Cymru, the nation; Cymry, the people; Cymraeg, the language
Identification. The Britons, a Celtic tribe, who first settled in the area that is now Wales, had already begun to identify themselves as a distinct culture by the sixth century C.E. The word "Cymry," referring to the country, first appeared in a poem dating from 633. By 700 C.E. , the Britons referred to themselves as Cymry, the country as Cymru, and the language as Cymraeg. The words "Wales" and "Welsh" are Saxon in origin and were used by the invading Germanic tribe to denote people who spoke a different language. The Welsh sense of identity has endured despite invasions, absorption into Great Britain, mass immigration, and, more recently, the arrival of non-Welsh residents.
Language has played a significant role in contributing to the sense of unity felt by the Welsh; more than the other Celtic languages, Welsh has maintained a significant number of speakers. During the eighteenth century a literary and cultural rebirth of the language occurred which further helped to solidify national identity and create ethnic pride among the Welsh. Central to Welsh culture is the centuries-old folk tradition of poetry and music which has helped keep the Welsh language alive. Welsh intellectuals in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries wrote extensively on the subject of Welsh culture, promoting the language as the key to preserving national identity. Welsh literature, poetry, and music flourished in the nineteenth century as literacy rates and the availability of printed material increased. Tales that had traditionally been handed down orally were recorded, both in Welsh and English, and a new generation of Welsh writers emerged.
Location and Geography. Wales is a part of the United Kingdom and is located in a wide peninsula in the western portion of the island of Great Britain. The island of Anglesey is also considered a part of Wales and is separated from the mainland by the Menai Strait. Wales is surrounded by water on three sides: to the north, the Irish Sea; to the south, the Bristol Channel; and to the west, Saint George's Channel and Cardigan Bay. The English counties of Cheshire, Shropshire, Hereford, Worcester, and Gloucestershire border Wales on the east. Wales covers an area of 8,020 square miles (20,760 square kilometers) and extends 137 miles (220 kilometers) from its most distant points and varies between 36 and 96 miles (58 and 154 kilometers) in width. The capital, Cardiff, is located in the southeast on the Severn Estuary and is also the most important seaport and shipbuilding center. Wales is very mountainous and has a rocky, irregular coastline with numerous bays, the largest of which is Cardigan Bay to the west. The Cambrian Mountains, the most significant range, run north-south through central Wales. Other mountain ranges include the Brecon Beacons to the southeast and Snowdon in the northwest, which reaches an elevation of 3,560 feet (1,085 meters) and is the highest mountain in Wales and England. The Dee River, with its headwaters in Bala Lake, the largest natural lake in Wales, flows through northern Wales into England. Numerous smaller rivers cover the south, including the Usk, Wye, Teifi, and Towy.
The temperate climate, mild and moist, has ensured the development of an abundance of plant and animal life. Ferns, mosses, and grasslands as well as numerous wooded areas cover Wales. Oak, mountain ash, and coniferous trees are found in mountainous regions under 1,000 feet (300 meters). The pine marten, a small animal similar to a mink, and the polecat, a member of the weasel family, are
Demography. The latest surveys place the population of Wales at 2,921,000 with a density of approximately 364 people per square mile (141 per square kilometers). Almost three-quarters of the Welsh population reside in the mining centers of the south. The popularity of Wales as a vacation destination and weekend retreat, especially near the border with England, has created a new, nonpermanent population.
Linguistic Affiliation. There are approximately 500,000 Welsh speakers today and, due to a renewed interest in the language and culture, this number may increase. Most people in Wales, however, are English-speaking, with Welsh as a second language; in the north and west, many people are Welsh and English bilinguals. English is still the main language of everyday use with both Welsh and English appearing on signs. In some areas, Welsh is used exclusively and the number of Welsh publications is increasing.
Welsh, or Cymraeg, is a Celtic language belonging to the Brythonic group consisting of Breton, Welsh, and the extinct Cornish. Western Celtic tribes first settled in the area during the Iron Age, bringing with them their language which survived both Roman and Anglo-Saxon occupation and influence, although some features of Latin were introduced into the language and have survived in modern Welsh. Welsh epic poetry can be traced back to the sixth century C.E. and represents one of the oldest literary traditions in Europe. The poems of Taliesin and Aneirin dating from the late seventh century C.E. reflect a literary and cultural awareness from an early point in Welsh history. Although there were many factors affecting the Welsh language, especially contact with other language groups, the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries marked a dramatic decline in the number of Welsh speakers, as many non-Welsh people, attracted by the industry that had developed around coal mining in the south and east, moved into the area. At the same time, many Welsh people from rural areas left to find work in London or abroad. This large-scale migration of non-Welsh-speaking workers greatly accelerated the disappearance of Welsh-speaking communities. Even though there were still around forty Welsh-language publications in the mid-nineteenth century, the regular use of Welsh by the majority of the population began to drop. Over time two linguistic groups emerged in Wales; the Welsh-speaking region known as the Y Fro Cymraeg to the north and west, where more than 80 percent of the population speaks Welsh, and the Anglo-Welsh area to the south and east where the number of Welsh speakers is below 10 percent and English is the majority language. Up until 1900, however, almost half the population still spoke Welsh.
In 1967 the Welsh Language Act was passed, recognizing the status of Welsh as an official language. In 1988 the Welsh Language Board was established, helping to ensure the rebirth of Welsh. Throughout Wales there was a serious effort in the second half of the twentieth century to maintain and promote the language. Other efforts to support the language included Welsh-language television programs, bilingual Welsh-English schools, as well
Symbolism. The symbol of Wales, which also appears on the flag, is a red dragon. Supposedly brought to the colony of Britain by the Romans, the dragon was a popular symbol in the ancient world and was used by the Romans, the Saxons, and the Parthians. It became the national symbol of Wales when Henry VII, who became king in 1485 and had used it as his battle flag during the battle of Bosworth Field, decreed that the red dragon should become the official flag of Wales. The leek and the daffodil are also important Welsh symbols. One legend connects the leek to Saint David, the patron saint of Wales, who defeated the pagan Saxons in a victorious battle that supposedly occurred in a field of leeks. It is more likely that leeks were adopted as a national symbol because of their importance to the Welsh diet, particularly during Lent when meat was not allowed. Another, less famous Welsh symbol consists of three ostrich plumes and the motto "Ich Dien" (translation: "I serve") from the Battle of Crecy, France, in 1346. It was probably borrowed from the motto of the King of Bohemia, who led the cavalry charge against the English.
Emergence of the Nation. The earliest evidence of a human presence in Wales dates from the Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age, period almost 200,000 years ago. It was not until the Neolithic and Bronze Age period around 3,000 B.C.E. , however, that a sedentary civilization began to develop. The first tribes to settle in Wales, who probably came from the western coastal areas of the Mediterranean, were people generally referred to as the Iberians. Later migrations from northern and eastern Europe brought the Brythonic Celts and Nordic tribes to the area. At the time of the Roman invasion in 55 B.C.E. , the area was made up of the Iberian and Celtic tribes who referred to themselves as Cymry. The Cymry tribes were eventually subjugated by the Romans in the first century C.E. Anglo-Saxon tribes also settled in Britain during this period, pushing other Celtic tribes into the Welsh mountains where they eventually united with the Cymry already living there. In the first centuries C.E. , Wales was divided into tribal kingdoms, the most important of which were Gwynedd, Gwent, Dyved, and Powys. All of the Welsh kingdoms later united against the Anglo-Saxon invaders, marking the beginning of an official division between England and Wales. This boundary became official with the construction of Offa's Dyke around the middle of the eighth century C.E. Offa's Dyke was at first a ditch constructed by Offa, the king of Mercia, in an attempt to give his territories a well-defined border to the west. The Dyke was later enlarged and fortified, becoming one of the largest human-made boundaries in Europe and covering 150 miles from the northeast coast to the southeast coast of Wales. It remains to this day the line that divides English and Welsh cultures.
When William the Conqueror (William I) and his Norman army conquered England in 1066, the three English earldoms of Chester, Shrewsbury, and Hereford were established on the border with Wales. These areas were used as strong points in attacks against the Welsh and as strategic political centers. Nevertheless, the only Welsh kingdom to fall under Norman control during the reign of William I (1066–1087) was Gwent, in the southeast. By 1100 the Norman lords had expanded their control to include the Welsh areas of Cardigan, Pembroke, Brecon, and Glamorgan. This expansion into Welsh territory led to the establishment of the March of Wales, an area previously ruled by the Welsh kings.
The Welsh continued to fight Norman and Anglo-Saxon control in the first part of the twelfth century. By the last half of the twelfth century the three Welsh kingdoms of Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth were firmly established, providing a permanent base for Welsh statehood. The principal settlements of Aberffraw in Gwynedd, Mathrafal in Powys, and Dinefwr in Deheubarth formed the core of Welsh political and cultural life. Although the Welsh kings were allies, each ruled separate territories swearing loyalty to the king of England. The establishment of the kingdoms marked the beginning of a period of stability and growth. Agriculture flourished, as did scholarship and the Welsh literary tradition. A period of unrest and contested succession followed the deaths of the three Welsh kings as different factions fought for control. The stability provided by the first kings was never restored in Powys and Deheubarth. The kingdom of Gwynedd was successfully united once again under the reign of Llywelyn ap Iorwerth (d. 1240) following a brief power struggle. Viewing Llywelyn as a threat, King John (1167–1216) led a campaign against him which led to Llywelyn's humiliating defeat in 1211. Llywelyn, however, turned this to his advantage and secured the allegiance of other Welsh leaders who feared total subjugation under King John. Llywelyn became the leader of the Welsh forces and, although conflict with King John continued, he successfully united the Welsh politically and eventually minimized the king of England's involvement in Welsh affairs. Dafydd ap Llywelyn, Llywelyn ap Iorwerth's son and heir, attempted to broaden Welsh power before his premature death in 1246. With Dafydd leaving no heirs, succession to the Welsh throne was contested by Dafydd's nephews and in a series of battles between 1255 and 1258 Llwelyn ap Gruffydd (d. 1282), one of the nephews, assumed control of the Welsh throne, crowning himself Prince of Wales. Henry III officially recognized his authority over Wales in 1267 with the Treaty of Montgomery and in turn Llwelyn swore allegiance to the English crown.
Llwelyn succeeded in firmly establishing the Principality of Wales, which consisted of the twelfth century kingdoms of Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth as well as some parts of the March. This period of peace, however, did not last long. Conflict arose between Edward I, who succeeded Henry III, and Llwelyn, culminating in an English invasion of Wales in 1276, followed by war. Llwelyn was forced into a humiliating surrender that included relinquishing control over the eastern part of his territory and an acknowledgment of fealty paid to Edward I annually. In 1282 Llwelyn, aided this time by the Welsh nobility of other regions, rebelled against Edward I only to be killed in combat. The Welsh forces continued to fight but finally capitulated to Edward I in the summer of 1283, marking the beginning of a period of occupation by the English.
Although the Welsh were forced to surrender, the struggle for unity and independence over the previous one hundred years had been crucial in shaping Welsh politics and identity. During the fourteenth century economic and social difficulties prevailed in Wales. Edward I embarked on a program of castle building, both for defensive purposes and to shelter English colonists, which was continued by his heir Edward II. The result of his efforts can still be seen in Wales today, which has more castles per square mile than any other area of Europe.
At the end of the 1300s Henry IV seized the throne from Richard II, provoking a revolt in Wales where support for Richard II was strong. Under the leadership of Owain Glyndwr, Wales united to rebel against the English king. From 1400 to 1407 Wales once again asserted its independence from England. England did not regain control of Wales again until 1416 and the death of Glyndwr, marking the last Welsh uprising. The Welsh submitted to Henry VII (1457–1509), the first king of the house of Tudor, whom they regarded as a countryman. In 1536 Henry VIII declared the Act of Union, incorporating Wales into the English realm. For the first time in its history Wales obtained uniformity in the administration of law and justice, the same political rights as the English, and English common law in the courts. Wales also secured parliamentary representation. Welsh landowners exercised their authority locally, in the name of the king, who granted them their land and property. Wales, although no longer an independent nation, had finally obtained unity, stability, and, most importantly, statehood and recognition as a distinct culture.
National Identity. The different ethnic groups and tribes that settled in ancient Wales gradually merged, politically and culturally, to defend their territory from first, the Romans, and later the Anglo-Saxon and Norman invaders. The sense of national identity was formed over centuries as the people of Wales struggled against being absorbed into neighboring cultures. The heritage of a common Celtic origin was a key factor in shaping Welsh identity and uniting the warring kingdoms. Cut off from other Celtic cultures to the north in Britain and in Ireland, the Welsh tribes united against their non-Celtic enemies. The development and continued use of the Welsh language also played important roles in maintaining and strengthening the national identity. The tradition of handing down poetry and stories orally and the importance of music in daily
Ethnic Relations. With the Act of Union, Wales gained peaceful relations with the English while maintaining their ethnic identity. Until the late eighteenth century Wales was predominantly rural with most of the population living in or near small farming villages; contact with other ethnic groups was minimal. The Welsh gentry, on the other hand, mixed socially and politically with the English and Scottish gentry, producing a very Anglicized upper class. The industry that grew up around coal mining and steel manufacturing attracted immigrants, principally from Ireland and England, to Wales starting in the late eighteenth century. Poor living and working conditions, combined with the arrival of large numbers of immigrants, caused social unrest and frequently led to conflicts—often violent in nature—among different ethnic groups. The decline of heavy industry in the late nineteenth century, however, caused an outward migration of Welsh and the country ceased to attract immigrants. The end of the twentieth century brought renewed industrialization and with it, once again, immigrants from all over the world, although without notable conflicts. The increased standard of living throughout Great Britain has also made Wales a popular vacation and weekend retreat, principally for people from large urban areas in England. This trend is causing significant tension, especially in Welsh-speaking and rural areas, among residents who feel that their way of life is being threatened.
The development of Welsh cities and towns did not begin until industrialization in the late 1700s. Rural areas are characterized by a scattering of isolated farms, typically consisting of the older, traditional whitewashed or stone buildings, usually with slate roofs. Villages evolved from the early settlements of the Celtic tribes who chose particular locations for their agricultural or defensive value. More successful settlements grew and became the political and economic centers, first of the kingdoms, then later the individual regions, in Wales. The Anglo-Norman manorial tradition of buildings clustered on a landowner's property, similar to rural villages in England, was introduced to Wales after the conquest of 1282. The village as a center of rural society, however, became significant only in southern and eastern Wales; other rural areas maintained scattered and more isolated building patterns. Timber-framed houses, originally constructed around a great hall, emerged in the Middle Ages in the north and east, and later throughout Wales. In the late sixteenth century, houses began to vary more in size and refinement, reflecting the growth of a middle class and increasing disparities in wealth. In Glamorgan and Monmouthshire, landowners built brick houses that reflected the vernacular style popular in England at the time as well as their social status. This imitation of English architecture set landowners apart from the rest of Welsh society. After the Norman conquest, urban development began to grow around castles and military camps. The bastide, or castle town, although not large, is still significant to political and administrative life. Industrialization in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries caused an explosion of urban growth in the southeast and in Cardiff. Housing shortages were common and several families, often unrelated, shared dwellings. Economic affluence and a population increase created a demand for new construction in the late twentieth century. Slightly over 70 percent of homes in Wales are owner-occupied.
Food in Daily Life. The importance of agriculture to the Welsh economy as well as the availability of local products has created high food standards and a national diet that is based on fresh, natural food. In coastal areas fishing and seafood are important to both the economy and the local cuisine. The type of food available in Wales is similar to that found in the rest of the United Kingdom and includes a variety of food from other cultures and nations.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Special traditional Welsh dishes include laverbread, a seaweed dish; cawl, a rich broth; bara brith, a traditional cake; and pice ar y maen, Welsh cakes. Traditional dishes are served at special occasions and holidays. Local markets and fairs usually offer regional products and baked goods. Wales is particularly known for its cheeses and meats. Welsh rabbit, also called Welsh rarebit, a dish of melted cheese mixed with ale, beer, milk, and spices served over toast, has been popular since the early eighteenth century.
Basic Economy. Mining, especially of coal, has been the chief economic activity of Wales since the seventeenth century and is still very important to the economy and one of the leading sources of employment. The largest coalfields are in the southeast and today produce about 10 percent of Great Britain's total coal production. Iron, steel, limestone, and slate production are also important industries. Although heavy industry has played a significant role in the Welsh economy and greatly affected Welsh society in the nineteenth century, the country remains largely agricultural with almost 80 percent of the land used for agricultural activities. The raising of livestock, particularly cattle and sheep, is more important than crop farming. The principal crops are barley, oats, potatoes, and hay. Fishing, centered on the Bristol Channel, is another important commercial activity. The economy is integrated with the rest of Great Britain and as such Wales is no longer exclusively dependent on its own production. Although agriculture accounts for much of the economy, only a small segment of the total population actually works in this area and agricultural output is largely destined for sale. Many foreign companies that produce consumer goods, particularly Japanese firms, have opened factories and offices in Wales in recent years, providing employment and encouraging economic growth.
Land Tenure and Property. In ancient Wales land was informally controlled by tribes who fiercely protected their territory. With the rise of the Welsh kingdoms, land ownership was controlled by the kings who granted their subjects tenure. Because of the scattered and relatively small population of Wales, however, most people lived on isolated farms or in small villages. After the Act of Union with England, the king granted land to the nobility and later, with the rise of a middle class, the Welsh gentry had the economic power to purchase small tracts of land. Most Welsh people were peasant farmers who either worked the land for landowners or were tenant farmers, renting small patches of land. The advent of the industrial revolution caused a radical change in the economy and farmworkers left the countryside in large numbers to seek work in urban areas and coal mines. Industrial workers rented living quarters or, sometimes, were provided with factory housing.
Today, land ownership is more evenly distributed throughout the population although there are still large privately owned tracts of land. A new awareness of environmental issues has led to the creation of national parks and protected wildlife zones. The Welsh Forestry Commission has acquired land formerly used for pasture and farming and initiated a program of reforestation.
Major Industries. Heavy industry, such as mining and other activities associated with the port of Cardiff, once the busiest industrial port in the world, declined in the last part of the twentieth century. The Welsh Office and Welsh Development Agency have worked to attract multinational companies to Wales in an effort to restructure the nation's economy. Unemployment, higher on average in the rest of the United Kingdom, is still a concern. Industrial growth in the late twentieth century was concentrated mostly in the area of science and technology. The Royal Mint was relocated to Llantrisant, Wales in 1968, helping create a banking and financial services industry. Manufacturing is still the largest Welsh industry, with financial services in second place, followed by education, health and social services, and wholesale and retail trade. Mining accounts for only 1 percent of the gross domestic product.
Trade. Integrated with the economy of the United Kingdom, Wales has important trade relations with other regions in Britain and with Europe. Agricultural products, electronic equipment, synthetic fibers, pharmaceuticals, and automotive parts are the principal exports. The most important heavy industry is the refining of imported metal ore to produce tin and aluminum sheets.
Government. The Principality of Wales is governed from Whitehall in London, the name of the administrative and political seat of the British government. Increasing pressure from Welsh leaders for more autonomy brought devolution of administration in May 1999, meaning that more political power has been given to the Welsh Office in Cardiff. The position of secretary of state for Wales, a part of the British prime minister's cabinet, was created in 1964. In a 1979 referendum a proposal for the creation of a nonlegislating Welsh Assembly was rejected but in 1997 another referendum passed by a slim margin, leading to the 1998 creation of the National Assembly for Wales. The assembly has sixty members and is responsible for setting policy and creating legislation in areas regarding education, health, agriculture, transportation, and social services. A general reorganization of government throughout the United Kingdom in 1974 included a simplification of Welsh administration with smaller districts regrouped to form larger constituencies for economic and political reasons. Wales was reorganized into eight new counties, from thirteen originally, and within the counties thirty-seven new districts were created.
Leadership and Political Officials. Wales has always had strong left wing and radical political parties and leaders. There is also a strong political awareness throughout Wales and voter turnout at elections is higher on average than in the United Kingdom as a whole. In most of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the Liberal Party dominated Welsh politics with the industrial regions supporting the Socialists. In 1925 the Welsh Nationalist Party, known as Plaid Cymru, was founded with the intention of gaining independence for Wales as a region within the European Economic Community. Between World Wars I and II severe economic depression caused almost 430,000 Welsh to immigrate and a new political activism was born with an emphasis on social and economic reform. After World War II the Labor Party gained a majority of support. During the late 1960s Plaid Cymru and the Conservative Party won seats in parliamentary elections, weakening the Labor Party's traditional
Military Activity. Wales does not have an independent military and its defense falls under the authority of the military of the United Kingdom as a whole. There are, however, three army regiments, the Welsh Guards, the Royal Regiment of Wales, and the Royal Welch Fusiliers, that have historical associations with the country.
Health and social services fall under the administration and responsibility of the secretary of state for Wales. The Welsh Office, which works with the county and district authorities, plans and executes matters relating to housing, health, education, and welfare. Terrible working and living conditions in the nineteenth century brought significant changes and new policies regarding social welfare that continued to be improved upon throughout the twentieth century. Issues regarding health care, housing, education, and working conditions, combined with a high level of political activism, have created an awareness of and demand for social change programs in Wales.
The Relative Status of Women and Men. Historically, women had few rights, although many worked outside the home, and were expected to fulfill the role of wife, mother, and, in the case of unmarried women, caregiver to an extended family. In agricultural areas women worked alongside male family members. When the Welsh economy began to become more industrialized, many women found work in factories that hired an exclusively female workforce for jobs not requiring physical strength. Women and children worked in mines, putting in fourteen-hour days under extremely harsh conditions. Legislation was passed in the mid-nineteenth century limiting the working hours for women and children but it was not until the beginning of the twentieth century that Welsh women began to demand more civil rights. The Women's Institute, which now has chapters throughout the United Kingdom, was founded in Wales, although all of its activities are conducted in English. In the 1960s another organization, similar to the Women's Institute but exclusively Welsh in its goals, was founded. Known as the Merched y Wawr, or Women of the Dawn, it is dedicated to promoting the rights of Welshwomen, the Welsh language and culture, and organizing charitable projects.
Child Rearing and Education. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries children were exploited for labor, sent into mines to work in shafts that were too small for adults. Child and infant mortality rates were high; almost half of all children did not live past the age of five, and only half of those who lived past the age of ten could hope to live to their early twenties. Social reformers and religious organizations, particularly the Methodist Church, advocated for improved public education standards in the mid-nineteenth century. Conditions began to gradually improve for children when working hours were restricted and compulsory education enacted. The Education Act of 1870 passed to enforce basic standards, but also sought to banish Welsh completely from the education system.
Today, primary and nursery schools in areas with a Welsh-speaking majority provide instruction completely in Welsh and schools in areas where English is the first language offer bilingual instruction. The Welsh Language Nursery Schools Movement, Mudiad Ysgolion Meithrin Cymraeg, founded in 1971, has been very successful in creating a network of nursery schools, or Ysgolion Meithrin, particularly in regions where English is used more frequently. Nursery, primary, and secondary schools are under the administration of the education authority of the Welsh Office. Low-cost, quality public education is available throughout Wales for students of all ages.
Higher Education. Most institutions of higher learning are publicly supported, but admission is competitive. The Welsh literary tradition, a high literacy rate, and political and religious factors have all contributed to shaping a culture where higher education is considered important. The principal institute of higher learning is the University of Wales, a public university financed by the Universities Funding Council in London, with six locations in Wales: Aberystwyth, Bangor, Cardiff, Lampeter, Swansea, and the Welsh National School of Medicine in Cardiff. The Welsh Office is responsible for
Religious Beliefs. Religion has played a significant role in the shaping Welsh culture. Protestantism, namely Anglicanism, began to gather more support after Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church. On the eve of the English Civil War in 1642, Puritanism, practiced by Oliver Cromwell and his supporters, was widespread in the border counties of Wales and in Pembrokeshire. Welsh royalists, who supported the king and Anglicanism, were stripped of their property, incurring much resentment among non-Puritan Welsh. In 1650 the Act for the Propagation of the Gospel in Wales was passed, taking over both political and religious life. During the period known as the Interregnum when Cromwell was in power, several non-Anglican, or Dissenting, Protestant congregations were formed which were to have significant influences on modern Welsh life. The most religiously and socially radical of these were the Quakers, who had a strong following in Montgomeryshire and Merioneth, and eventually spread their influence to areas including the Anglican border counties and the Welsh-speaking areas in the north and west. The Quakers, intensely disliked by both other Dissenting churches and the Anglican Church, were severely repressed with the result that large numbers were forced to emigrate to the American colonies. Other churches, such as the Baptist and Congregationalist, which were Calvinist in theology, grew and found many followers in rural communities and small towns. In the latter part of the eighteenth century many Welsh converted to Methodism after a revival movement in 1735. Methodism was supported within the established Anglican Church and was originally organized through local societies governed by a central association. The influence of the original Dissenting churches, combined with the spiritual revival of Methodism, gradually led Welsh society away from Anglicanism. Conflicts in leadership and chronic poverty made church growth difficult, but the popularity of Methodism eventually helped establish it permanently as the most widespread denomination. The Methodist and other Dissenting churches were also responsible for an increase in literacy through church-sponsored schools that promoted education as a way of spreading religious doctrine.
Today, followers of Methodism still constitute the largest religious group. The Anglican Church, or the Church of England, is the second largest sect, followed by the Roman Catholic Church. There are also much smaller numbers of Jews and Muslims. The Dissenting Protestant sects, and religion in general, played very important roles in modern Welsh society but the number of people who regularly participated in religious activities dropped significantly after World War II.
Rituals and Holy Places. The Cathedral of Saint David, in Pembrokeshire, is the most significant national holy place. David, the patron saint of Wales, was a religious crusader who arrived in Wales in the sixth century to spread Christianity and convert the Welsh tribes. He died in 589 on 1 March, now celebrated as Saint David's Day, a national holiday. His remains are buried in the cathedral.
Health care and medicine are government-funded and supported by the National Health Service of the United Kingdom. There is a very high standard of health care in Wales with approximately six medical practitioners per ten thousand people. The Welsh National School of Medicine in Cardiff offers quality medical training and education.
During the nineteenth century, Welsh intellectuals began to promote the national culture and traditions, initiating a revival of Welsh folk culture. Over the last century these celebrations have evolved into major events and Wales now has several internationally important music and literary festivals. The Hay Festival of Literature, from 24 May to 4 June, in the town of Hay-on-Wye, annually attracts thousands, as does the Brecon Jazz Festival from 11 to 13 August. The most important Welsh secular celebration, however, is the Eisteddfod cultural gathering celebrating music, poetry, and storytelling.
The Eisteddfod has its origins in the twelfth century when it was essentially a meeting held by the Welsh bards for the exchange of information. Taking place irregularly and in different locations, the Eisteddfod was attended by poets, musicians and troubadours, all of whom had important roles in medieval Welsh culture. By the eighteenth century the tradition had become less cultural and more social, often degenerating into drunken tavern meetings, but in 1789 the Gwyneddigion Society revived the Eisteddfod as a competitive festival. It was Edward Williams, also known as Iolo Morgannwg, however, who reawakened Welsh interest in the Eisteddfod in the nineteenth century. Williams actively promoted the Eisteddfod among the Welsh community living in London, often giving dramatic speeches about the significance of Welsh culture and the importance of continuing ancient Celtic traditions. The nineteenth century revival of the Eisteddfod and the rise of Welsh nationalism, combined with a romantic image of ancient Welsh history, led to the creation of Welsh ceremonies and rituals that may not have any historical basis.
The Llangollen International Musical Eisteddfod, held from 4 to 9 July, and the Royal National Eisteddfod at Llanelli, which features poetry and Welsh folk arts, held from 5 to 12 August, are the two most important secular celebrations. Other smaller, folk and cultural festivals are held throughout the year.
Support for the Arts. The traditional importance of music and poetry has encouraged a general appreciation of and support for all of the arts. There is strong public support throughout Wales for the arts, which are considered important to the national culture. Financial support is derived from both the private and public sectors. The Welsh Arts Council provides government assistance for literature, art, music, and theater. The council also organizes tours of foreign performance groups in Wales and provides grants to writers for both English- and Welsh-language publications.
Literature. Literature and poetry occupy an important position in Wales for historical and linguistic reasons. Welsh culture was based on an oral tradition of legends, myths, and folktales passed down from generation to generation. The most famous early bardic poets, Taliesin and Aneirin, wrote epic poems about Welsh events and legends around the seventh century. Increasing literacy in the eighteenth century and the concern of Welsh intellectuals for the preservation of the language and culture gave birth to modern written Welsh literature. As industrialization and Anglicization began to threaten traditional Welsh culture, efforts were made to promote the language, preserve Welsh poetry, and encourage Welsh writers. Dylan Thomas, however, the best known twentieth century Welsh poet, wrote in English. Literary festivals and competitions help keep this tradition alive, as does the continued promotion of Welsh, the Celtic language with the largest number of speakers today. Nevertheless, the influence of other cultures combined with the ease of communication through mass media, from both inside the United Kingdom and from other parts of the world, continually undermine efforts to preserve a purely Welsh form of literature.
Performance Arts. Singing is the most important of the performance arts in Wales and has its roots in ancient traditions. Music was both entertainment and a means for telling stories. The Welsh National Opera, supported by the Welsh Arts Council, is one of the leading opera companies in Britain. Wales is famous for its all-male choirs, which have evolved from the religious choral tradition. Traditional instruments, such as the harp, are still widely played and since 1906 the Welsh Folk Song Society has preserved, collected, and published traditional songs. The Welsh Theater Company is critically acclaimed and Wales has produced many internationally famous actors.
Until the last part of the twentieth century, limited professional and economic opportunities caused many Welsh scientists, scholars, and researchers to leave Wales. A changing economy and the investment of multinationals specializing in high technology are encouraging more people to remain in Wales and find work in the private sector. Research in the social and physical sciences is also supported by Welsh universities and colleges.
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—M. C AMERON A RNOLD
S EE A LSO : United Kingdom


Andrea Lawrence has a master's in creative writing. She studied fiction, poetry, playwriting, and screenwriting.
A Well Known Short Story in American Literature
The following is an essay about Nathaniel Hawthorne’s short story “Young Goodman Brown”. The story is often taught at American high schools and colleges.
My take on the story is that it conveys the winnowing of a man’s faith while living in Puritan Salem. The story also shows what pressures were on women at that time and their limitations to liberate themselves from strict religious ideologies.
Here are some facts about the story and author:
- “Young Goodman Brown” was published anonymously in 1835 in The New-England Magazine. It was published a second time under Hawthorne’s name in 1846 in Mosses from an Old Manse.
- The story takes place in 17th-century Puritan New England.
- The story focuses on the tensions in Puritan culture.
- Hawthorne was born in Salem in 1804. His great-great-great-grandfather, William, was a Puritan and the first of his family to emigrate from England. William was known for his harsh sentencing as a judge. His son, John, was a judge who oversaw the Salem witch trials.
A Closer Look at "Young Goodman Brown" and the Problems of Faith
Nathaniel Hawthorne’s “Young Goodman Brown” focuses on a Puritan follower whose faith is challenged by the traditions and pedigree of the Salem community; the author painted the town as a place for “hypocrites who covered hideous crimes with a veneer of piety and respectability” (Hawthorne 318).
Hawthorne’s story focuses on Goodman and his wife, Faith. Over the course of the story, Goodman’s belief that he is in a good Christian society is distorted. The character loses faith in his religion; he questions things he previously accepted without hesitation.
Hawthorne described Faith as a conventional woman who was sweet (Hawthorne 309), pretty (Hawthorne 309), and God-fearing. She exemplifies ideals from 17th-century Puritan New England.
As the story progresses, the reader finds there is more to Faith than meets the eyes. It can be argued that she has a harder time resisting the whims of the town because of her gender. She has more at stake to lose than Goodman.
Young Goodman Brown never knew Faith’s real intent when it came to religion; “whether Faith obeyed he knew not” (317). More than likely Faith never really faltered from gospel teachings, but according to strict Puritans, she was less than pious. She was bound to an extremely feminine role that suppressed and silenced her. Women in this society were considered second-class citizens, if that. It’s important for readers to ask the following question: How could Goodman’s wife really deduce for herself what true faith is outside of a dogmatic society like Puritan Salem?
In the story, Goodman and Faith are in a young marriage. They’ve been together for three months. They live in a society that would try to mold them into a couple that’s a shining example for others. They would have pressures put on them to be upstanding Christians, family-focused, and sinless. It’s important to note that the word “sin” is incredibly ambiguous, so the boundaries of what it is and isn’t can change at the drop of a hat. Those who are in control of Salem have the most say on the definition of sin. They’re the ones who get to decide what is a witch and what isn’t. This isn’t a lawful society; it’s chaotic.
Young Goodman Brown died wary of those around him. He was an embittered cynic. The story concludes: “no hopeful verse upon his tombstone, for his dying hour was gloom” (Hawthorne 318); translation: he died without finding another person who was also skeptical of the practices in Salem. He didn’t have a friend or confidante.
We can deduce that Faith was too afraid to deviate from her community. Goodman did see in her that she seemed to question society a little; he observed “as she spoke there was trouble in her face, as if a dream had warned her what work is to be done tonight. But no, it would kill her to think it” (Hawthorne 309).
Again, even though she may have thought about questioning society, her gender role constrained her from acting out of tradition. Far worse things were more likely to happen to her than Goodman if she questioned her community, including torture, imprisonment, and death.
Read More From Owlcation
Goodman's Wife Is a Metaphor for His Faith
In the story, Faith’s name works as a double entendre (a word or phrase open to two interpretations). Both Young Goodman Brown’s wife and his own faith contradict and support each other to create a highly nuanced narrative. His wife is a metaphor for his actual faith.
The word “faith” is almost interchangeable in some places as Brown’s wife and/or as his own inner struggle. Take this quote from the story for example: “And what calm sleep would be his that very night, which was to have been spent so wickedly, but so purely and sweetly now, in the arms of Faith” (Hawthorne 312). This line both expresses how Goodman desires to be in his wife’s arms and to be comforted in bed by his thoughts and beliefs.
There is little indication that Faith questions and works through problems of faith, at least to the level Goodman does. The paradox: how can there really be faith if it is never tested?
According to the story, Faith does not actually grow in her faith but rather accepts her conditions, and for the most part, lives her life complacently without actually feeling any conviction for the crimes of Salem — the burning of supposed witches and the persecution of those that were different, such as the Quakers.
Faith Forced to Deny Her Own Agency
What could be worse than telling the brain it is not allowed to think because it is too dangerous? Faith was afraid to think for herself because it “would kill her to think” (Hawthorne 309). If she started talking and questioning the actions of her community, she could be accused of witchery and then hung on a tree or burned at the stake.
Sadly, the treatment she endured wasn’t a new or brief thing that women encountered. Women for a large part of history have been treated as second class, and even denied an education because of their gender — and, in several parts of the world, this sexism continues.
According to Steven Lynn, what is incredibly harsh for women is when they are unallowed or unable to speak their own minds. For if a woman is “unable to make a creative room of her own, [she is then] being forced instead to suppress her unique voice and attempt to fit into the mansions of the male” (Lynn 236). Women were encouraged not to think or question. It was too dangerous to rock the status quo in colonial Puritan times. Faith doesn’t have a lot of leverage to express her true thoughts and feelings.
Had Faith been able to live outside the limitations of her society, she may have been able to free herself and realize how blind she was to the metaphorical chains that constrained her. Hawthorne’s story captures the powerlessness women felt during this strange time in American history. The author suggests it was so pervasively bad that women would hope their husbands would die so they could be freed:
"Whispered wanton words to the young maids of their households; how many a woman, eager for widows’ weeds, has given her husband a drink at bedtime and let him sleep his last sleep in her bosom… and how fair damsels – blush not, sweet ones – have dug little graves in the garden." (Hawthorne 316)
Persons Forced to Behave in Certain Ways
Society can do great harm to individuals by preventing them from thinking or acting against established norms. If people are punished for innovation it will be much easier for those in charge to promote unquestioned evils. People must have the freedom to think for themselves; they need to discern right from wrong. The problem is when we take on a group mindset and become diehard believers, even at the sake of sanity. Conspiracy groups take advantage of people who accept things blindly rather than those who greet things with a touch of skepticism.
Critical thinking, a love for studies backed by data, and expert opinions can set people free. Following a demagogue or group of demagogues ends in ruin.
“Young Goodman Brown” shows how even though skepticism can be enlightening and allows you to see the evils of society, it can also be isolating and depressing. Your awareness excludes you from the bandwagon (this is both a cure and a curse).
Salem was controlled by radicals who tortured women and men who didn’t adhere to strict religious-based laws, ordinances, and the like. People were punished for anything, and those in charge often took advantage of the situation by turning property into forfeiture. At the heart of Puritan Salem were greed and control. Those in charge (Puritan men) were very good at getting people to do what they wanted. They’d hang those who were recently executed outside church buildings to remind people to be obedient or else face a similar grisly fate. Those in charge created hysteria to force control.
Young Goodman Brown and Faith were “the only pair, as it seemed, who were yet hesitating on the verge of wickedness in this dark world” (Hawthorne 317). Sadly, Faith either didn’t feel fully convicted by Salem’s crimes or she ignored those convictions for her own safety. She had “such joy… she skipped along the street and almost kissed her husband before the whole village” (Hawthorne 317). We can safely assume she ends up aligning with Salem because of the sad quote about Goodman’s grave. He was a lonely man that the town didn’t know.
From the beginning, Faith is simple, pious, submissive, and obedient. When Goodman left for his journey he cried to her, “Say thy prayers, dear Faith, and go to bed at dusk, and no harm will come to thee” (Hawthorne 309). And then he left her safe at home. He merely “looked back and saw the head of Faith still peeping after him with a melancholy air, in spite of her pink ribbons” (Hawthorne 309). She clearly longed to be with him and wanted to either embark on his journey with him or have him safe at home with her.
Goodman wanted to protect his faith. He didn’t want to distort it, but through his journey (whether real or imagined) he came to realize the hypocrisy of his Puritan brothers and sisters.
Faith stayed home “in spite of her pink ribbons” (Hawthorne 309) and she had her own “melancholy air” (Hawthorne 309), so it is evident that “she talks of dreams, too” (Hawthorne 309) and that “as if a dream had warned her what work is to be done tonight” (Hawthorne 309).
Basically, she wanted to go, but she felt staying and obeying her husband was the correct choice. She initially would rather follow her husband’s words than follow her own curiosities. At some point… she changes her mind. She ends up journeying into the woods, and she confronts that which beckons her “to be taken into communion” (313).
Faith has a certain amount of spiritedness and individuality, but she is lost to the conditions of her society and her subservient role to her husband. This gets convoluted because you can read her name as a person or as an extension of Goodman’s beliefs. She isn’t really a character; she is seen more as an object. From a feminist perspective, she is prevented from actualizing herself into a person.
The Journey Brings Goodman Revelations
Goodman in a literal sense leaves behind his faith to go on some unknown errand in the woods. He meets with a man with a black serpent-shaped staff. He also runs into a woman who taught him his catechism. Other townspeople inhabit the woods. Eventually, he hears Faith’s voice, and he isn’t pleased.
When Young Goodman Brown discovers that his wife has involved herself in the journey he cries “‘My Faith is gone! There is no good on earth; and sin is but a name. Come, devil; for to thee is this world given’” (Hawthorne 314).
Because she made the decision to test herself, Young Goodman Brown falls into despair. He grieves that she disobeyed him. He grieves her independence from him. He grieves how his own personal faith has an independence of its own.
Goodman discards his faith in part because of what he perceives as Faith’s disobedience. When doubting Faith, Goodman “flew among the black pines, brandishing his staff with frenzied gestures, now giving vent to an inspiration of horrid blasphemy, and now shouting forth such laughter as set all the echoes of the forest laughing like demons around him” (Hawthorne 314).
If his own personal faith is in the woods, then he can no longer protect it. He can’t compartmentalize his thoughts anymore; he has to recognize that his faith has been compromised. The presence of his wife makes him realize his personal convictions can’t be shielded.
Goodman was a victim of his own town’s conventions. It took this strange journey to get him to really doubt his community. Around midnight, he stumbles into a clearing. Townspeople have gathered for a ceremony. Goodman Brown and Faith are brought forward as new acolytes. They’re the only two people who haven’t been initiated.
Goodman questions the ceremony; he loses trust in his community. He cries to his wife, “’Faith! Faith! Look up to heaven, and resist the wicked one” — deep down he still believes she could escape the wrongful notions of Salem.
Goodman calls to heaven and Faith to resist and the scene vanishes. He arrives home the next morning, uncertain whether the previous night was a dream or real.
Faith was unable to experience and test faith like her husband. The story illustrates how with the right intentions one may overprotect a loved one and end up accidentally caging a bird, never letting it fly with its own wings. To put it bluntly, the story illustrates the misogyny of the time.
Faith wasn’t given a chance to test the waters for herself. She was raised to be a follower, not a leader. Her exploration out of the home is seen as breaking gender norms and disobeying her husband’s wishes: she is chastised for her actions (by simply leaving home, she is treated like a child). She wasn’t supposed to go into the forest. She wasn’t supposed to discover things for herself. It bears repeating, the question at the heart of Hawthorne’s story is: What is faith if it can’t be tested?
Pink Ribbons: A Metaphor for Personal Faith
One of the strongest symbols in “Young Goodman Brown” is Faith’s pink ribbons, which appear in the text five times. Pink is used in the text as a symbol of transition and hope.
Several of Faith’s physical descriptions have to do with her pink ribbons staying attached to her head while getting knocked by the wind. Faith’s spirit was moving and wanted to be free, but no matter how much those ribbons shook in the wind, they’d stay in place — just like the notions that were pressed into Faith by society.
Faith tried to define herself. She took off into the woods to seek something. A case can be made that she too wanted to question Salem:
"There was a scream, drowned immediately in a louder murmur of voices, fading into far-off laughter, as the dark cloud swept away, leaving the clear and silent sky above Goodman Brown. But something fluttered lightly down through the air and caught on the branch of a tree. The young man seized it, and beheld a pink ribbon." (Hawthorne 314)
For one moment, Faith was free. She shed off the traditions, the prejudices, and the misguided beliefs of her society. For a moment, she was in control of herself, and therefore, she was liberated and challenged by the woods.
In several of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s stories, the forests that outskirt towns were a place of liberation and an end to constrained roles — this occurs in both The Scarlet Letter and Feathertop; a Moralized Legend.
Faith freed herself by facing herself in the woods and by losing her pink ribbon. At the end of the story, Faith has her pink ribbons back in her hair. She is unable to truly escape what society has turned her into, and so she is the evil she fears. She falls prey to judging and condemning others. She is part of the bandwagon.
Whether Young Goodman Brown had “fallen asleep in the forest and only dreamed a wild dream of a witch-meeting” or if there really was a meeting, Faith is unable to fulfill her name:
- If it was only a dream, then she adheres to the prejudices of her community. She is filled with hatred. She is one of the “hypocrites who cover hideous crimes with a veneer of piety and respectability” (Hawthorne 318).
- If there was a literal meeting then she was unable to stand for herself because the pink ribbons return to her head. Her protesting was minimal. She accepted the communion of that night and became one with a barbarous society.
The ending of this story says it all: “They carved no hopeful verse upon his tombstone, for his dying hour was gloom” (Hawthorne 318). Young Goodman Brown was alone in his faith; he lost Faith just the same. He no longer loved his wife, if he ever did. He felt convicted by the truths of his town. He stood alone because he refused to be one of the hypocrites he saw all around him. His tombstone was blank, for he did not carry the same prejudices of his fellow Puritans, so they did not know how to define him.
He was cynical, enlightened, and sad because he was isolated. He wasn’t perfect; he didn’t let his wife think for herself. Faith was oppressed; she didn’t really have a way to escape Salem and its nonsense.
The story illustrates the importance each individual person has to think for themselves. When we accept our roles blindly, we may end up accepting prejudices and lies as reality. One of the greatest aspects of feminism is that it moves women to think and venture out of forced submissive roles; it gives women permission to seek liberation.
- Hawthorne, Nathaniel. "Young Goodman Brown." The Compact Bedford Introduction to Literature Seventh Edition. Ed. Michael Meyer. Boston: Bedford and St. Martin's, 2006. 309-319.
- Lynn, Steven. Texts and Contexts. 5th ed. University of South Carolina: Pearson Education, Inc, 2008. 236.
This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.
© 2022 Andrea Lawrence


Project-Based Learning (PBL) Benefits, Examples & 10 Ideas for Classroom ImplementationAll Posts
Written by Marcus Guido
Save time, engage your students and differentiate learning with Prodigy.
- Teacher Resources
- Teaching Strategies
- Project-based learning definition
- Why is project-based learning important?
- Key characteristics of project-based learning
- What are some project-based learning examples
- 10 Project-based learning ideas for your classroom
- Notable and effective project-based learning examples
- Pros and cons of project-based learning in the 21st century
For some teachers, project-based learning (PBL) is classroom bliss.
Students work together to investigate an authentic and nuanced real-world problem. They build curriculum-aligned skills in the process. They’re rewarded with enhanced communication and problem-solving skills.
But organizing and running suitable PBL activities isn’t always easy, as the pedagogy is surrounded by debate and takes form in a range of exercises.
Find and facilitate the most appropriate project-based learning examples for your students.
These sections will help you determine if the pedagogy is worthwhile. If so, you’ll come away with a handful of effective ideas to easily implement.
What is project-based learning?
Project-based learning (PBL) or project-based instruction is a student-centered teaching method that encourages learning through engaging, real-world, curriculum-related questions or challenges.
This, of course, goes deeper than doing any old project. The goal is to get students to engage with a question or challenge that requires concentration and nuanced problem-solving skills.
This question or challenge must:
- Be open-ended
- Encourage students to apply skills and knowledge they’ve developed in your classes
- Allow students to take their own approaches to develop an answer and deliver a product
As you can see, project-based learning doesn’t conform to rote approaches or teacher-led instruction.
Driven by critical thinking, it’s often interdisciplinary and encourages students to take a rewarding-yet-challenging road to skill-building and knowledge acquisition through a nuanced learning process.
Why is project-based learning important?
Project-based learning boosts classroom engagement and has a direct impact on how well students are prepared to enter the workforce once they graduate.
A growing focus on 21st century skills and critical thinking means project-based learning is gaining steam in education. In addition, PBL can help educators:
- Teach students personal responsibility and critical time management skills
- Design assignments that hit higher-order stages in Bloom’s taxonomy like analysis, synthesis and evaluation
- Provide multiple ways of assessing students at different stages of the project, whether through a portfolio, annotated bibliography, outline, draft product or finished project
When students leave school, they’ll need to understand that work isn’t as straightforward as lectures and homework. It’s more aligned with a project-based approach, where employees are expected to prioritize, manage their time and deliver work on a deadline. Project-based learning helps teach students:
- Creative problem-solving skills
- The importance of collaboration
- How to find the right tools for the job
- How to build independent learning and project management skills
- How to use relevant technology to find resources, communicate and produce a final product
Project-based learning is important because helps students approach meaningful learning opportunities with curiosity, while also giving them real-world skills they’ll use for the rest of their lives.
Key characteristics of project-based learning
Project-based learning isn’t just group work or a randomly assigned project. Let’s take a look at some of the key characteristics to help you build your own project-based learning assignment:
1. Project-based learning presents an open-ended, appropriately complex question.
Students should have to do deep research, draw on existing knowledge and come up with a solution in the form of a final project — whether that’s a presentation, proposal, essay or other product.
Students should have a choice in what they explore, and the questions they answer should be genuinely challenging with real-world applications.
2. Project-based learning relates to knowledge acquired through classroom lessons.
Not only should project-based learning build on your classroom lessons, but it should give students the opportunity to put them to use in a real-world setting. Project-based learning encourages students to dive deeper into the subject matter and builds on content knowledge.
Ultimately, this content knowledge should have real-world applications that students can focus on during the project.
3. Project-based learning requires students to find their own solutions to a given problem or question.
Just because the inspiration for project-based learning assignments comes from your lectures, doesn’t mean it should stay there. Effective PBL comes from requiring students to find their own solutions to a given problem — not just plugging in a formula to find the answer.
In practice, this looks like a real-world project with extended inquiry. It should be a multi-stage process with, if necessary, multiple deliverables at different stages to keep students on track.
4. Project-based learning gives students a choice in how they learn.
Students learn best when they’re studying something that captures their imagination and interest. Regardless of the end product, students should have as much autonomy as possible in what they make and how. They should learn how to communicate ideas in a group and on their own, and really bring their passion for the project to the forefront.
5. Project-based learning follows a clear, well-defined set of assessment criteria.
The best way to keep project-based learning on track and effective is to let students know what’s expected of them.
At the beginning of the project, give students a rubric and handouts outlining:
- How the project will be graded
- All the products they’ll be required to hand in
- How they should work independently or in a group
When students know what’s expected of them, they’re more likely to succeed.
A simple example of project-based learning
The PBL process is straightforward.
- You present the issue, methods of investigation and any supplementary materials. It’s up to your students to deliver a defined product.
- Next, encourage students to reflect on their work and make revisions, ultimately delivering a presentation to their peers.
Despite this clear-cut process, there’s a lot of space for diverse tasks and differentiation in general.
The teacher is not in the school to impose certain ideas or to form certain habits in the child, but is there as a member of the community to select the influences which shall affect the child and to assist him in properly responding.
Following this philosophy, it’s probable – and ideal – that any project-based learning exercise you run looks different from those run by your colleagues.
What matters is prioritizing your students’ needs and learning styles above the curriculum.
10 Project-based learning ideas your class will love
As you can see, it’s not always easy to come up with a “project” that meets these requirements. Ideating a driving question into meaningful learning experiences that have real-world applications is no small task.
But that’s what we’re here to help with. Below are 10 of our ideas to inspire your project-based learning exercises.
1. Play area
Give students an opportunity to apply their geometry skills by designing a new playground for the school.
Using a range of free web applications, or simply grid paper and a pencil, task them with mapping out the playground while meeting certain conditions. These conditions should be based on including a certain number of 2D or 3D shapes in the components of the playground, such as slides and monkey bars. For example, at least two isosceles triangles, three equilateral triangles, four squares and so on. Once complete, each student must calculate the area and perimeter of his or her playground, as well as each component.
2. Your very own math story
Fuse math with visual and language arts by asking students to write their own math books.
Taking the form of an original short story, require students to cover a certain number of curriculum skills. They should explain and exemplify each skill within the context of the story, inherently allowing them to improve understanding. In exemplifying how to use a given skill, students should teach themselves its importance for a real-world scenario. You should notice improved retention as a result.
Is it hard to get your students excited about math? Try turning it into an engaging game-based learning adventure!
3. Favorite recipes
Take a mathematical approach to nutrition by having your class analyze their favorite foods and dishes for presentations about select recipes.
Each student should choose a main course, two sides and a dessert. They must then create and deliver presentations about how to make the dishes. But instead of standard cooking advice, the focus is nutritional values – calories, carbohydrates, daily vitamin intake and so on – based on the ingredients. You may need to provide a go-to resource for students to find this information, but the onus for creating a healthy meal is on them. Bon appetit!
4. What happened to the dinosaurs?
Satiate your students’ curiosity and probable love of dinosaurs by having them research and argue what caused their extinction, crafting a visual display to illustrate findings.
As the dinosaurs’ extinction remains a debate that can draw students into a rabbit hole, consider providing questions to guide their research. How did the planet change from the Triassic to Cretaceous period? How prevalent were carnivores compared with omnivores and herbivores? Such guiding questions should allow students to reach informed opinions, writing reports to defend those opinions and allowing them to craft creative visualizations.
5. Ancient civilization of needs
Combine history, anthropology and psychology through this project, requiring learners to envision newly-discovered ancient civilizations.
The basic premise is to borrow elements from other ancient societies, creating a unique one. But there’s a catch – the society must satisfy each tier in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. If students are not familiar with the theory, present it along with guiding questions. For example, “Which tier of the pyramid is most important for society to function?” These questions should encourage students to develop a collection of products, including: a written explanation of the society and how it meets Maslow’s needs; an analysis of the elements borrowed from other ancient civilizations; a visual depiction of the society and more.
6. Where it comes from
Launch this independent or paired study activity to explore how ancient machines are still present in modern-day science and engineering.
The exercise starts with each student or pair choosing a simple machine – a pulley, lever, wedge and so on – or another ancient tool. They must research the history of their tools, determining how and where scientists and engineers still use them today. Students can then envision how the same tools will work as part of inventions 100 years into the future. They can produce videos, presentations or mock interviews with inventors to showcase their research and ideas.
7. The Oscar goes to …
Have students script a part of a significant historical event to exercise their drama, history, and creative writing skills.
Whether a battle, court proceeding or formation of a powerful organization, have students choose from a list of events. Each learner’s goal is to thoroughly research an event, forming a cohesive string of scenes they’d watch in a movie or television show. This will allow them to write scripts, highlighting each figure’s motives and background. They must also pay particular attention to historical accuracy in terms of dialogue and settings. After you’ve approved each student’s script, they can form small groups and choose their favorite, acting it out in front of the class.
Encourage students to take the roles of fashion designers and marketers with a scenario that combines business with visual and language arts.
This scenario entails a client – played by you – asking fashion agencies – played by small student groups – to manage the creation and launch of a specific clothing item, such as a dress or jacket. Although your idea is crystal clear, you’re having a hard time communicating it. So, the agencies must start the project by developing a questionnaire to draw answers from you. As you respond to each agency, they can begin the next steps. These can include designing mock-ups, writing advertisements and calculating an appropriate sale price. After this work is done, each agency will pitch their version of the item to you. You determine who best captured the client’s ideas.
9. A career with math
Give students a chance to look towards the future, investigating a career path that heavily relies on math.
You can present a list of relevant careers or have students suggest their own. Either way, choosing a career will launch the investigation process. Each student must research the career, writing a brief report about how professionals use math in daily duties. From there, students should be able to choose a skill used in their selected procession, linking it to a skill in the curriculum. The final task is to write a textbook chapter that explains the skill while offering specific examples of how and when it is used in the given career.
10. The economics of pizza
Analyze, from a mathematical perspective, many students’ favorite meal: pizza.
This project-based learning assessment starts by choosing a pizza chain, researching its prices and applying linear algebra concepts to find the base cost of a pizza. These same concepts will allow students to determine how much each additional topping costs.
But the task isn’t done there. Students should research – individually or in small groups – how much it costs to source each topping. They can then determine which type of pizza yields the greatest and smallest profit margins. Doing so acts as an introduction to basic economic concepts, encouraging students to critically think about business.
Notable examples of project-based learning
Your inspiration doesn’t have to be limited to isolated activities like the ones above! There are many notable examples of project-based learning initiatives.
You’ll likely be able to freely borrow ideas from these institutions:
1. THINK Global School
Calling itself the “world’s first traveling high school,” THINK Global School has its students live in four countries per year while developing curriculum knowledge entirely through project-based learning. The projects are rooted in the cultures and environments surrounding the students.
2. Muscatine High School
An oft-referenced example of commitment to project-based learning, Muscatine High School in Iowa worked with a third-party organization to implement project-based learning opportunities across classes and subjects. The projects are diverse, ranging from developing personal financial plans to exploring local history through interviews with community members.
A non-profit organization, EdVisions’ mission is “to help and sustain great schools … using the most student-centered teaching and learning.” This largely involves partnering with schools to implement project-based learning opportunities. The organization does so by working with a given school to identify students’ learning needs and preferences, tailoring projects to them. This serves as an important reminder: Project-based learning starts and ends with students in mind.
With such complex demands in today’s educational system, educators worldwide are asking if elementary students can effectively complete research projects? Will they still meet required learning objectives with the teacher serving as a guide instead of teaching the curriculum in a direct, traditional manner? Yes -- and they’ve created a guide for getting started.
Referencing these examples should not only help you ideate project-based learning activities, but justify their importance in your classroom.
The project-based learning ideas above can be incredibly useful in the right setting and with the right students. However, there are some perceived benefits and disadvantages worth outlining.
Benefits and disadvantages of project-based learning
Debate permeates discussions about project-based learning.
It’s up to you to understand the pros and cons, applying them to your classroom situation to make a decision about a given activity.
Key benefits of project-based learning:
- Increased engagement – Project-based learning empowers students to play an active role in learning, as the complex tasks they take on demand novel approaches and are relevant to real-world contexts. This creates a classroom environment in which students overwhelmingly report feeling engaged, according to a meta analysis of 82 studies.
- Better knowledge retention – Compared with traditional instruction, extensive research indicates that students who complete project-based learning exercises and assessments often show superior knowledge retention in a range of subjects from math to second-language learning. This can translate to higher performance on tests, according to a 2011 study.
- Improved critical thinking abilities – The process of completing and delivering a project-generated product inherently builds problem-solving abilities, according to research from as recent as 2010. This is because students must heavily exercise those abilities, applying them in tangible contexts. For these reasons, the research indicates that students in project-based learning environments can better use problem-solving skills out of school than those in traditional learning settings.
- More opportunities to explore EdTech – Project-based learning, by nature, enables students to use EdTech and explore Internet resources and technology tools. For example, independent research is likely rooted in online searches. EdTech, on the other hand, can lend itself to creating and delivering artifacts.
Disadvantages of project-based learning
- Subjectivity in assessments – When grading a project-based learning product, many critics will say you’re closing the door on objectivity. This is because, as opposed to using standardized forms of measurement, you’ll rely on subjectively assessing a range of products. For these reasons, there’s an argument that you shouldn’t use project-based learning for a large part of students’ marks.
- Hyper-focus on product creation – It’s possible for the day-to-day focus of project-based learning to transition from developing and applying essential skills to merely working on a product. When this happens, you can debate that students won’t reap benefits such as improved problem solving and knowledge retention.
- Questionable application in mathematics – Largely skill-based for elementary learners, dedicating time to project-based learning may not be the best use of time. Consider this: Would students better understand multiplication by applying it in a project-based learning context, or by running through drills and word problems?
Armed with this knowledge, it’s ultimately your decision to bring project-based learning into your classroom.
A quality project will both engage students’ interests and align with what’s being taught, so keep that in mind for the most successful outcome.
Final thoughts on building PBL exercises
After going through this, you should have a better understanding of project-based learning as a pedagogy, as well as how to create a project design and launch it.
Just remember that the teaching method must be student-centered. What works for some teachers may not work for you, and what works for you may not work for others.
But you’ll never know until you try.
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