When it comes to traditional Japanese music we can all conjure specific sounds, scores, or even theatrical plays. It’s rare, though, to be able to fully understand the wide variety of genres, styles, and forms of execution that shape Japanese traditional music. Here we'll go in deep - explaining some of the context and instrumentation behind Japanese music, and end by introducing where you can enjoy a concert during your Tokyo stay!
Brief History & Genres
One of the first obstacles that one faces is the sheer volume of subgenres that are encompassed by the term “Japanese music”, as well as the hundreds of instruments that are more or less commonly used to play it. Yet, for the Japanese culture enthusiast, understanding the origin of the country’s music, and of the various performances, as well as following it on its evolution to the modern times, can be an interesting and rewarding (albeit demanding) task. Well, we are here today to simplify this task. Even those who may not be interested in Japan in general would often be able to associate Japanese music to its country of origin. The instruments that are used are often country-specific. The sounds produced spell “Asia” and especially “Land of the Rising Sun”. One of the main reasons, although often overlooked, lies in the origin of the music itself.
It’s worth it here to take a little detour down music-history lane. The modern seven-note system was first developed in Italy by the monk Guido d’Arezzo in the 11th century CE. This kind of musical notation then spread across the globe to become the standard one. Obviously the playing of music predates the seven-note musical scale by millennia, and Japanese music is no exception. While traditional music in Japan does use this widespread scale, it often employs other scales, such as the pentatonic (five-tone) scale (very common since the Heian Period (794-1185CE)). Other scales that are not unusual are the dodecaphonic (twelve tone) scale, or variations of the heptatonic (seven tone) scale. In addition to the instruments and the style the artists use, these scales create a unique, distinctive, and often exotic sound.
So we now have the basics down, but how do we define what Japanese traditional music is?
Historically, in Japanese culture, there is virtually no event which is not accompanied by music, and the genres, as well as the instruments that are used, vary depending on the event itself, its roots, and even the region to which it belongs. Such variety derives mostly from the fact that Japanese music draws from real life and from nature. This is in fact a very common practice in Japan where nature plays a determining role in architecture, garden composition, and even the presentation of food. Despite the large number of options out there though, we can divide Japanese traditional music in three main categories: Gagaku (court music), theatrical, and instrumental.
Gagaku is a Japanese form of classical music. It has a rich heritage, and its historical importance carries on to this day. Gagaku is the oldest living orchestra in the world. This music was imported to Japan from China, but it soon separated itself from its Chinese counterpart in style and circumstances in which it was used. In China it was mostly used to entertain, and accompany banquets. The Japanese version of it quickly became music for the elite. Gagaku was performed exclusively by musicians belonging to guilds based in Kyoto, Nara, and Osaka. The right and privilege to play in the orchestra was passed on from father to son, and this music was, for a very long time, performed exclusively in the Kyoto Imperial Palace. The rise of the Kamakura Shogunate (1185-1333CE), and its establishing of a military ruling class, changed things. Gagaku became music for aristocrats, and it lost its luster and popularity. While it had never disappeared, it regained part of its old relevance only during the Meiji Restoration, starting in 1868. That’s when the descendants of the three guilds formed what is currently the Tokyo Imperial Palace Music Department.
Since its inception, the instruments used in Gagaku have been many kinds of wind, percussion, and string pieces. The current composition of 16 to 30 musicians has been established in the 19th century and it presents many of what are probably the most recognizable Japanese typical instruments.
Gagaku woodwind section
The fue is a category of non-reed flutes made of bamboo. Fue come in many varieties, but especially popular ones are the shinobue (pictured above), which is often found at Japanese festivals, and the shakuhachi, which tends to have fewer keys.
The hichiriki is a double reed flute. It presents two reeds, which produce the instrument distinctive sound by vibrating against the mouthpiece of the hichiriki. This is the most used instrument in almost every form of Gagaku, and it’s also the instrument of choice of the Japanese composer Hideki Kogi.
Gagaku percussion section
The taiko is possibly the most recognizable Japanese drum, or even instrument. Its origins are unclear, although it may have been influenced by Chinese and Korean percussions. Depending on its purpose, the crafting of this drum varies, and it can take up to several years to finish one piece.
The kakko is a smaller drum, usually double headed. It differs from the taiko especially in how its made tout. The skin is first stretched over metal hoops and then attached to the body. The kakko is usually played by laying it on its side.
Belonging to a class of small hand percussion instruments known as narimono, the chappa are small hand cymbals and are present in a variety of musical styles, from Buddhist rituals to kabuki music.
Gagaku string section
The biwa is a short necked lute used mostly to accompany narrative storytelling. The one used exclusively in Gagaku is larger than its counterparts. It presents four strings and four frets. It’s played from a seated position and it’s picked with a hard, small, rounded plectrum. This instrument nearly disappeared during the Meiji restoration, but it had a strong comeback after the end of WWII.
The koto is a 13–string wood instrument composed of 13 removable bridges. It can also appear in a 17-string variety. The sound is produced by plucking the string with three fingers, and the pitch of the cords can be changed by adjusting the length of the bridges.
In Gagaku the choice of instruments and orchestra composition differs depending on the occasion. Gagaku is the traditional music of religious ceremonies and folk poetry, but it also extended its influence to include the Bugaku, a traditional dance performed for selected elites (in particular the imperial family) since the 9th century CE.
2. Theatrical Music
Approaching the study of theatrical music in Japan can, at times, appear overwhelming. This is mostly because it’s hard to define what theatrical music really is and how it’s used. What kind of stage performances fall into this category? The confusion is understandable as it’s true that essentially any music accompanying any theatrical performance could be called theatrical music, but there are numerous distinctions to consider, and conventionally when we refer to Japanese theatrical music we are talking, for the most part, about Noh or Kabuki, which themselves encompass many different styles.
The origin of Noh can be traced back to the 8th century when it included various types of performance ranging from acting, to acrobatic shows, to music, and theatre. Noh took the shape for which its known and very respected to this day, in the 14th century. Noh originated in China and it has later been adopted by Japanese artists, becoming a form of art made popular by few families specialized in theatrical and musical performances. Another interesting theory brought forth by Shinhachiro Matsumoto suggests that Noh was heavily employed by former outcasts to regain status with the ruling class.
Noh is the oldest major theatrical art still performed today in Japan. It depicts the life and society of people living between the 12th and the 16th century. A traditional Noh show includes five Nho plays, separated by comedic intermissions called Kyougen.
Considered an extremely complex performance, Noh makes use of masks, makeup, costumes, acting, and music performed by very skilled artists, contributing to the high regard to which it’s hold to this day.
Noh performances are accompanied by musicians called Hayashi. Being Noh a form of chanted drama it’s often compared to western opera, which often approaches similar themes (although in a western setting), despite it being strikingly different in style.
The hayashi ensemble is usually composed of four musicians playing three different percussions and one flute.
These drums are played with sticks (similarly to taiko drums) and are suspended on a stand. The body is short and wide and the same skins are applied at both the top and the bottom of the instrument, and then tied together. This approach, along with metal hoops on which the skins are strung, creates the shime-daiko distinctive sound.
This hourglass shaped drum is probably the most complicated percussion to care for, among the Japanese traditional ones. Unlike many other kinds of percussions, which are supposed to be moist to a certain degree, the Ootsuzumi has to be dry at all times. Horsehide is used to create the drum heads, and, in order to maintain it dry, it’s often stored by a hibachi (furnace). It’s played with bare hands and it’s renowned for being painful to master, requiring the musician to develop very thick calluses.
This is a smaller version of the ootsuzumi. It presents the same shape, and, unlike its larger counterpart, it’s designed to allow the musician to change the sound and pitch it produces by tightening or loosening the skin while playing. The tsuzumi is also commonly used in Kabuki, as well as Japanese folk music.
The nohkan is a kind of transverse flute. Like the tsuzumi it is also often used in Kabuki theatre. It’s built with strips of smoked bamboo to preserve its integrity, and the hard shell of the material is placed to face the core of the flute for improved acoustics. Unlike many other similar instruments, the nohkan produces a characteristic high-pitch sound.
3. Kabuki theatre
Very popular and known worldwide, Kabuki is probably the best-known form of Japanese theatre. Kabuki is a “UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity”, but its journey to get to this point saw it undergo numerous struggles and changes.
Kabuki today is knows to be, for the most part, an all-male cast type of theatre, but at its inception it was quite the opposite. Kabuki first appeared in 1603 when Izumo no Okuni began performing a new style of dance drama in Kyoto.
This kind of performance became wildly popular making its way to the imperial court. The actors were all women. Kabuki, though, was not meant exclusively for elite audiences and it was often enjoyed by people of all classes. Because of this reason, the Shogunate never fully accepted it, seeing this mixing of classes as unnatural. Women were banned from performing and that’s how the all-male kabuki was born. The following two centuries, until the mid 1800’s were the golden era of Kabuki. After disappearing for a while, and re-emerging during the Meiji Restoration, Kabuki became what we know today.
In Kabuki, makeup, costumes, stage design, as well as dances and acting, play a very important role in the realization of a play, but so do singing and music.
Originally Kabuki theatre used the same kind of hayashi who performed in Noh theatre. In time Kabuki developed different musical styles and introduced different instruments, most notably the shamisen.
The shamisen is a three-string instrument played using a large plectrum called bachi. There are different kinds of shamisen. The one usually used in kabuki performances has a thin neck to facilitate the virtuosity required for that genre. The bridge (or neck) of the shamisen is usually a composite one and can be disassembled in three to five pieces. Similarly to a banjo or a guitar, the sound comes out of a resonating body. The strings are traditionally made of silk, but nowadays nylon ones are more commonly used.
That’s a lot to take in, but about instrumental music? When talking about Japanese traditional music we refer to any kind of musical performance not designed to accompany other performances, such as acting, dancing, or singing. Historically, performers who would play traditional music on its own, would use the same instruments and style that audiences could enjoy in kabuki plays and Gagaku performances. Although not easily framed within a particular genre, or as part of significant occasions, instrumental music contributed in the spreading of the tradition itself, making Japanese music become its own art, as opposed to being seen as a component of a larger performance.
Japanese traditional music has a long heritage and it’s still present and relevant in modern representations not only of its original form, but also as an adaptation to modern music (see below). Japan is famous for remaining attached to its tradition while constantly modernizing. Such culture can be seen in the various festivals and ceremonies related to religion, history, and traditional practices, but also in more mundane events like weddings, funerals, coming of age celebrations, and much more. The spirit of maintaining a connection with the past is very much alive in music as well, creating sounds and compositions that however modern, conjure a very distinctive melodic pattern, allowing tradition to stay alive, and modernization to run its course.
Enjoying a traditional Japanese music concert during your stay in Tokyo
While the sights and tastes of Tokyo and beyond often top what visitors aim to experience during their stay in Japan, the chance to see a traditional cultural performance of some sort ranks closely behind – noh, kabuki, or even a concert.
Formed in 2008, the Aun J Classic Orchestra is a group of eight highly talented Japanese musicians that are masters of traditional instruments. This group has garnered a fair amount of popularity overseas, most recently being invited to play in Russia at a banquet attended by Russian President Putin, Japanese Prime Minister Abe, and French Prime Minister Macron. They currently collaborate with 12 other skilled traditional musicians to create “Team J.” With this group they have produced a series of superb concerts.
Originally held at Hands Expo Café in Ginza, the 45-minute mini concerts showcase a variety of captivating pieces, including original scores, traditional songs and even adaptations of Western songs to Japanese instrumentation. Live Japan caught up with two of the series’ core artists, twin brothers Ryohei and Kohei Inoue, who enjoy sharing the soul of Japanese music with audiences both in Japan and abroad. We learned more about their relationship with traditional music, the instruments, and what they hope to offer to the world through music.
Although very talented musicians now, the brothers came from relatively humble roots and had been more interested in rock and pop music than any other sound. That was, until the age of 18, when they had a chance encounter with taiko drums and shamisen. “I thought, ‘wow, these instruments are so cool. And the sound they make is so different. It was such an incredible moment [meeting these instruments] that we had no idea of before. We decided right then and there that we’d learn how to play them,” recalled Kohei. “So the instruments we perform with are shamisen [a 3-stringed instrument], taiko [drums] and fue [a bamboo flute]. Using these three instruments, we think about the kind of piece we can play. We could play only shamisen, but we think that a variety of instrumentation is a lot more interesting when doing a live performance.”
The instrumentation is a perfect arrangement indeed. But their style is less the sort of score you’d think of for a samurai film and more the kind that you’d want to swing dance to. It’s delightfully catchy. When foreign ears listen to the warm-throated twang of a shamisen accompanied with the chest-thumping beat of a taiko, there’s something so familiar and fun about the sound that it immediately lights a smile on your face as you tap your feet. When asked whether this is what he hopes people will take home with them, Kohei smiles. “I hope that people will become interested in the sound these Japanese instruments make.” Ryohei agrees. “I hope people will enjoy Japan better.” Nomatter whether you visit Tokyo, Kyoto or another of Japan’s charming cultural areas, music adds an additional context and dimension for sightseers to experience.
Looking around the sophisticated café/concert space, we saw that all the audience members had their eyes fixed on the stage. A gem in Tokyo’s posh east-side neighborhood of Ginza, Hands Expo Café seats about 60 and is exactly the kind of spot you’d drop by for a relaxing cappuccino during the daytime and a splash of something bubbly as the moon rises. When we visited, they offered a variety of hot and cold organic teas (￥700~), coffees (￥600~), smoothies (￥800~), and sparkling juice drinks, but also a solid selection of Japanese whiskies, craft rums, craft gins (starting at￥500 per glass) and more.
To tease your sweet tooth, they offer a refreshing variety of shaved ice with toppings like Kumamoto Purple Potato (￥900), Tokaichi Azuki and Uji Matcha (￥900), and even organic no-wax lemon (￥900). Plus their premium pancakes, like the popular ones smothered with syrup made from fresh Tochigi strawberries with a side of whipped cream (￥1300), are delightfully decadent. As a café dedicated to showcasing some of Japan’s unique cultural products, it’s a delight to have sweets to eat while you tap your feet.
Back to the music. When asked what they hope foreign visitors to take home with them from the experience, Ryohei smiled broadly as he gave his answer, saying simply, “I hope people will enjoy Japan better.” He noted that tourists come to visit not only Tokyo, but a variety of areas, and that music gives an additional dimension for sightseers to enjoy. “Feeling Japan’s charm and pleasantry [through music] – I hope people will bring that home with them.”
Simply put, the Inoue twins enjoy making music and hope that others will enjoy listening. “[Finding a place to listen to] traditional Japanese music is a little challenging,” continues Kohei. In order to appeal the charm of traditional Japanese music to others, they decided to help form the concert series. We know you’ll love it too!
Editor's Note: Since this article was originally published, the lineup of live concerts at Hands Expo Cafe has included a mix of traditional and contemporary styles. For more information, see https://www.hands-expo-cafe-ginza.com/ (in Japanese).
TOKYU PLAZA GINZA東急プラザ銀座
Tokyu plaza Ginza, 5-2-1, Ginza, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0061
Ginza Station （Tokyo Metro Ginza Line / Tokyo Metro Marunouchi Line / Tokyo Metro Hibiya Line）
1 minute on foot
- Phone Number 03-3571-0109
- Address Tokyu plaza Ginza, 5-2-1, Ginza, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0061
*Prices and options mentioned are subject to change.
*Unless stated otherwise, all prices include tax.
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n both art and history, the Hellenistic era pertains to the period of Alexander the Great’s conquests and the following expansion of Greek civilization throughout the great cities and countries of the Mediterranean, Southern Europe, and the Near East. Hellenistic art is primarily represented via sculpture, which had been more effectively depicted in precision, physiology, emotion, and motion than the classical forefathers’ sculptures. What is a Hellenist, though? The Hellenists worked hard to promote ancient Greek tradition to the people they invaded and to demonstrate the supremacy of their civilization.
Table of Contents
- 1 Hellenistic Greek Art History
- 2 Hellenistic Statues and Sculptures
- 3 Mosaics and Paintings of the Hellenistic Era
- 4 Frequently Asked Questions
Hellenistic Greek Art History
When Alexander led the Greeks to triumph, he split the captured regions among his commanders, the Diadochi. The Near Eastern Seleucids, the Egyptian Ptolemies, and the Macedonian Antigonids were all born in these countries. Other lands formed leagues, such as the Achaean and Aetolian Leagues.
These kingdoms and alliances eventually disintegrated into smaller kingdoms enriched with Greek cultural characteristics.
Grecian influences combined with native culture during these kingdoms resulted in a wide range of techniques and subjects in Hellenistic art. The historical curiosity that defined this era was also a significant influence on the value of the art generated. The libraries of Pergamon and Alexandria provided artists with accessibility to this heritage, which, along with their understanding of previous artworks, provided them with a basis from which to work with invention and inventiveness.
As local faiths grew more secularized as a result of Grecian influence, and as those religions affected Greece, artists discovered new methods to represent their own gods. Eros, for instance, is shown as a young boy, whereas Aphrodite is depicted naked. The presence of the elderly and children, individuals of various races (especially Africans), and grotesque sculptures demonstrate that diversity was not restricted to religious vs. secular influence.
Because not every figure was an Olympian, deity, or orator, the artists had to devise a wide range of positions to effectively reflect these new sculptural personalities. With these Hellenistic statues, sculptors sought to build the position on a spiraling twist so that the observer could see something interesting from all angles.
Winged Nike of Samothrace (ca. 190 BC), made out of Parian marble and found in Samothrace in 1863. Currently located in the Louvre Museum in Paris, France; Louvre Museum, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Sometimes these stances appeared to serve a purpose, while other times the reasons appeared to be insignificant or contained within a single motion, such as a satyr inspecting his tail. There are relatively few paintings from Hellenistic culture that have survived.
What has survived are mosaics that are thought to be exact replicas of the original frescoes. Scholars might conclude from these mosaics that Hellenist artists used twisting motion, strongly expressive features, and accurate representations of nature. A landscape artwork in an unfinished collection of pictures from the Odyssey demonstrates that the artwork was created by a talented artist using disciplined brushwork and expertise in light, shadow, and the capability to portray distance in color.
There are also Hellenist Fayum Egyptian Mummy Portraits, which demonstrate how much the Hellenists affected Egyptian art. These portraits depicted living humans, not mummies, with accurate, realistic, and lifelike detail.
They are similar to portrait styles from the mid-19th century. While clay and ceramics were in decline, bronze and goldsmiths of the time excelled at creating vessels, jewelry, and figures with intricate decorative work. Mythical monsters, African people, gods, and wreaths were among the subjects. Many of the metalwork objects were set with expensive stones and jewels.
Glass blowing was discovered by the Hellenists, who were able to develop new kinds of art. The molded glass was used to make jewelry in Italy, and jewelers devised and improved the cameo.
Hellenistic Statues and Sculptures
After 293 BC, sculpting fell considerably. After that, there was a period of stasis, with a relatively short reemergence after 153 BC, but nothing up to the quality benchmark of the periods before it. Sculpture grew increasingly lifelike and expressive throughout this period, with an emphasis on conveying extremes of expression. Aside from physical accuracy, the Hellenistic sculptor strives to depict the personality of his subject, encompassing subjects such as anguish, sleep, and old age.
Ordinary folk, mothers, children, animal life, and household scenes became appropriate subjects for Hellenistic statues, which were funded by wealthy families to decorate their residences and gardens. A notable instance is “A Boy with Thorn” (101 AD).
Laocoön and his sons (also known as the Laocoön Group) (ca. 200 BC), found in the Baths of Trajan in 1506. Currently located in the Vatican Museums in the Vatican City, Italy; Vatican Museums, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
Artists no longer felt obligated to show individuals as standards of beauty or bodily perfection, and accurate representations of women and men were created. Dionysus’ realm, a pastoral utopia filled with satyrs and nymphs, had been shown frequently in previous vase paintings and figures, but seldom in full-size sculptures. The Old Drunkard (first century AD) in Munich depicts an elderly lady, gaunt and haggard, clutching a jar of alcohol against herself.
As a result, the era is noteworthy for its portraiture. The Barberini Faun (1799) of Munich, for example, depicts a sleeping satyr with a comfortable posture and a worried expression, maybe the prey of dreams. Similar themes are reflected in the Resting Satyr, The Belvedere Torso (1430), and The Sleeping Hermaphroditus (1620).
“Demosthenes” (384–322 BC) by Polyeuktos is yet another well-known Hellenistic portrait that depicts him with a well-executed face and clenched fists.
Another Hellenistic-era tendency may be noticed in its art: privatization, as demonstrated in the reintroduction of previous public patterns in ornamental sculpture. Under the influences of Roman art, portraiture is tinted with realism. New Hellenistic cities sprung up throughout Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia.
The Pergamon Altar, located at the Pergamon Museum; © Raimond Spekking
This necessitated the installation of sculptures representing Greek deities and characters in sanctuaries and public spaces. Sculpture, like ceramics, became a business as a result, with uniformity and some degradation of quality.
As a result of these factors, considerably more Hellenistic statues have endured than Classic sculptures.
The developments of “second classicism” are repeated in Hellenistic statues. This comprises naked sculpture-in-the-round, which allows the sculpture to be appreciated from all sides; drapery and the illusions of transparency of clothes, as well as the flexibility of positions.
As a result, “Venus de Milo” (between 150 and 125 BC), despite emulating a traditional figure, is differentiated by the curve of her hips.
The group of statues that featured multiple figures was a Hellenistic invention, most likely from the third century, that removed the epic conflicts of older sanctuary reliefs off their walls and created them as life-size sculptures.
Their style is commonly referred to as “baroque,” due to their extravagantly deformed body positions and dramatic emotions on their faces. “The Laocoön Group” (1506), which is discussed further below, is regarded as a classic instance of the Hellenistic baroque era.
Pergamon did not identify itself just via its architecture. It was also the home of the famous Pergamene Baroque style of sculpture. Mimicking previous eras, the sculptors depict traumatic situations rendered emotive using three-dimensional designs, and physiological hyper-realism.
One instance is the “Barberini Faun” (1799).
To memorialize his triumph against the Gauls, Attalus I crafted two series of groups: the first, anointed on the Acropolis of Pergamon, contains the famed Gaul massacring himself and his wife, the second, given to Athens, is made up of small statues of Amazons, divine beings and giants.
The Louvre’s “Artemis Rospigliosi” (1st – 2nd centuries AD) is most likely a replica of one of them.
So-called Ludovisi Gaul and his wife. Marble, Roman copy after a Hellenistic original from a monument built by Attalus I of Pergamon after his victory over Gauls, ca. 220 BC; Museo nazionale romano di palazzo Altemps, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
This is because copies of the Dying Gaul were plentiful during the Roman period. The Pergamene style is characterized by the portrayal of emotions, the boldness of details, and the aggressiveness of movements.
These features are shown in the friezes of Pergamon’s Great Altar (2nd century BC), which was adorned under the direction of Eumenes II with a gigantomachy reaching 110 meters in length, portraying stone poetry written specifically for the court.
It is won by the Olympians, each on his own side, over Giants, most of whom are changed into terrible monsters such as snakes, birds of prey, lions, or cows. Gaia rushes to their assistance, but she is powerless to help and must watch as they squirm in agony under the gods’ blows.
Colossus of Rhodes
Rhodes was one of the few city-states that managed to remain completely independent of any Hellenistic power. After surviving a year-long siege the Rhodians erected the Colossus of Rhodes (280 BC) to celebrate their triumph.
The Greeks were able to construct huge sculptures because of advancements in bronze casting. Many of the huge bronze statues were destroyed, with the vast number being melted down to reclaim the material.
The Barberini Faun, also known as the Sleeping Satyr (2nd century BC Hellenistic or 2nd century AD). Roman copy of an earlier bronze; Glyptothek, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Discovered in Rome in 1506 and instantly noticed by Michelangelo, it began to have a tremendous effect on Renaissance and Baroque artwork. Laocoön, choked by serpents, struggles hard to break free without looking at his dead sons.
The grouping is one of the few non-architectural antique sculptures that may be linked to those recorded in ancient texts.
The Baroque characteristics of Hellenistic art, particularly sculpture, have been compared with a contemporaneous tendency known as Rococo. Wilhelm Klein invented the term “Hellenistic Rococo” in the early twentieth century.
In contrast to the intense Baroque statues, the Rococo movement stressed lighthearted themes like satyrs and nymphs. The sculptural group, “The Invitation to the Dance”, was a prominent example of the movement.
Lighthearted images of Aphrodite and Eros were also common. Later, it was believed that the desire for “Rococo” themes in Hellenistic statues might be linked to a shift in the usage of sculpture generally. Personal sculpture collecting grew more prevalent in the late Hellenistic era, and there appears to have been a penchant for “Rococo” elements in this kind of collection.
Scholars consider the Neo-Attic style of sculpture as a response to baroque extravagance, a reversion to a form of Classical tradition, or a continuance of the usual style for worship statues beginning in the second century.
Studios in the style began to specialize in producing replicas for the Roman market, which favored traditional rather than Hellenistic works.
Mosaics and Paintings of the Hellenistic Era
Paintings and mosaics were major mediums in Hellenistic Greek art. However, no instances of paintings on panels escaped the Roman conquest. Related media and what appear to be replicas of or loose extensions from artworks in a wider range of materials might give some notion of what they were like.
The greater use of landscape in Hellenistic mosaics and paintings is perhaps the most remarkable feature. The landscapes in these pieces of art depict recognized realistic characters as well as mythological and Sacro-idyllic motifs.
Landscape friezes were frequently utilized to depict settings from Hellenistic poetry. These settings depicting the tales of Hellenistic authors were used in the house to highlight the family’s awareness and education of the world of literature.
The Nile Mosaic of Palestrina (c. 100 BC), a Roman and Hellenistic floor mosaic depicting Ptolemaic Egypt; Unknown authorUnknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
The term “Sacro-idyllic” refers to the artwork’s most prominent aspects, which are those associated with religious and pastoral themes. This style, which first appeared in Hellenistic art, blends holy and profane elements to create a dreamy scene. the Nile Mosaic of Palestrina (1st century BC) exhibits imaginative storytelling with a color scheme and everyday components that portray the Nile in its transit from the Mediterranean to Ethiopia.
Hellenistic backdrops can also be found in works from Pompeii, Cyrene, and Alexandria.
Furthermore, floral motifs and limbs can be observed on ceilings and walls strewn in a disorganized yet traditional fashion, imitating a late Greek style, particularly in Southern Russia. Furthermore, “Cubiculum” paintings unearthed at Villa Boscoreale show greenery and a rocky landscape in the background of realistic paintings of big structures.
During the Pompeian period, wall paintings became more prevalent. These wall murals were not just featured in temples or tombs. Wall paintings were frequently utilized to beautify the dwelling. In Priene, Thera, Olbia, Pantikapaion, and Alexandria, wall paintings were widespread in private residences.
Only a few specimens of Greek wall murals have survived the ages. The ones in the Macedonian imperial graves at Vergina are the most spectacular in terms of demonstrating what high-quality Greek artwork looked like.
Wall painting depicting a banquet scene from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki (4th century BC); Unknown authorUnknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Greek artists are credited with introducing key representations to the Western hemisphere through their artwork. Three-dimensional viewpoint, the utilization of lights and shadows to convey form, and Trompe-l’oeil reality were three key characteristics of the Hellenistic style of painting. Except for wooden panels and those put on stone, very few examples of paintings exist in Hellenistic culture.
The most well-known stone paintings may be found in the Macedonian Tomb at Agios Athanasios.
Techniques and Mediums
Recent Mediterranean digs have shown the technologies utilized in Hellenistic painting. The secco and fresco methods were used in wall art during this period. The fresco technique needed layers of lime-rich plaster to be applied to surfaces and stone foundations before they could be decorated.
Wall painting depicting Hades abducting Persephone (340 BCE); Unknown authorUnknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
The secco method, on the other hand, did not require a base and instead employed gum arabic and egg tempera to create finalizing features on marble or other stone. The Masonry friezes on Delos are an example of this technique.
Both techniques made use of locally available materials, manufactured artificial pigments, and organic materials as colorants.
Recent finds include chamber tombs at Vergina (1987), in the old kingdom of Macedonia, where several friezes were discovered. Archaeologists discovered a Hellenistic-style frieze portraying a lion hunt in Tomb II, for instance. This frieze discovered in a tomb reportedly belonging to Philip II is notable for its structure, the placement of the characters in space, and its accurate depiction of nature.
Other friezes, such as a symposium and feast or a military procession, preserve a realistic storyline and may repeat actual events.
Roman fresco painting, known as “Cubiculum” (bedroom), from the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at Boscoreale (50–40 BC). Located at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City; Metropolitan Museum of Art, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons
There are also the newly repaired Nabataean frescoes from the 1st century in Jordan’s Painted House. Because the Nabataeans interacted with the Egyptians, Romans, and Greeks, the insects and other creatures depicted in the murals represent Hellenism, while different varieties of vines are linked with the Greek god Dionysus. The latest archaeological findings at the Pagasae cemetery, on the outskirts of the Pagasetic Gulf, have revealed several unique works.
The excavated works may be linked to numerous Greek artists from the third and fourth centuries, who represent events from Alexander the Great’s reign. A collection of wall paintings was discovered in Delos in the 1960s.
The remains of friezes discovered were clearly constructed by a colony of painters who existed during the late Hellenistic era. The paintings emphasized household decorating, implying that the Delian regime will stay strong and stable enough for this work to be appreciated by residents for many coming years.
Certain mosaics give an excellent understanding of the period’s “great painting.” These mosaics are reproductions of frescoes that have been lost to the ravages of time. This art form has mostly been utilized to embellish walls, floors, and columns.
Techniques and Mediums
The evolution of mosaic artwork during the Hellenistic Era started with Pebble Mosaics, which are best depicted in the 5th century BC at the site of Olynthos. Pebble Mosaics were created by arranging tiny black and white pebbles of varying sizes in a rectangular or circular panel to depict images from mythology.
To produce the image, white pebbles in slightly various colors were put on a blue or black backdrop. The black stones were used to frame the imagery.
A highly advanced form of art may be seen in the mosaics from the 4th century BC site of Pella. This site’s mosaics show the usage of stones that have been tinted in a wider spectrum of hues and tones. They also demonstrate the early use of lead wire and Terra-cotta to generate more defined curves and features in the mosaic pictures. More materials were eventually added after this scenario. Precisely cut pebbles, broken stones, glass, and baked ceramic, known as tesserae, are examples of this increased usage of elements in mosaics from the third century BC.
Detail of the Alexander Mosaic (c. 100 BC), found in the House of the Faun in Pompeii; Unknown authorUnknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
This enhanced the mosaic method by allowing artists to create more clarity, considerable detail, a finer fit, and a larger spectrum of colors and hues. Regardless of the chronological order in which these methods appeared, there is no data to imply that the tessellated evolved from pebble mosaics. The vast bulk of mosaics was created and installed on-site.
A few floor mosaics, however, employ the “emblemata” process, in which picture panels are manufactured off-site in trays of terra-cotta or stone. These trays were then placed on-site in the setting bed.
Colored grouts were employed on opus vermiculatum mosaics in Delos, although this is not prevalent in other places. The Dog and Askos mosaic in Alexandria is one example of colorful grout being utilized. The grouts and tesserae on Samos are both colored. Scientific study has provided valuable information on the grouts and tesserae in use in Hellenistic mosaics. As a distinguishing feature of the surface treatment, lead strips were detected on mosaics.
The mosaics here are devoid of lead strips. Lead strips were popular on mosaics in the opus tessellated style at Delos. These strips were used to delineate ornamental borders as well as geometric decorative elements. The strips were especially popular in Alexandria opus vermiculatum mosaics. Because lead strips were present in both types of surfaces, they cannot be the primary distinguishing feature of one or the other.
Tel Dor Mosaic
An uncommon virtuoso Hellenistic type image mosaic was discovered on the Levantine shore. Researchers believe that this mosaic was made in situ by itinerant craftsmen based on a technical investigation of the mosaic.
Over 200 shards of the mosaic have been unearthed at Tel Dor’s headline since 2000, but the demolition of the original mosaic is unclear. Excavators believe the reason is an earthquake or urban redevelopment.
Although the original architectural context is unclear, stylistic and technical parallels point to a late Hellenistic period date, possibly at the end of second-century B.C.E. Scholars discovered that the original mosaic included a centered rectangle with unknown iconography, flanked by a succession of artistic borders consisting of a perspective meandering. It was also accompanied by a mask-and-garland border after analyzing the shards recovered at the original location.
Another example is the Alexander Mosaic (100 BC), which depicts the young victor and Grand King Darius III clashing during battle and is an artwork from a floor in Pompeii’s House of the Faun. It is thought to be a replica of a picture mentioned by Pliny as having been created by Philoxenus of Eretria for King Cassander of Macedon towards the end of the fourth century BC, or perhaps of a work by Apelles contemporary with Alexander.
The mosaic allows us to evaluate the color palette as well as the ensemble’s composition through turning motion and facial expressions.
Stag Hunt Mosaic (300 BC)
The emblem is surrounded by an exquisite floral design that is surrounded by stylized portrayals of waves. The work is a pebble mosaic composed of stones gathered from coastlines and riverbanks and placed in cement. The mosaic, as was maybe often the case, represents painting techniques. The bright figures against the darker backdrop might be a reference to a red-figure painting. The mosaic also employs shading, in its portrayals of the individuals’ muscles and capes.
The artwork is three-dimensional as a result of this, as well as the use of overlapping figures to create depth.
The Stag Hunt mosaic (late 4th century BC) from Pella, Greece. Most likely depicting Alexander and Hephaestion; Unknown authorUnknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
The Hellenistic era is also a period of mosaic development, notably with the creations of Sosos of Pergamon, who was prominent in the 2nd century BC. His interest in optical illusion and the impacts of the medium can be seen in several creations ascribed to him, including the Unswept Floor in the Vatican Museum, which depicts the leftovers of a meal, and the Dove Basin at the Capitoline Museum, which is known thanks to a reproduction discovered in Hadrian’s Villa.
That concludes our look into Hellenistic Greek art. The Hellenistic era spanned 300 years and was marked by inventions, globalization, and cultural connection via a shared language and standardized schooling. Royal families lived in magnificence and prosperity throughout the Hellenistic period. Palaces feature opulent dining halls, ornately adorned chambers, and magnificent gardens. Extensive wealth encircled the stately homes and the palaces of the aristocracy, political elite, and merchants, who hosted celebrations and symposia to showcase their riches on a regular basis. A rich society with famous patrons of the arts who commissioned public projects of sculpture as well as private luxuries to demonstrate their money and social standing.
Take a look at our Hellenistic period art webstory here!
Frequently Asked Questions
What Is a Hellenist?
You might be wondering what exactly a Hellenist is. A Hellenist is an individual who lived during the Hellenistic period and was Greek in dialect, viewpoint, and mode of living but was not necessarily Greek in lineage. The Hellenists worked for years to promote ancient Greek tradition to the people they conquered and to demonstrate their civilization’s superiority.
What Is the Hellenism Definition?
You might be wondering what the Hellenism definition is. The Hellenistic period began with the demise of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. During this period, art began to depart from traditional classical principles, with painters of the time injecting their pieces with fresh stylistic choices. Jewelry got more ornate, sculptures became more expressive (almost theatrical), and buildings defied convention by growing larger. During these kingdoms, Grecian influences coupled with native culture resulted in a diverse range of styles and topics in Hellenistic art. The historical interest that marked this age had a tremendous impact on the value of the art that resulted. Hellenistic art depicted individuals of different ages, from infants to the elderly.


Historical travel includes various kinds of destinations, from Stone Age cave paintings to Cold War installations of the late 20th century. History is a central focus for some travellers and some destinations, and almost every traveller in most places will at least have a look at some old buildings or the local museums.
|“||History does not belong to us but rather we to it.||”|
The early history of life on Earth is studied in paleontology, mainly through fossils. The earliest known fossils of the genus Homo date back at least 4.4 million years. Our species, Homo sapiens, is thought to have evolved between one and two hundred thousand years ago. Some homo sapiens migrated from Africa to the Middle East about 100,000 years ago and to Europe about 60,000 years ago. For purposes of this article, anything after 50,000 BCE counts as history. Naturally this overlaps considerably with our archaeology article.
The boundary between paleontology and archaeology, which deals mainly with the study of ancient human artifacts, is not at all well-defined. The oldest known tools made by hominids — Oldowan stone tools excavated in the Olduvai Gorge of Tanzania — are about 2.6 million years old. Australopithecines, of the genus which included direct ancestors of Homo, had cruder stone tools starting at least 3.3 million years ago. Controlled use of fire is apparently at least a million years old.
The boundary between prehistory and history is commonly drawn at the first local written records, which date back to around 3,000 BCE in Ancient Egypt and Ancient Mesopotamia, but as recently as the 19th century in some other parts of the world. Widespread literacy was rare in most of history and even when commoners could read and write, they often had no or limited access to durable material on which to write. As such, the written record is often focused on what the ruling elites deemed noteworthy and what can be learned about the everyday lives of common people is often only revealed indirectly or through archeology. "Oral history" or what was transmitted from generation to generation through poems, songs, legends and other means of storytelling was often dismissed by "Western" historiography but is now seen as a vital source of historical information instead of or in addition to the written record. The distinction of history and pre-history by the availability of writing alone is thus no longer unanimously accepted and other markers are used as well. Pottery, the wheel, the first domesticated animals (dogs), and the first evidence of crop cultivation all appeared between 30,000 and 20,000 BCE. A number of other important developments took place between about 12,000 BCE and 3,000 — the transition of some societies from purely hunting/gathering to being based on agriculture, irrigation, cities, metalworking, and domestication of many more animals. During the civilizations of Greece and Rome, historians demonstrated their interest in history with contributions such as the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, a list of important works of art and architecture in the region.
The line between "historical" and "modern" is arbitrary; some draw it around the time of the European Renaissance or slightly later with the great voyages of discovery starting with Columbus and Vasco da Gama. For travel guide purposes it can be convenient to draw it at the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries, when cities, industries and railroads began to expand fast, displacing older structures and rural folk culture. Surviving settlements and city districts from before the mid-19th century which were designed before and survived the advent of cars and trains, referred to as old towns, are typically smaller and more compact (and thus walkable) than modern cities. However, during the 19th and 20th centuries, older styles of art, architecture and furnishing have been revived and reproduced, so that many buildings that look ancient might be less than 100 years old. There might even be a (neo)Gothic train station or an Ancient Greek-style building in the Americas.
Deserted settlements can be archaeological sites or ghost towns. Pioneer villages can be authentic or artificial. In some places you quite literally trip over historical remnants, whereas other historic sites have been painstakingly preserved and restored. While the latter is usually more interesting it may seem "fake", "sterile" or even "artificial" when done badly. Also — with few exceptions — there are fewer lines (if any) for historical places that people actually still live in (like old towns) or use for their original purpose (like many churches / mosques / synagogues / temples) than for museums or "theme parks".
Nostalgia tourism aims at recent history, remembered by people alive today (especially the middle-aged and elderly). As of the 2020s, it includes World War II, as well as postwar United States, Cold War Europe and the Soviet Union.
Some historical sites are threatened, either for natural causes or human-influenced ones like war or neglect. As of the 2020s, coastal cities such as Venice and New Orleans are sinking into the sea, ancient ruins in Iraq and Syria were damaged by wars of the 21st century, and many indigenous cultures around the world have only a handful of survivors left. Future generations are in no way guaranteed to experience these places as they are today. Responsible travel can provide incentives to save them, or at least their memory.
Continents and regions
Africa is the wellspring of the human race and therefore the site of the oldest finds of human remains, in locations ranging from South Africa to Ethiopia. It was also home to some of the world's oldest civilizations, particularly Ancient Egypt but also Nubia and Ethiopia. A bit later in antiquity, Carthage dominated much of North Africa and was then conquered by the Romans, who did major construction projects in their African provinces as they did in all other parts of their empire, leaving behind substantial ruins. In addition, there were great empires in both the Sahel and Southern Africa in the centuries before European colonialism; some of these relics have been vandalized by Salafist extremists in the 21st century, such as those in northern Mali, but a lot is still standing. Perhaps the two most prominent pre-colonial sites in sub-Saharan Africa are Timbuktu in Mali and the Great Zimbabwe in Zimbabwe. Arab and Berber/Moorish civilization also has left deep and lasting marks on North Africa, and the Arabs, especially the Sultanate of Oman, had far-flung possessions down the East African coast, notably including Zanzibar and Mombasa. There are also many relics of European colonialism, including slave forts and other forts on the coasts. Locations associated with the trans-Atlantic slave trade, World War II battles, the fights for independence, and the fight against Apartheid in South Africa can also be visited; see 20th-century South Africa for the latter.
- Ancient Egypt
- Churches in Ethiopia
- Great Zimbabwe
- Atlantic slave trade
- World War II in Africa
- 20th-century South Africa
- MV Liemba, built for the Imperial German Navy before World War I, and still in service as a ferry
The only unsettled continent has very few traces of human history. Some Antarctic islands, such as the South Georgia Island and South Shetland Islands, have remnants of the whaling industry. The remains of expeditions of the "heroic age" of Antarctic exploration can still be seen and some have been actively preserved or relocated to museums in Europe and elsewhere. Many former research stations have been abandoned to be "swallowed" by snow and ice, and there aren't always many traces visible.
Asia had some of the world's oldest civilizations, including those in Ancient Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, Persia, Anatolia, Syria, Phoenicia, Israel, the Edomites and Moabites of Jordan, China, India and Java, to name a few. The Middle East contains the world's first cities; some old towns have been inhabited for three millennia or more. The Holy Land is sacred to Judaism, Christianity, Islam and the Bahá’í Faith.
Iran has one of the oldest histories on earth. You may have heard names of emperors like Cyrus the Great or Ardashir I. The Achaemenid Empire was a really big empire which consisted of many states. The Silk Road played a very important role in supporting the economy of empire. The official language of the various Persian empires was usually Persian.
The Asian nation that lacks archaeological relics is much more the exception than the rule. Much has been lost due to iconoclasm, such as in Malaysia several hundreds of years ago, when the relatively new Muslims destroyed Malay Hindu temples; in Saudi Arabia within the last few years, when numerous historical sites were razed in Mecca and other places; in Afghanistan, when statues of the Buddha that were thousands of years old were dynamited by the Taliban; and in Iraq and Syria in the first decade of the 21st century, when the Islamic State group destroyed many of the larger Babylonian and other historical relics they can get their hands on and spirited many of the smaller relics out of the country to sell on the black market.
For relatively recent history, the "Hippie Trail" of the 1960s and 70s is covered in Istanbul to New Delhi overland. Parts of what was the usual route back in the day are currently too dangerous, but the journey is still possible using alternate routes.
- Ancient Mesopotamia
- Persian Empire
- Troy, an ancient city famous for the legendary Trojan War recounted in Homer's Iliad
- Pre-Islamic Arabia
- Islamic Golden Age
East and Central Asia
- Imperial China — the history of China prior to the establishment of the Republic of China in 1911
- Silk Road — an ancient trading route that provided cultural and technology interchange between the East and West from the 2nd century BCE to the 18th century
- Western Xia — a lost ancient Chinese civilization (11th to 13th century)
- On the trail of Marco Polo who traveled from Venice to China in the 13th century
- Mongol Empire (13th and 14th centuries)
- Pre-modern Japan — the history of the Japanese people prior to the Meiji Restoration in 1868
- Pre-modern Korea — the history of the Korean people prior to the Japanese occupation in 1910
- Japanese colonial empire
- Chinese Revolutions (1911 to 1976) — China during the Republican era, and the first decades of Communist rule
- Long March — a significant military event during the Chinese civil war in the 1930s that forged the Communist party
- Pacific War — the Second World War in the Asia-Pacific region
- World War II in China — the longest lasting and deadliest front of World War II
- Korean War — the 20th century conflict at the beginning of the Cold War
- Tibetan Empire — history of the Tibetan people prior to the Qing conquest in the 18th century
- Jomon Prehistoric Sites in Northern Japan
South and Southeast Asia
- South Asian history
- Khmer Empire
- Mughal Empire (16th to early-19th century)
- Colonial India
- British Raj - the British empire in the Indian subcontinent (from 1858 to 1947)
- Philippine Revolution (1896 to 1898)
- Indochina Wars
- See also: European history
Europe has been more thoroughly excavated by archaeologists than any other continent. Southern Europe has archaeological sites from Ancient Greece, the Roman Empire and other ancient civilizations. Central Europe in particular is filled with medieval castles and early-modern palaces, with Old towns across the whole continent. Historical tourism itself has a long history in Europe; educational journeys such as the Grand Tour have been customary since the 17th century.
Europe's heritage has been scarred by war, especially World War II. The Holocaust was not just a genocidal campaign against the Jews; the Nazis also set out to methodically destroy Jewish heritage. Many beautiful synagogues were destroyed and never rebuilt due to - among other things - lack of a Jewish congregation, lack of funds or personal and institutional continuities. Jewish cemeteries, too, were vandalized. As the Second World War left many cities bombed beyond recognition, many city planners saw their opportunity to replace the "old fashioned" old towns with (in today's eyes) bland 1950s architecture and big streets and overpasses to make these places "ready for the automobile". Although the worst excesses have been turned back, many historical buildings that survived the wars were torn down in this somewhat iconoclastic frenzy.
- Prehistoric Europe
- Medieval Europe
- Early modern Europe
- Protestant Reformation
- Napoleonic Wars
- World War I
- World War II in Europe
- Cold War Europe
Central and Eastern Europe
- Austro-Hungarian Empire
- Hanseatic League
- Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
- Russian Empire
- Soviet Union
- Thirty Years' War
- Vikings and the Old Norse (until 1000 AD)
- Nordic history (since 1000 AD)
- Stockholm history tour
- Swedish Empire (strictly 1611–1721, the article covers a longer period)
- Medieval Britain and Ireland
- Early modern Britain and Ireland
- Dutch Empire
- Kingdom of France
- French Colonial Empire
- Industrial Britain
- British Empire
- Ancient Greece
- Roman Empire
- Byzantine Empire
- Medieval and Renaissance Italy
- Ottoman Empire
- Portuguese Empire
- Spanish Empire
The first humans arrived at New Guinea and Australia 65,000 years ago; this places their indigenous cultures among the oldest known on Earth. Without writing or metalworking, their heritage is sourced from their artwork and oral tradition. See Indigenous Australian culture. The first settlers of the Solomon Islands arrived more than 30,000 years ago. The general term for these ethnic groups is Melanesians.
The rest of Oceania has a relatively short human history, though. The Austronesians began migrating into the Pacific around 3,000 BCE and were the first people to arrive in Polynesia, from 1,000 BCE onwards. They reached Hawaii in the 4th century CE, and New Zealand in the 13th century (see Maori culture), making the North and South Islands the last major landmasses on Earth to be settled (other than Antarctica). Oceania was also among the last regions to be charted and colonised by Europeans.
- Indigenous Australian culture
- Australian Convict Sites
- Military museums and sites in Australia
- Ned Kelly tourism
- Pacific War
North American prehistory has left behind sites such as the New Mexico Pueblos and Ohio prehistoric sites. In addition, in Mexico and Central America, especially Guatemala, there are very impressive remains of the Mayan civilization, particularly quite a number of pyramids.
Sites associated with written history for the most part begin with early contact between the indigenous peoples of North America and European colonists. Often the indigenous were displaced by European settlers and sometimes killed (for example, the infamous Trail of Tears).
Early colonial sites are often preserved as "old towns" in Atlantic coastal cities such as Antigua Guatemala, Granada (Nicaragua), Quebec City, Havana, San Juan, or St. Augustine. But there are also old cities inland, notably Santa Fe, New Mexico.
Military tourism on this continent includes the American Revolution, War of 1812, the Mexican-American War, the American Civil War and the various "Indian Wars" between the colonists and the indigenous peoples.
African-American history includes sites related to the Atlantic slave trade as well as the Underground Railroad: multiple routes for smuggling slaves who had escaped the southern US across the northern states into what later became Canada (at the time British North America) or other non-US territory. Active primarily in the 1850s, when US federal law left slaves who had escaped to free states in immediate danger of recapture by slave catchers unless they left the US entirely.
History-focused itineraries include the Camino Real, the Royal Road linking the 21 Spanish missions of California; the Lewis and Clark Trail leading across the Western United States, following the route of explorers Lewis and Clark; the Oregon Trail which took settlers to the Pacific coast; the Ruta del Tránsito, the historic route from east to west across North America that passed through Nicaragua; Route 66, which existed from 1926-1985 but continues to be marketed for nostalgia tourism; and the American Industry Tour from 17th-century Massachusetts to 20th-century Chicago.
For the politically-inclined there is also the chance to see sites related to the Presidents of the United States.
United States history series
Note that most of these topics are not exclusive to the United States. Indigenous cultures did not conform to modern boundaries and thus many were equally present in Canada and Mexico. Colonial boundaries were also different to modern ones: British colonial history includes Bermuda and Nova Scotia as much as the "13 colonies" of U.S. school textbooks. The American War of Independence was partially fought in present-day Canada. Even after the establishment of the modern boundaries, trends and events touched multiple countries; those interested in the Old West will also find cowboy culture in Northern Mexico and the Canadian Prairies.
- Indigenous cultures of North America
- New France (1608 to 1763)
- Early United States history (1492 to 1861)
- American Civil War (1861 to 1865)
- Old West (mainly 1865 to 1900)
- Industrialization of the United States (1865 to 1945)
- Postwar United States (1945 to present day)
Many people travel to Peru every year to see the Inca Trail and other historical sites from the Inca Empire. Other historical sites include the remnants of the Falklands War and the history of the Jesuit missions in Paraguay. Beautiful colonial old towns can be found all over the continent, especially in Argentina and Chile, whose mineral wealth made them some of the richest countries in the world during the early 20th century.
The great epics
Some of the oldest and most famous works of literature are epic poems about great heroes. In all cases there is some dispute among scholars about the historical authenticity of these stories, and about the dates of both the events described and the composition of the text.
The Epic of Gilgamesh is the oldest known piece of literature. It tells tales of a Sumerian king who probably ruled in the first half of the 3rd millennium BCE and of a great flood. The best-known version was likely written around 1200 BCE. While a surprising number of copies survive for a text of that age, they are not all written in the same language and sometimes disagree significantly on details.
Other great epics were written a few hundred years BCE and describe events around 1000 BCE:
- Homer recounts the story of the Trojan War in two epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Today Troy is an archaeological site which attracts tourists.
- The Mahabarata is a great Indian epic. Perhaps the most famous passage in India literature is the Baghavad Gita, a dialog between the warrior Arjuna and the God Krishna which takes place just before the climactic battle. That battle was fought at Kurukshetra, which now attracts both pilgrims and tourists.
- The Ramayana is another great Indian epic. An epic battle was fought between the forces of the hero, Rama, and the villain, Ravana, on the island of Lanka, which is widely believed to be modern-day Sri Lanka.
- The Bible is a more complex set of books than can be encompassed by the term "epic", but parts of it are basically Hebrew epics. The Torah (Pentateuch or Five Books of Moses) was first written down in full in the 6th century BCE, with fragments having been found that date to the 7th century BCE. The Exodus of Moses is one of the most famous stories of the Old Testament. See Holy Land, Judaism and Christianity for Biblical destinations.
When reading any epic, keep in mind that most were passed down orally for centuries before being written down. Also, many tended to exaggerate numbers, either just to make a better story or to make rulers look impressive with great army sizes, harem sizes and feats of city building, so the "real deal" when finally verified by archeologists can fall short of the epic scales of the tales
- See also: Spies and secrets
Espionage has existed since ancient times, and sometimes made or broken the fate of nations.
Science and technology tourism
Science tourism is for those with an interest in science, including science museums as well as live science research centers and exploratory missions. Closely related is industrial tourism, factory tours and museums describing manufacturing in various time periods from the start of the Industrial Revolution to the modern era.
Industrial tourism includes visits to historical or present-day industrial sites and museums. Mining tourism and certain underground works are a subset of industrial tourism. It is often related to the history of transportation, with steam power, heritage railways, aviation history and space flight sites.
History of organized labor describes the first trade unions and their struggle to improve working conditions.
Nuclear tourism is for those with an interest in the nuclear industry from either a science or military perspective. The locations can either contain live reactors or be otherwise of interest from a historical point of view.
History of justice
Judicial tourism includes visits to courthouses, police buildings, prisons, crime scenes, and other places related to the legal system.
- See also: Military tourism
Military tourism is for those with an interest in current or historical military sites and facilities, including museums, battlefields, cemeteries and technology.
- See also: In the footsteps of explorers
Retracing the voyages of the great explorers of old. The most famous journeys are from Europe's Age of Discovery.
- Cape Route
- Magellan-Elcano circumnavigation
- On the trail of Marco Polo
- Voyages of Columbus
- Voyages of James Cook
- Voyages of John Franklin
- Voyages of Roald Amundsen
- Voyages of Zheng He
- See also: Philosophy tourism
Philosophy tourism is for those with an interest in the history of philosophy, including historical residences of philosophers, museums, statues and places of burial.
- Archaeological sites
- Grand houses
- Grand old hotels
- Fiction tourism and Literary travel
- Heritage railways
- Mining tourism
- National parks
- Nobel tourism; life and works of Alfred Nobel, and the Nobel Prize
- Old towns and Ghost towns
- Some Tourist trains also focus on a supposed or actual historical connection
- Reenactment and LARP
- UNESCO Creative Cities
- UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage
- UNESCO World Heritage List