Three Kinds Of Friendships
Aristotle was a Greek polymath, and philosopher (David, 1971). He lived between 384 BC and 322 BC, and made many academic contributions on different topics. Having been a student of Plato, Aristotle became one of the renowned Western philosophers, along with others like Plato, his teacher, and Socrates, another Plato’s student (David, 1971; Price, 1989). He made many ethical contributions during his time and through his writings. Among the issues that he developed was the ethical aspects that people should hold in order to coexist with friends and neighbors. He was believed to have practical ethics that were easy to relate with, and most of his ethical works were written in his Nicomachean Ethics (Unwin, 1985). In the outline on the ethics, Aristotle stated that ethics was the main ingredient in the quest to improve lives and eventually ensure that the general well-being of humankind remained good. He, like other philosophers like Plato and Socrates, showed that ethical virtues were very important for the well-being of human race (Price, 1989). Some of these ethical virtues are courage, temperance, and justice.
However, he refutes Plato’s teachings of metaphysics and science being the main components of proper understanding of our own good (David, 1971). He argued that people need to have a good upbringing that creates habits and eventually character. Consequently, the character would help us be able to understand why we should make certain decisions by determining whether the decisions we make would be worthwhile or not, giving supportive reasons on why we decide to make these decisions. One of the main virtues that Aristotle outlined is the virtue of friendship. He stated that friendships would be vital in ensuring that people relate well within different occasions. According to him, friendship and hence interpersonal relations within a given society determines the harmony and understanding within that social milieu (Price, 1989).
According to Aristotle, friendship is a relationship that both parties get a reciprocated goodwill (Unwin, 1985). This was a slightly different definition put forth by Plato; according to him it is the circular that is usually based on mutual factors, and different gains by the parties involved. Aristotle stated that no one can chose to live without friends as they are the ones who fill one`s character with happiness that at all other social goods cannot bring forth. Friendship is a very valuable asset that does not count whether someone is poor or prosperous, young or aged etc. In the end, Aristotle stated that it is the greatest good that one can be able to express externally. However, its efficiency and realization is only seen when good and decent people are committed to keep it moving. It is the opposite of enmity. In his categories, Aristotle assumes that friendship is a simple virtue that can be categorized based on particular aspects such as the ones that he used. However, it is known that the society is very dynamic and extremely complex to be able to define friendship in such small issues as mutuality, gains and goodness (Stern-Gillet, 1995). In all cases, friendship encompasses mutual usefulness and even goodness; many other factors play a big role in the process of making and retaining friends. This is a very important aspect because all known friendships derive pleasure. It is therefore unlikely that there are good people who make friendship with evil people; this is an issue which raises the question of mutuality. One may wonder why this could happen, yet there may be little that these people can share. One notable thing in both Plato’s and Aristotle’s works is that there is no concrete definition of friendship.
Apart from the simple definitions mentioned above, there is no concrete explanation. They both try to define friendship through people who engage in it (Stern-Gillet, 1995). With the idea that people are very different, it would be very difficult to clearly define the reasons why a person opts to become friends with one person and not another. People may have similar characters and share the same environment, yet they do not share all their friends. This is a more complex issue that the two philosophers fail to delve deeper into. Instead they opt to stick with a few variables that may not practically determine and define friendship conclusively (Stern-Gillet, 1995). There remain a lot more that could be factored in the definition and classification of friendships, which could even give rise to new classes and kinds of friendship. Plato is even more vague that Aristotle, while Aristotle is shallow and hard to examine comprehensively using his variables. However, it would be mean not to give credit to Aristotle for the work he did on the philosophy of friendships. Plato developed no specific kinds of friendship that could exist between people, but only gave two classifications of friendship, that is friendship for good and friendship for bad. On the other hand, Aristotle developed three main kinds of friendship that exist between people within a society. According to Pakaluk (1998), these include:
- Friendships based on utility
- Friendships based on pleasure
- Friendships based on goodness of the friends
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On top of companionship, friends shape up each other`s acts, while ensuring that they retain the desirable part of themselves (Stern-Gillet, 1995). Some modern day people state that friends are a reflection of yourself, indicating that there is a high possibility that friends have a lot in common. This translates into a belief that people of the same social class and other social aspects are more likely to become friends than those from different classes. At the same time, Aristotle appreciates that there are different sources of friendship, some being created while others being natural and need proper management for them to last (Pakaluk, 1998). He indicates that apart from just being necessary, friendship is also noble thus inevitable in any society. Some of the friendships that need no cultivation to develop are mainly family friendships, such as parents and their children, while others that require tending are those between people from different races, among others. Friendships help in achieving certain goals and aims, as per the aspirations of the friends. The process of becoming friends is also long, starting with identifying the right person that one should relate with. Secondly, one spends time with another person and then gets an understanding over the behavior and character of that person. Once the understanding is clear, they subconsciously form a type of relationship, which they develop into friendship.
Aristotle noted that many people get into relationships, as a result of prevailing circumstances. These circumstances guide them and delegate their movements and the people they relate with. Eventually, they end up picking up certain people to help them get through the stage and they develop a relationship that is usually referred to as friendship (Pakaluk, 1998). This form of friendship is very common in certain stages of life, especially during the early years, when they need each other’s help in class and generally throughout any stage in life.
Further, Aristotle has drawn a relationship between friendship and justice in the society. While some of the important aspects of friendship and justice are well pointed out, a close comparison by the philosopher tends to suggest that friendship is more important in the society than justice. A society filled with friendship would be healthier than that filled with justice.
The work of two philosophers could be vital in the examination of the virtue of friendship, when and why it would appear to work well among some people, while others walk out of the relationship disgruntled and furious about other parties. This is despite being very close for a long time, sharing a lot of mutual benefits and then giving up everything to go out and look for other friends. The performance of friendships and deficiencies of three classifications will be examined briefly, and examples of different situations that can best explain each of the types of friendship will be provided.
Types of Friendships
Utility – Based Friendship
This is a relationship that develops between people due to the circumstances they face (Waddell, 1989). In most cases, this friendship does not last long and often stops to exist after the circumstances that surround these people disappear or cease to exist. Many people fall under this category of friendship. Aristotle terms it as an unequal friendship. This is because it is not based on similar ideals, or goals, but on the gains each party is getting from another party. The imperfectness is made clearer by the fact that there is a huge difference between the individuals who become friends. For instance, a child and a parent would become friends because they need each other. Aristotle’s argument about the development of friendship is first to stay together, and understand each other before they decide on whether to make friends or not. In imperfect relations and friendships, there are constant quarrels and little trust, and the friendship could easily break off. When there is little time spent together and a good mutual understanding, both in social standings and in personal understandings is not created, the friendship is highly likely to break off. People in this kind of friendship do not count their friends as highly significant in their lives and could even break up with each other (Waddell, 1989). The social equity is also very vital in developing a friendship. Young people, for instance, would not easily become friends with older people because the latter would consistently take charge of different situations and dominate the scene, making the friendship skew (Waddell, 1989). This is not a perfect friendship.
Friendship based on utility falls squarely upon this. Taking the example of a family set up, children are faced with circumstances that they cannot ignore or do away with. They need their parents for upbringing, as well as their character development. This is a very important aspect of this form of friendship because there is little that children can do on their own, yet their parents may not need them. However, parents, in many cases, use their children to create their niche in their society. In this case, they would be regarded as important people in the society, based on the kind of children they brought up. They are therefore required by the society to bring up children. In the process of raising the family, parents are forced to assume certain roles and create a close relationship with their children. It should however be noted that not all families are happy. In big families, for instance, there are many issues that arise ranging from favoritism and hate between siblings or between siblings and their parents. Eventually, a rift develops within the family. Despite the rift, the family stays together, seemingly in harmony, but actually most of the members would be willing to leave it. This is common but circumstances keep the family together. Siblings are afraid that they might not make it to raise themselves on their own, while parents keep the children to show their responsibility for the care and upbringing of their children. This is a good example of friendship based on utility.
Another practical example of this form of friendship is that based on business (Suzanne, 1995). Business mergers are common in the present world. When two businesses within the same industry merge to create a bigger brand and intensify their marketing strategies, they often get into a relationship. The business owners are usually held together by the mutual belief and understanding that they need each other for their development and eventual profit making. During the initial stages of the relationship, they are usually comfortable, especially when they make mistakes and they need to address the issues affecting them and their business (Suzanne, 1995). They walk together and work closely together. However, such relationships are very dangerous when the business starts to flourish and the profits increase. Trust starts to reduce and one party could start feeling that they were giving more to the company than their partners. They start feeling that the business is performing better because of their input and they could make better profits if they started to act alone. If one of the parties contributed more in financial terms to the business, yet the other contributed expertise and made less monetary contribution, there is a high likelihood that the partnership would not last. The brain contributor may argue that money without brain is wasted, while another person who contributed more money may feel that ideas without capital are dead. When the two parties start feeling that the success of the business owes them more, they develop mistrust, jealousy and always wish that the partnership was broken. When this happens, a critical imbalance is created and it would be hard for any team to bridge that gap. There are less consultations and the friendship starts to fall. Moreover, the friendship could fall and crumble if the business started to fall, after a spell of failure to take off. Partners get disappointed with their partners and they are unable to achieve their goals. The business might crumble and fall, either in the initial stages of the merger, or later during its operations. If such an event happens, the friendship between the business proprietors is usually broken due to the fall of the factor that held them together. Aristotle notes that unstable relations are easily broken by the withdrawal of the pillar that held them together.
Friendship Based on Pleasure
In his work, Aristotle developed another kind of friendship that is based on pleasure that the friends get from each other (Suzanne, 1995). He describes this kind of friendship as incomplete, just like the friendship based on utility. In this kind of friendship, one is always keen to get pleasure from another person. For example, friends may remain together for a long time just because one friend is a joker and his or her presence calms down another person or cheers him/her up during difficult moments. This friendship is easily formed between people, and can be developed only a few hours after the meeting. It is usually contingent and may develop even by accident, since the requirements are simple and easy to articulate.
This form of friendship is often short-lived and unsustainable. This happens after friends get used to each other and no longer need pleasure from each other. Further, its base is very weak and none of the friends feels obliged to keep the friendship strong and moving (Jennifer, 1991). When a pleasure-creating person is out with this, the friendship is usually weak and can no longer be sustained. Further, pleasure is usually derived at certain periods. When one is distressed and there is no one to bring some comfort, it is easy to find pleasure from a stranger who is sensible and comforting. A pleasure-creating person is very important at that point and friendship can become very strong. When the spell of distress is over and life gets back to normal, it is easy for the friendship to weather away because the pleasure is no longer needed. A good example is a wife who might get separated from her husband, after she learns that he has been cheating on her. At this point, the wife can easily meet a stranger and start a relationship because she needs companion and wants the completeness of having a man by her side. She would therefore become friends with another man easily. However, when the husband gets her back and they end their separation, the newly formed friendship would easily crumble and fall because there would be no more pleasure that is needed from the new friend. The weakness of the new friendship is therefore exposed and the sustainability is very uncertain.
Further, friendships based on pleasure are easily taken away by new events. When a friendship is based on jokes of one person, another person with better jokes may emerge. Since the pleasure followed is usually dependant on who brings more happiness, one would easily drop the earlier friend and follow the new one with more comical jokes. Friendship based on pleasure is mainly found in sexual relationships between young people, and when they reach the peak, the young couple gets married to continue enjoying each other’s company and pleasure. However, the pleasure later dies away especially as they get older and become less sexually active. When pleasure is little, the couple breaks up and looks up for another source of sexual pleasure, thus they start cheating on each other. All this is done in search for pleasure because no one can be able to give pleasure for a lifetime, but there comes a point in time when the good feeling they brought is gone and the friendship crumbles and falls.
In most cases, friendship based on pleasure has a lot of challenges. First, only one person is expected to keep the friendship going (Jennifer, 1991). They might at some point feel that they are being misused and that they are looked down upon. They may even develop a feeling of dislike because they feel enslaved to make another person happy. At this point, they could refuse to continue providing their services and would not appreciate the friendship any more. At the same time, this friendship requires that there is a lot of contact and time spent together. This is usually not easy to sustain because there are many commitments. Since the pillar on which the friendship is created is only pleasure, lack of the contact leads to little commitment and reduced benefits of the friendship. It eventually crumbles.
Friendships based on pleasure are usually created on the basis of what one person gets from another (Unwin, 1985). As stated earlier, it can be easily formed and is not guaranteed that it will last long. During its formation, there is no mutual understanding of the personalities of the participants, as they may not have spent enough time together. As a result, they only enjoy the good side of each other and this would mean that they may not be comfortable when they face issues that deeply involve them. They are not ready to carry each other’s burdens and rarely understand the dark side of their friends. Naturally, a good friendship is supposed to thrive both in good and bad times. This form of friendship is not easy to work in that manner because there is little that connects the partners (Eugene, 2006). At the same time, there is the danger of two people being able to realize the different side of their partners. Naturally, human beings are not perfect in character and an important recipe in friendship is being able to identify weaknesses and understand how well people should co-exist. Friendship based on pleasure lacks this part and people are not able to live together when they know that they cannot live with other people, when they know a part of them that may not be pleasant. For instance, one may end up a friendship that is based on sexual pleasure when they realize that another person had been earlier having a similar relationship with their friend. This leaves this kind of friendship very risky to live in and in most cases hard to keep alive for a long time. According to Aristotle, its unpredictability and lack of mutual understanding result into its imperfectness.
Friendship of Goodness
Aristotle noted that this is a perfect friendship among all kinds of friendship. He says that the friendship based on a clear understanding of each other`s character and needs is the most ethical and desirable form of friendship. It is the friendship of virtue. Aristotle developed five things that people in a complete friendship should do. He used an example of friendship between person X and person Y. If their friendship is complete, first, X should always wish and do good deeds to Y, and all these good deeds should be for the good of Y. The same should apply to X. Secondly, X should always wish that they existed for the sake of Y, and the same should apply to X. Thirdly, X should always spend time with Y, similar to Y. The fourth deed that the two friends should have is that X should make choices that are similar to Y, and finally X should be willing to solemnly share both good and bad moments with Y. When all these deeds are complete, the friendship is perfect and based on virtues. The deeds put forward by Aristotle are a good measure of friendship, stating that the first is the best measure to determine the kind of relationship that exists between two people. Wishing people good for their own sake is the most vital deed.
Aristotle also developed features that are analogous to the relationship of any good person to himself/herself (David, 2009). First, a good person is always willing to improve his/her well being and flourish in life. They also want to live a long life, and thirdly, they always want to spend time alone and reflect, and not always spend time with other people. Fourthly, Aristotle noted that a good person should be able to make his/her own decisions that are undivided, and should perceive pain and pleasure of similar things. He should be able to endure any misgivings virtuously. Ethics should always be the leading factor of a good person.
With these factors, Aristotle brings a perception that friendship with other people should only be perfect if they develop similar feelings with others, as they would feel about themselves (David, 2009). This way, they would not feel bad when another person makes an achievement, and they would always be willing to help their friends without expecting anything in return. They would sacrifice a lot of personal gains for the sake of their friends, without any limitations or hard feelings or being forced, either by circumstances or by the society (Karen, 2009). Despite the attractiveness and definition of friendship, Aristotle’s line of argument is always criticized by people because it tends to disregard humanity. A friendship or relationship with other people cannot be compared to the inner relation of a person, or their ego. This is because it would mean that people would treat others as part of their selves, which is almost impractical in a normal world. Further, it would be hard to express one`s friendship or attraction with their inner selves. Aristotle further compares self-love to perfect friendship (Eugene, 2006). On the same note, he defines self-love as that which is guided by a reason and not merely by feelings, and also guided by the desire of what is right and not simply by what gives an advantage. Despite the critics, David (1971) supports Aristotle’s argument. It is also supported by Richard 1989, who argues that similar to Aristotle’s point of view, it would be possible for a person to act for the sake of him-/herself, while at the same time for the sake of their friends.
From this argument, it is clear that a relationship of goodness can only be realized between people who are full of virtues. When the virtues are not present, an imbalance is created and the friendship would no longer be perfect. In most cases, greed and egocentrism at some point of a relationship leads to the end of a friendship (Karen, 2009). Decent or good people are guided by the virtues that ensure that they remain in concord within themselves and other people. This harmony, both within themselves and their friends, allows them to be able to have similar minds with their friends, and also make stable and reasonable decisions (David, 2009). Therefore, it is hard for people to get into a stable friendship because very few are in concord enough to create a friendship. A common mob is therefore not able to create friendships as they always look for relationships that give them pleasure and which require little commitments from them.
When a relationship is based on virtues of people involved, this friendship is possibly the strongest and would last the longest, because virtues cannot be easily changed. The goodness of friends makes the relationship not only full of pleasure, but it is also beneficial to all. Unlike other two types of friendship that were based on a single aspect each, friendship based on goodness is based on three reasons.
This friendship is however hard to develop because it requires a lot of commitment and understanding. For it to flourish, people involved should spend time together and develope their virtues that should be similar or those that can be maintained to give similar feelings. They should be interchangeable and should be acceptable to each other. Aristotle notes that while distances between people may impede the exercise of friendship, it does not break it. He notes that long distances are not healthy to any friendship, but would not kill a friendship based on good. This kind of friendship is common among older people. Young people as most people are not able to find time to spend with others to become friends. Most people are too busy to develop this form of friendship, thus it remains uncommon among people to date. Though it is good and beneficial to have these friends, the price of developing and maintaining it remains a mirage to many. Aristotle said that one would be lucky to have a couple of these true friends, who do not do good expecting to get good, but just to make sure that another person is at ease with his/her life.
Aristotle analyzed friendship from its definition where he stated that it was a matter of goodwill towards another person that is known as friendship. When people come together with a mutual benefit, they would be termed as friends as long as they have each other’s well being in their hearts. He stated that when two people have a relationship that is reciprocated and one wishes good to another person, they are said to be in a perfect relationship. The goodwill should be unbeatable and these people should have developed the relationship over time. He then argued that the goodwill should be based on virtues and wishing good to each other. This is important and he gave the reasons that goodwill should be pegged as pleasure, goodness and advantage. Therefore, when two people wish others good and allow goodness amongst themselves, no matter what they wish to achieve from the friendship, they can be said to be friends.
Further, in his work, Aristotle came up with two main classes of friendship, one that is based on understanding of the common good of two individuals, and another that is based on the gains that each party is getting from their friends. He lauds the friendship that is based on goodness of the participants, saying that it is perfect and is always hard to create. In one of his arguments, he states that some friends keep friendly relations only to gain and not take care of the welfare of another person. In this case, he notes that one person may be helping another, looking forward for the same, but not because he/she likes that person. When this happens, Aristotle tends to say that this may not even be a friendship, but when one person expects an action to be reciprocated with another action, this person is not a friend to another person. Therefore, when people are stuck together, not because they like each other even though they know they have different personalities, but due to the gains they get from each other, they are actually not friends. This contradicts with his two main classifications of friendships that include friendship based on mutual benefits and that based on pleasure on one hand, and another type of friendship based on goodness on the other hand. This leaves his definition of friendship being very unclear, because according this statement, coupled by his assertion that friendships based on goodness are rare, there are very few friendships especially among young people (Julia, 1977). This line or argument almost drives towards stating that the only friendship that exists is that between people who are together out of their goodness. This thought is derived from Aristotle’s argument that one would even be lucky to make friends based on their goodness.
Aristotle also creates a relationship between friendship and justice (Unwin, 1985). Evidently, only those that have a good relationship can be able to develop it into a real or perfect friendship. In all cases, he has clearly noted that friendship has to be created between people who have good feelings about each other. He noted that there must be a positive outcome in any relationship, whether perfect or imperfect. Talking about a utility- based friendship, Aristotle brings a clear picture in mind that it mainly exists between people working in the business world (Julia, 1977). This relationship ends after the benefits obtained by either one or both parties are diminished. The same case applies to relationships based on pleasure. In this case also, there must be some selfish gains, either from one or both persons in the relationship. The third type of relationship is the most efficient and most reliable, where none of the parties tries to selfishly gain from the relationship. Everything is supposed to benefit all, or the act of one person should benefit another. Aristotle noted that while it is possible for wicked men to sustain both the first and the second kinds of friendship, it was not equally possible to have the third friendship. Wicked people are always out to gain from a relationship and usually have short-lived relationships, which are both inapplicable to a perfect friendship (Unwin, 1985).
Aristotle notes that while unity and application of all virtues in a society bring justice, it may be different with friendship, which takes a stride further in the virtues and their execution (Unwin, 1985). Friendship is therefore more intense than justice because justice is inapplicable in places where true and perfect friendship exists. On the other hand, while justice can be developed between people who are not friends, friendship cannot thrive among people who are not just to each other. This leaves friendship as a more important social aspect than justice.
Friendship is a very vital social aspect. It should be upheld at all times in order to create a better society. People should use all means possible to ensure that they create perfect friendships, guided by morality and virtues, and not strive to get friendships anchored by the gains they obtain from these relationships. However, since the society is full of people who are not virtuous and would not appreciate a friendship that does not benefit them, it is children who should be taught on how to create long-lasting friendships for the good of the society. After this, it would guarantee a future generation that would value friendship more and one that would appreciate friendship that is long lasting and not necessarily beneficial to them.
The society should develop systems that would ensure a more robust friendship-based relationship, other than one that is based on justice. This is because justice can be substituted with friendship, while the same cannot be done to friendship. This places justice lower as a requirement of the society as compared to friendship. However, justice may be a way to create friendship because it would create a level ground for people to develop relationships that could become perfect friendships.
Leaders, parents and all people who are socially placed higher should embrace friendship as a primary virtue. This would create a relationship between them and other people as a very serene and good relationship, whether at work or elsewhere. This would eventually create a better society that is full of love and understanding, a society that would embrace helping one another as a primary goal. People would develop all those around them, eventually creating a comfortable society for everyone. Generations that appreciate each other as well as enhanced justice within the society would be created, both for the present era and the future.


Syllabus, Spring 2016
Introduction to Philosophy: “Goodness, Truth, and Beauty”
Instructor: Keith Buhler
Office Hours: Tues 12-1, Kinlaw Library by Lewis Corner.
This class is an exercise in a different way of thinking. We will think slowly, carefully, methodically, and deeply about important things. It is also an introduction to big ideas. We will think deeply about the world, God, death, science, logic, language, and our own selves.
Along the way, we will learn some facts of history, vocabulary words, philosophical concepts, and big names. But our main task is to think. At times, you might be confused. You will certainly be challenged.
Our method is to read, discuss, and write every week. Active reading, logical discussion, and careful writing are master skills. Thinking is useful for academics, for work, and for life. For some, our study will convince you to major or minor in philosophy. For others, it will make you better in your own discipline. For the skills you learn in philosophy apply to any profession: the top five most coveted job skills are communication, teamwork, critical thinking, and creativity, and self-discipline.
For still others, thinking well will help you in motherhood or the monastery. For all of us, we want to become more connected, integrated, thoughtful, reflective human beings. The ultimate motivation for having the conversation we call philosophy must be that it can make us better. We are also entering into the Great Conversation with our own, limited (often confused) thoughts, becoming part of the Conversation, and (by it) being forever changed.
Our goals then are:
- To become familiar with the thought of major philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas, and to understand the major questions they seek to answer.
- To read, comprehend, and evaluate difficult philosophical arguments.
- To understand the Christian answers to questions about the meaning of life, the structure of the cosmos, the possibility of scientific knowledge, and the ground of morality.
- To understand the Christian faith contrasted with metaphysical naturalism, nihilism, and deism.
- To practice reflect thinking upon our own lives, beliefs, attitudes, culture, and goals.
- To become more thoughtful human beings in the pursuit of goodness, truth, and beauty.
The online version is always up to date. Any paper version is subject to minor changes due to weather, illness, etc. Each date tells you the reading due and the topic. Each date also includes detailed lecture notes because students asked for them to help prepare.
T Jan 12 – Syllabus
Class preview: This class will be awesome. It’s a lot of reading, so you have to work hard. But more importantly, you have to think hard. Today we’ll get to know each other and our expectations, how to get an A, etc.. I’ll give you three personal problems philosophy can (maybe) help you with.
R Jan 14 – Sophie’s World, Garden of Eden, Top Hat, the Myths, Natural Philosophers, Democritus, and Fate: Time and Cause
Sophie is asked by a mysterious stranger two key questions: who are you? Where did the world come from? We will do our best to begin answering those questions by examining two big ideas: Time and causes. Causes answer the question “why?” And time is a condition of all life on earth.
T Jan 19 – Genesis 1-5: Mythology
A myth is not a false story but a likely story. In that sense, Genesis is a myth. We’ll analyze it for its presentation of freedom, humanity, goodness, God, sin, and redemption. (Today, we assign groups and “internal/external” processors today as well.)
R Jan 21 – “Truth” and “Goodness” Handouts: Are truth and goodness objective?
All semester we will be seeking truth. To be successful, we have to know whether truth exists. We’ll examine arguments for and against the proposition that truth and goodness are real. We will also discuss the “Tao” to see examples of universal, common morality. (We’ll also go over how to do papers.)
Disputation Paper 1 will be due next Tuesday by 11:55pm. Please carefully review the “Disputation Paper” instructions online.
T Jan 26: Plato, Eutyphro; Sophie’s World, Socrates, Athens, Plato: What is Holiness? The best way to be introduced to philosophy is to be introduced to Socrates, his character, his conversation, his way of life. How do you react to him? Socrates begs a priest, Euthyphro, to explain what piety is. Socrates is on trial for impiety, so his life is on the line. Euthpyhro can’t answer. Can you?
R Jan 28 – Plato, Apology: Is Socrates Guilty?
Is Socrates’ way of life meaningful or meaningless – obedient to God or dangerous? Socrates does not “apologize” but “defends” himself (apologia, like apologetics). All of Athens, and all of history, is the jury. Is he guilty? Is philosophy a great subversive evil for the city or a great good?
T Feb 2 – Plato, Phaedo 116-143: The soul is immortal because opposites come from opposites
Plato’s Phaedo shows Socrates’ last days. Should we grieve when our friends die? Is the soul immortal? Socrates argues that the soul lives on when the body dies. The first of three arguments builds off the natural opposites, cold from hot, big from small, life from death. Is this a good argument? Why or why not?
R Feb 4 – Phaedo 143-199: The soul is immortal because we existed before we were born
Without the help of Scripture or revelation, Socrates argues the soul is immortal. He also warns against “misology” a hatred of argument that leads to skepticism and laziness. Hating the logos is perhaps a danger we begin facing at this point in the semester, too. Is the “argument from recollection” a good one? Why or why not?
T Feb 9 – Phaedo (all): The soul is immortal because it is more like forms than matter.
Socrates introduces “forms”, real beings like equality or goodness, that explain properties. Forms are contrasted with individuals, like chairs or horses. The soul is supposed to be more like forms than particulars. Is this a good argument? Why or why not?
R Feb 11 – “Forms” handout
“Equality itself” is a form. Forms are also call “universals”. Universals contrast with individuals. They explain how the same property exists in multiple things, places and times. Forms cause individuals to be what they are. “The third man” and ‘queerness’ objections will be discussed. Important forms include the One, the Good, and Soul. Are forms real entities in the world (platonic realism) or just concepts in the mind (conceptualism)?
Disputation 2 Prompt: Does the soul live on after bodily death?
T Feb 16 – “Aristotle” Handout; Sophie’s World, Aristotle: Aristotle and his Four Causes.
Aristotle was a “meticulous organizer.” He categorized thoughts into logic, knowledge into sciences, and reality into ten categories of beings. His influence extends even to today. The “four causes” of an entity are the four properties that make it what it is. For example, think about a piece of bronze (material) made into a statue of a soldier (form), by a sculpter (efficient), that marks the entrance of the city (final). What are the four causes of a human being?
R Feb 18 – “Material Causes” Handout (10 pages): Material and Final Causes
The material cause is what a thing is made of; the formal cause, its configuration. The final cause is its purpose, function, or end. Aristotle would say that scientific explanations need to give all four causes. But Bacon and Lucretius say that “scientific” explanations only give one or two causes. Descartes caused a massive change in thinking by his famous wax experiment. Are a thing’s form and purpose incidental or essential to what it is?
T Feb 23 – (No reading): Logic
- Logic is the science of inference. We need data to make inferences. The sources of data are observation, memory, testimony, and authority. These data are the premises of arguments. Solid inferences become principles. Principles are the premises of new arguments. The most common kid of argument is a “syllogism.” Syllogisms have three statements: a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. There are three kinds of major premise: categorical, hypothetical, and disjunctive. Dilemmas and other forms of argument compound syllogisms. How does logic relate to science?
R Feb 25 – Bertrand Russell, “Free Man’s Worship” Handout: Christianity and Nihilism as worldviews
Christ as the Logos is at once creator, redeemer, and our goal. Substitutes for Christ include other gods, worldly pleasures, humans, or nothingness itself. But other gods, pleasure, and other humans are all consumed by nothingness in the end. So there are only two options: Logos or nothingness. Nothingness is mistaken by some as the origin of all things, and the conclusion — the alpha and omega — that which was, is, and ever shall be.
Watch Toy Story 3!
T Mar 1 – Toy Story 3 (Pixar Film): How do we survive devouring time?
This is a movie about devouring time. How is Andy’s relationship to Woody and Buzz changing. Also, Lotso is clearly evil. But what is his vice, or his sin? Does it have to do with his rejection of devouring time?
R Mar 3 – MIDTERM EXAM & Toy Story 3 Discussion
After the midterm, we will discuss the salvation of the toys. Who saves them, and why? Is it salvation from devouring time? What do you make of this salvation? How does Andy’s relationship to Woody and Buzz change and how does it remain?
T Mar 8 – Aquinas Handout: Can God’s existence be proven? (26 pages): Does God exist?
Aquinas is the most influential medieval philosopher. He cites Aristotle (and Plato) and Augustine almost as much as the Bible. He wrote numerous books, but his Summa Theologica is his masterpiece. He argues, in a little over 600 topics, about 3,000 disputations. The questions cover God, man, creation, evil, angels, theology, church, and the end of the world. In this first discussion we will look at his arguments for whether God’s existence can be proven – he thinks so – and the five ways of doing so.
R Mar 10 – Aquinas Handout: Is happiness the beatific vision? Today we examine Aquinas’ definition of happiness, which is the vision of the divine essence. Aristotle argued that human happiness is one object for the whole species, even though people are very different. Aquinas builds on this argument.
T Mar 15 – Spring Break
R Mar 17 – Spring Break
T Mar 22 – Augustine, Confessions chapter 1, 2, 4; Sophie’s World “Two Cultures”, “Middle Ages”
We continue our transition to medieval philosophy. The union of Athens and Jerusalem after the resurrection of Jesus created a new civilization: Christendom. Augustine was a key leader in this civilization. The Confessions details Augustine’s personal and intellectual struggles. It tells his conversion story and honors his mom, Monica. It concludes with philosophical explorations of time, memory, and creation. Augustine’s early error was thinking God was physical. What does this mean? Why is it an error? And how did he get corrected?
R Mar 24 – Augustine, Confessions Chapter 6, 7, 9: Does evil exist?
A major theme of the Confessions is sin and evil. Evil for both platonists and Christians and atheists is an essential component of their worldview. What is evil? Augustine’s presuppositions make this question difficult. They force him into a dilemma. God made everything that exists. Evil exists. Therefore God made it. Or Evil exists. God did not make evil. Therefore God did not make everything. Those options are intolerable. He settles on the view that evil does not actually exist. What does this mean? What is a “privation” of good? Does this notion make sense and does it make sense of active evil and suffering in our world?
Disputation 3 Prompt: Does evil existence as a substance or only as a property?
T Mar 29 – Confessions, 10, 11: Time
Augustine says he knows what time is as long as you don’t ask him what it is. When you ask him, he doesn’t know. What is the relation of time to eternity? What is time? Also, how are we to interpret Genesis in light of our philosophical understanding of time? Time is a big idea. What exactly is it? Three notions of time from Augustine, Plato, Kant. Also some poems on time.
R Mar 31 – Sophie’s World, Renaissance, Baroque, Hume, Enlightenment: The Enlightenment
Now we transition to the modern world. The Enlightenment defines America and through the U.S. much of the developed world. The core idea to help you understand the Enlightenment and counter-enlightenment is a tradition. Alasdair MacIntyre defines a tradition as “a socially-embedded argument extended through time”. Modernity is a tradition of empiricism, rationalism, skepticism, increasing atheism. Today we will work on distinguishing the Enlightenment tradition from the medieval tradition (which resembles the counter-Enlightenment) What makes Hume a modern?
T Apr 5 – Hume, Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding Sections 1-3: Impressions
The foundation of Hume’s work is that knowledge is either impressions (from the present) or impressions from the past (ideas). The source of all knowledge is impressions, sensory, empirical, input from the world through our five senses, then modified by the mind and imagination in various ways to result in all our thoughts. Any thought that does not originate directly from a sensory impression is nonsense, fantasy. The upshot of this view is radical – much of our supposed knowledge is fantasy.
R Apr 7 – Hume, Enquiry Sections 5-6: Cause and Effect
Relations of ideas (necessary, analytic truths) and matters of fact (contingent, synthetic truths) are all the kinds of truth there is. Cause and effect is contingent. We do not observe causation itself, but only the constant conjunction of A and B. Our supposed “knowledge” of cause-effect, including science and everyday matters, rests on a custom, a habit, an imaginary connection. It turns out that the notion of causation – so important to Plato and Aristotle – does not come from an impression. We only see the conjunction of two events, not the cause of one by the other.
Disputation 4 Prompt: Choose: Does the idea of God arise from impressions, or recollection? OR If a miracle occurred, could we ever know it?
T Apr 12 – Hume, Enquiry Sections 7, 8, 10: Miracles
Hume’s famous argument concludes that even if miracles ever occur, we can never know that they occur. How does this argument work, and is it true? What kind of testimony (against our experience) would be sufficient to overturn our experience? Do we have experience of miracles?
R Apr 14 – Dawkins Handout: There is almost certainly no god.
Dawkins argues that everything god might be invoked to explain can be explained by a combination of the anthropic principle and natural selection. He also argues that religion and science aren’t “separate spheres” of inquiry, each sovereign with their domain. Religion and science have overlapping questions about the origin of the world, the origin of life, the teleology (or purposiveness) of the cosmos, and human nature. What is natural selection? What is the anthropic principle? And how do these two (with luck as a third) explain everything that can be explained?
Watch 2001: A Space Odyssey!
T Apr 19 – “Defense of Slow Movies” Handout; 2001: A Space Odyssey (Stanley Kubrick Film)
Is humanity evolving into something more than human?
R Apr 21 – Disputation Workshop: Create your own question!
Disputation 5 prompt: Create your own question. See instructions.
Remember: Watch Tree of Life!
T Apr 26 – The Tree of Life (Terrence Mallick Film)
Mallick’s film is, in one way, very difficult. It is not as traditional a Hollywood film. It does have a 3-act structure, but it uses poetic story-telling along with narrative storytelling. The best way to view it is to surrender to Mallick’s lead. Let him show you, let him tell you, let him make you feel, let him even disturb you… You will get more out of the film if you surrender than if you try to control and understand and analyze. That said, ask yourself: “What is the way of nature?” How isit portrayed? What is the way of grace?
R Apr 28 – The Gospel of John (21 pages) The word of God recreates the cosmos and fulfills it. How does John 1:1-2:1 re-tell the story of Genesis? What’s the big difference that Jesus makes?
T Disputation 5 Due.
R Reflection paper due; extra credit (optional) due; Final Exam TBA.
Scope and Sequence:
To accomplish our goals, we will work through 10 Units. Each 2 week Unit consists of (1) readings and quizzes, (2) participation through talking and writing, (3) and a disputation paper. There is a midterm and final exam.
You will be graded equally on each component, plus applicable extra credit.
|Assessment category||Percent of semester grade|
|Participation (Talking, writing)||25%|
|Tests (Midterm, Final)||25%|
|Extra Credit||3% (max)|
I typically do not round up. So 89.5 is a “B”
|A = 99%-94%||A- = 90%-93%|
|B+ = 87%-89%||B = 84% - 86%|
|B- = 80% - 83%||C+ = 77%-79%|
|C = 74% - 76%||C- = 70% -73%|
|D = 69% - 60%||F < 59%|
The primary work if this class will be reading — and trying to understand — these books. I am requiring real books. This is harder but more interesting than a textbook. You’ll be reading about 3 hours a week. Read well. Read every assignment entirely. Skimming is sometimes necessary, but don’t skim every week.
- Jostein Gaarder, Sophie’s World ISBN: 0374530718
- Plato, Last Days of Socrates (Apology, Phaedo) ISBN: 0140449280
- Augustine, Confessions ISBN: 0199537828
- Hume: Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding: ISBN: 002353110X (Not “Treatise”)
Buy these books. Use these ISBNS only, please. (New or used is fine. Do not use Kindle or electronic unless the cost is prohibitive. Paper books are better for taking notes, and make it easier to stay on the same page.
Handouts, provided online
- Genesis (Chps. 1-5)
- Bertrand Russell “Free Man’s Worship”
- Peter Kreeft, “Is truth objective?”
- Peter Kreeft, “Is there a real moral law?”
- Peter Kreeft, “Are universals real?”
- Aristotle’s “Four Causes”
- Lucretius, “On the Nature of Things”
- Aquinas, “God and Happiness”
- Edward Feser, “Can We Make Sense of the World?”
- Richard Dawkins, “Why there is almost certainly no god”
- Dargis, “In Defense of Slow Movies”
- The Gospel of John (without chapters, verses, or cross-references)
Films, provided for purchase or free viewing
- Toy Story 3
- 2001: A Space Odyssey
- Tree of Life
A short reading quiz is due almost every class day. These assess whether you read, and how well. They are mandatory and graded. You have 10 minutes for each quiz, and they are due at the beginning of class.
- Read ahead.
- Read carefully. You will get faster, but start slow.
- Try to understand the book. What is the author’s main point? Is it true?
- Dialogue with the book before class. Take notes. Email me. Talk with each other. Process your thoughts.
- The two most important questions for each reading 1. What is the main truth claim? 2. What is the evidence?
- Pay attention to what confuses you and what you disagree with. Bring your questions to class.
- Read the book first, and any “Introductions” last, if at all. The introduction is often more confusing than the book.
- Read the book first, and Sparknotes, Cliffnotes, etc. last, if at all. I want you to have your own first impression.
We need you here! Attendance is mandatory. Roll will be taken each class. (Being repeatedly or egregiously late will count as an absence.) 1 to 8 personal absences are freebies — no credit lost. 8 ABSENCES INCLUDES EXCUSED ABSENCES> 9 or more absences cause bigger and bigger deductions from your participation grade. (10 is a letter grade) You are paying for this education including this class, so why wouldn’t you make the most of it?
Participation through dialogue/writing:
This is a dialogue-oriented class. Every person is responsible to participate, through speaking and writing.
Speaking Emphasis: “External processors” emphasize talking. You will be on my “go to” team to talk in class (instead of posting reflections after class).
Writing Emphasis: “Internal procesors” emphasize writing. to earn participation points, you will post class reflections online every week. You may elect to speak in class as well, and may be called upon.
Everyone starts at an 80% for the discussion grade; you can move up from there or down, depending on whether you speak or write once per week, pay attention, and offer helpful contributions.
Come prepared. Read, take notes, reflect, and come ready to share your viewpoint, defend it, listen to others’ viewpoints, and critique theirs.
A discussion is more than just sharing opinions; it is a friendly, eager, sincere search for truth. We can’t judge each other, but we must judge each other’s opinions, and test them for truth. We discuss because it is more interesting; it helps us retain the information; it challenges our own viewpoint; and because philosophy itself is a dialogue. Discussion ground rules are posted online.
There are two exams: midterm and final. These exams will assess your knowledge of historical facts, philosophical definitions, and the ability to synthesize and apply concepts. The Study Guide is posted online.
Philosophical Disputation Papers:
Every 2 weeks or so, you will write a 400+ word disputation. Each disputation is pass/fail and worth approximately 4% of the semester grade. The instructions are posted online.
For those who may need or desire to do extra credit, there are three opportunities for extra credit. Instructions are posted online.
- Bring your book to every class.
- Participate. Participation is your responsibility; I may or may not call on you.
- Stay focused. Do not distract yourself with side conversations, texting, Facebook, or doing anything else in class. Take a short mental break or bathroom break if you need to, but come back. If you have an important phone call or text, please step outside the class for a moment, then return.
- No smart phones. Laptops/iPads must sit in front row. No other electronics, laptops, iPhones, or iPads, iPods, smartphones, etc. Unplug, listen and engage.
- Be respectful. Pay attention to each other. Show others respect and you will be respected in turn. Unkindness, even in the form of jokes and teasing, will not be tolerated. Come to class on time, but don’t leave (nor pack up) before we’re done.
- Communicate. For short, quick questions, try sending me a direct message on Twitter. Email me anytime but only between 8am-5pm Monday – Friday, or as I’m available. Include your full name and section number (I teach two sections, so I want to get your identity straight). I try to respond within two business days. If you don’t hear from me, send a reminder. Take advantage of office hours. Call, tweet, or Google Hang Out during office hours or by appointment for any question, big or small, about this course.
- I can accommodate you: If you have a documented disability that might require academic accommodation, please make sure you are registered with the Academic Support Program. Contact Pam Downing (email@example.com / (859) 858-3511 x2283.
- Make up work is not accepted after the due date, unless you obtain prior (email) permission.
- Enjoy philosophy. We are not merely solving abstract puzzles here, but digging deeply into human thinking in a way that could change your life forever. The more you and your fellows allow yourselves to acquire a “taste” for the material, the more inclined you will be to give it the real effort required to master it.
- Don’t cheat. Cheating or plagiarism will result in a zero for the assignment. Cite your sources. Unintentional plagiarism is still plagiarism. Egregious instances or repeat instances will result in formal disciplinary action from the university. Also, do not intentionally take anyone else’s work nor provide your work to anyone else (under whatever auspices). Academic integrity, the embodiment of the moral and spiritual principles to which we adhere, is the essential basis of the Asbury University academic community.
Appendix on Academic Integrity
Integrity, as partially defined by the Student or Program Handbook on Community Life Expectations, is “both knowing the right thing to do and doing it regardless of the circumstances.” This definition may be applied to all of the scholastic interactions of the academic community. Every member of the community shares responsibility for maintaining mutual trust, respect, and integrity. Violations of such trust and specific acts of academic dishonesty will be subject to disciplinary action.
Academic dishonesty can be defined as any type of cheating relative to a formal academic requirement. Academic dishonesty is typically thought of first as plagiarism. Plagiarism, whether intentionally or unintentionally, occurs when credit is taken for what someone else worked hard to discover and record if there is no clarification from where or from whom information is taken. Plagiarism is the use of another’s ideas, words, thoughts, or organization without appropriate credit and documentation when used for a project, paper, presentation, or exam.
More examples of academic dishonesty include, but are not limited to: unauthorized collaborations, fabrications of data, unauthorized access to sources on an exam, excessive revision by someone other than the student, re-use of previous work without permission, and other situations described by faculty for specific purposes.
Faculty will address suspected occurrences of academic dishonesty as follows: The faculty member will meet with the student individually to discuss the incident. At the faculty member’s discretion, the department chair will either be notified of the meeting or be asked to be present for it. The student will be informed of the department chair’s involvement. At the faculty member’s discretion the student will receive a lowered grade, an F or 0% on the assignment in question. The faculty member will report the incident in writing to the Registrar who will maintain a record of academic integrity violations.If the incident is the student’s second offense of academic dishonesty as verified by the Registrar, the student will meet with the Dean of the college or school where the most recent incident occurred. At the Dean’s discretion, the student will receive an F in the course. If the incident is the student’s third offense, the student will be suspended from Asbury University.
Students desiring to appeal a determination of academic dishonesty will follow the ‘Academic Appeals Procedure’ found in the Probation, Suspension, and Appeals section of the Asbury University Bulletin, specifically item 1. A.


Few states in the Deep South region of the United States have met the challenges of change with the resourcefulness and success of Georgia. For decades the state remained heavily dependent upon a single crop—cotton. Before the American Civil War, the landscape had been dominated by the lavish plantations of slaveholders. Gradually they were either abandoned or broken up into much smaller tenant farms. After slavery was outlawed machinery was introduced and the cotton fields steadily became more expensive to maintain. Many people, including some of the freed African Americans, became sharecroppers, who paid the owners for use of their land with some portion of the cotton crop—a system that encouraged larger harvests and, consequently, robbed the soil of fertility. Even before the Great Depression, a major devastation of the plants by boll weevils precipitated the collapse of Georgia’s cotton industry.
Georgia farmers are now revitalizing their depleted soil with new conservation methods. The restored lands support large herds of cattle, and many acres have been reforested to supply raw materials to lumber and pulp mills. Cotton, peanuts, peaches, pecans, corn (maize), soybeans, and tobacco are among modern Georgia’s crops.
Georgia was first settled along its Atlantic coast in 1733. The new colony was established as a haven for England’s poor and as a buffer between the Northern colonies and Spanish Florida. The waterpower of Georgia’s rivers first attracted industry. Following the rivers, the early Georgians spread inland. They crossed the Coastal Plain and the rolling uplands, venturing as far as the Blue Ridge Mountains in the north.
The largest state east of the Mississippi River, Georgia plays a major role in the economy of the southeastern part of the United States. Atlanta, the state capital and largest city, is the commercial, transportation, and financial center of the entire Southeast. More than a dozen Fortune 500 companies are headquartered in Atlanta. Although many people think of Georgia as a state of small towns and rural areas, the urban manufacturing centers are more truly representative of the modern state.
Georgia is the only state whose name honors an English king. King George II of England granted the original charter for the “land lying between the Savannah and Altamaha Rivers” in 1732. The nickname Empire State of the South, an allusion to New York’s Empire State label, reflects both Georgia’s size and its rapid industrial and agricultural growth. Another popular nickname is the Peach State, for the importance of that fruit in the state’s agriculture. In 1995 Georgia named the peach as the official state fruit. Area 59,425 square miles (153,911 square kilometers). Population (2020) 10,725,274.
Nearly as large as all New England, Georgia ranks 24th in the country in size. The state sweeps from the Appalachian Mountains in the north (on the borders of Tennessee and North Carolina) to the marshes of the Atlantic Coast on the southeast and the Okefenokee Swamp (which it shares with Florida) on the south. The Savannah and Chattahoochee rivers form much of Georgia’s eastern and western boundaries with South Carolina and Alabama, respectively.
Georgia lies within two large natural regions of the continental United States: the Atlantic Plain and the Appalachian Highlands. Southern Georgia is part of the Coastal Plain province of the Atlantic Plain. To the north are four provinces of the Appalachian Highlands: the Piedmont, the Blue Ridge, the Valley and Ridge, and the Appalachian Plateaus. (See also Appalachian Mountains.)
Roughly 60 percent of the land area in Georgia is part of the Coastal Plain region, which covers a large part of the southeastern United States. In Georgia the Coastal Plain lies south of a line running from Augusta through Milledgeville and Macon to Columbus. This dividing line, between the Coastal Plain and the Piedmont Province to the north, is called the fall line. It is marked by a belt of hills, where the hard rocks of the plateau meet the softer rocks of the plain. Rivers and streams flow rapidly over the fall line on their swift descent to the plain.
The Coastal Plain is divided into two sections in Georgia. Lying mostly west of the Ocmulgee River is the East Gulf Coastal Plain, which slopes southward into Florida to the Gulf of Mexico. To the east of the East Gulf Coastal Plain is the Sea Island Section, which drains to the Atlantic Ocean.
The East Gulf Coastal region is largely a flat limestone plain, deeply cut by narrow valleys. The Flint and Chattahoochee rivers flow south and join on the Florida border to form the Apalachicola River.
The Sea Island Section of the Coastal Plain is so named because a chain of islands parallels the coastline. They are the exposed tops of a submerged ridge. The so-called valley between the islands and the mainland is part of the Intracoastal Waterway, an inland water route that extends along the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts of the United States.
Salt marshes and freshwater swamps border the coastal mainland, broken by the mouths of the Savannah, Ogeechee, Altamaha, Satilla, and St. Marys rivers. In the extreme southeast, extending into Florida, is a large wetland and wildlife refuge called the Okefenokee Swamp.
Inland from the coast the land rises in a series of terraces to an upland region of rolling hills with rounded summits 50 to 100 feet (15 to 30 meters) high. Here are sandy areas known as pine barrens, where longleaf pine grows in abundance.
Located north of the Coastal Plain, the Piedmont Province occupies about 30 percent of the state’s area. This is Georgia’s most densely populated region, where most of the state’s large cities are located. It is a rolling upland that slopes northward from the fall line toward the mountains (piedmont means “foot of the mountain”). Altitudes range from 500 to nearly 2,000 feet (150 to 600 meters). The Chattahoochee, Flint, Ocmulgee, and Oconee rivers cut deep, narrow valleys. Isolated hills, known as monadnocks, rise sharply in the north. Stone Mountain, near Atlanta, and Kennesaw Mountain, near Marietta, are masses of rock that resisted erosion while the surrounding land was worn down.
In the northeast, a part of the Piedmont is called the Dahlonega Plateau. It is a deeply eroded region of steep, forested hills and narrow valleys. It lies about 1,800 feet (550 meters) above sea level near the Blue Ridge Mountains and drops to 1,400 feet (430 meters). Through a deep gorge the Tallulah River falls 360 feet (110 meters) in 4 miles (6 kilometers).
The Blue Ridge Mountains lie in the northeastern corner of the state. In Georgia these mountains average 2,000 to 3,000 feet (600 to 900 meters) above sea level. Brasstown Bald Mountain, the highest point in the state, rises to an elevation of 4,784 feet (1,458 meters).
To the west of the Blue Ridge lies the Valley and Ridge Province, a region of fold mountains. The strong rocks, resistant to erosion, stand out as long, narrow, even-topped ridges. The weaker rocks have eroded over time, producing valleys and passes.
The extreme northwestern corner of the state is occupied by the Cumberland Plateau section of the Appalachian Plateaus. Here are two broad, flat-topped ranges—Lookout Mountain and Sand Mountain. Between them runs a narrow valley. This region is not at all like the Valley and Ridge. Its rocks are horizontal, not bent and folded. The general elevation is from 1,800 to 2,000 feet (550 to 600 meters).
Altitude, latitude, and the proximity of warm waters of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico determine the climate of Georgia’s various regions. In the mountains north of Atlanta the summers are cooler and the winters colder than elsewhere in the state. Temperatures in January average about 45 °F (7 °C), while in July the average is closer to 78 °F (26 °C). These vary by region, however, with the southeastern part of the state consistently having warmer temperatures. Georgia’s winters are generally mild and its summers warm and humid. A small amount of snow sometimes falls in winter, especially in the northern mountains.
Late winter and early spring rains often cause floods during March and April. Annual precipitation averages 43 inches (109 centimeters) in most of the state, though it is generally greater in the northeast and along the Atlantic Coast. October and November are the driest months. The sunny, dry weather of autumn is advantageous for harvesting the state’s crops. The growing season ranges from 180 days in the north to 300 days along the lower Atlantic Coast.
Because of its varied landscape, Georgia has a wide range of plant life. Trees range from maples, hemlocks, birches, and beech in the north to cypresses, tupelos, and red gums of the swamps below the fall line and to the marsh grasses of the coast and islands. Throughout most of the Appalachians chestnuts, oaks, and yellow poplars are dominant. Much of this area is designated as national forest. The region that extends from the Tennessee border to the fall line has mostly oak and pine, with pines predominating in parts of the west. Below the fall line and outside the swamps, vast stands of pine—longleaf, loblolly, and slash—cover the land. Much of the land, which had at one time been cleared of trees for farming, has gone back to trees, scrub, and grasses.
Georgia’s wildlife is abundant. It includes alligators, bears, deer, opossums, sea turtles, grouse, quail, rabbits, raccoons, squirrels, and turkeys. There is extensive stocking of game birds and fish. The major fish of southern Georgia, except snooks and bonefish, are in waters off the coast, and most major freshwater game fish of the United States are found in Georgia’s streams and lakes.
By the early 21st century Georgia was among the most populous states in the country. In 2010 the state’s population was greater than 9.6 million. Whites made up nearly 60 percent of the population, and African Americans accounted for more than 30 percent. Nearly 9 percent of Georgians identified themselves as Hispanic. Georgia was also one of the fastest-growing U.S. states, with a population increase of more than 18 percent between the 2000 and 2010 censuses. Forsyth and Paulding counties, part of metropolitan Atlanta, were among the top 10 fastest-growing U.S. counties during that time span, with population increases of 78 percent and 74 percent, respectively.
Atlanta, in the northwestern part of the state, is the capital of Georgia and its largest city. It is the center of an extensive metropolitan area that includes more than 20 counties.
Other large cities in Georgia include Augusta, an industrial and resort city on the Savannah River in the eastern part of the state, and Columbus, an industrial center on the Chattahoochee River. Savannah is a beautiful historic city and seaport on the Atlantic Coast. Macon, in the center of the state, has diverse industries and has long been a processing and distributing center for the surrounding farmland.
The Georgia educational system is under the direction of the Department of Education, created by the constitution of 1868. The constitution of 1877 limited state funds to elementary schools and the University of Georgia. Not until 1910 did a constitutional amendment permit taxes to be levied for high schools. The General Assembly of 1949 authorized a Minimum Foundation Program. It proposed to give state aid where local funds were insufficient to provide minimum-standard schools, to raise salaries, and to improve school facilities. In 1951 the General Assembly created the State School Building Authority to finance a broad program of new public school construction. In 1985 the General Assembly passed the Quality Basic Education Act, which substantially revised the formula for allocating state funds to local school systems. With increased funding for schools in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, significant improvements were made in the state’s education system.
In 1785 the University of Georgia, in Athens, became the first chartered state university in the country. Its first classes were held in 1801. Georgia Institute of Technology, located in Atlanta, opened in 1888. It is one of the country’s leading technical schools. Today the University System of Georgia comprises 26 state-supported institutions of higher education throughout the state.
Private institutions include Emory University, in Atlanta; Mercer University, in Macon; and Agnes Scott College (for women), in Decatur. Wesleyan College, which was founded in Macon in 1836 as Georgia Female College, was the first college in the world chartered to grant degrees to women. Berry College, near Rome, was originally established to educate poor children of the mountains of northern Georgia, but it now draws students from throughout the country and abroad. The undergraduate institutions and the graduate and professional schools of the Atlanta University Center, all historically Black institutions and together occupying a single campus, are at the forefront of African American higher education. Prominent among these schools are Morehouse and Spelman colleges.
Georgia has a wide range of outdoor recreational opportunities. Stone Mountain Park near Decatur (an eastern suburb of Atlanta) is noted not only for its natural environment but for the massive Confederate memorial relief carved into the mountain’s granite face. The mountainous north is dominated by the Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forests, which include a number of wilderness areas. Springer Mountain is the southern end of the Appalachian National Scenic Trail. The unique character of the Okefenokee Swamp is preserved through the administration of the Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge, as well as the Stephen C. Foster and Laura S. Walker State Park facilities found there. On the coast is Cumberland Island National Seashore, which covers part of that large barrier island. The Golden Isles, as the Sea Islands are often called, have fine beaches.
Georgia has several professional sports teams, all based in Atlanta. They are the Braves, in baseball; the Hawks, in men’s basketball; the Dream, in women’s basketball; the Falcons, in football; and Atlanta United FC, in soccer. In professional golf, Augusta National Golf Club hosts the prestigious Masters Tournament each April.
Culture in Georgia is largely centered in Atlanta. The city supports a ballet company, a symphony orchestra, an opera, and multiple theaters, museums, and art galleries. The Woodruff Arts Center in Atlanta is a visual and performing arts center. It is where the Alliance Theatre stages plays and the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra performs concerts. It is also home to the High Museum of Art, which is dedicated to supporting Southern artists. It has more than 15,000 pieces of art in its permanent collection. Clark Atlanta University has a notable collection of 20th-century African American art. Nearby is the Georgia Aquarium, the largest aquarium in the Western Hemisphere. Atlanta is also host to the National Black Arts Festival, an annual event that began in 1988.
Outside Atlanta, Marietta is home to the Georgia Symphony and the Georgia Ballet. The Peach State Opera, based in Lawrenceville, is a touring opera company that stages shows for small communities in Georgia. The state is rich in traditional arts and crafts, especially in the mountainous north. There is a mountain art guild in Clayton. In Savannah, the Telfair Museums include the Jepson Center, which features modern art, and the Telfair Academy, which presents American and European art from the 19th and 20th centuries.
Georgia writers have made a lasting impression on American literature. Alice Walker’s The Color Purple (1982) , which explores African American life in the South, won a Pulitzer Prize and was made into award-winning cinema and stage versions. Flannery O’Connor was considered a master of the short-story form, and Carson McCullers created many memorable Southern characters in her work.
Georgia has produced some of the best-known figures in American popular music. Ray Charles helped develop soul music, and he recorded the best-known version of the state song, “Georgia on My Mind.” Little Richard was one of the early stars of rock and roll, and the Allman Brothers Band pioneered the Southern rock genre. Atlanta has produced a number of hip-hop acts, including OutKast and Ludacris.
Numerous buildings, districts, and archaeological sites across Georgia have been designated national historic landmarks. Among those is the Old Governor’s Mansion in Milledgeville, dating from the period (1804–68) when Milledgeville was the capital of Georgia. Similarly, the Savannah Historic District embraces much of the original town layout and architecture of the 18th century. Ocmulgee Mounds National Historical Park in central Georgia features earthwork structures built by peoples of the Mississippian culture.
American Civil War battlefields are preserved at Kennesaw Mountain National Battlefield Park, near Marietta, and at Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park, in northwestern Georgia and southern Tennessee. Other Civil War sites include the large Confederate military prison at Andersonville and Fort McAllister Historic Park near Savannah.
For brief biographies of some notable people of Georgia, click here.
In the 20th century Georgia shifted from an economy that relied heavily on agriculture to one that concentrated on manufacturing and service activities. Today more than four-fifths of the jobs in the state are in the service sector. Manufacturing accounts for many of the remaining jobs, with agriculture-related activities employing only a fraction of the workforce. In the late 20th century Georgia’s economic performance surpassed that of most other states in the Deep South, and by the early 21st century Georgia’s economy had become one of the largest in the country.
Georgia suffered severely from erosion and loss of soil fertility as a result of too intensive cotton cultivation. The damage was slowly corrected by diversified farming and by converting the once-abandoned cotton lands to forests and pasture.
While cotton is still one of Georgia’s chief cash crops, the land devoted to its cultivation has declined significantly. With the shift to diversified farming, corn is grown in many areas. Tobacco is also an important crop. Georgia is a leading state in peanut and pecan production. Other crops include soybeans, hay, and nursery and truck crops.
Fruit is raised in nearly all parts of the state. Georgia sometimes calls itself the Peach State and is a leading producer of the fruit. (In 1875, in the first commercial peach orchard in the state, Samuel Rumph produced a freestone peach that he named Elberta after his wife.) Georgia peaches, watermelons, and cantaloupes are among the first to reach Northern markets in the spring.
Most spectacular has been the growth of the livestock and poultry industries. Georgia is a national leader in the production of broiler chickens. It also markets turkeys, pigs, beef cattle, eggs, and milk. Many old cotton plantations are now planted with legumes and grasses for cattle forage. This vegetation also controls erosion and helps rebuild the land.
At one time forests covered all of Georgia. Although the original forests have been cut over, Georgia still has more acres of commercial forestland than any other state. Lumber, plywood, and paper are major products.
Shrimps are Georgia’s most valuable product of the sea. Blue crabs are second in importance. State fish hatcheries stock streams and ponds with sport fish.
Following a national pattern, manufacturing declined in Georgia in the early 21st century. Nevertheless, the sector remains an important source of employment and a significant contributor to the state’s economy. Textile production is a leading industry. Cotton textile manufacturing has been an important part of Georgia’s economy since the late 19th century. The state’s continued specialization in textiles is shown in the great number of rug and carpet mills in northern Georgia.
Food processing is another of Georgia’s leading industries. Frozen and canned fruits, vegetables, and shrimps are among the chief products. The state is also a leading producer of peanut butter. The soft drink Coca-Cola originated in Atlanta in the 1880s, and the Coca-Cola Company—the largest beverage manufacturer and distributor in the world—remains headquartered in the city. Other industries in Georgia include the manufacture of aerospace and other transportation equipment, chemicals, paper products, machinery, and metal products.
Georgia is first in the country in the production of white kaolin, or china clay. Fine granite and marble are quarried in the north. The Coastal Plain has high-grade sands for making glass. Other minerals include sand and gravel, iron oxides, barite, peat, and mica.
Georgia has seen massive growth in its service sector since the mid-20th century. Key service activities include government, finance, insurance, real estate, information technology, retail and wholesale trade, construction, and transportation. In addition to the Coca-Cola Company, other large companies with headquarters in Atlanta include Home Depot, United Parcel Service (UPS), and Delta Air Lines. Tourism is another important component of the service sector. With a growing number of attractions, Atlanta draws millions of tourists each year. The city has also become a major convention site.
In Georgia’s colonial days the rivers were a primary means of communication between the coast and the inland cotton plantations. Later, the importance of getting cotton to the coast for shipment to England made the state a pioneer in steamship navigation. A steamboat cruised the Savannah River as early as 1790. By 1816 there were commercial lines in operation on the rivers. The first steamship to cross the Atlantic, the Savannah, departed from Savannah in 1819. Both Savannah and Brunswick are deepwater ports.
The first federal turnpike was built in 1811 from Milledgeville westward. The Old Federal Road, constructed in 1815, ran from Athens into Tennessee. The first railway was the Georgia Railroad, chartered in 1833. By 1837, about 50 miles (80 kilometers) of line had been completed out of Augusta. There were more than 500 miles (800 kilometers) of track by 1850. Atlanta began as a railroad junction, known as Terminus, where four lines met. Modern Atlanta’s vast railroad facilities help make the city the transportation center of the Southeast.
Georgia is served by more than 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) of the national interstate highway system. Interstate 75 forms a major route from Tennessee down the length of central Georgia to northern Florida. Interstate 85 leads from South Carolina in the northeast to Atlanta and continues south and west to the Alabama state line. Interstate 20 enters the state at the Alabama–Haralson county line, runs through Atlanta, and continues east to South Carolina. Interstate 95 runs along the coast, entering Georgia at Savannah and crossing into Florida at St. Marys River.
Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport is one of the largest and busiest airfields in the world. It is also the hub of the state’s aviation network, a system that includes several other airports offering commercial service.
Atlanta has been the capital of Georgia since 1868. The state is governed under its 10th constitution, which was adopted in 1983. The chief executive is the governor, who is elected to a four-year term and is limited to serving two terms. The Senate and the House of Representatives make up the legislature. The judiciary is headed by the Supreme Court.
Georgia’s most notable politician, Jimmy Carter, served as governor from 1971 to 1975 and was elected U.S. president in 1976. He was the losing Democratic presidential candidate in 1980. Another former governor, Richard B. Russell, was one of the most influential members of the U.S. Senate. In 1948 he became the first politician from the Deep South to seek the Democratic presidential nomination.
African Americans made great strides in Georgia politics beginning in the 1970s. In 1972 Andrew Young became the first African American congressman from Georgia in 100 years. A year later Maynard Jackson was elected as the first African American mayor of Atlanta. Young succeeded Jackson as Atlanta mayor in 1982. In 2021 Raphael Warnock became the first African American to be elected to the U.S. Senate from Georgia.
The first people of what is now Georgia were Paleo-Indians who found their way into the area about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. These nomadic hunters built small, seasonally occupied camps as they followed the movements of their large animal prey. Permanent to semipermanent village settlement in Georgia came with the emergence of the Woodland culture in the period 1000 bc to ad 900. The Woodland peoples raised crops, made pottery, and built huge burial mounds of clay and earth. Some mounds contained human burials and elaborately worked jewelry, pottery, and figurines. Others did not contain burials but were built in the shapes of animals. The best known of these is Rock Eagle in central Georgia, a large complex of quartz rocks laid out in the shape of a bird.
The Mississippian culture, named for the river valley in which it flourished, succeeded the Woodland culture and continued the tradition of building mounds. This culture developed ranked social classes, with powerful governments headed by chiefs. Its system of agriculture, based on corn, beans, squash, pumpkin, and tobacco, often provided food surpluses. The Mississippian culture was dominant in the area when Europeans arrived in Georgia in the 1500s.
About 1540 the Spaniard Hernando de Soto, on a quest for silver and gold, led the first European expedition into the area. The coming of the Spanish was disastrous for the Native Americans. The explorers killed or enslaved hundreds of people and brought diseases, such as measles, smallpox, and whooping cough, that killed thousands more. Ultimately, the Spanish were responsible for the destruction of the Mississippian culture in Georgia.
As a result of de Soto’s travels, Georgia became part of the territory claimed by Spain. In 1565 the Spanish began their occupation of Florida. Roman Catholic missions and associated military posts were later established along the Georgia coast. By the second half of the 1600s, however, the British had begun reaching into the area from neighboring South Carolina.
In 1732 King George II, for whom the state was named, granted a charter to a group of wealthy Englishmen headed by James E. Oglethorpe. Under this charter they planned to found a colony as a haven for imprisoned debtors, the poor and unemployed, and persecuted Protestants from Germany and Austria. The colony would also serve as a defensive area to protect against the Spanish in Florida and the French in Louisiana.
In February 1733 Oglethorpe, with about 120 followers, sailed up the Savannah River to Yamacraw Bluff. Tomochichi, chief of the Yamacraw (a branch of the Creek Indians), welcomed them. Oglethorpe built a settlement at Savannah and founded the colony of Georgia—the last of the 13 original colonies set up by England. Soon the group was joined by Protestant and Jewish refugees.
In 1734 Oglethorpe went back to England. He returned to Georgia with more colonists, including soldiers, and in 1736 built Fort Frederica. Spaniards from Florida landed 3,000 men on St. Simons Island to destroy the settlement at Frederica in 1742. They were defeated by Oglethorpe at the Battle of Bloody Marsh, ending the Spanish threat to Georgia.
The colonists cultivated silkworms, hemp, grapes, and olives, but Georgia did not thrive. Restrictions on size and a prohibition on slavery made it difficult for the small farms to compete with the large plantations of nearby South Carolina, where slavery was allowed. To encourage settlers to remain in Georgia, the colony’s leaders gradually lifted the restrictions against slavery.
Relations with Native Americans remained friendly until 1751. Then Mary Musgrove, a Native American woman who had acted as an interpreter for Oglethorpe, marched into Savannah with a large band of Native Americans to demand the return of certain lands. The uprising was put down.
Colonial leaders, faced with unrest and population loss, surrendered all power in the colony to the British government in 1752. Two years later Georgia became a royal province. Plantation agriculture, based mainly on the production of sugar, rice, and indigo, then took hold. It relied heavily on slavery and became the basis of the colony’s economy.
Georgia was a major battlefield during the American Revolution. In 1778 the British routed the Americans under General Robert Howe and seized Savannah. The city was the headquarters of the British in the South until General Anthony Wayne’s offensive forced them out in 1782.
Georgia adopted its first state constitution in 1777. It was the fourth state to ratify the federal Constitution. At the time, the state extended westward to the Mississippi River. In 1802 Georgia sold to the federal government all its lands westward from the Chattahoochee River.
The westward movement of British and then American settlers beginning in the mid-18th century pushed into the lands of the Cherokee and Muskogee (a subdivision of the Creek). After 1800 the Cherokee were remarkable for their adoption of American settler culture. Sequoyah invented a Cherokee alphabet and taught his people to read and write. The Cherokee Nation adopted a written constitution and a government modeled on that of the United States. However, the embrace of settler culture did not prevent conflicts over land. Through a series of treaties that the Cherokee and Muskogee were forced to sign, the tribes turned over their lands to Georgia.
In the late 1830s the remaining Cherokee were forced westward on the harsh journey remembered as the Trail of Tears. They were resettled on reservations in Indian Territory, which is now part of Oklahoma. By that time most Muskogee had already been forced out of Georgia. (See also Cherokee Nation v. Georgia; Southeast Indians; Worcester v. Georgia.)
Land taken from Native Americans paved the way for the development of large-scale agriculture in Georgia. After the 1790s the state’s economy was dominated by the production of cotton, which depended heavily on the labor of enslaved Africans. By the mid-19th century Georgia had the greatest number of large plantations of any state in the South. A vast majority of white Georgians, like most white Southerners, viewed slavery as economically crucial to their society. After Abraham Lincoln was elected president, the state voted for secession on January 19, 1861, and declared itself a free republic in order to preserve its plantation culture. Alexander H. Stephens, a native of Georgia, became vice president of the Confederacy.
In 1863 Georgia was the scene of the Battle of Chickamauga near the Tennessee border. In 1864 Union troops under General William Tecumseh Sherman invaded Georgia from the north. Sherman and his troops laid siege to Atlanta and burned much of the city before finally capturing it. Sherman then launched his March to the Sea, a 50-mile- (80-kilometer-) wide swath of total destruction across Georgia from Atlanta to Savannah. Sherman’s troops reached Savannah in late December. The Confederacy collapsed soon afterward. (See also American Civil War.)
On July 15, 1870, Georgia became the last former Confederate state to be readmitted to the Union. The war had devastated the state, and its economy did not recover for many years. During the Reconstruction period former Confederate officers frequently held the state’s highest offices.
Racial conflict marked Georgia’s history in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In the late 1890s legislation was enacted that disenfranchised African Americans, or took away their right to vote, and established a system of segregation to separate Blacks and whites in all public places throughout Georgia. A segregated school system offered inferior education to the Black community. Between 1890 and 1920 terrorist mobs in Georgia lynched many African Americans.
During this same period, however, several notable colleges for African Americans were founded in Atlanta. Among them were Morehouse for men and Spelman for women. Atlanta developed into one of the country’s centers of African American cultural and intellectual life.
In the 20th century Georgia gradually adopted a more industrial economy. Textile manufacturing, which had emerged as an important enterprise in the late 19th century, continued to develop. During World War II, U.S. military bases in the state were expanded—notably Fort Benning in Columbus—and many new factories were constructed. Improvements to the transportation system encouraged the growth of industry.
In the years following World War II, African Americans in Georgia became increasingly involved in the fight against segregation and other racial injustices in the South. Most notable was the work of Atlanta native Martin Luther King, Jr. He established the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in Atlanta in 1957 and from there led a series of protests around the country that became known as the civil rights movement. This movement spurred the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which contained strong provisions against discrimination and segregation in voting, education, and the use of public facilities.
Since the 1950s Georgia’s economy and population have expanded at a pace much faster than the national average. Most of this growth has occurred in and around the state capital, whose glittering skyline has become a symbol of the prosperous New South. Atlanta played host to the 1988 Democratic National Convention, and the city’s Georgia Dome was the site of the Super Bowl in 1994 and 2000. By the end of the 20th century the city had also gained international stature, largely through hosting the 1996 Olympic Games. Atlanta was only the third U.S. city to be honored with the Summer Games. (See also United States, “The South”.)
Ralph David Abernathy was the chief aide to Martin Luther King, Jr., during the civil rights movement. Abernathy became a Baptist pastor in 1948, and in 1951 he was assigned a church in Montgomery, Alabama, where he met King. The two men organized the Montgomery bus boycott and later, in 1957, started the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). The SCLC worked to win equal rights for Blacks. In 1961 Abernathy moved to Atlanta. He continued to work with the SCLC until 1977, when he resumed his work as a pastor at a Baptist church in Atlanta. (See also Ralph David Abernathy.)
Musician James Brown was one of the most influential entertainers in 20th-century popular music. Brown was raised mainly in Augusta. While still in his teens Brown formed a musical group that attracted the attention of rock-and-roll star Little Richard. Brown’s first recording, “Please, Please, Please” (1956), sold three million copies. He would go on to place nearly 100 singles and almost 50 albums on the charts. Brown’s songs from the 1960s were prominent in the Black Power movement, and in the ’70s he became known as the Godfather of Soul. (See also James Brown.)
Jimmy Carter was the 39th president of the United States. Carter was raised and educated in Georgia, where he eventually ran his family’s peanut farm. Carter served in the Georgia Senate during the1960s and was elected Georgia governor in 1970. He ran for president in 1976 and won. As president, Carter achieved some success in foreign relations, but the bad economy and a hostage crisis led to his loss in the 1980 election. Carter won the 2002 Nobel Prize for Peace for his work over the decades promoting peace and human rights. (See also Jimmy Carter.)
Juliette Gordon Low founded the Girl Scouts of the United States of America in 1912. She grew up in Savannah. She lived in the United Kingdom and became friends with Robert Baden-Powell, founder of the Boy Scouts and the Girl Guides in England. Low was interested in the scout movement and started groups of Girl Guides in Britain. When she moved back to Georgia, Low started a Girl Guides troop in Savannah. In 1913 the organization’s name was changed to Girl Scouts, and Low served as its president from 1915 to 1920. (See also Juliette Gordon Low.)
The work of Jasper Johns helped usher in new forms of art, such as Minimalism and Pop Art. Johns was raised in Augusta and moved to New York City in the late 1940s to pursue an art career. He struggled for years, but his first one-man show, in 1958, proved to be a huge success. Johns painted commonplace objects (flags, numbers, and letters) but manipulated the surface texture of his paintings to make them unique. He tried to make people see these objects in a new way. (See also Jasper Johns.)
Writer Flannery O’Connor came to be regarded as the master of the short story. O’Connor grew up in Georgia and lived there most of her life, except when she studied creative writing at the University of Iowa Writers’ Workshop. Her first novel Wise Blood was published in 1952, followed by the short-story collection A Good Man Is Hard to Find, And Other Stories (1955). O’Connor’s stories are usually set in the rural American South and focus on the relationship between the individual and God. (See also Flannery O’Connor.)
Entertainer Tyler Perry is a popular playwright, actor, screenwriter, producer, and director. Perry created his trademark character, Madea, in his 2000 play I Can Do Bad All by Myself. Perry played the brutally honest, gun-toting grandmother in a number of his plays and films. He occasionally acted in others’ films as well. Perry also runs Tyler Perry Studios in Atlanta, the only major film studio owned by an African American.
Writer Alice Walker is known for her stories of African American culture. Walker was born to sharecroppers in the small Georgia town of Eatonton. After graduating from college she began publishing short stories and essays. Much of Walker’s work focuses on the lives and struggles of African American women. Her most popular novel, The Color Purple (1982), depicts the life of an African American woman between 1909 and 1947 in a Georgia town. Walker also wrote fiction for children and the memoir The Chicken Chronicles (2011). (See also Alice Walker.)
Doak, R.S. Georgia, 1521–1776 (National Geographic Society, 2006). Hall, Brianna. Exploring the Georgia Colony (Capstone Press, 2017). Nault, Jennifer. Georgia: The Peach State (AV2 by Weigl, 2012). Prentzas, G.S. Georgia, revised edition (Children’s Press, 2014). Schwartz, Heather E. Tomochichi: Chief and Friend (Teacher Created Materials, 2017). Streissguth, Thomas. Sherman’s March to the Sea (Focus Readers, 2020). Sweeney, Alyse, and Marchesi, Stephen. Martin Luther King, Jr.: A Man With a Dream (Scholastic, 2007). Ward, Jill. Woodland Indians (State Standards Publishing, 2010).