Criteria, standards and intuitions in the imprecise work of assessing writing.
Standards-based assessment using explicitly stated criteria for both school-based and centrally organised common assessment is prescribed in current state and national programs that emphasise the need for comparability, consistency and accountability in curriculum at all levels of schooling. The application of generally applicable, pre-specified criteria and performance standards has been recommended as a procedure whereby the subjectivity of assessors' qualitative judgements can be minimised and comparability achieved. It has been characterised as a value-neutral and efficient assessment technology.
An important part of the rhetoric of school-based, criteria- and standards-referenced assessment--apart from its reputation for certainty, objectivity and fairness--is its student-centredness. For both formative and summative assessment purposes, teacher-designed tasks and the pre-specification of criteria and standards are believed to eliminate the ill effects of other 'subjective' methodologies, because assessors' judgements are based solely on comparisons between individuals' performances and the explicitly stated performance criteria and standards. The assessment technology and procedures are given as insurance that assessment is objective, reliable, and therefore equitable, and that it will produce reliable assessments of levels of achievement.
Although criteria- and standards-based assessment has been widely used to assess written texts in senior secondary schools for twenty years, it is now to be routinely used throughout the early and middle years as well. It is timely, therefore, to revisit a review of research that has examined the ways that criteria and standards are applied during the assessment of students' writing.
Writing and assessment
The production of written texts--either on paper or electronic media--is one of the most common tasks required of students for the assessment of literacy skills and procedures, and knowledge and understanding of language and textual resources. Writing is also the mode whereby knowledge and understanding and other assessable elements are presented for display in most curriculum areas. In this case, written texts are the carriers of displays of required learning and achievement. Students are required to compose posters, advertisements, PowerPoint presentations, newspaper articles, menus, health plans, design briefs, and many types of reports, recounts and other types of texts to display knowledge and understanding of facts, concepts, procedures and skills in investigation, reflection, analysis and synthesis of information and ideas. For the teacher, therefore, the crucial skill for assessing authentic achievement is the ability to differentiate between the carrier and the content, the medium and the message (McLuhan, 1964).
This paper focuses on this problem and reviews research on the criteria-based assessment of students' written texts that, in accord with McLuhan (1964), demonstrates that the separation of form and content is impossible, even for skilled and experienced teachers. It is argued that, even when criteria and standards are explicitly specified, content knowledge and even literacy skills are so deeply embedded in the medium that the qualities of the medium influence not only their visibility to the assessor but also how they are perceived. The stated criteria for assessment become too difficult to apply directly; they must be reinterpreted and re-inflected by the assessor. As a result, it is the medium that is intuitively assessed, rather than the quality of its discrete features or the information it carries. Even the use of a supposedly objective assessment technology, such as standards-based assessment, simply disguises rather than eliminates this problem (Broadfoot, 1981).
The work of assessing
The role of the assessor of writing is much more than that of a 'neutral technician' making judgements that require a simple comparison between culture-neutral, 'fixed' standards and the assessable knowledge, skills and processes visible in the student text. In complex tasks, including tasks used to assess achievement in more than one curriculum area--where interpretation and inference is required of the assessor--the problem is intensified.
Assessors' intuitions about the writer have been shown to play a large part in the valuing of and judgements about texts. These intuitions are gathered from many sources, including students' classroom behaviour, the appearance of the text including surface features such as neatness and handwriting, and also the order and time of reading each text. A written text demonstrating above average knowledge and skills may be rated higher or lower, depending on the quality of the text read immediately before it. Based on such non-assessable characteristics, conditions and perceptions, the assessor positions the text as good or bad. For instance, in one early study, when the word 'honours' was randomly stamped at the top of students' written texts, those texts received higher grades than others in the sample (Diedrich, 1974).
Many other factors have also been shown to influence the reliability of assessments of writing: assessor training procedures (Linn, Kiplinger, Chapman & LeMahieu, 1991; Herman, 1992), the level of monitoring during the assessment processes (Cooper & Odell, 1977), the rating techniques especially considering the speed of rating (Branthwaite, Trueman, Berrisford, 1981; McColly, 1979), whether rating was 'holistic' or 'analytic' (Freedman 1979), and assessor subjectivity (Freebody, 1990; Freiberg 2001; Gilbert, 1989; Hake & Williams, 1981; Ozolins, 1981). Although the effects of many of these can be reduced by changes in assessment procedures, assessor subjectivity has been found to be more intractable.
For example, Himley (1989) analysed six teachers' (or assessors') constructed readings of students' writing in a group discussion. The participants' talk showed that their judgements of the texts were influenced by, and constructed from, their intuitions about the attitudes, dispositions and character of the student writer. In fact, the primary task in the assessment process was the identification of the subjectivity of the student writer. The teachers noted that they 'constructed a writer, a presence or "felt sense" in the text, and then rewarded "her", albeit a bit ambiguously, with our communal stamp of approval' "academic" she tried to be, the less we liked her' (p.17). Evident in this is the seamless shift from judgements of the text to judgements of the person, and back again.
Such findings highlight the importance of ensuring that the pre-specified criteria are clearly stated and directly focused on the types of knowledges, skills and processes to be assessed and that they do not invite or require high degrees of interpretation and inference. For instance, the application of criteria such as 'evidence of a strong personal voice', 'originality', 'imagination and creativity' require a great deal of inferential and interpretive work. The enactment of such criteria at the interface between the assessor and the text has been shown to be influenced both by subtle stylistic characteristics in texts and by the attitudes, dispositions and intuitions of the assessors.
For instance, in a study of the effect of 'register' in student essays, Freedman (1984) showed that, in looking for 'personal voice' in written texts, assessors made very fine distinctions of value based on their personal preferences and intuitions about the type of student whose writing was being assessed. Participant teachers were asked to assess student essays, some of which were written by students of various 'abilities' and some of which although the assessors did not know it--had actually been written by adult, professional writers. The results of the study showed that there was a higher degree of assessor consensus about holistic ratings of real student essays than there was in the ratings of 'fake' student essays. In general, student essays were assessed more favourably. Analysis of the essays showed that differences between the professionals' texts and students' texts included length (the student essays were shorter) and degree of 'formality (professionally written essays were more informal and more 'familiar' in tone, aiming to establish a close and yet authoritative relationship with readers). Strategies used by professional writers to achieve 'informality' included use of the first person pronoun, direct address to the reader and writing about 'deeply held beliefs and novel ideas'. None of the strategies used by professional writers complied with the preferred relationship of the institutional assessor with the institutionally 'appropriate' subordinate and compliant student. Freedman noted that the student writing that was preferred used 'linguistic forms that show respect, deference, and the proper degree of formality' (p. 341).
Particular stylistic qualities in writing appear to endow texts with a special value that seems to transcend other textual variables. Criteria seem to be applied differentially, depending on perceptions of overall style. Appraisals of inappropriate 'style' seem to focus assessors on elements of 'mechanics' and 'usage', which--though they are not the major 'problems' in the texts--are more easily identified and explained and are, therefore, cited by assessors as justifications for the grade given (see Freiberg, 2001; Gilbert, 1987, 1989; Hake & Williams, 1981). Student writing that is not stylistically appealing focuses assessors on the 'mechanics' of the text.
Criteria, standards or intuitions
Assessor subjectivity has also been found to comprise situated interpretation of criteria, application of 'gate-keeping' criteria, ability to recognise particular displays of criteria, and individual stylistic preferences. Several significant studies of the assessment of writing in Australian schools have demonstrated the difficulty that even the most experienced teachers had in maintaining their focus on the application of discrete skills and knowledge during the assessment of students' written texts.
In 1989, an evaluation of the Queensland Writing Task (Nuyen, 1990) was carried out after the initial administration of the test to all Queensland Year 12 students in that year. The aim was to evaluate the appropriateness of the Writing Task and the management of the test. The study also evaluated 'the practicality of criteria-based holistic assessments' and the appropriateness of the criteria and standards that were used to assess students' written scripts (Nuyen 1990, pp. 1-2). The study included a large participant group (174 markers and 28 chief markers) of Queensland secondary English teachers from both State and non-State schools, who were recognised within their schools as expert teachers of English and as such had been nominated for selection as markers.
Nuyen (1990) found that, although markers and chief markers were consistent regarding their judgements about what was appropriate and effective in students' written texts, these judgements were not limited to demonstrations of the application of the knowledge, understanding and skills listed in the assessment criteria. The criteria appeared to be interpreted subjectively by the markers so that their judgements could be based on choice of topic, type of narrative genre, relevance, length, register, creativity, originality, and overt expression of values or beliefs (e.g. religiosity, or persuasive exposition described as 'sermonising'). Nuyen's research showed, evident in the excerpt from the findings below, that many stylistic 'indefinables' were used as 'gatekeeping' criteria even when they were not explicitly pre-stated as assessment criteria.
Most [chief markers] were irritated by the same factors: factual or historical inaccuracy; religious sermons; offensive language; over-use of cliches. Again, as with the markers, all strived to be objective and cast aside their personal prejudices. However, there could be a danger of a 'halo effect' if too many of these responses were found in the same folders or in consecutive folders. (Nuyen, 1990, p.18)
Features of students' written texts that appeared to have influenced markers' overall impressions of 'quality' and their criteria-based holistic assessments, therefore, related not to writing skills but to the subject positions adopted by the student writers and the assessors' judgements about the appropriateness of these.
Significant effects on teachers' applications and inflections of specified criteria have been found when students' written texts are valued for their levels of self-expression rather than displays of literacy skills and accuracy. Gilbert's (1989) analyses of teacher and student talk about writing and the assessment of writing demonstrated that the teacher consistently judged the appropriateness of student writing based on evidence of 'personal voice', 'creativity', 'originality' and 'spontaneity', irrespective of the stated assessment criteria. She found that when the author was 'visible' to the assessor, texts could be read as holistic, quasi-literary utterances; when the author was not 'visible', texts were read as a set of component skills and mechanical devices (e.g. punctuation, spelling, grammar). Thus evidence of poor literacy 'skills' was sought to justify intuitive judgements of poor style.
Student writing--not only creative writing or story narrative productions, but also analytical exposition, factual reports and transactional writing--has been found to be valued for its degree of self-expression (Gilbert, 1987, 1989) and 'flair' and 'style' (Freebody, 1990; Freiberg, 2001; Ozolins, 1981), rather than for the displays of competence definable as literacy skills. Further, teachers or assessors have been found to attribute the writing skills necessary to portray 'self ', 'voice', 'flair' and 'style' to the aptitude and dispositions of students rather than to the curriculum in which they engaged. Writing competencies were routinely attributed to innate or 'inherited' ability, and 'performances' of writing tasks that were read as being produced by diligently learned skills were not valued as highly.
Implicit in this is the assumption that there is a hierarchy of valued cultural attributes which students must display through their writing performances if they are to be assessed as writing quality texts. If these culturally defined attributes are not displayed, the students may be assessed as incompetent writers, irrespective of the accuracy of their writing. Despite the routine uses of criteria and standards for assessment of students' writing, the features of written texts that counted as displays of these all important attributes appeared to be 'transcendent devices' (Freiberg, 2001) that resonated with the assessors.
One study (Freiberg, 2001) of 38 English teachers' interpretations of criteria used to assess writing found that stated criteria were routinely re-cast so that 'invisible' qualities, transcendent and indefinable in nature, were what came to count as displays of 'good writing'. Because these qualities are unexplained and not explicitly definable in textual terms, it becomes impossible for students who do not possess the valued 'style', as a legacy from their life outside the classroom, to learn how to display it in written productions for assessment.
Because of their elusive nature, these indefinable, transcendent displays were found to be realised through the assessors' recognition of particular qualities in students' texts. The level of subjectivity of judgements about 'confidence', 'thought', 'insight', 'maturity' and 'imagination' as qualities within texts was evident, because they could only be produced by the participants in self-referencing terms: 'I can understand it, they've actually given me something that I can read'; 'I love reading this. It's something that, I think, attracts you immediately. You, as a teacher just think, "I like the way that sounds"'; 'It just comes down to like a gut feeling' (Freiberg, 1993).
The analysis of the criteria used to assess written texts found that most required interpretation; they were not explicitly specified in ways that would allow them to be read as specific textual practices. The descriptions of different standards, therefore, were also unanchored: first, because the criteria to which they were linked were undefined, and second, because the differentiations between the particular unspecified attributes of texts were made in comparative, quantitative terms such as 'great' and 'reasonable', 'broad' and 'fine'. The effect of this was to afford the assessor a warrant to 'invent' the articulation of the criteria and the standards.
Under these conditions, assessors are able to decide what will count as meeting the criteria and as meeting it 'greatly' or 'reasonably', 'more' or 'less'. In the enactment of criteria-based assessment, therefore, the actual criteria and standards are not central to the process. Rather, it is teachers' meanings that are central. The standard at which a student's writing is assessed is based, therefore, on the resonance it produces within the assessor. If a text can be read as 'literature' or 'good' writing, particular assessment processes are called into play. These processes are different from the processes that are enacted when the student text is appraised as 'bad' writing.
Smith (1991) also addressed the issue of teachers as readers enacting criteria-based assessment in senior secondary English in Queensland schools. Smith's (1991) analysis of the reading practices of five experienced English teachers was based on the premise that, as teachers enacted criteria-based assessment of student writing, they drew on various reading 'repertoires'. These repertoires were found to shape the ways in which criteria were inflected in the 'readings' of student texts. Smith's research challenges the assumption that the explicit statement of criteria and standards means that teachers' reading practices also become explicit.
1. that teachers' 'readings' were influenced by non-specified criteria and a range of contextual factors which formed the interpretive resources of the teacher/reader;
2. that teachers/assessors habitually justify judgements by referring specifically to mechanics such as spelling and punctuation, while it is clear that these textual errors cannot alone account for the grades awarded, and
3. that teachers/readers position texts in relation to other texts and in relation to other past and recent experiences of assessment, and that this positioning affects the ways in which the criteria and standards are inflected in each instance of assessment.
Smith concluded that each instance of criterion-based assessment in schools is 'a complex interaction between the readers, the single text, and other like texts' (Smith, 1991, p. 65) and that the presupposition that criteria and standards are applied objectively and reliably is contradicted in the actual school-based practices.
Assessment of writing is very complex and imprecise. It becomes perhaps more difficult for assessors to 'read' student writing as text rather than as the display of the person-behind-the -text when summative assessment is school-based. The inclination of the reader to look for the 'author behind the text' is satisfied when the teacher assesses the writing of students s/he knows. This prior knowledge, or at least the assumption of prior knowledge about the person, helps to produce the 'reading' of the student text.
It is clear that if assessment of authentic achievement in writing is to be achieved, criteria that invoke creative and personal qualities such as 'originality' and 'imagination' must be explicated in terms of the knowledge and skills in writing technologies that are able to be taught and learned. Assumptions about assessor neutrality and the belief that assessment based on pre-specified criteria and standards is objective, reliable and equitable have allowed practices of assessment based on cultural displays--such as 'style', 'sophistication', 'originality', 'imagination', 'maturity' and development of 'personal voice'--to remain unexamined (Freebody, 1990).
In the assessment of writing, therefore, we must consider many factors: the types of criteria and standards specified; the level of interpretation and inference required; the visibility of the assessable elements and the complexity of the tasks and written productions, and the influence of the medium on the message to be assessed. In the end, it is the work of the assessor--at the interface between the assessor and the item being assessed--that is the point at which these essential elements will be either delivered or denied.
Branthwaite, A., Trueman, M., & Berrisford, T.(1981). Unreliability of marking. Educational Review, 33 (1), 41-46.
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Freebody, P. (1990). Inventing cultural-capitalist distinctions in the assessment of HSC papers: Coping with inflation in an era of literacy crisis. Paper presented at the Inaugural Australian Systemics Conference on Literacy in Social Processes, Deakin University, Geelong.
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Freedman, S. (1984). The registers of student and professional expository writing: Influences on teacher responses. In R. Beach and L.S. Birdwell (Eds.), New directions in composition research (pp. 334-347). New York: The Guilford Press.
Freiberg, J.M. (1993). The operation of cultural capital in summative criteria-based assessment in senior secondary English. Unpublished Masters thesis, Deakin University, Victoria.
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Winterowd (Eds.), Encountering student texts (pp. 5-19). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
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McColly, W. (1979). What does educational research say about the judging of writing ability?. Journal of Educational Research, 64, 148-156.
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Ozolins, A. (1981). Victorian HSC examiners' reports: A study of cultural capital. In H. Bannister & L. Johnson (Eds.). Melbourne working papers, 1981 (pp. 142-183). Melbourne: University of Melbourne.
Smith, C. (1991). The teacher as reader/assessor of student texts. English in Australia, 98, 49-65.
Jill Freiberg | Griffith University
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|Title Annotation:||students writings evaluation by teachers|
|Publication:||Literacy Learning: The Middle Years|
|Date:||Oct 1, 2008|
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Bedtime stories play an important role in your child’s development. Not only do bedtime stories create an opportunity for parents to bond with their kids, but reading to a little one at the same time night after night can help them establish a healthy sleep routine. Child psychologists also point to the cognitive benefits for young people who are raised with bedtime stories, including higher-than-average literacy rates and an emotional connection to reading.
This guide to bedtime stories will include some of the most cherished bedtime stories available for children today; our list will include printed books you can request from your local library or order from web-based retailers, as well as some beloved favorites that are available in user-friendly online versions. But first, let’s look at some expert tips for effective bedtime story reading.
Tips for Parents
No child is too young for a bedtime story. Many experts encourage parents to begin reading to their children while they are newborns, and continue throughout their childhood; the 2016 Time to Read Survey noted that bedtime reading can benefit children as old as 11 years of age. Regardless of how old your child is, age-appropriate reading material is crucial. Readings for toddlers and preschoolers should utilize a fairly straightforward vocabulary, and also include pictures or illustrations. As your child advances into elementary school and begins learning to read, chapter books may be more effective.
Here are a few more tips for parents who plan to read bedtime stories to their kids:
- Read slowly. This is especially important for young listeners and children who have not yet learned to read. If the story contains words the child doesn’t know, take a minute during the initial readings and explain the definitions.
- Involve your child in the reading. Swap out character names for your children’s names and allow them to be part of the story. Draw parallels between your child’s life and the world of the story in order to drive home important messages.
- Be dramatic. Emphasize emotional moments by reading them in an appropriate tone, and use distinct voices for different characters. This will enhance your child’s personal involvement in the story, and enhance their imagination.
- Clearly define the characters’ roles. To help your child develop a sense of right and wrong, you should make sure they understand the difference(s) between the heroes and the villains of each story.
- Read each story more than once. Your child probably won’t grasp everything about a story during the first bedtime session, so read it more than once — if possible, on consecutive nights.
- Don’t read the same story too often. Your child will most likely favor certain stories to others, but avoid reading the same volume night after night for long periods of time. After a few readings, their imaginative connection to the story will begin to diminish. If your child insists on hearing an old favorite for the twentieth time, then suggest reading something new that night and then switching back to the preferred story the next night.
- Don’t be afraid to improvise. Rather than reading from a book, you can make up a story that allows your child to be more involved — and even dictate the narrative a bit. Parenting.com offers a list of effective ‘story starters’ for bedtime ad-libbers.
The Best Bedtime Stories Available in Print
Next, let’s look at some of the most popular bedtime story books that are exclusively available in print. The books are listed in order of appropriate reading audience, beginning with the youngest. Each entry features a link to that title’s most popular Goodreads review page.
Beginning Readers (Birth to Age 3)
- Big Fat Hen by Keith Baker: Designed for readers up to age three, Big Fat Hen features colorful illustrations and a memorable nursery rhyme narrative that helps children learn to count.
- The Everything Book by Denise Fleming: This comprehensive favorite teaches young listeners about shapes, colors, seasons and other basic concepts. The Everything Book is geared toward kids between one and four years of age.
- Chicka Chicka Boom Boom by Bill Martin Jr. and John Archambault: This illustrated tale from 1989 offers a fun, high-spirited way for kids to learn the letters of the alphabet. Caldecott honoree Lois Ehlert provided the vivid illustrations.
- Otto Goes to Bed by Todd Parr: Colorful, oddball illustrations and fun verses highlight this story of a young dog who must go to bed, whether he wants to or not. This title is geared toward infants and toddlers.
- Pajama Time! by Sandra Boynton: Children will love the brightly colored illustrations and playful rhymes found in this quirky classic, while parents will appreciate the positive message that bedtime is important — and fun.
- More More More Said the Baby by Vera Williams: This Caldecott Honor Book chronicles a snuggly day in the life of three toddlers. The easy prose, vibrant illustrations and diversity-friendly message make More More a perfect read for any of preschool age or younger.
- Guess How Much I Love You by Sam McBratney and Anita Jeram: This heartwarming tale explores the bond between Big Nutbrown Hare and his son, Little Nutbrown Hare. The book — which celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2015 — was followed by four sequels.
- Are You My Mother? By P.D. Eastman: A beloved bedtime choice since it first appeared in 1960, this illustrated story follows a baby bird as he searches for his mother and meets a handful of other animals along the way.
- Good Night, Gorilla by Peggy Rathmann: It’s bedtime for all of the animals at the zoo, but one sneaky primate has decided to tag along as the night watchman makes his rounds. Easy verses and playful illustrations highlight make Good Night, Gorilla a great choice for toddlers and preschoolers.
- Goodnight Moon by Margaret Wise Brown: Considered one of the greatest bedtime stories of all time, this classic boasts a lovely narrative and iconic illustrations by Clement Hurd. Goodnight Moon celebrates the 70th anniversary of its original publication in 2017; a three-dimensional rendition is also available on YouTube.
- The Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric Carle: First published in 1969, this beloved tale features striking collage-style illustrations and finger-sized cutouts that allow children to physically participate in the story. If your kids enjoy this one, check out the other titles from author and illustrator Eric Carle; his 50-year career includes a bibliography of more than 70 titles.
- One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish by Dr. Seuss: Clever rhymes and memorable illustrations highlight this beginner’s book from Dr. Seuss, which has entertained young kids for nearly 50 years. This title is ideal for teaching kids the basics of colors and counting.
- Corduroy by Don Freeman: Corduroy features a lovable teddy bear searching for a missing button after his residence — a popular toy store — has closed for the night. Vibrant illustrations and a positive message have endeared young readers to this book since its original publication in 1968.
- Where’s Spot by Eric Hill: This fun, flip-back classic about an inquisitive canine and his critter pals has been a bedtime favorite since it first appeared in 1980. Spot was also featured in a series of animated shows that appeared on the BBC between 1987 and 2000.
- The Snowy Day by Ezra Jack Keats: The Snowy Day received the Caldecott Medal in 1963, and has since become a treasured classic among toddlers and preschoolers. The colorful vintage illustrations are fun for adults, too.
- The Complete Adventures of Curious George by H.A. Rey and Margret Rey: This collection of seven original volumes chronicles the adventures of Curious George — a mischievous monkey — and his guardian, the Man in the Yellow Hat. Each story features iconic illustrations and playful, uplifting storylines perfect for pre-K children.
- The House in the Night by Susan Marie Swanson: A 2009 Caldecott Medal winner, this evocative story features gorgeous black-and-white illustrations and an uplifting message about the meaning of home. The dreamy verses will have your kids slumbering in no time.
- The Paddington Bear series by Michael Bond: The 20 volumes in this imaginative series follow the title character — a teddy bear abandoned at a train station — as he travels the world and makes friends wherever he goes.
- If You Give a Mouse a Cookie by Laura Joffe Numeroff: Clever illustrations highlight this ‘what if’ story that examines the ramifications of feeding uninvited houseguests. This title was followed by If You Give a Moose a Muffin, which follows a similar story arc; both books were illustrated by Laura Joffe Numeroff and Felicia Bond.
- The Frog and Toad books by Arnold Lobel: This award-winning six-book series explores the illustrated adventures of the two title amphibians. Each book contains multiple stories that lead to lessons about sharing, self-discipline, the merits of hard work and other important concepts.
- Green Eggs and Ham by Dr. Seuss: This 1960 classic offers the perfect entry point into the idiosyncratic world of Dr. Seuss. Memorable verses and iconic illustrations have made Green Eggs and Ham one of the top English-language children’s bestsellers of all time.
- The Cat in the Hat by Dr. Seuss: Another memorable beginner’s book from Dr. Seuss, The Cat in the Hat spins a surreal tale about a mischievous feline that entertains a pair of children for the afternoon. Roughly 10 million copies have been printed since its original publication in 1957, and the book has been translated into more than a dozen different languages.
- Three Little Dreams by Thomas Aquinas Maguire: A boy atop a dragon, a magical star and a bird riding a paper airplane complete the trio of fantastic tales featured in this wordless picture book.
- Love You Forever by Robert Munsch: This heartwarming, pastel-colored mini-epic examines how much a parent loves their child over the course of their lives. Expect a few tears during readings of Love You Forever, which was originally published in 1986.
- Good Night, Good Knight by Shelley Moore Thomas: Geared toward young elementary-age children, this 46-page tale follows three young dragons and the Good Knight guardian who tucks them in and reads them bedtime stories every night. This title features lovely illustrations by Jennifer Plecas.
- How the Grinch Stole Christmas by Dr. Seuss: A perfect choice for holiday bedtime readings, this Dr. Seuss favorite teaches valuable lessons about the importance of family, community and a sense of belonging. The animated TV special has also become a yuletide institution.
Intermediate Readers (Ages 4 to 6)
- Winnie the Pooh and The House at Pooh Corner by A.A. Milne: First published in the 1920s, these two novels have become perennial bedtime favorites and the characters have cemented their place in pop culture. The dreamy tales center around Winnie, a honey-craving teddy bear, and the other animals living in the magical Hundred Acre Wood.
- The Giving Tree by Shel Silverstein: First appearing in 1964, this eco-friendly classic traces the complex — and rewarding — relationship between a boy and his favorite tree over the course of their respective lives.
- The Arrival by Shaun Tan: This uplifting picture book chronicles the journey of an elderly immigrant who leaves his family to create a better life for them in a new home. Gorgeous illustrations and a profound message elevate The Arrival, which is an ideal tool for teaching tolerance to young elementary schoolers.
- The Arthur books by Marc Brown: Since the late mid-70s, Marc Brown has entertained children across the globe with his stories about Arthur, a bespectacled aardvark who attends an elementary school with his animal friends. The books in this extensive series boast playful illustrations while tackling some of the issues faced by today’s young people.
- The Magic School Bus series by Joanna Cole: Led by the lovable Ms. Frizzle — a science teacher with an other-worldly teaching style — the Magic School Bus books take readers on fascinating scientific journeys. Some of the most memorable exploits involve trips inside the human body, into space and deep within the earth’s core.
- The Berenstain Bears series by Stan and Jan Berenstein: The Berenstain Bear family — Papa, Mama, Brother and Sister — have delighted young people since the 1960s. Each book in this vast series addresses typical family problems with playful, often funny plotlines and iconic illustrations.
- Where the Wild Things Are by Maurice Sendak: This 1963 game-changer follows a young boy whose nighttime journey transports him to a magical realm populated by strange — yet friendly — monsters. Where the Wild Things Are received a Caldecott Medal in 1964.
- Horton Hears a Who! By Dr. Seuss: Horton — a lovable elephant — gets to the bottom of a strange noise in this 1954 illustrated classic from Dr. Seuss. The story emphasizes concepts like kindness, empathy and the importance of community.
- The Lorax by Dr. Seuss: One of Dr. Seuss’s most socially conscious works, The Lorax tells the tale of a strange mustachioed creature who appears to warn mankind about the environmental dangers of deforestation and urbanization.
- Oh, the Places You’ll Go! By Dr. Seuss: This tribute to the joys and mysteries of adult life has been cherished by both kids and grown-ups since it first appeared in 1990. This was the last book published in Dr. Seuss’s lifetime.
Experienced Readers (Ages 7 and Older)
- Where the Sidewalk Ends and A Light in the Attic by Shel Silverstein: The idiosyncratic poetry of Shel Silverstein is on full display in this pair of verse collections that have charmed children for generations. Both titles are often available in boxed sets.
- The Wind in the Willows by Kenneth Grahame: This 1908 classic chronicles the adventures of Mr. Toad, Rat, Badger and the other beastly denizens of England’s Thames Valley. The Wind in the Willows went on to inspire several film and stage adaptations.
- Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll: Alice’s adventures with the Mad Hatter, the Cheshire Cat and Wonderland’s other residents have stirred the imaginations of young readers for more than 150 years. Classic illustrations help drive home the absurd, memorable stories featured in these two novels.
- James and the Giant Peach by Roald Dahl: This vivid, imaginative tale chronicles the adventures of James and his insect friends aboard the titular oversized fruit. Their exciting journey is ideal for older kids, while the fantastic imagery will delight young listeners.
- Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day by Judith Viorst: This funny account of one boy’s rough day at home and school ends with a positive message about appreciating what you have and not dwelling on negative experiences. The book features wonderful illustrations by Ray Cruz.
- Miss Nelson Is Missing by Harry Allard: The kindly Ms. Nelson has disappeared from her rowdy grade-school classroom, only to be replaced by the strict Viola Swamp. Complete with a surprise ending, this title offers important lessons about the consequences of good — and bad — behavior.
- Matilda by Roald Dahl: Featuring memorable illustrations by Quentin Blake, this bedtime and classroom favorite from 1988 follows the intelligent and resourceful Matilda as she navigates a challenging childhood populated with memorable supporting characters.
- Charlie and the Chocolate Factory by Roald Dahl: This classic tale of perseverance follows young Charlie Bucket as he travels through Wonka Land, a magical candy factory presided over by an enigmatic host. The story is charming, dreamy and harrowing in equal measure — an ideal bedtime choice for older elementary students. Several sequels followed.
- Charlotte’s Web by E.B. White: Classic illustrations by Garth Williams highlight this touching story of a pig named Arnold and his friend Charlotte, a spider with a few little ones on the way. Get the tissues ready.
- Heidi by Johanna Spyri: Heidi tells the exciting tale of a plucky Swiss orphan who goes to live with her grumpy grandfather, and then must find her way back to him after she is kidnapped by a sinister governess. The timeless message and beautiful prose still feel fresh today, more than 130 years since the novel’s original publication.
- Little Women by Louisa May Alcott: This story of the four March sisters and their determined matriarch has been cherished by little girls since it first appeared in 1868. Younger readers might struggle with the old-fashioned prose, but the book is quite suitable for ages 8 and up.
- The Ramona series by Beverly Cleary: Beginning with Ramona & Beezus in 1955, this seven-book series follows spunky Ramona Quimby and her sister Beezus throughout their childhood. Along the way, each book tackles the importance of family and the unbreakable bond between siblings of any age.
- Because of Winn-Dixie by Kate DiCamillo: A Newbery Honor winner, this 1990 coming-of-age story follows young Opal and her closest companion, an ugly mutt named for the titular grocery store where she first encounters him.
- The Fudge series by Judy Blume: This four-book series follows 9-year-old Peter Hatcher and his rambunctious two-year-old brother, Fudge, whose escapades keep getting Peter into trouble.
- Black Beauty by Anna Sewell: Written from the perspective of Black Beauty — a colt who is raised in the English countryside — this 1877 classic was one of the first stories to address the important issue of animal welfare. Later illustrated versions have cemented this book as a bedtime favorite for all ages.
- The Little House on the Prairie series by Laura Ingalls Wilder: Ms. Wilder’s autobiographical accounts of rural life in the 19th century have charmed readers for generations. The vivid stories in this nine-book series give parents an opportunity to draw parallels between the past and present.
- The Encyclopedia Brown series by Donald J. Sobol: Let your kids exercise their brains with this fun, compelling series about a young gumshoe who solves neighborhood mysteries. Each chapter features a hidden solution at the end, giving listeners the chance to crack the case on their own before the answer is revealed.
- Tuck Everlasting by Natalie Babbitt: This 1972 classic follows the Tuck family, who attempt to live a normal acceptance after being granted eternal life from a magical spring. The book is still popular in today’s classrooms, as well as during bedtimes.
- The Secret Garden by Frances Hodgson Burnett: In this powerful story from 1911, orphaned Mary Lennox travels to live with a distant relative in a countryside manor and soon learns her new home is filled with mysteries. The lengthy tale is ideal for nightly readings with older children.
- A Wrinkle in Time Quartet by Madeleine L’Engle: Winner of numerous awards including the 1963 Newbery Medal this four-part science fiction saga follows a young girl searching for her missing father, a scientist with a mysterious past.
The Best Bedtime Stories Available Online
Bedtime stories have evolved over the years and today, parents across the country are turning to websites and video channels to find suitable reading material for their children. The following list includes dozens of bedtime tales you can find online; some are offered in a text-only format, while others are presented in an animated format. Like the previous list, this one is ranked by age of the reading audience. A link to the current web page is included with each entry.
Beginning Readers (Birth to Age 3)
- Small Bird’s Adventure by Wesley van Eden, Nick Mulgrew and Jennifer Jacobs: This illustrated tale aimed at very young readers follows Small Bird after he escapes his cage and tries to return home to his owner, known affectionately as ‘Giant’.
- Clever Pig by Joshua Morgan, Nathalie Koenig and Lee-Ann Knowles: Clever Pig searches for his carrot snacks before bedtime in this fun story with adorable barnyard illustrations.
- Kitten’s First Full Moon by Kevin Henkes: This video adapted from a 2004 Caldecott Medal Winner features adorable characters and striking pencil-shade illustrations.
- Londi the Dreaming Girl by Lauren Holliday and Nathalie Koenig: Londi a spacy little girl ponders the mysteries of the universe on her way to fetch water in this imaginative tale of friendship and family.
- The Best Thing Ever by Melissa Fagan, Lauren Nel and Stefania Origgi: A resourceful young boy named Muzi determined to build the greatest thing the world has ever seen is at the heart of this charming illustrated story.
- The Princess and the Pea by Hans Christian Andersen: This easy-to-read online version of the classic Danish fairy tale is geared toward exceptionally young listeners.
- The Ugly Duckling by Hans Christian Andersen: Another H.C. Andersen favorite, this fairy tale follows a young ‘duckling’ who is tormented by his companions until he makes a startling discovery. An uplifting story that inspires self-confidence in kids of all ages.
- Little Sock and the Tiny Creatures by Lili Probart, Jon Keevy and Chani Coetzee: Little Sock is separated from the other dirty clothes in this illustrated adventure, and makes his way back to the laundry basket with the help of some household critters.
- The Owl and the Lion: Lion has been bullying the other jungle animals for too long, and Owl decides to stand up to him in this fun story with a message of kindness and tolerance. You and your kids can follow along with subtitles and electronic narration.
- The Giant Turnip: Gorgeous watercolor illustrations highlight this tale of a farmer who strives to grow the biggest turnip ever and his family’s efforts to pull the enormous vegetable out of the ground.
- Nighty Night Circus: This lively, textless animated video follows a group of animals as they prepare for bed. The clip comes from Fox & Sheep, a popular nighttime app for kids and parents.
Intermediate Readers (Ages 4 to 6)
- Escape at Bedtime by Robert Louis Stevenson: Children leave their bed and discover a magical world in their backyard garden in this beautiful poem from Robert Louis Stevenson.
- The Three Golden Apples by Nathaniel Hawthorne: Inspired by classic Greek mythology, this kid-friendly version of the Hercules story follows the heroic strongman as he rescues three magical apples from the garden of Hesperides.
- The Three Little Pigs: This animated retelling of a children’s classic follows three pigs determined to build houses of their own and the mean-spirited wolf who attempts to foil their plans.
- Riquet with the Tuft by Charles Perrault: Taken from a 17th century tale by the French storytelling master, this story of a homely-yet-witty young man still resonates with children today, thanks to its uplifting message and memorable characters.
- Aladdin and the Magic Lamp: The most famous of tales from the classic Arabian Nights collection, this story follows a young beggar whose luck changes for better and worse after rubbing a magic lamp and meeting a genie.
- Pied Piper of Hamelin: The good people of Hamelin turn to a mysterious flutist to solve their infestation problem in this animated rendition of the iconic fairy tale.
- Little Red Riding Hood: The classic tale of survival and trickery comes to life in this kid-friendly animated version, in which the titular girl outwits a hungry wolf on the way to her grandmother’s house.
- The Moon and the Cap by Noni: This illustrated tale with universal appeal follows a young boy who attempts to retrieve his missing cap and finds it in the unlikeliest of places.
- Searching for the Spirit of Spring: Inspired by an African folk tale, this illustrated story charms young readers with its hopeful message of kindness and generosity.
- The Fisherman and His Wife by the Brothers Grimm: A talking fish spells trouble for a greedy fisherman and his equally conniving spouse in this timeless fairy tale from the Brothers Grimm.
- Down the Memory Lane with Nash by Uma Bala Devarakonda: Young Nash and his dog Toby learn about his grandmother’s childhood in this lovely tale of family and tradition.
- The Elephant in the Room by Sam Wilson: Striking visuals drive this imaginative story of young Lindi and her best friend, an enormous elephant that may or may not be real.
- Shelley Duvall’s Bedtime Stories: Charming audiences since it debuted in 1992, this Showtime series features classic children’s stories presented by actress Shelley Long. Dozens of full-length episodes are available on DailyMotion.
- When I Grow Up by Michele Fry, Simone van der Spuy and Jennifer Jacobs: Eye-catching illustrations and an inspiring theme propel this story of a young girl whose career aspirations include becoming an astronaut, a doctor and a winning soccer player.
- The Nestlings by Arthur Scott Bailey: The brave Jolly Robin is forced to leave his nest for the first time in this heartwarming tale of survival and love. The online version features a few original illustrations from the original publication, which first appeared in 1917.
Experienced Readers (Ages 7 and Older)
- A Book of Nonsense by Edward Lear: Introduce your kids to the mad brilliance of Edward Lear with this poetry collection that features absurdist verses and imaginative drawings by the author himself.
- East of the Sun and West of the Moon: Featuring original illustrations, this rendition of a classic Norwegian folk tale transports kids to a world of talking bears, troll princesses and magical apples.
- The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse by Aesop: This colorful retelling of the classic fable follows two mice one city dwelling, the other not so much as they experience what life is like for the other.
- Dreamlands: a Bedtime Book by Stephan Smith: This colorfully animated bedtime story whisks young viewers to a magical realm where flowers are as tall as skyscrapers and even the oranges need to sleep.
- Graça’s Dream by Melissa Fagan: A heartwarming story of tolerance and perseverance, this tale follows a woman named Graça as she attempts to bring literacy to her small Mozambican village.
- The Stones of Plouvenic by Katharine Pyle: Adapted from a French folk tale, this playful story teaches children that the most valuable treasure can often be found in the least likely of places.
- The Tale of Peter Rabbit by Beatrix Potter: This online retelling of the classic critter tale from 1902 features original illustrations by Beatrix Potter.
- The White Stone Canoe by Hamilton Wright Mabie, Edward Everett Hale and William Byron Forbush: This haunting tale for kids 7 and up follows a young Native American chief who searches for his lost love in the spiritual afterlife.
- Children’s Bedtime Stories by Gordon Dioxide: This collection of 20 fantastical tales come from the creative mind of Gordon Dioxide, who has also produced read-along videos for his stories.
- Wildlife in a City Pond by Ashish Kothari: Featuring original illustrations by Sangeetha Kadur, this eco-minded tale follows a young boy as he explores the flora and fauna found in the park near his home.
- The Dragon’s Eggs by Jade Matre: This kid-friendly fantasy follows brave little Luca as he combs an abandoned castle for dragon’s eggs and learns a valuable lesson about preservation in the process.
- Island of the Nine Whirlpools by Edith Nesbit: Adapted from a story by celebrated children’s author Edith Nesbit, this fairy tale has it all: wicked witches, mystical castles and a dashing hero rescuing a kidnapped princess.


Design is powerful. The ways that buildings, products, processes, and even services are designed can include or exclude people. This toolkit offers suggestions for rethinking approaches to design and providing services in ways that are more inclusive.
In this toolkit, we identify:
- Common barriers to accessing mental health services
- Ways to improve access through:
- Design solutions
- Use of technology
As you explore these resources, consider this definition of disability that emerges from a social justice perspective of disability and access:
In this toolkit, we use the term disability to describe this shared experience of exclusion. This experience is common to people with a wide variety of bodily conditions. People who are deaf, blind, who use wheelchairs and other mobility devices, people with intellectual disabilities, chronic illnesses, dyslexia, and speech-related conditions all share the common experience of being disabled by the design and perspectives of society.
When we see disability in this way, we recognize that, as people who design and deliver services and processes, we can be a part of the problem of exclusion or a part of the solution of inclusion.
We hope that this toolkit will provide you with the resources you need to create more inclusive mental health services.
Barriers are often placed on disabled people due to the misinformation and misperceptions about disability held by those around them. As a result of these problematic perspectives, disabled people experience what is called ableism. Ableism is a type of prejudice and discrimination directed toward people with disabilities. It includes attitudes, beliefs, and practices that demonstrate a preference for being nondisabled. Some of the ways this manifests itself are described below.
- Lack of knowledge of civil rights laws: Some service providers may view providing services to disabled people as a charitable act, rather than recognizing that access to the same services that other people take for granted is a civil right—a matter of social justice.
- Inaccurate assumptions: Many people tend to make assumptions about what a person can or cannot do based on physical characteristics. These assumptions often lead people to act in ways that do not respect the person's autonomy. For example, a therapist may rely on family members or other service providers for information rather than communicating directly with the person seeking services. Or a service provider may make decisions for the person to "protect" them rather than providing the person with options.
- Placing too much value on being non-disabled: People often think that being non-disabled is the preferred state over being disabled (i.e. walking is better than using a chair, speaking is better than ASL, etc). This perspective results in a focus on "fixing" the person rather than on removing the barriers that exist around them.
- Mis-location of the barrier: People often assume that the bodily difference is a barrier, rather than recognizing that the problem is that processes, products and services are not designed with that difference in mind.
- Unconscious or implicit bias: Biases that lie outside awareness are likely to impact interactions and treatment decisions.
- Assuming the bodily difference is the presenting problem: Disabled people often have the experience of working with a therapist who focuses on the bodily difference as the problem, rather than recognizing that it is merely an aspect of the person and that the person is experiencing the same kinds of problems that other people face.
Communication includes both face-to-face interactions as well as other ways that information is shared. The ADA specifically addresses communication and requires that communication with people with disabilities be equally effective to that with nondisabled people. Some of the barriers to effective communication are described below.
- Inaccessible websites: Mental health agency websites may be inaccessible to people who use various types of assistive technologies. Videos posted on websites may not be captioned or audio described.
- Inaccessible printed information: The typical intake process usually requires reading and signing forms. Most mental health agencies do not have these forms in a format that is accessible for people who are blind or those with dyslexia.
- Lack of knowledge of video or message relay services: A mental health agency receiving a call from a Deaf person via video or message relay may not be familiar with the process and thus may not respond effectively.
- Lack of readiness to provide access services: Deaf people are often denied services by mental health agencies because the agency staff do not realize it is their responsibility to provide sign language interpreters (or other kinds of access services). When there is recognition of their responsibility, the staff still may not have readily available a way to acquire such services upon request, resulting in delays in scheduling an appointment for the Deaf person.
- Training in highly verbal therapeutic approaches: Most therapists engage in traditional talk therapy and may not have training that supports their ability to adapt their communication strategies or approaches as needed.
- Lack of knowledge of accommodation strategies: Most mental health providers do not have training in or exposure to the kinds of accommodations that might remove barriers to access.
- Inaccessibility of supplemental materials: Therapists often assign outside work such as reading or watching videos. These materials may not be available in accessible formats.
- Ineffective and inaccessible evaluation and diagnostic tools: Disabled people often experience misdiagnosis due to the limitations of diagnostic tools. They are often not designed to be accessible and/or are normed in ways that make the results inaccurate for some people.
In this section on physical barriers we refer to barriers resulting from the design of buildings, parking areas, sidewalks and other aspects of the built environment.
- Lack of access to nearby public transportation: For some, public transportation is the only accessible transportation available. When services are difficult to reach with public transportation, this can present a barrier.
- Inaccessible offices: Buildings housing mental health and related services may not be accessible to people using wheelchairs or other mobility devices. Restrooms are often not accessible.
- Inaccessible office layout: Even when buildings themselves are built to meet ADA standards, individual therapists' offices may be configured in a way that makes it difficult or awkward for people who are wheelchair users to get in and out or position themselves in a comfortable way with the office space.
- Inaccessible residential service facilities and housing: Programs that provide residential treatment are sometimes located in facilities that are not accessible to people who are wheelchair users or mobility devices.
The focus of this section is on how policies or typical procedures may result in lack of access.
- Policies that exclude: Some mental health providers mistakenly assume that they can deny services to disabled people due to the lack of expertise of staff, lack of funds for providing accommodations, or inaccessibility of their facility.
- Lack of policies in place to facilitate access: People with disabilities may experience delays because those taking their requests for appointments are unaware of the process for providing access.
- Lack of flexibility in appointment times and length: Since accommodated communication may take longer, it stands to reason that a longer appointment time would provide equal access to the therapeutic services, yet this flexibility is not always extended.
- Lack of opportunity to connect with peers in group or psychosocial programs: In many therapeutic programs, interaction with and learning from peers is a major component of the therapeutic process. If accommodations are only provided during formal sessions, participants may miss out on critical aspects of the program.
- Lack of access to community support programs: Many therapists refer people to community programs such as 12-step programs or grief support groups. These programs often are housed in inaccessible locations, do not provide accommodations, and those participating in and facilitating the programs may be prone to similar biases as discussed above.
Creating an inclusive environment means that, to the extent possible, service providers take a proactive approach to providing access. This section will focus on changes that can be made proactively to remove the barriers identified in the previous section.
- Disabled people deserve our pity.
- People with disabilities are needy and require more time and attention than others.
- Accommodations are expensive.
- Disabled people are inspirational.
Some people also tend to ascribe other stereotypes, making assumptions that all people with a specific condition are likely to be similar. Another societal response to disability is to doubt the existence of certain conditions, especially those that are not apparent such as a learning disability.
It's important that mental health providers confront the biases that arise from growing up in a society where these perceptions are dominant.
The ideas in the videos below challenge dominant perceptions of disability:
It is also critical that all staff are aware that disabled people have a right to access services under the Americans with Disabilities Act. The following resources provide guidance on ensuring services are accessible:
- Accessible Health Care [New Window]
- Additional ADA Resources [New Window]
- National Deaf Center: Mental Health Services Tip Sheet (PDF) [New Window]
Consider inviting disability activists to present at your in-service training. When available, attend sessions that challenge perceptions of disability at professional conferences.
Arkansas mental health providers are invited to contact the staff of the University of Arkansas - Partners for Inclusive Communities to present an in-service workshop. Contact information is available at the bottom of this page.
As mentioned above, communication refers to face-to-face interactions as well as all of the other ways that information is exchanged. The ADA requires that businesses provide equally effective communication to people with vision, hearing and speech disabilities. In this section, we start with how people might learn about your services and then move into communication that occurs once services are initiated. Before people can access your services, they need to locate and learn about them. This may happen by calling the office or going to your website. To provide proactive access by phone and website, there are several things to consider.
Access by Phone
Deaf and hard of hearing people and people with speech-related conditions may use a telecommunications relay service to contact you by phone. The caller calls the relay service to request that the call be made. The communication assistant calls the other party and relays the message between the two parties. There are four types of relay services:
- Text-to-Voice Relay Service (TRS): The caller calls a service using a TTY and types a message. The communication assistant (CA) reads the message to the other party and types what is spoken back to the caller.
- Video Relay Service (VRS): A deaf caller who is an American Sign Language (ASL) user calls the relay service using a computer or video conferencing equipment. A sign language interpreter makes the call to the other party and voices what the deaf caller signs. The interpreter then signs back to the deaf caller what the speaker says.
- Voice Carry Over (VCO): Callers who are deaf or hard of hearing but prefer to use their own voice can make the call and speak directly to the other party. What the other party says is typed and sent via text by the CA.
- Speech-to-Speech Relay Service (STS Relay): The CAs providing this service are skilled in understanding people with speech-related conditions, listening to their message and re-voicing it for the other party.
A deaf or hard of hearing person may also make a call using an interpreter that is in the same room with them. And a person with a speech-related disability may also call directly.
It's important that those who answer the phones:
- Understand that they may receive calls from these relay services and that they should not rush to hang up if there is a slight delay in response while the CA waits for the caller's response.
- Recognize that speaking to the communication assistant does not violate confidentiality or HIPPA laws. The CA is bound by strict confidentiality rules.
- Speak directly to the person who is calling rather than saying "tell her..."
- Be prepared to respond to callers that may be difficult to understand and take the time necessary to understand the caller.
More often, people who want to know about your services are likely to search the Internet and find your website. There are aspects of website design than can render the site inaccessible. Here are just a few things to consider to make sure your website is accessible.
- Make sure that the site can be navigated using the keyboard alone (without a mouse).
- Provide alternative text descriptions for images on the site.
- Make sure that any documents provided on your website are accessible.
- If you provide educational or orientation videos, make sure they are captioned and provide a transcript.
Learn more about web accessibility:
When someone initiates mental health services, there are typically several forms that are processed. One way to provide proactive access is to make sure that the commonly used forms, brochures and information sheets are available in accessible digital format. This will allow people who are blind, have low vision, or have learning disabilities to access these materials using assistive technology.
Learn more about making your documents accessible:
Readiness to Provide Access Services
In order to avoid delays that may result when someone requests a sign language interpreter or other communication access services, it is important to have contact information for qualified service providers ready and available to appointment schedulers. These individuals also need to be made aware of and comfortable with the process of requesting and scheduling these service providers.
In Arkansas, there are three interpreter referral agencies* that coordinate access services:
- Communication Plus: 501-224-2521
- Communicating Hands: 501-374-5293
- Sign Language Interpreter Network of Northwest Arkansas: 479-268-2417 or email@example.com
If you are outside of Arkansas, you can find an interpreter referral agency in your area by using the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf Interpreter Agency/Referral Service search tool. If you are unable to locate a service using that tool, you may also contact your state school for the deaf or state vocational rehabilitation office. They will likely be able to connect you with an interpreter referral agency in your state.
*Our purpose is not to promote a specific business. If you know of other interpreter referral agencies within Arkansas, please send a message to Melanie Thornton at firstname.lastname@example.org.
When access is not achieved proactively through design of a product, process or service, individual accommodations provide an alternative means to achieve access. The ADA requires that businesses provide "reasonable modifications" and "auxiliary aids" when necessary so that everyone has an equal opportunity to benefit from services and participate in programs.
"Reasonable modification" and "auxiliary aids" can include:
- Provision of access services such as a sign language interpreter
- A modification of a typical process or procedure
- A modification of a format
- Use of communication tools and technologies to remove barriers to or enhance communication
We have created a separate section focused on use of technology. Here we focus on the first three categories of accommodations listed above. These suggestions are not meant to be exhaustive. Accommodations should not be viewed as a laundry list of options or as formulaic but as solutions that remove barriers to access. Often the best solutions are suggested by the individual or arise out of a creative, interactive process between a service provider and the disabled person.
- Sign Language Interpreters: People who are deaf or hard of hearing may use sign language as their preferred mode of communication. If the therapist is not fluent in sign language, a sign language interpreter facilitates access between the deaf or hard of hearing person and the therapist.
- Sign Language Interpreters-Tactile or Close Proximity: People who are DeafBlind may use sign language as their preferred mode of communication. If the therapist is not fluent in sign language, a sign language interpreter facilitates access between the DeafBlind person and the therapist, either by signing in the DeafBlind person's hands or sitting very close and signing in the case of someone with low vision.
- Oral Interpreters: Some people who are deaf communicate using speech and speech reading. When the deaf person has difficulty speech reading the therapist or other service provider, an oral interpreter may be provided to mouth the words that are being spoken in order to bridge that communication gap.
- Speech-to-Text Providers: A speech-to-text provider facilitates communication access by typing what the therapist says so that the deaf person can read the text.
- Re-voicers: When a client has a speech-related condition, and the therapist is unable to understand the person's speech, a person who is skilled at understanding that person's speech may re-voice what they say for the therapist. A re-voicer may also be used when a person is using a communication aid to communicate. In this case, the re-voicer speaks the message as the person expresses it using the technology.
Considerations for choosing sign language interpreters:
- Access service providers working in the mental health setting should have the highest level of credentials.
- Using a family member or non-certified person who is able to sign as an interpreter is unethical and in states that have licensure laws (like Arkansas), illegal.
- The interpreter referral agency can assist in making sure that the interpreter has the appropriate level of certification.
- Certified interpreters are bound by a code of professional conduct which includes a commitment to confidentiality.
- In the event that no interpreters are available in your area, there are also agencies that provide remote interpreting using video conferencing technology. This should be a back-up plan rather than the first choice.
Considerations when choosing other access service providers:
- The term speech-to-text services refers to three primary systems: Communication Access Realtime Translation (CART), C-Print®, and TypeWell.
- Certification levels exist for CART providers.
- C-Print and Typewell providers complete a course that provides a certificate. Referral agencies will likely be able to ensure that the person has the skills necessary to perform the role for your agency.
- There is no certification for re-voicers. When hiring a re-voicer, getting the client's recommendations and/or checking references are ways to ensure the professionalism of the service provider.
- There is currently no pathway to certification on a national level for oral interpreters. Some may hold certifications from the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf from previous years. In some states credentials for oral interpreters are offered on the state level.
Using a communication access provider:
- Make sure the seating configuration works to facilitate good access.
- Speak naturally and directly to the person, not to the access provider.
- Remember that the role of the access provider is to facilitate communication, not to assist the person.
- Remember that the access provider will translate everything that is said when the deaf person is present.
- National Deaf Center: Sign Language Interpreters: An Introduction (PDF) [New Window]
- National Deaf Center: Hiring Qualified Interpreters (PDF) [New Window]
- National Deaf Center: Sign Language Interpreters: An Introduction (PDF) [New Window]
- National Deaf Center: Hiring Qualified Speech to Text Providers (PDF) [New Window]
- Increased appointment length: If communication between the therapist and the client takes longer than is typical, it follows that a longer appointment time than the usual 45 to 60 minutes may be necessary in order to provide an equitable experience.
- Meeting in an accessible location: If the mental health clinic is inaccessible, providing treatment services in another accessible location would be considered a reasonable accommodation. It's important to take into consideration that the location needs to provide the same level of respect for privacy as the office environment.
- Access to forms: When the forms that have to be completed by a new client, for example, present a barrier, a reasonable accommodation would be to provide access through the provision of a reader, the use of assistive technology, or a modification of the form to make it more accessible.
- Flexibility with and modification of therapeutic interventions: Occasionally the nature of a therapeutic intervention may present barriers. It will be important to think through the aspects of the therapeutic process and consider how to modify certain interventions or if there are others that would be more effective. For example, visualization activities where therapists use their voices to set a certain mood will be less effective with someone who doesn't hear the voice. Visualization activities can still be used, but they may need to be modified by teaching the strategy and allowing the person to do the visualization on their own or by using a relaxing video to set the tone between instructions.
- Ensuring supplemental materials are accessible: Before assigning readings or suggesting videos to watch, make sure they will be accessible to the client. If not, a reasonable accommodation would be to create an accessible version or to suggest a similar alternative that is accessible.
- Assessment and evaluation: The intersection of assessment and disability is a complex one that could require its own toolkit. In short, it's important to be aware that standardized assessments may not provide a valid picture of the person being tested if there are barriers inherent in the assessment's design. Some examples of typical barriers are:
- A timed assessment scores a young man lower because he doesn't finish when the slower completion rate is due to a motor-related condition.
- An assessment with elements that are purely visual and even when described verbally place a blind person at a disadvantage.
- An assessment that includes figures of speech that would not be familiar to someone for whom English is not their first language—as in the case of a native sign language user.
In such situations the evaluator will need to determine whether to provide an accommodation or eliminate the use of the instrument all together and identify alternative options.
Technology provides solutions to a multitude of persistent barriers to access and has changed the design landscape. To recognize the difference that technology makes, consider this question: What if Stephen Hawking had been born before the computer technology were available that gave him the tools to communicate and record his ideas?We have chosen to provide a separate section focused on technology because technological solutions can be both design solutions and accommodations and there is quite a bit to cover related to technology.
Generally, when discussing technology that removes barriers, the term assistive technology is used. Yet many of the technologies that accomplish the removal of barriers are used by non-disabled people as well. We also recognize that many mainstream technologies started out as access solutions before moving into the mainstream. Barrier removal, in fact, might be considered a propeller of innovation for technology. The line between what might be considered assistive technology and what is just technology is definitely not a solid line. We prefer, therefore, to simply address the topic of technology and how it can be used to solve access barriers.
We will focus our discussion of technology on items or products that can be used to remove or reduce barriers to face-to-face communication. We will include items that are high tech or low tech and in between.
The examples we provide are not intended to be exhaustive by any means. Where specific products are mentioned, it is not our intention to promote those products but to be concrete enough that the reader can find a product when needed.
Spoken language may present a barrier when communication is taking place between a therapist and someone who is D/deaf or hard of hearing, DeafBlind, and or who has a condition that affects auditory processing.
Possible solutions include:
- Amplifying or increasing clarity of speech
- Assistive Listening Devices (ALDs)
- Hearing Enhancement Apps
- Use of an alternate form of communication
- Two-Way Text Communication Devices and Apps
- Alternative Communication Apps and Devices
Note: None of the technology solutions described should be seen as alternatives to providing access services such as interpreters or CART providers when those are requested, but may be the preferred options for some and may be short-term solutions when access service providers are not available.
The term Assistive Listening System (ALS) refers to a variety of systems that are used to amplify sound and reduce barriers that result from distance and extraneous noise. These systems vary from large systems in an auditorium to more personalized units.This technology can be used in conjunction with or without a hearing aid. For most therapy situations, the three types of systems that might be considered are:
- FM Systems
- Infrared Systems (IR)
- Personal Amplifiers
With both FM and IR systems, the speaker wears a clip-on mic that is connected to a transmitter. The listener wears a receiver that translates the signal and delivers it by way of the person's hearing aid or headphones. FM systems are preferred in situations where there is greater distance between the speaker and the listener, when the speaker is moving around and when there may be objects between the speaker and the listener. Infrared systems are preferred in situations where privacy is of utmost concern (since the signal cannot pass through walls) and when there is a direct line of sight between the two transmitter and receiver.
When two people are communicating and can sit near each other, a personal amplifier may also be adequate. With these devices, the microphone and the receiver are both in the single device. The user points the microphone toward the speaker.
Hearing aids are expensive and not everyone who needs a hearing aid is able to afford one. For people in this situation, hearing enhancement apps can provide a helpful alternative. These apps are available on Android and iOS devices. The user will need to spend a few minutes going through a "hearing test" to get the settings correct. After that, with earbuds connected to the device, the speaker's voice is directed and amplified to the listener. One example of such an app is Petralex. It is available at no cost for both Android and iOS devices.
Two-Way Text Communication solutions provide options when spoken communication is a barrier both expressively and receptively. That is, both parties need to communicate via text. This would be most common when one person is D/deaf or hard of hearing and the other person does not know sign language. These technologies could also be classified as alternative communication but are separated out because of the fact that they resolve barriers to two-way communication. Writing notes back and forth would be considered a low tech solution when spoken language presents a barrier. With technology being more available, most people have put away the pen and paper begun to use computer and tablet technology to communicate. Here we introduce several two-way text solutions.
FireChat App: A free app available on both Android and iOS devices. It allows two people to chat with each other in the same room by setting up chat profiles and connecting without using personal email or social networking accounts. There are other similar apps that are available for iOS only or Android only. This was the only app we found that was available on both.
Flipwriter AAC: Currently available only on iOS devices, this app sells for approximately $50. One user types a message and it is displayed both for the user and outward-facing for the other person. Tap the message, and it reads it aloud (Text-to-Speech). Tap a microphone and the other person can respond by voice. The app translates the speech to text (though accuracy will vary and always needs to be monitored). The app also allows the user to store commonly used phrases.
sComm Ubiduo: A high-end device, this product sells for $2000 and up. Two keyboards and screens are connected either wirelessly or wired and allow users to sit across from each other and type messages back and forth. The two pieces fit nicely together for traveling.
Laptop or computer: Another simple solution would be to simply sit together in front of a computer screen and take turns typing back and forth. Though, with this set up, seeing facial expressions is difficult.
Text-Based Systems: Text-based alternative communication applications may be on a computer, a stand-alone device or a tablet. Text input can be through a combination of typing and pointing to commonly used words and phrases. If typing or pointing with one's fingers is not possible, then a person may use alternative input devices such as an eye tracker, a mouth stick or a pointing device. Typically, the person inputs the phrase or sentence, then initiates the text-to-speech function so that the message is delivered by a synthesized voice.
If a client doesn't already have access to a device, there are many low-cost apps that could be used in a therapy session. A few examples of these apps are ClaroCom (iOS, free or $16.99 for pro version), Verbally (iOS, $99), and Speech Assistant (Android, free).
Picture-Based Systems: For children and adults who are not strong readers, a picture-based communication application may work best. These also may exist as a software application on a computer, a stand-alone device or an app on a tablet. A few examples include Avaz (iOS or Android, $40), Proloquo2Go (iOS, $250), and Sounding Board (iOS, free). The more sophisticated apps allow users to upload their own photos and images.
Story Board Apps: Visual storytelling applications provide a way to communicate about a series of events that have taken place. Pictello (iOS, $18) is one example of an app that could be used to create a description of an experience that happened outside the therapy session, for example.
Telehealth technology can provide access to mental health services for people who might face barriers with transportation or mobility, allowing them to connect to services remotely. At the same time, these technologies may also present barriers for others.
When the COVID-19 outbreak forced providers to move all mental health services online, it became clear that some people did not have access to a reliable internet connection or to a device to allow them to continue their therapy sessions online. This points to the reality of the digital divide that exists. This move to providing services remotely also resulted in barriers for some people with disabilities. Planning ahead and providing access services can reduce these barriers.
Choosing an Accessible Platform
These questions will help you determine what platform will be most accessible.
- Does the company that created the platform have information about accessibility?
- Do they provide keyboard shortcuts?
- Does the platform allow for captioning to be provided and/or includes a chat tool?
- Does the platform have a chat feature for communicating during the session?
- Does the platform allow for more than one video so that an interpreter can be added to the session?
- Is the platform simple and intuitive for the client to use?
Providing Communication Access
Providing ASL Interpreters
If a deaf client needs an interpreter, you will need to be able to provide access to an interpreter through the platform. If you have been using an interpreter for face to face sessions and change to providing therapy remotely, see if the interpreter you have been using can continue to provide services for you and your client. That will offer the best continuation of services. If for some reason the interpreter is not ablate do so, check with the interpreter referral agency you used to see if they have a recommendation. There are also companies that specialize in providing video remote interpreting (VRI) if your local providers do not have the equipment to do so.
While talking to a client through telehealth or video conferencing technology does not require a lot of bandwidth, following an interpreter does. A client who is Deaf will need to have a good stable internet connection to follow the interpreter. Interruptions to the video feed can disrupt communication.
Providing Access Through Captioning
A hard of hearing client who was able to speech read you in person may have more difficulty doing so when using this technology. Real-time captions may need to be provided even if they were not needed in person. Check with your local interpreter referral agency to see if they can provide real-time captioning. If not, again, there are companies that specialize in doing so. If you are using a platform that has a chat feature and it is only you and your client in the session, they client may prefer that you simply type your message to them in the chat box and they respond by speaking.
Providing Practice Sessions
Clients who are new to connecting online in this way may benefit from having a practice session before the actual session. You might want to consider, if possible, having a staff member set up a session with the client in advance so they know what to expect and can make sure everything is working properly. This could be helpful also to people who use assistive technology.
If you need additional information on this topic or would like to schedule training, please contact Melanie Thornton, Coordinator of Access and Equity Outreach at email@example.com for more information.