editing & Revising|
Read Your Paper Out Loud
To help you polish the term paper even further, read it out loud. You will be amazed at the faulty grammar and awkward language that your ears can detect. This will also give you a good sense of the flow of the piece and will alert you to anything that sounds too abrupt or out of place. Good writing, like good music, has a certain rhythm. How does your paper sound? Is it interesting and varied or drawn out and monotonous?
adapted from www.writinglabedge.com/guidelines/course


ALTERNATE NAMES: Kikuyu
POPULATION: 5 million
LANGUAGE: Gikuyu; English; KiSwahili
RELIGION: Christianity (Roman Catholicism, Anglicanism, fundamentalist groups, African Separatist Churches); traditional beliefs
1 • INTRODUCTION
The Gikuyu, like the white settlers in the early twentieth century, were attracted to the Kenya highlands because of cool temperatures, fertile soils, and abundant rainfall. Prior to the arrival of the Gikuyu, the area was occupied by hunters and gatherers known as the Dorobo. It is not known exactly when the Gikuyu first occupied the central highlands, but their oral history indicates that the Gikuyu occupied the area for hundreds of years prior to the arrival of the Europeans in Kenya.
The Gikuyu have figured significantly in the development of contemporary Kenyan political, cultural, and social life. The Land and Freedom Movement (referred to pejoratively as the "Mau Mau" Movement) during the 1950s was primarily a Gikuyu guerrilla war (a war fought without organized government troops) in response to British domination. The British had taken farming lands from the Gikuyu and given these lands to white settlers. Gikuyu were forced to work on these farms and to provide labor for cash crops such as coffee and tea. The Gikuyu nationalist Jomo Kenyatta (1894–1978) became the first president of Kenya at its independence in 1963. He is respected among the Gikuyu for his leadership against colonialism (outside rule) and for his status as is regarded as the father of his country.
Today, the Gikuyu, like other Kenyans, participate in a democratic political system. Gikuyu are organized into two major political parties that are considered to be part of the opposition (to the ruling government) in Kenya. These parties are the Democratic and the Ford-Asili Parties. Political participation is primarily through election to a parliamentary (similar to a congressional) seat (of which there are 188 in Kenya) or through direct election to the national presidency.
2 • LOCATION
The Gikuyu are the largest ethnic group in Kenya. They number about 5 million among Kenya's total population of about 28 million. The Gikuyu live throughout Kenya but primarily reside in Nairobi Province and Central Province, located in the central region of the country. As Kenya's largest group, the Gikuyu occupy a central position in Kenyan social life.
The capital city of Nairobi lies just at the southern boundary of the area traditionally occupied by the Gikuyu people. Thus, many Gikuyu now are counted among the city's inhabitants of about 1.5 million people.
Gikuyuland is a plateau of about 100 miles (160 kilometers) from north to south and 30 miles (48 kilometers) from east to west. Its elevation ranges from about 3,000 feet (900 meters) to over 7,500 feet (2,300 meters) above sea level. The plateau features deep gorges and parallel ridges. Rainfall is plentiful. However, on the eastern side of the plateau, the terrain is comparatively dry and is dominated by a grassland zone. The elevation increases to the west, giving rise to more rainfall and woodlands with good potential for agriculture. The largest ecological area is characterized by high altitude and rainfall where plant life is abundant and most of the population is concentrated. This is the area where significant cash crops are grown, including pyrethrum (a flower that produces a natural insecticide), coffee and tea. Rich soils aid the growth of traditional crops such as sweet potatoes, bananas, millet, sorghum, cow-peas, and maize (corn), which is the staple throughout Gikuyuland.
3 • LANGUAGE
The Gikuyu are generally fluent in three languages. The primary national language in Kenya is English. All children receive instruction in English beginning in primary school and continuing through university. KiSwahili is a second national language, although it is not the language of government, it is widely used as a language of trade and commerce, especially by those without formal education. KiSwahili is also taught in the schools from primary through secondary school. The Gikuyu use either English or KiSwahili when traveling outside the central highlands. Radio, television, and mass media publications are available in both languages throughout Kenya.
The Gikuyu language is the preferred language at home and in the community. Gikuyu is taught in primary schools throughout Gikuyuland.
4 • FOLKLORE
The Gikuyu people explain their origins as farmers and herders in the following way. The first tribal parents, Gikuyu and Mumbi, had their own children, who then had children who dispersed around Mount Kenya. One day a grandchild's knee started swelling. When he opened his knee, three little boys emerged, who became his sons. In time, one of them became a hunter; one enjoyed collecting fruits and plants; and the third made fire for cooking. The hunter domesticated some animals, and the collector grew crops such as bananas, cassava, and sweet potatoes. The third son applied fire to stones and metals and became a blacksmith. In this way, the Gikuyu culture originated.
The Gikuyu attribute their ultimate origins to sacred intervention by their god Ngai who sometimes resides on Mount Kenya which, for the Gikuyu, is a sacred place. According to legend, Ngai carried the first man, Gikuyu, to the top of Mount Kenya. Ngai showed him the rich land spread out below the mountain. Gikuyu was told that his sons and daughters would inherit the land and multiply. Gikuyu was given a wife named Mumbi, meaning "Creator" or "Molder," and together they had nine daughters. Ngai said that whenever problems arose, the people should make a sacrifice and gaze at Mount Kenya in order to be assisted. One day, Gikuyu was unhappy at not having a male heir. He pleaded with Ngai to provide a son for him. After appropriate rituals, Gikuyu went to a sacred tree where he found nine men waiting to greet him. He arranged for these men to marry his daughters provided they agreed to live under his roof and abide by a matrilineal system of inheritance (tracing descent through the female line). In time, many grandchildren and great-grandchildren were born. Still later, each daughter came to head her own clan, thus giving rise to the clans of the Gikuyu people.
The legend continues that in time the kinship system changed from a matrilineal to a patrilineal one (tracing descent through the male line). It is believed this happened because the women became excessive in their domination over men. The men ganged up on the women when they were all pregnant at the same time. They overthrew female rule and became heads of their families. From then on, polygyny (one man with several wives) replaced polyandry (one woman with several husbands) as a marital practice. Nevertheless, the women were able to maintain their names for the main clans. To this day, most women carry one of these names. The names are Wanjiru, Wambui, Wanjiku, Wangari, Waceera, Wairimu, Wangui, Wangechi, Wambura and Wamuyu.
A number of other important legends provide cultural heroes. Among these are Karuri, who was a past ruler of legendary proportion. Another is Wamugumo, a noted giant believed to have been able to eat an entire goat by himself. He could clear land that took many men a long time to clear, and he was able to kill lions, buffalo, and leopards with ease. A famous woman called Wangu wa Makeri ruled during the period of the matriarchy (when women held the majority of power). At that time, women were allowed to have many husbands, especially young men, and the old men did all of the work.
Traditionally, folktales and riddles combined with myths to provide young people with a strong sense of Gikuyu values. Grandmothers were excellent story tellers. Some common riddles are: A man who never sleeps hungry? Fire (since it is fed throughout the night); My son lives between spears? The tongue; My child travels without rest? The river (always flowing). Proverbs are numerous in modern-day culture and change constantly to reflect the times. For example, one proverb teaches that "A good mortar does not correspond to a good pestle," to explain that successfully matching a husband and a wife may be difficult. Another proverb widely heard is "When the hyenas come, nobody will give shelter," which means that in times of panic, it is every man for himself. Many proverbs teach common sense, such as "When one goes on a journey, he does not leave his bananas cooking in the fire."
One tongue twister refers to a child who saw a tadpole and ran away; when the tad-pole saw the child, it also ran away. In Gikuyu, one says Kaanaka Nikora kona kora kora, nako kora kona kaanaka Nikora kora.
5 • RELIGION
The Gikuyu today are prominently represented in a variety of Christian churches. These include the Roman Catholic, the Anglican, fundamentalist, and African Separatist churches. The significance of belief in a high god, Ngai, is maintained or was transferred to the Christian-centered belief in monotheism (the belief in one god). Ngai created everything. He lives in the sky and is invisible. Sometimes he lives on Mount Kenya. He should only be approached for serious problems such as those involving life-and-death questions. During periods of famine or epidemic diseases, Ngai is approached by the elders on behalf of the entire community.
Other traditional beliefs have also persisted into contemporary life. Important among these is the belief in ancestral spirits. These departed relatives are involved in all matters, especially those not considered important enough to seek Ngai's attention. Matters of everyday health, for example, involve the ancestor spirits, who cause sickness when their interests are not taken into consideration. "Traditional doctors" were popular resources for determining which ancestor was responsible for a particular disease and for advice on how to please the ancestor.
In the past, religious values emphasized community solidarity and discouraged individualism. Authority was vested in elders and prophets, who were believed to know what was best for all people. Expressions of individuality and solitary life were not encouraged. Someone perceived to be outside the group might be accused of being a witch and could be killed by the elders. At the same time, considerable security was provided by the emphasis on the group.
6 • MAJOR HOLIDAYS
The Gikuyu typically celebrate the same holidays as other Kenyans ( see Kenyans).
7 • RITES OF PASSAGE
The Gikuyu are well known for their traditional rituals of adolescence. Prior to the arrival of Europeans, there was a custom known as Ngweko. Periodically, elders supervised gatherings of young people who would spend private time with each other for the purpose of getting to know members of the opposite sex. Young people paired off according to mutual attraction. Should a young girl become pregnant, the boy responsible was held accountable and was expected to marry the girl he had impregnated. The Gikuyu considered Ngweko to be a form of sex education. And since Ngweko was associated with reproduction, the Gikuyu considered it a sacred act of carrying out the orders of their high god Ngai to reproduce. Many elder Gikuyu believe that the missionaries made a mistake when they labeled Ngweko as sinful. The schools that were established after the arrival of the Europeans did not include sex education. Since the beginning of co-educational boarding schools, teenage pregnancies have become a major social problem in Kenya, including among the Gikuyu.
Prior to participating in Ngweko, both boys and girls undergo numerous rituals, including surgery on their genital organs. The purpose of these rituals is to enable young people to bond with others with whom they have undergone painful experiences. Clitoridectomy (female circumcision) was, and to some extent still is, practiced by the Gikuyu. It is the topic of much debate by Africans and others, and is often referred to by outsiders as female genital mutilation. A middle-ground position appears to be emerging that grants the social significance of adolescent ritual while working to eliminate clitoridectomy, even under hospital conditions where it now occurs. (The procedure was formerly done in unsterile conditions with crude instruments. Many life-threatening injuries and deaths resulted.) Gikuyu boys continue to be circumcised, a practice widespread in Africa and many other parts of the world as well.
Many dances and songs, called mambura (rituals or divine services), take place during initiation ceremonies. Gikuyu history is publicly enacted so as to provide a sense of community solidarity. Each irua group is given its own special name. Initiation ceremonies involve special foods and the selection of a sponsor to impart knowledge and to supervise the young person. After several days of instruction, boys and girls are taken together to a compound for their circumcision. Numerous friends and relatives gather for singing and dancing throughout the night. A special feast is made for the parents of the children. The day before the operation, there is a ceremonial dance known as matuuro . The next day the physical operations occur. Both boys and girls are expected to endure circumcision without crying or showing signs of weakness.
Many elder Gikuyu people still maintain strong relationships with others with whom they were initiated. While mandatory painful initiation ceremonies are increasingly becoming a thing of the past, many Kenyans are troubled by what they perceive to be a rising tide of individualism and lack of peer group solidarity among the young. Young people today in Kenya must work out for themselves how to combine old customs with modern ones. This issue is a prominent theme and is the subject of stories, plays, and other programs on Kenya radio and television.
8 • RELATIONSHIPS
The local community, school, and church are central to Gikuyu social relations. Dating, courtship, friendship, and family life are significant concerns around which people construct their social lives. In the past, social life was dominated by rules about age hierarchies and gender distinction. There is evidence that Gikuyus have more individual choice in these matters today. However, some Gikuyu have lost their sense of community responsibility so cherished in the past.
In the past, boys were organized into groups of local boys who had been initiated at the same time. These were grouped into larger groupings, called regiments. Boys in a common group or regiment proceeded through life together and exercised authority over groups and regiments coming after them. Detailed rules governed the roles of various age or generational groupings in the realms of dating and procreation, defense, and social structure.
9 • LIVING CONDITIONS
The Gikuyu enjoy the abundant natural resources provided by the central highlands of Kenya. Due to the altitude, much of the region is free of malarial mosquitoes and the tsetse and other flies that spread human and animal diseases. The Gikuyu have had success in commercial farming and in many other businesses. Some Gikuyu now own large estates and live an affluent lifestyle. However, many other Gikuyu live in slums, which have grown rapidly in urban areas, especially Nairobi. Thousands of homeless street children have come to Nairobi from Gikuyu towns where they suffered from family dislocation and poverty.
In the past, traditional Gikuyu houses were round with wooden walls and grass thatched roofs. Neighbors generally helped in the construction of a home in exchange for beer and meat. Building supplies were collected from local materials. A husband and wife typically lived in separate houses. The woman's house had space for her children and her sheep and goats. Well-built homes sometimes lasted for ten years or more, although rethatching the roof was an annual event.
10 • FAMILY LIFE
Traditionally, the Gikuyu preferred large families living in big compounds. It was considered a religious obligation to have children. Four children—two boys and two girls—was the ideal. Boys were desirable because they carried on the family name, which was passed on through the male line. Girls were desired so the family could collect bride wealth (gifts to her family from her husband-to-be's family), which could in turn be used to obtain wives for their brothers. A married woman became more powerful as she bore more children. Her children stayed with her in her home, separate from their father. Polygyny (one man having multiple wives) was valued as a means to provide large families. Women, too, often preferred polygyny to monogamy (one man and one woman); they often helped their husbands find younger wives. Elder wives had clear authority over younger wives and supervised them in affairs of the compound.
Events leading to marriage began with an initial meeting of the aspiring son-in-law with his perspective parents-in-law. The young woman's agreement was required at this meeting before events could proceed. Later stages included parental visits, exchanges of goods as bride wealth, and finally the young woman moving into the home of her husband. The marriage itself was finalized when, prior to moving in with her husband's family, the young man and his relatives visited the young woman's house bearing special gifts.
Today, marriage no longer involves these traditional rituals and exchanges. Nevertheless, there is still bride wealth, significant involvement of parents in the choice of their children's spouses, and the high value placed on having children. Marriage ceremonies no longer involve Gikuyu religious rituals, which have given way to Christian and Islamic marriage practices.
11 • CLOTHING
In the past, Gikuyu adults dressed in animal skins, especially sheep and goat skins. Skin tanning was a vital industry for which many men were renowned as specialists. Women's clothing includes three pieces—an upper garment, a skirt, and an apron. Men wore a single garment covering the entire body. Young men preferred bare legs made possible by wearing short skirts, especially those made from kidskin (lambskin or goatskin) because of its smooth hairs. Elders wore more elaborate costumes—often made of fur.
European clothing is now commonplace throughout Gikuyuland. In rural areas, women wear multicolored cotton dresses or skirts and blouses. Men generally wear Western-style trousers and shirts with jackets and ties for formal occasions. Women who prefer to dress in African fashion wear long pieces of colorful cloth as skirts and wrapped around a dress.
12 • FOOD
Farm produce and meat are abundant and provide excellent nutrition. Maize (corn) made into a thick porridge, called ugali , is the national dish of Kenya. (See recipe in article on Kenyans.) Ugali is eaten with meat, stews, or traditional greens known as sukuma wiki. Irio, a Gikuyu dish, is a mixture of the kernels from cooked green corn boiled with beans, potatoes, and chopped greens.
In the past, beer brewing was a cooperative activity between men and women. Beer was made from sugarcane, maize, and millet. Gourds were used to contain the strained juices for fermenting. Today, bottled beverages generally have replaced traditional beer for daily and social consumption. Distilleries in Kenya provide an assortment of beer and soft drinks.
Eating meat is standard for all ceremonial occasions. A popular meal, especially on Sundays, is nyama choma (roasted meat). Goat meat is the most popular choice, although it is more expensive than beef. Chicken is also a regular treat. In the past, the Gikuyu had a ceremonial calendar that involved feasting. Boiled and roasted meat were eaten on these occasions, and beer was the beverage of choice. Although the traditional ceremonial calendar is largely a thing of the past, Gikuyu maintain an intensely social existence involving regular attendance at funerals and weddings. These events are always accompanied by an abundant supply of meat and bottled beverages.
13 • EDUCATION
Traditionally, children were taught through an educational process that began very early in the life cycle. Infants were sung lullabies emphasizing tribal values. As a child grew, he or she listened intently to tales, riddles, and proverbs having moral messages. Even after the advent of formal schools during the colonial era, a special time was set aside for the telling of folktales. In the past, boys played games emphasizing leadership roles that involved bows and arrows, spears, and slings to teach marksmanship skills. Girls cooked imaginary dishes and played at making pots and grinding grains. Dolls, made with local clay and grass, were also standard play items for girls. As children matured, boys were trained by their adult male relatives, and girls by their mothers, grandmothers, and older sisters. For example, boys were taught to differentiate large herds of cattle or goats by their color, size, and horn texture. Fathers and grandfathers also taught youngsters the boundaries of their land, techniques for preparing land for farming, and family genealogy. Mothers taught girls about crops, soils, weather and other significant details of food production.
Today, the traditional informal educational system has been mostly replaced by formal education. In Kenya, including Gikuyuland, there has been an attempt in recent years to make formal education more sensitive to traditional values and knowledge. A hazard of teaching only modern subject matter is that traditional wisdom—such as, for example, knowledge about wild plants potentially edible during famine—becomes lost to future generations. Reaching a reasonable balance between the old and the new in the school curriculum is a constant challenge faced by Gikuyu educators. Harambee (which means "let's pull together") primary and secondary schools are being built throughout Gikuyuland and elsewhere in Kenya. The literacy rate (percentage of people able to read or write) in Kenya is about 50 percent, but it is lower in Gikuyuland.
14 • CULTURAL HERITAGE
Music and dance, along with storytelling, were all emphasized in the past. Dancing by men and women was mandatory at initiation ceremonies, weddings, and other public events. People of all ages enjoyed dancing. There were three kinds of musical instruments in the past: drums, flutes, and rattles. The last were used for private pleasure, while drums and flutes were played publicly at dances. Song was woven into the fabric of everyday life. There were songs for babies; songs sung by girls while threshing millet; songs sung by boys while practicing archery; songs sung by families and community members during weddings and funerals; songs sung by community members and initiates during ceremonies; songs about everyday problems of life and love that were sung around the campfire; songs for drinking; songs about cultural heroes both past and present; and songs sung in praise of ancestors and the High God, Ngai.
Written literature includes children's literature, which recount tribal stories and tales. One such book, titled Nyumba ya Mumbi, graphically illustrates the Gikuyu creation myth. Perhaps the most famous twentieth-century writer is Ngugi wa Thiong'o, whose many stories, plays, and novels have chronicled the Gikuyu struggle for national identity.
15 • EMPLOYMENT
In the past, there was a very strong division of labor by gender. Nevertheless, men and women worked together as well as separately in tasks that complemented each other. Each woman had her own plots of land where she cultivated crops such as sweet potatoes, millet, maize (corn), and beans. Men were responsible for heavy labor, such as clearing the land and cutting down trees. Household tasks for women involved maintaining granaries and supervising the feeding of sheep, goats, and cows. A polygynous husband (one with multiple wives) had his own hut apart from his wives where he ate with friends or his children and was served food by his wives. On a daily basis, women, together with their children, collected firewood, water, and produce from the garden.
There was also a division of labor by gender concerning industries. Some men were ironsmiths, manufacturing knives, arrowheads, bracelets, axes, hammers, spears, and other utilitarian tools. Only women were potters. Pottery provided for household needs. Women also excelled in making baskets. Men tended to specialize in skin tanning.
The informal educational system of the Gikuyu involved children and young people learning economic tasks from adults and specialists through direct observation and often apprenticeship.
Today, the Gikuyu remain intensely agricultural and devoted to their land. Cash crops are now significant, but the traditional division of agricultural labor is still very much in place. Through formal education and accumulation of private assets, many Gikuyu are now wealthy and enjoy affluent lifestyles. Professional occupations, as well as employment in factories and other working-class jobs, now differentiate the Gikuyu into social categories based on income. Nevertheless, among most Gikuyu, there is still a strong sense of ethnic solidarity and shared cultural heritage.
16 • SPORTS
Throughout Gikuyuland, schools sponsor competitive sports for boys and girls. Spectators enjoy soccer (football) and track and field. In the past, Gikuyu boys enjoyed games such as wrestling, weightlifting, and club throwing. There were district mock fights pitting young boys from each area against their counterparts from elsewhere. Wrestling produced stars who were widely praised throughout the country. Girls played hide-and-seek and jumping games while still young, but became increasingly more involved with household responsibilities and marriage as they approached their midteen years.
17 • RECREATION
Like other Kenyans, the Gikuyu enjoy watching television, listening to the radio, and going to movie theaters. Radio and television regularly feature tradtional Gikuyu material.
People of all ages play a board game known as bao in which players attempt to capture the seeds of their opponents. The game involves a wooden board containing holes in which seeds are placed. A player seeks to capture his opponent's seeds using a complex strategy whereby his opponent's seeds end up on his side of the board. This indigenous (native) African game of strategy is widespread in Africa and is now played elsewhere in the world.
18 • CRAFTS AND HOBBIES
Traditional industries and crafts have been largely replaced by tourist and commercial markets. The most notable traditional activity still in existence is basket making, which is done by women. The Gikuyu kiondo (basket) is now popular in Europe and America, where it is widely used by students as a handbag or bookbag. The kiondo is a knitted basket made in various shapes, colors, and sizes. These baskets are knitted from strings gathered from shrubs. They are sometimes decorated with Gikuyu geometric designs. Another traditional folk art is the manufacture of figurines made from local materials such as clay, discarded wire, and grass. They depict scenes from solitary or communal daily life such as children playing, elders in various kinds of clothing, people dancing, bicycling, and singing.
19 • SOCIAL PROBLEMS
Perhaps the primary social problem of the Gikuyu is how best to manage their comparative success in Kenyan commerce and politics. The Gikuyu are often opposed by groups trying to lessen the political power they hold by virtue of their large population and their relative wealth among Kenya's ethnic groups. The Gikuyu have expanded into regions outside of their central highlands homeland. Many Gikuyu, therefore, are now wealthy "immigrants," seen by groups elsewhere in Kenya as intruders and landgrabbers.
Problems in Kenya as a whole include alcoholism and the spread of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Consumption of alcoholic beverages is common. This combines with poorly maintained roads to produce one of the highest rates of accidental death due to driving anywhere in the world.
20 • BIBLIOGRPAHY
Arnold, Gay. Modern Kenya. New York: Longman, 1981.
Dinesen, Isak. Out of Africa. New York: Random House, 1972.
Kenya in Pictures. Minneapolis, Minn.: Lerner Publications Co., 1988.
Presley, Cora Ann. Kikuyu Women, the Mau Mau Rebellion, and Social Change in Kenya. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1992.
Stein, R. Kenya . Chicago: Children's Press, 1985.
Themes in Kenyan History. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1990.
Webb, Lois Sinaiko. Holidays of the World Cookbook for Students. Phoenix, Ariz.: Oryx, 1995.