How to make study notes – In this post, we are providing students with creative writing to make study notes for different exams. After reading this article, students will be able to make study notes on the following queries:
- How to make concise study notes
- How to make study notes with mind-maps
- How to make study notes effectively
- How to make beautiful study notes
- How to make study notes from a textbook
- How to make study notes in laptop
- How to make study notes on iPad
- How to make study notes on word
Table of Contents
Clear Your Concepts
How to make study notes
Making study notes involves condensing and organizing information to aid in effective learning. Start by actively engaging with the material and understanding key concepts. Structure your notes using concise and clear language, bullet points, and headings. Highlight important points, definitions, and formulas. Incorporate visual aids like diagrams and charts for better understanding. Use abbreviations and symbols to save space and improve readability. Review and revise your notes regularly to reinforce learning. The key is to focus on capturing essential information concisely and organized that suits your learning style and facilitates quick revision.
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How to make concise study notes
To make concise study notes, follow these steps:
- Skim and preview the material: Quickly review the content for an overview of the key topics and subtopics. This will help you identify the most important information.
- Focus on key points: As you read the material more thoroughly, identify the main ideas, definitions, formulas, and examples. Highlight or underline them to make them stand out.
- Use abbreviations and symbols: Find ways to condense information using abbreviations, acronyms, and symbols. For example, “w/” for “with,” “eg.” for “for example,” or arrows to represent cause-and-effect relationships. This saves space and makes your notes more concise.
- Organize with headings and subheadings: Use clear headings and subheadings to categorize different topics and subtopics. This helps create a logical structure in your notes and makes reviewing and locating information easier.
- Utilize bullet points and numbering: Instead of writing in long paragraphs, use bullet points and numbering to list key information. This makes your notes more scannable and helps you grasp the main points quickly.
- Include diagrams and visuals: Visual aids can enhance understanding and retention. Whenever possible, include diagrams, flowcharts, graphs, or tables illustrating concepts and relationships between ideas.
- Keep it simple and concise:
- Avoid unnecessary details and excessive explanations.
- Stick to the core concepts and essential information.
- Use your words to summarize and rephrase complex ideas, focusing on clarity and simplicity.
- Use different colors and formatting: Employ different colors, fonts, and formatting techniques to highlight important information, headings, or keywords. This adds visual appeal and makes your notes more engaging and memorable.
- Review and revise regularly:
- Review your notes to reinforce your understanding.
- Revise them periodically to ensure they remain up-to-date and accurate.
- Add any additional information or insights you may have gained during your studies.
- Personalize your notes:
- Tailor your notes to suit your learning style.
- Add personal examples, mnemonics, or mnemonic devices that help you remember key information.
- Customize your notes to make them more meaningful and relevant to you.
Remember, the goal is to create a condensed and organized summary of the material that captures the most important points. Experiment with different techniques and find what works best for you.
How to make study notes with mind-maps
Creating study notes with mind maps can be a highly effective way to organize and review information visually. Here’s how you can make study notes using mind maps:
1. Start with a central topic: Write the main topic or subject you’re studying at the center of a blank page or canvas. Draw a circle or any other shape around it.
2. Branch out with main ideas: Identify the main ideas or subtopics related to the central topic and draw branches from the center. Each branch represents a key concept or subtopic.
3. Add secondary branches: From each main branch, create secondary branches to represent supporting details, examples, or subtopics related to the main ideas. These secondary branches form a hierarchical structure around the central topic.
4. Use keywords and images: Instead of writing lengthy sentences, use keywords or short phrases to capture the essence of each idea. This keeps the mind map concise and allows for quick understanding. You can also incorporate relevant images, symbols, or icons to enhance visual memory.
5. Use color and formatting: Use different colors to distinguish between branches or highlight important information. Bold or underline keywords to make them stand out. This visual differentiation aids in memory recall and organization.
6. Connect and cross-reference: Draw lines or arrows between related concepts to show connections, relationships, or dependencies. This helps us understand how different ideas relate to each other and form a cohesive structure.
7. Keep it visually balanced: Ensure your mind map is visually balanced, with similar levels of information on each side. This makes it easier to scan and review the map as a whole.
8. Review and revise: Regularly review your mind-map notes. As you revise the material, update and refine your mind map accordingly. Add new information or make connections you may have missed initially.
9. Practice active engagement: While creating the mind map, actively engage with the material by summarizing key points and linking ideas. This enhances your understanding and retention of the information.
10. Customize it to your preference: Experiment with different styles, layouts, and structures to find what works best. Adapt the mind-map format to suit your learning style and make it visually appealing and intuitive for your studying needs.
Mind maps provide a visual overview of the subject matter, making comprehending and recalling information easier. By organizing concepts in a connected and visually stimulating manner, you can create study notes that are highly effective for revision and exam preparation.
How to make study notes effectively
To make study notes effectively, follow these tips:
- Actively engage with the material and understand key concepts.
- Be concise and focus on the main ideas, definitions, and examples.
- Use headings, bullet points, and numbering for an organization.
- Highlight or underline important information.
- Utilize abbreviations and symbols to save space.
- Include visual aids like diagrams or charts.
- Review and revise regularly to reinforce learning.
- Personalize notes with examples or mnemonic devices.
- Keep them organized and easily accessible.
- Prioritize clarity and simplicity. Customize your approach based on your learning style. Experiment to find what works best for you.
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How to make study notes from a textbook
Creating effective study notes from a textbook can greatly enhance your understanding and retention of the material. Here’s a step-by-step guide to help you make comprehensive and organized study notes:
- Skim the chapter: Begin by skimming through the chapter quickly to get an overview of its content. Pay attention to headings, subheadings, and any highlighted or bolded text. This step will help you understand the chapter’s structure and main ideas.
- Read the chapter carefully: Read the chapter thoroughly, focusing on understanding the concepts, arguments, and examples presented. Take your time to grasp the material and make a note of any key points or ideas.
- Summarize key information: After reading a section or paragraph, summarize the main points in your own words. Avoid copying word-for-word from the textbook to encourage active engagement with the material. Keep your summaries concise and to the point.
- Use headings and subheadings: Organize your notes using headings and subheadings that reflect the chapter’s structure. This helps you categorize information and find specific topics easily when reviewing.
- Highlight and underline: While reading, use highlighting and underlining to mark important concepts, definitions, formulas, or examples. This visual aid will make it easier to spot key information when you review your notes later.
- Diagrams and visuals: If the textbook includes diagrams, graphs, or visual representations of concepts, make sure to include them in your notes. These visuals can often convey complex information more effectively than text alone.
- Add personal examples: Supplement the textbook content with your own examples or real-life applications to enhance your understanding. Relating the material to practical situations or personal experiences can make it more memorable.
- Include questions and prompts: As you read, jot down questions or prompts related to the content. This will help you engage with the material actively and can serve as a valuable review tool later on.
- Review and revise: Review your study notes regularly to reinforce the information. Revise your notes periodically to ensure accuracy and clarity. You may also consider condensing and summarizing your notes further for quick reference.
- Make connections: Look for connections between different chapters or sections within the textbook. Consider how concepts relate to each other or to previously covered material. This approach promotes a deeper understanding of the subject matter.
- Use visual aids: Utilize visual aids such as flowcharts, mind maps, or concept diagrams to represent the relationships between different topics. These visual tools can help you visualize the content and reinforce your understanding.
- Create a summary or cheat sheet: Towards the end of each chapter or topic, create a summary or cheat sheet that condenses the most important information concisely and organized. This document will be especially useful for a quick review before exams or tests.
Remember, the goal of making study notes is to capture the essential information, facilitate understanding, and aid in efficient review. Experiment with different note-taking techniques and formats to find what works best for you.
How to make study notes on laptop
Making study notes on a laptop offers several advantages, such as easy editing, organization, and incorporation of multimedia elements. Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to create study notes on your laptop:
- Choose a note-taking application: There are several note-taking applications available for laptops, such as Microsoft OneNote, Evernote, Google Keep, or Apple Notes. Select a tool that suits your preferences and offers the features you need, such as text formatting, the ability to insert images or diagrams, and easy organization.
- Create a new note: Open your chosen note-taking application and create a new note specific to the subject or chapter you’re studying. Please give it a clear and descriptive title.
- Start with headings: Use headings and subheadings to structure your notes. This helps organize information and makes it easier to navigate through your notes later. Typically, you can use larger font sizes or bold text for headings to make them stand out.
- Type key points and summaries: Begin typing the key points, main ideas, and summaries of the material you’re studying. Try to condense the information into concise sentences or bullet points. Avoid copying large chunks of text verbatim, and use your own words to demonstrate understanding.
- Utilize formatting options: Take advantage of the formatting options provided by your note-taking application. Use bold or italic text to emphasize important terms or concepts. Create numbered or bulleted lists to present information in an organized manner.
- Insert images and diagrams: If your study material includes images, diagrams, or graphs, you can insert them directly into your notes. This is particularly helpful for subjects that rely heavily on visuals, such as biology or geography. You can copy and paste the textbook’s images or use online resources.
- Link additional resources: Insert hyperlinks to external resources, such as online articles, research papers, or supplementary materials that further explain or expand on the topics you’re studying. This allows you to access additional information with a simple click.
- Add personal examples or annotations: Enhance your notes by including personal examples or annotations that help you understand the material better. You can use coloured text, highlighters, or sticky notes within the application to draw attention to these annotations.
- Create tables or charts: For subjects that involve a lot of data or comparisons, consider creating tables or charts to present the information visually. Note-taking applications often have built-in tools to create tables, or you can copy and paste from spreadsheet software like Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets.
- Review and revise: Regularly review and revise your digital study notes to reinforce your understanding and ensure accuracy. Correct errors, add missing information, or rephrase concepts for clarity. Use the search function within your note-taking application to quickly find specific topics when reviewing.
- Organize and categorize your notes: Use folders, tags, or labels within your note-taking application to organize your notes effectively. Create a logical folder structure based on subjects, chapters, or topics to make locating specific information in the future easier.
- Back up your notes: Regularly back up your study notes to avoid losing them in case of laptop malfunctions or accidents. Sync your notes to the cloud or use backup services to ensure they’re securely stored.
Remember to customize your note-taking process based on your learning style and preferences. Experiment with different formatting options, organization techniques, and multimedia elements to create study notes that best suit your needs.
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How to make study notes on iPad
Making study notes on an iPad provides the convenience of a portable device with various note-taking and annotation features. Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to create study notes on an iPad:
- Choose a note-taking app: There are several note-taking apps available for iPads, such as Apple Notes, Notability, GoodNotes, or Evernote. Select an app that suits your needs and preferences. Consider factors like handwriting capabilities, text formatting options, audio recording, and integration with cloud storage.
- Create a new notebook or folder: Open your chosen note-taking app and create a new notebook or folder specific to the subject or chapter you’re studying. This helps keep your notes organized and easy to navigate.
- Handwrite or type your notes: Depending on your preference and the capabilities of the app, you can either handwrite your notes using the Apple Pencil or type them using the iPad’s on-screen keyboard. Choose the method that is most comfortable and efficient for you.
- Use headings and subheadings: Use headings and subheadings to structure your notes and create a hierarchy of information. This makes it easier to navigate through your notes and find specific topics quickly. Many note-taking apps allow you to easily format text as headings.
- Highlight and underline: If your note-taking app supports highlighting and underlining, use these features to mark important concepts, definitions, or examples. This visual aid can help you quickly identify key information when reviewing your notes.
- Insert images and diagrams: Take advantage of the iPad’s capabilities to insert images, diagrams, or graphs directly into your notes. You can import images from the Photos app or copy and paste them from other sources like textbooks or websites. Annotate the images with handwritten or typed notes to provide additional context.
- Record audio (if available): Some note-taking apps offer the ability to record audio while taking notes. If available, use this feature to record lectures, discussions, or explanations. Later, you can review your notes while listening to the corresponding audio, which can enhance your understanding and recall.
- Utilize drawing tools: Many note-taking apps provide drawing tools that allow you to create diagrams, sketches, or concept maps. These tools are useful for subjects that involve visual representations. Use different colors, pens, or shapes to create clear and visually appealing drawings.
- Add annotations and highlights: Use the annotation tools within your note-taking app to add additional notes, explanations, or annotations to your existing notes. You can draw arrows, circle important information, or add side notes to clarify concepts further.
- Sync with cloud storage: Ensure that your notes are backed up and accessible across multiple devices by syncing your notes with cloud storage services like iCloud, Dropbox, or Google Drive. This ensures that your notes are safe and can be accessed from any device with the note-taking app installed.
- Review and revise: Regularly review and revise your study notes to reinforce your understanding and retention of the material. Make any necessary corrections, add missing information, or rephrase concepts for better clarity.
- Use search and organization features: Take advantage of the search function within your note-taking app to quickly find specific topics or keywords within your notes. Utilize organizational features like folders, tags, or labels to categorize and sort your notes effectively.
Remember to experiment with different features and options offered by your chosen note-taking app to find the best way to create and organize your study notes on your iPad. Customizing your note-taking process based on your learning style and preferences will help you maximize the benefits of digital note-taking.
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How to make study notes on word
Making study notes on Microsoft Word provides a versatile and widely available platform for creating organized and customizable notes. Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to create study notes on Word:
- Open Microsoft Word: Launch Microsoft Word on your computer.
- Create a new document: Click on “File” in the top left corner and select “New” to create a new document. Alternatively, use the shortcut Ctrl+N (Windows) or Command+N (Mac).
- Set up headings and subheadings: Use headings and subheadings to structure your notes. Click “Home” in the top menu and choose the appropriate heading style from the “Styles” section. Alternatively, use the shortcut Ctrl+Alt+1 (Windows) or Command+Option+1 (Mac) for Heading 1, Ctrl+Alt+2 (Windows) or Command+Option+2 (Mac) for Heading 2, and so on. This helps organize your information and creates a clear hierarchy.
- Type your notes: Begin typing your notes under each heading. Start with key points, main ideas, or summaries of your study material. Use concise sentences or bullet points to capture the information. Use your own words to demonstrate understanding and avoid copying lengthy sections from textbooks or other sources.
- Utilize formatting options: Microsoft Word offers various formatting options to enhance the appearance and organization of your notes. You can use bold, italic, or underlining to emphasize important terms or concepts. Create numbered or bulleted lists to present information in an organized manner.
- Insert images and diagrams: If your study material includes images, diagrams, or graphs, you can insert them into your Word document. Click on the “Insert” tab in the top menu, then select “Picture” to insert images from your computer. You can also use online resources or copy and paste images from other sources like textbooks or websites.
- Add personal examples or annotations: Enhance your notes by including personal examples or annotations that help you understand the material better. You can use different text colors, highlighters, or comments within Word to draw attention to these annotations.
- Create tables or charts: For subjects that involve a lot of data or comparisons, consider creating tables or charts in Word. Click on the “Insert” tab and select the appropriate table or chart type. Customize the table or chart with your data to present the information visually.
- Use hyperlinks: Insert hyperlinks to external resources, such as online articles, research papers, or supplementary materials that further explain or expand on the topics you’re studying. Highlight the text you want to turn into a hyperlink, right-click, and select “Hyperlink” to add the URL or browse for a file.
- Review and revise: Regularly review and revise your study notes to reinforce your understanding and ensure accuracy. Correct errors, add missing information, or rephrase concepts for clarity. Use the “Find” function (Ctrl+F or Command+F) to search for specific terms or topics within your notes.
- Organize your notes with headings and sections: Use headings, subheadings, and section breaks to divide your notes into logical sections. This helps you navigate through your document easily and find specific information quickly. Click on the “Insert” tab and select “Page Break” to insert section breaks.
- Save and back up your notes: Save your study notes regularly to avoid losing them in case of computer malfunctions or accidents. Use the “Save” option (Ctrl+S or Command+S) or click on the floppy disk icon in the top menu. For added security, consider backing up your notes to cloud storage or an external device.
Customize your note-taking process based on your learning style and preferences within Microsoft Word. Experiment with different formatting options
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FAQs on How to make study notes
Q1: What is the purpose of making study notes?
A: The purpose of making study notes is to condense and organize information from textbooks or lectures into a format that is easier to review and understand. Study notes help improve retention, aid in active learning, and serve as a valuable resource for exam preparation.
Q2: Should I handwrite or type my study notes?
A: The choice between handwriting and typing study notes depends on personal preference and the context. Handwriting notes can enhance memory and comprehension, especially for complex subjects. Typing notes on a computer or device offers the benefits of easy editing, searchability, and the ability to incorporate multimedia elements.
Q3: How do I make my study notes more engaging?
A: To make study notes more engaging, use colors, highlighters, and visual aids such as diagrams or mind maps. Include personal examples, anecdotes, or real-life applications of the concepts being studied. Use formatting options like bold or italic text to emphasize important information.
Q4: How often should I review and revise my study notes?
A: It is recommended to review and revise your study notes regularly to reinforce the information in your memory. Set a schedule for reviewing your notes, such as daily or weekly, depending on the intensity of your study. Regular review helps in long-term retention and prepares you for exams or assessments.
Q5: What are the best apps to make online study notes?
A: There are several excellent apps available for making online study notes. Here are some popular options:
1. Microsoft OneNote: A versatile note-taking app that allows you to create and organize digital notebooks, insert multimedia, and collaborate with others.
2. Evernote: A feature-rich note-taking app with a clean interface, offering various formatting options, multimedia integration, and synchronization across devices.
3. Google Keep: A simple and user-friendly note-taking app that syncs seamlessly with other Google services, allowing you to create notes, add images, and set reminders.
4. Notion: A highly customizable productivity app that enables you to create comprehensive study notes using text, tables, calendars, and even databases.
5. GoodNotes (for iPad): An app specifically designed for iPad users, providing a realistic handwriting experience and the ability to annotate PDFs and import images.
6. Apple Notes (for iOS and macOS): A built-in app for Apple devices that offers a straightforward note-taking experience, supports handwriting, multimedia insertion, and iCloud synchronization.


Greek theater has a rich history that dates back to the 5th century BC. An interesting example of its enduring influence can be seen in the case of Dionysus, an Athenian playwright who is credited with creating Greek tragedy. His plays were hugely popular and often included themes such as love, revenge, and justice which remain relevant today. As this article will explore, Greek theater was so influential that it continues to shape other forms of art even centuries later.
The emergence of Greek theater coincided with the rise of democracy in Athens during the 6th century BC. This period marked a shift from religious ceremonies towards more secular performances for entertainment purposes. It was during this time that festivals called “Dionysia” began to take place annually at which citizens would gather to watch theatrical productions written by renowned poets like Sophocles and Euripides.
In addition to shaping literature, Greek theater also had an impact on visual arts such as painting and sculpture. Ancient Greeks used masks to signify characters’ emotions while actors wore costumes designed according to their role in the production; these elements remain commonplace in modern day theater performance. Furthermore, archeological excavation sites have revealed evidence indicating that theaters themselves were constructed using sophisticated engineering techniques including elaborate acoustical design.
The influence of Greek theater can also be seen in modern film. Aspiring filmmakers continue to draw inspiration from the structure and conventions established by ancient Greek playwrights, with many cinematic techniques such as montage and parallel editing being adopted directly from theatrical devices used centuries ago. Additionally, many popular movie genres today have their roots in Greek tragedy, including horror, science fiction, and romantic comedy.
Ultimately, it is clear that while Greek theater may have faded into history over two thousand years ago, its impact on art has endured for generations and continues to be felt today. From literature to visual arts to cinema, we are still surrounded by the lasting legacy of this important form of cultural expression.
Origins of Greek Theater
The origins of Greek theater can be traced back to ancient religious rituals that were held in honor of the gods. In these early ceremonies, song and dance were used to tell stories about legends, heroes, and deities. An example is a ritual known as “the City Dionysia” which was held annually during the month of March in Athens. This event featured performances by three tragedians who presented plays focused on mythic tales from the past such as Oedipus Rex by Sophocles and The Bacchae by Euripides.
As theatrical events became more popular, theaters began to be built across Greece that could accommodate larger audiences. Ancient Greeks recognized the importance of having an appropriate space for their performances; they designed theaters with specific features that had symbolic meaning or enhanced audience participation. Three main elements of theater architecture and design included:
1) A raised stage area where actors would perform surrounded by a chorus and orchestra pit.
2) Tiered seating so all members of the audience could have an unobstructed view of the performance.
3) An open-air roofless structure allowing direct sunlight to reach both actors and spectators alike creating an immersive experience for everyone involved.
These architectural choices not only provided comfort for those attending but also symbolically represented aspects of nature like sky, earth, water, and fire—all connected to the divine forces believed to influence life on Earth according to ancient beliefs. By combining this physical environment with musical accompaniment and captivating storytelling techniques, Greek Theater achieved its timeless appeal among audiences throughout generations making it one of history’s most influential art forms up until today’s standards. As we transition into discussing how theater architecture has evolved over time due to changing social customs and traditions, let us take a look at what sets it apart from other theatrical styles around the world.
Theater Architecture and Design
The origins of Greek theater can be traced back to the 6th century BCE, when religious festivals were held in honor of Dionysus, the god of fertility and wine. While there is evidence that these events involved some sort of performance, little is known about what form this took. As such, it cannot be said for certain when exactly drama first appeared in Greece. Despite this lack of certainty, it has been suggested that an entity called ‘thespis’ – a performer who would act out stories while singing or chanting poetry – was likely responsible for developing the early forms of Greek tragedy and comedy.
In order to understand how Greek theater evolved into its modern-day form, it is important to examine its architecture and design. Ancient theaters consisted mainly of three distinct components: the orchestra (which served as a stage), the skene (a backdrop) and the audience seating area (or auditorium). The theater at Epidaurus provided an example of a typical ancient structure; built on two terraces separated by a walled courtyard, this theatre could accommodate up to 14000 people during performances. It featured stepped tiers where spectators sat which gradually curved up around the orchestra like an inverted bowl creating perfect acoustics throughout the entire amphitheater.
From here, other features began to appear in theatres across Greece including trapdoors so actors could make dramatic entrances from below stage level, painted backgrounds depicting scenes from mythology and structures designed specifically for choral groups such as choirs and dance troupes. In addition to these elements, many cultures also incorporated their own unique cultural traditions into their theatrical designs, introducing masks and costumes associated with specific characters or gods they wished to venerate through ritualistic performance art. These observations demonstrate how over time various aspects have contributed towards shaping today’s conception of Greek Theater:
- Sophisticated engineering capabilities allowed architects to create impressive large scale buildings with intricate acoustic properties;
- Creative use of props such as masks enabled performers to vividly portray mythological tales;
- Innovative choreography crafted memorable spectacles for audiences members alike.
Clearly then, despite its humble beginnings thousands of years ago Greek theater has undergone significant change since those days but still retains much of its original charm today due largely in part thanks to advances made in both practicality and aesthetic appeal within its respective architectural designs. With that being said, let us now turn our attention toward exploring another key aspect integral to understanding this celebrated art form – characteristics of Greek Theater itself.
Characteristics of Greek Theater
Greek theater has been a major influence in the development of modern theater around the world. It is characterized by its unique design and architecture, as well as certain distinct features. A good example of traditional Greek Theater can be found at Epidaurus in Greece which was built in the 4th century BC. This amphitheater still stands today and serves as an important reminder of this ancient form of storytelling and entertainment.
The characteristics of classical Greek theater are evident both in terms of acting style and theatrical structure. Actors would often portray characters through their physical movements and facial expressions rather than relying on elaborate costumes or props. The story was then told mainly through dialogue that was spoken directly to the audience from a raised stage known as the ‘orchestra’
In addition, there were specific conventions used to indicate different emotions such as anger, sadness or joy. For example, actors could use hand gestures or body language to show how they felt about something without actually saying anything out loud. Furthermore, music and song were also frequently incorporated into performances so that it could help set moods or emphasize particular points within the narrative.
Greek theaters had several distinctive elements including:
- An elevated stage – called the orchestra where actors performed;
- An area for seating spectators – usually arranged in tiers radiating outward from the orchestra;
- Scenic backdrops – typically painted on large wooden panels behind the stage;
- Music – most commonly using pipes and drums played during interludes between scenes;
These components all helped to create a powerful atmosphere for audiences to experience stories come alive on stage before them.
By combining these various theatrical techniques together with emotive dialogues, visual effects, music, lighting and costume designs, Greek theater created an immersive environment where viewers could become emotionally involved with each performance. As such, it laid down many foundations upon which later forms of theatre like Western drama have drawn inspiration from over time.
Influence of Greek Theater on Modern Theater
The influence of Greek theater on modern theater is vast and far-reaching. Its impact can be seen in almost every aspect of theatrical production, from the structure of a play to the use of props. To illustrate, consider the case study of Shakespeare’s Othello. Written over 400 years ago, this tragedy contains elements that are distinctly rooted in ancient Greek theater: from its five-act structure to its focus on issues such as justice and revenge.
To fully appreciate how much Greek theater has influenced modern productions, one must look at some of the key characteristics it introduced:
- Masks: Ancient actors wore masks when performing which allowed them to portray different characters. This tradition has been adopted by many modern theaters who also make use of masks for their performances.
- Music & Dance: Ancient Greek plays often included singing and dancing which were used to emphasize certain aspects or themes within the play. In contemporary productions music and dance are still commonly used as a powerful storytelling tool.
- Chorus: The chorus was an essential part of ancient performance as they provided commentary throughout the play and acted out scenes alongside the main characters. Today’s audiences may recognize this element in musicals where large groups sing together or provide additional context or background information about the story being told onstage.
These features have undoubtedly had a lasting effect on today’s stage productions—from small community theatres to Broadway shows—as demonstrated through works like Othello, proving just how influential and enduring Greek theatre is even centuries later. As we move forward into exploring its legacy, it is clear that without these foundational pieces there would be no way for us tell stories with so much depth and emotion today.
Legacy of Greek Theater
Since ancient times, Greek theater has had a lasting impact on the development of modern theater. This influence can be seen from various aspects, such as structure and production techniques. As an example, British playwright William Shakespeare’s plays often feature cast members who specialize in playing certain characters, which is a concept that originated with the practice of mask-wearing in Ancient Greece. Additionally, he also adapted many ideas and stories from classic Greek tragedies into his works. Moreover, traditional methods of staging have been preserved through to contemporary productions. For instance, most theaters still keep orchestra pits and sunken stages that were first introduced by the Greeks thousands of years ago.
The legacy left behind by Greek theater goes beyond its theatrical elements and extends to other areas related to art and culture. Here are some key effects it has had:
- It provided inspiration for later generations of artists;
- Its themes remain relevant today;
- It has helped shape our understanding of human nature.
In particular, the core idea behind tragedy – namely that life can never turn out perfectly – resonates strongly with people living in all sorts of contexts throughout history and across different cultures. While some may argue that this theme is too dark or depressing for modern audiences, many recognize its importance in addressing topics such as loss and suffering. In fact, when used skillfully by directors or actors it can elicit strong emotional responses from viewers even today.
Greek Theater continues to inspire new interpretations as well as adaptations of existing classics both onstage and offstage. From classic operas based on Homer’s epic poems to Hollywood blockbusters drawing upon classical mythology – these works would not be possible without the original foundations laid down by their predecessors long ago in Ancient Greece. Even though we live far away from those days now, they continue to provide us with stories full of lessons about life itself that will endure forevermore no matter what time period or culture one finds themselves within.
What was the purpose of Greek theater?
Greek theater was an important part of Ancient Greek culture, having been around since the time of Aristophanes in the fifth century BCE. Its purpose varied depending on its context and who was performing, but it generally served to entertain audiences and provide a platform for political expression.
One example is Aeschylus’ Oresteia trilogy which told the story of Agamemnon’s return from Troy and his eventual murder at the hands of Clytemnestra. It not only provided narrative entertainment but also reflected upon themes such as justice, revenge, loyalty and faithfulness to one’s family. In addition, it allowed Athenian citizens to reflect upon their own society, making them think about how they interacted with each other and what kind of societal values should be upheld.
The purpose of Greek theater can be summarized into three key points:
- To entertain – providing comedic relief or tragedy through narratives * To provoke thought – allowing audience members to contemplate philosophical ideas or consider contemporary issues
- To express opinions – giving performers a platform to speak out against injustice or make statements about current affairs.
It could also have religious significance as some festivals were dedicated to specific gods or goddesses; these performances often included sacrificial offerings that would be given before shows began. Furthermore, many actors believed that being chosen by Dionysus himself granted them special abilities when reciting lines. This meant performances had symbolic meaning for those taking part and watching alike.
In short, Greek theater has long played an integral role in both ancient and modern societies due to its capacity to bring people together through shared experiences while simultaneously offering a platform for meaningful discourse and reflection.
Who were some of the most famous playwrights associated with Greek theater?
The history of Greek theater is long and varied, with many famous playwrights associated with the art form. Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes are some of the most renowned writers from Ancient Greece.
For example, Aeschylus was a prolific writer who wrote over ninety plays in his lifetime. He is credited for introducing elements such as dialogue between characters and tragedy into drama. His works often focus on themes such as justice, morality, fate, and power struggles.
Sophocles is another notable figure in Greek Theater known for writing tragedies that explore complex moral issues. Plays like Oedipus Rex highlight the consequences of rash decisions made by powerful individuals. Through this work he showed how hubris can lead to disastrous outcomes even when intentions were good.
Euripides wrote around eighty plays during his career which often highlighted female protagonists or challenged traditional gender roles in society at the time. His best-known works include The Trojan Women which dealt with themes of war and suffering while also emphasizing the importance of compassion above all else. Finally there’s Aristophanes whose comedies focused on social satire but still managed to offer thoughtful critiques about ethical dilemmas faced by everyday people living under oppressive regimes.
These playwrights have left an indelible mark on Western culture through their contributions to literature and theater:
- They explored timeless topics such as morality, justice, power dynamics, and human nature;
- They created multifaceted characters dealing with difficult situations that evoke emotional responses from audiences;
- Their works remain relevant today due to its exploration of human behavior within societies both ancient and modern alike.
As these playwrights demonstrate, Greek theater has had a lasting impact not just on entertainment but also on our understanding of humanity itself–from exploring timeless questions about life’s purpose to offering insightful critiques on current societal issues.
What roles did chorus and music play in Greek theater performances?
Chorus and music played a major role in the performances of ancient Greek theater. For example, during the 5th century BCE, Aeschylus’ plays featured choral songs that were sung by 50 men dressed as satyrs. The chorus was used to provide information about past events that had not been seen on stage, comment on action taking place, or even move the plot forward. In addition to its narrative purpose, they also served as a way for audiences to emotionally connect with the play’s characters and themes.
The chorus was usually composed of 3-50 members who sang and danced together while wearing elaborate costumes and masks. They often wore long robes called himatia which could be brightly colored and elaborately decorated with embroidery or gold threading. Musicians would accompany their singing with instruments such as lyres, double flutes, drums, crotales (cymbals), and castanets. These musical accompaniments created atmosphere and emphasized particular moments within scenes.
In some productions, actors may have performed solos accompanied by an orchestra made up of professional musicians playing stringed instruments like citharas or horns like buccinae. Music was also used throughout different parts of the performance for ritualistic purposes such as honoring gods at festivals or providing entertainment for spectators between acts. Additionally, instrumental interludes were sometimes inserted into tragedies when there was a need for dramatic tension to be heightened before an important scene took place.
Due to its integral part in these theatrical works from antiquity, it is clear that chorus and music played an essential role in Greek theater performances both functionally and aesthetically. Not only did it help audiences better understand story elements but it also provided them with emotional connections to characters’ stories through its rhythmical beauty; further emphasizing why it has remained so influential over time:
- It enriched dialogue by adding depth and emotion
- It allowed viewers to empathize with characters
- It helped convey complex ideas more simply
It can thus be said that without this powerful combination of song and dance accompanying plays written by renowned authors such as Euripides or Sophocles – classic Greek theater would not be nearly as captivating nor memorable as we know it today!
How has the style of acting in Greek theater evolved over time?
The style of acting in Greek theater has evolved significantly over time. To illustrate this, consider a hypothetical performance from ancient Greece compared to one today: the first may have been more focused on costumes and masks, while modern performances focus primarily on the actors’ movements and gestures.
To better understand how the style of acting in Greek theater has changed over time, it is important to consider several key elements:
- The use of improvisation – Ancient Greek performances typically used very limited dialogue or no dialogue at all; modern plays rely heavily on improvisation and carefully crafted scripts that provide direction for the performers.
- Costumes and props – While ancient performances often relied heavily on elaborate costumes and props, modern theaters are generally less dependent upon these items to portray a character or plot line.
- Choreography – Ancient Greek theater was largely static with little movement between characters; however, choreography has become an integral part of many contemporary productions.
These three elements demonstrate just how much the style of acting in Greek theater has changed since its inception. Whereas ancient performances were mostly static presentations relying on symbolism through costume, music, and chorus parts, modern-day performances emphasize physicality and stage presence through improvisational techniques such as blocking and choreography. Additionally, advances in technology have allowed for creative lighting effects which further contribute to the overall experience of attending a live theatrical production.
As evidenced by these examples, the evolution of style in Greek theater can be seen as a journey from symbolic representation to physical exploration – allowing audiences around the world to explore new depths within classic works of art. Through careful study of both past and present trends in theatre styles, researchers can gain insight into not only what makes classical Greek drama so powerful but also how it continues to evolve even now.
How did audience members interact with actors during a performance?
Audience interaction with actors is an integral part of Greek theater. For example, during the performance of Sophocles’ play Oedipus Rex in 429 BCE, audience members were actively engaged with the actor-singers on stage, expressing approval and disagreement through their reactions.
The style of audience participation has evolved over time as well. In ancient Greece, audiences could physically interact with performers by throwing objects onto the stage or shouting out opinions about what was happening on stage. This often created a more lively atmosphere for both actors and spectators alike. The audience also had the power to influence how the story progressed – if they didn’t like a particular character’s actions or decisions, they would show it vocally.
In modern times, audience interactions are much less physical but still important nonetheless. Audiences nowadays demonstrate their emotions towards performers through applause and cheering at appropriate moments in the production. They may also provide feedback after performances by leaving reviews or rating systems online or engaging in conversations around social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter.
- Ancient Greeks could throw objects onto stages during performances
- Audience members vocalized approval/disapproval of characters’ actions
- Modern day viewers use applause & ratings/reviews to give feedback to actors
Nowadays, audiences respond differently than those from antiquity; yet their role continues to remain vital to theatre productions — whether it be providing emotional cues for performers on stage or offering constructive criticism afterwards. It is this connection between performer and viewer that makes live theater so special and unique – something which can never quite be replicated through any other medium of entertainment


Planetary system formation: exposing naturalistic storytelling
Attempts to explain how stars form naturalistically have encountered significant challenges because the known laws of physics indicate it is virtually impossible.1 There is a remote possibility for star formation via the mechanism of a nearby supernova, but dark matter is generally invoked as the ‘unknown god’, a ‘god of the gaps’ to make it work, because such events are extremely unlikely.2 Without this ‘unknown god’ in their uncreated universe, the formation of the star at the centre of a planetary nebula is essentially impossible. It also follows that planet formation has a similar problem. How do planets form in a nebula of gas and dust, which according to the known laws of physics cannot condense a star at its centre?
More importantly, how do you get a solar system with planets in habitable zones? Radiation from the newly born star would drive out any excess gas and dust from the path of the planets via photo-evaporation and stellar winds, making the formation of planets very unlikely. The planets allegedly condense via the core accretion model resulting in (in some cases) a habitable planet in the habitable zone, at the right distance from the parent star where water can exist in its liquid state.3 Then water is assumed to condense on the surface of that new planet—but by what mechanism? Ultimately this is a question about life elsewhere in the universe. But I digress.
By product of star formation
Standard astrophysical dogma is that planets form around stars as a natural by-product of the star formation process.4 But there are several problems.
For the initial molecular cloud to collapse, and eventually form a star, the cloud must eliminate any magnetic fields (due to unpaired charges) that oppose the collapse. The alleged process, which removes any magnetic field induced pressure from molecular clouds, entails the ions that carry the magnetic fields slowly diffusing out of the cloud, taking the magnetic fields with them.4
But these same magnetic fields are invoked to shuttle the angular momentum from the newly forming star, at the centre of the cloud, outward into the disk region of the solar nebula, to overcome another unsolved problem. This is the angular momentum problem, where the putative central star should have 99% of the angular momentum of the collapsing cloud, but in real observed solar systems like our own, 99% of the angular momentum resides in the planets, hence in the disk of material around the central star. Their suggested naturalistic solution to this problem is just-so storytelling. See below.
Then there is the problem of the Jeans mass limitation. The Jeans mass1 is the lower limit on the mass of a cloud, of a certain temperature and density, that will lead to gravitational collapse, against thermodynamic pressure (the tendency of hot gas to expand, not contract) alone—that is, if we only consider the temperature of the cloud, which is a consequence of the cloud pressure due to its self-gravity. These two parameters, temperature and density, naturally reach an equilibrium condition in what is called a virialised cloud,5 where the gravitational energy balances the internal kinetic energy, and the cloud is gravitationally stable.
I quote here from some stellar evolution lecture notes (available online):
“These gas clouds are in a state of equilibrium so that they are not prone to spontaneously collapse on their own to form into stars. The internal gas pressure and self-gravity are balanced to maintain them as stable clouds. But of course these clouds have to become stars, so something must push them over the limit where the self-gravity will overcome the gas pressure.”6 (emphases added)
Such is the faith of the evolutionary astrophysicists! Without the Creator they must live in hope that they can find a solution to a seemingly intractable problem. I have previously discussed what is used to overcome this in star formation,1 but what about planet formation?
Astronomical observations of molecular hydrogen clouds, which it is said will eventually collapse to form stars, are considered to be dense enough to overcome the limit imposed by the Jeans mass criterion, but this does not explain how those clouds got into that state in the first place. Possibly the clouds were compressed past the Jeans limit by shock waves generated from nearby supernovae? But cloud cores with observed densities high enough that they can collapse directly to produce Jupiter masses, i.e. planet-size objects, are not observed.4
To overcome the limit imposed by the Jeans mass criterion (hence the known laws of physics), the workaround is to “assume that the Jeans criterion is satisfied and the cloud is unstable to gravitational collapse”.4
Alternatively they invoke hypothetical dark matter, which has conveniently anomalous properties, such that it is not subject to normal thermodynamics and hence provides gravitational force, tending to collapse the cloud, yet no thermal energy to support the cloud against gravitational collapse.1 Thus the thermal limit is overcome and the cloud contracts. The process continues with different regions fragmenting within the cloud, satisfying the Jeans criterion, and resulting in various regions collapsing individually, thus forming many smaller objects within the larger original cloud. This is a process called fragmentation.
As these smaller regions gravitationally collapse, according to the theory, they are alleged to radiate away, at infrared wavelengths, the excess energy from their cores, thus keeping them cool. Normally you would expect that compressing a gas causes heating, as happens in a refrigerator compressor. But it is assumed that this cooling process continues until it can no longer be sustained. By that time the gravitational force is so strong that the thermal support due to the increased pressure no longer prevents collapse. Once the temperature rises high enough, molecular hydrogen dissociates into atoms and a ‘protostar is born’. Well, that’s how the story goes.
Models of planet formation
There are two competing naturalistic models on planetary formation:3 one a ‘top-down’ approach and the other a ‘bottom-up’ approach.
The ‘top-down’ model employs a gravitational instability similar to the idea used in star formation, where, according to the theory, planets form in accretion disks. This allegedly comes about because of a higher density of material in some regions of the disks where self-collapse under gravity occurs. Once collapse occurs, the protoplanet then attracts more material onto the newly developing planet. But this idea has its problems.
“ … it appears that the solar nebula’s lifetime would not have been sufficient to allow objects like Uranus and Neptune to grow quickly enough to attain the masses we observe before the nebula was depleted. The mechanism also does not explain the large number of other, smaller objects that are present in our Solar System and are likely to exist in other planetary systems as well. … the gravitational instability mechanism doesn’t appear to readily account for the mass distribution of extrasolar planets, the correlation between planetary system formation and metallicity, or the wide range in densities and core sizes of planets, both within the Solar System and among the extrasolar planets.”7
The ‘bottom-up’ model asserts that planets grow through a process of accretion of smaller building blocks. By observing other planetary systems astronomers are led to favour this model, but no single robust model has yet been established.
The scenario is typically started with expanding nebulae from supernova explosions where the expansion causes the gases to cool. Out of the remnants of these exploding stars, elements such as aluminium, titanium, and calcium get scattered through space. When a supernova remnant meets a cooler portion of a fragmented gas cloud, which has not collapsed, the remnant may break up into ‘fingers’, or, the smaller fragmented gas cloud may be compressed by the shock wave from a nearby supernova. The result is enrichment of a solar nebula with elements synthesized in the very high temperatures of the supernovae. These elements are necessary to form the rocky inner solar system planets, like Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
The accretion model posits that grains with icy mantles collide and stick together, which allegedly leads to larger and larger particles, which also collide and stick together, until they are large enough to have a gravitational influence on other particles. Then ‘planetesimals’ are formed, which also grow by low energy collisions, and so on. It is storytelling, based on the observed fact that planets do exist around their central stars.
There is the problem of the above-mentioned radiation pressure from a newly forming central star that tends to clear out dust grains from the planetary system. But supposedly the same star aids planet formation by cooling the protoplanetary disk material so that planetesimals can condense through the accretion process from the inward spiralling small dust grains. Simulations have been performed in an attempt to understand how the dust settles out of a spherical halo with random orbits into a flattened disk in the equatorial plane of the central star.
“The rate of dust settling is proportional to the grain radius. It would take a 1 µ m grain about 107 yrs to settle to the mid-plane, which is very slow. In fact it is too slow to form planets before the disk disperses. So other processes must be at work.”4 (emphasis added)
Laboratory research, for example, on dust grains sticking to each other,8 and simulations on growth of grains in space,9 are ongoing to try to understand how small grains grow into large grains, because without a mechanism(s) there can be no planet formation. Growth via collisions has problems. For example, as the grain size increases so does the mean collision velocity, which is likely to stall the growth process or actually reverse it, as grains bounce off one another and also break one another into smaller sizes. So, some other mechanism needs to be found.
Furthermore, simulations show that once the putative grain size has reached about 1 metre at a distance of 1 a.u.10 from the protostar the grains will spiral into the protostar in only 100 years. This is known as the ‘metre-sized barrier’ to planetesimal formation. However, the latter is proposed as the mechanism that clears out the dusty lanes (orbits) for the planetesimals as seen in Fig. 1.
According to the story, these problems can be overcome by either an anomalous jump in density due to a maximum pressure increase at a certain distance from the protostar, or turbulence in the disk regions causing millimetre-sized grains to clump together. Just how either of these could come about is not known. They are introduced a priori, whereby it is assumed that such features exist in real physical systems:
“While the mechanism is not yet fully understood, the grains will eventually become kilometre-sized planetesimals.”4
More hopeful storytelling.
According to this story, from their mutual collisions the planetesimals grow as they orbit their protostar. Once they get large enough gravitation takes over and accretion occurs very quickly resulting in embryonic planets—protoplanets. The formation timescale for the protoplanets is said to be a few hundred thousand to about ten million years.
The story continues with the belief that the protoplanets continue to grow slowly via gravitational collisions, clearing out the remaining solids in the planetary disk. And in the case of our solar system, it was finished after about 10 to 100 million years.
Conservation of angular momentum
As the solar nebula cloud ‘spins up’ to conserve angular momentum, this allegedly produces a ‘protostar’ at the centre of the cloud and a flattened disk of gas and dust in orbit around it. See Fig. 2. It is assumed that the disk formed more rapidly than the star and thus most of the mass of the central star is channelled through the disk. This idea has a fine-tuning problem. It needs a process that ends up with 99.9% of the total mass of the system in the central star and only 0.1% in the disk, even though most of the matter was initially located in the disk.
“During the gravitational collapse of a molecular cloud core, the gas must contract by a factor of about 106 in size to form a star. Due to conservation of angular momentum, the initial cloud rotation is enormously magnified, which results in the small central protostar being surrounding [sic] by a large rotating disk. It is in these disks that planets form.” (Emphasis in the original)4
As the cloud collapses, due to the conservation of angular momentum, the cloud must spin faster. This creates strong centrifugal forces, which are greatest at the equator. The theory then supposes that this causes the rotating contracting cloud to spread out in the equatorial plane to form a disk as shown in Fig. 2.
Consider our sun with a mass representing 99.86% of the mass of the solar system but only 1% of its angular momentum.7 The planets on the other hand have a total combined mass of only 0.14% of the mass of the solar system yet 99% of its angular momentum (mostly in Jupiter).
Most of the angular momentum of any solar system must reside initially in the central core of the collapsing cloud, which eventually becomes the star, according to the theory. Basic physics tells us that the collapsing star must ‘spin up’ and hence contain most of the angular momentum of the system. Yet, after some time nearly all the angular momentum is allegedly transferred to the planets somehow. This is a huge problem for the evolutionary theory. Various mechanisms have been proposed to try to overcome the problem, which include viscous, gravitational, and magnetic torques. But all these suggestions are really just clutching at straws.
The proposed torques are alleged to have the effect of pushing outer matter in the disk farther out, while causing inner matter to fall towards the protostar. The desired mechanism is one that results in an effect like the one that earth’s gravitational coupling to the moon produces, causing the moon’s period to increase as it moves outwards from the earth.
While thermal motions and convection in the nebular disk is not considered an option, magneto-hydrodynamic turbulence has been proposed, which is believed to be more promising to create the needed torque. Local and global gravitational instabilities have also been suggested, which are believed to lead to the formation of spiral density waves in massive disks. These are alleged to be very efficient at redistributing angular momentum (and material) through the disk until quasi-equilibrium is reached. Lastly, magnetic breaking torques, have been considered, which are believed to form if magnetic field lines from the protostar thread the disk. As a result, angular momentum is transferred outwards from the protostar into the disk. But, as already stated, magnetic fields are a serious problem for the formation of the central star in the first place. In fact, all of the proposed mechanisms are only proposed because of a prior commitment to materialism. “We observe exoplanets around stars so there must be a mechanism.” But it is just more storytelling. See also “Giant molecular clouds”.11
Simulations and confirmation bias
How can these ideas be tested? One way is with computer simulations and another is to look for protostar systems at various stages of their evolution. But how robust is that?
No simulation actually starts with just a gas cloud, but rather with either dark matter or a very dense already-collapsing gas cloud.9 In other words, the simulations assume the necessary initial conditions that will allow the simulation to produce a collapsing cloud. If they didn’t do that the simulations would not result in any stars or planets.
Looking for stars or protostars at various stages of their supposed evolution is subject to confirmation bias—where the astronomer looks for that which he already believes to be true. Instead, God may have created a great variety of stars. Their solar systems may appear to be at what a cosmic evolutionist might label as different stages of evolution, but in fact none has actually evolved to get to that stage.
I have suggested that looking at other star systems may give us a clue to the nature of the formation of our own solar system,12 when created by God. But this also has a similar type of bias, but a bias towards the Creator, who created other forms of planetary systems throughout the Galaxy, a few observed with dust clouds around them.13
Are we seeing any planetary systems in formation today?3 I think it is yet too early to say. But does the naturalistic model have any substantive basis to claim an understanding of planet formation using only known physics? Definitely not, especially when dark matter and unlikely supernovae events have to be invoked. Though astronomers seemed to have settled on one model—the accretion model—it has many unsolved—even insurmountable—problems.
The whole commentary on naturalistic planetary formation is just storytelling. There are many stages where there are big gaps involving unknown processes. The gaps are glossed over with expressions of hope for a future breakthrough, yet significant problems remain. Really, the storytelling is an attempt to bypass the Creator in His role and insert evolution’s ‘unknown god’.
According to the biblical model there is no reason to expect that the Creator did not create many different forms of planetary systems, which might be incorrectly labelled by evolutionists as being at various ‘evolutionary stages’ of formation.14 I accept that God made extrasolar planetary systems on Day 4 of Creation Week about 6,000 years ago.
References and notes
- Hartnett, J.G., Stars just don’t form naturally—‘dark matter’ the ‘god of the gaps’ is needed, September 2015; creation.com/god-of-the-gaps. Return to text
- Hartnett, J.G., Is ‘Dark Matter’ the ‘unknown god’?, Creation 37(2):22–24, 2015; Return to text
- Hartnett, J.G., A protoplanetary system in formation?, September 2015; biblescienceforum.com. Return to text
- HET620-M09A01: Planet Formation: Disk Formation and Evolution, Swinburne University of Technology, 2011; astronomy.swin.edu.au. Return to text
- The eventual formation of a dynamic equilibrium in the cloud with the loss of any substructure. Return to text
- Stellar Evolution–Details, page Notes 5–1, uni.edu/morgans/stars/notes5.pdf. Return to text
- Carroll, B.W. and Ostlie, D.A., An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics, 2nd Ed., Pearson, Addison Wesley, pp. 862–863, 2007. Return to text
- Superglue of planet formation: Sticky ice, Spaceflight Now, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory News Release, March 2005; spaceflightnow.com. Return to text
- See movies listed here: www.astro.lu.se/~anders/research.php. Return to text
- 1 a.u. = 1 astronomical unit = the earth-sun distance of 150 million km. Return to text
- Hartnett, J.G., Giant molecular clouds, 2016; creation.com. Return to text
- Hartnett, J.G., The ‘waters above’, J. Creation 20(1):93–98, April 2006; creation.com/waters-above. Return to text
- Very few extrasolar planetary systems have been observed with the needed detail necessary to see a disk of planets and/or dust and debris. See Ref. 3. Return to text
- This is the same way evolutionary palaeontologists sort the fossil record into representing successive long ages of deep time where evolution of one kind of organism to another allegedly occurred. Return to text


In this lesson plan designed for the British Council Teaching English site, we explore the topic of creativity and innovation. This lesson was devised to mark World Creativity and Innovation Day on 21st April. However, it could be used at any time of year as this is not specifically mentioned.
The lesson begins by looking at what is involved in being creative, trying to expand this beyond the usual areas of art or creative writing.
The students then do a reading activity where they match the headings to each section. They then identify the synonyms which will have enabled them to do this task and focus on the idea of avoiding repetition. They read the text again and discuss which ideas they personally find most useful.
The lesson finishes with a creativity task, followed up by a final discussion.
Encourage students to think about their own creativity and how they could develop it further
Expand students’ vocabulary and ability to avoid repetition using a range of synonyms
Provide reading and speaking practice around the topic of creativity and innovation
Teenage learners at CEF level B2
The lesson plan and student worksheets can be downloaded here
Speaking in English is something that many students find stressful or anxiety provoking. They can fear making mistakes, failing to understand the person they’re speaking too, or simply drying up. So shouldn’t we try to make speaking activities as stress free as possible?
There are certainly benefits to making sure students are well prepared, that they have the necessary language, that they have a clear idea of what the task demands. However, there are also some good arguments for not trying to remove all stress, and even adding some pressure at times
A couple of weeks ago I received a comment on the blog from a teacher who asked me to write a post about speaking skills. This is what she said:
‘The other day I was asked to observe some students doing a short peer teaching session. They were supposed to “teach a speaking skill”. Each group decided to do a group discussion activity. When I asked them what speaking skill they had tried to focus on, they were really puzzled; in fact, they had no idea what I was getting at. They said their aim was ‘fluency’. But to me it’s a very generic skill. How do you teach ‘fluency’? What is ‘fluency”, anyway? I assume it’s a culmination of numerous sub-skills. So, what could these micro-skills be?’’
I realised that she was absolutely right. In the same way that we often try to develop listening skills by practising listening, developing speaking skills is often just seen as giving students an opportunity to speak.
Practice is important of course, but, as the teacher asked, what are the microskills involved in speaking?
First of all, we need to identify what exactly we mean by speaking. Brown and Yule (1983) distinguish between primarily interactional (conversation) and primarily transactional (transmitting information) functions of speaking. Jack Richards has added a third broad function- talk as performance- which would include such things as presentations and speeches.
Each of these three types of speaking could be more or less formal, depending on the context of the talk, who is taking part in the talk and the power relations between them.
So, when teaching speaking, one of the key things that we need to do is to identify what kind of speech we are hoping students will produce, how formal it is likely to be and what kind of exponents* it might be useful to teach them.
Coursebooks often have ‘Useful Language/Phrases’ boxes with sets of functional exponents for students to use in a speaking task. Teaching these sets of phrases is helpful in developing fluency because as we start to use these chunks of language automatically we are able to use them as what Scott Thornbury describes as ‘islands of reliability’. We can skip from one automatized phrase to the next, filling in the gaps with our own ideas and language.
Depending on the needs of your students there are literally dozens of different functions that you could focus on. More interactional functions might include expressing likes and dislikes, comparing, agreeing and disagreeing, giving your opinion, expressing surprise. More transactional functions might include asking for directions, ordering food in a restaurant or checking into a hotel. Performance related functions could include summarising what you are going to say, or what you have said, moving onto the next section of your talk, giving an example to support your argument etc.
I would argue that teaching these chunks is very much part of teaching the speaking skill. However, we should also be looking at teaching communication skills, which may or may not involve using relatively fixed chunks of language.
For example, to have a conversation with one or more other people students will need to be able to:
Decide whether they need to use more casual or more formal language.
Be able to join in the conversation, which may include interrupting without seeming rude. We can teach interrupting phrases, but we also need to teach them how to use them appropriately and with the right intonation.
Be able to back-channel- nodding, making supportive noises and also using short words such as Really? or question tags, e.g. Did you?
Check that they have been understood, using such phrases as ‘Do you see what I mean?’ ‘Do you follow me?’
Rephrase if they haven’t been understood.
Check they understand. E.g. ‘I’m not quite sure if I understood that correctly. Did you mean…?’
Change the topic politely and at the right moment.
Take a balanced role in the conversation- not hogging, and not saying too little.
Use politeness strategies appropriately, such as hedging (see post here), being indirect, apologising and so on.
Students will not necessarily be able to transfer these strategies from their first language, partly because the rules of engagement may be different, and partly because they are too occupied with speaking accurately, or with making a good point. Therefore we need to focus explicitly on them, and they are, in my opinion, also a key part of teaching the speaking skill.
To summarise, I don’t think we can ever say that we are ‘teaching fluency’. Instead we need to drill down a bit more and ask ourselves the following questions:
What kind of speaking are we teaching?
What are the learners trying to achieve? (build a relationship, get a nice meal?)
What are some useful phrases for this kind of speaking?
What degree of formality is likely to be appropriate?
What impact will intonation have and what kind of intonation might be appropriate?
How will the students be interacting with each other and what might they need to know, do or say to make the communication work smoothly?
*An exponent is a piece of language used to perform a language function. For example:
Give me the salt
Pass me the salt, please.
Could you pass me the salt, please?
I wonder if you could possibly pass the salt?
All these exponents have the same function- getting someone to pass the salt- but they obviously vary in terms of formality and when you could use them without causing offence. Intonation would also play an important role.
Designed to raise awareness of the UN’s World Day against Trafficking in Persons, this lesson begins by asking students to consider what they know about the issue, then takes them through a process of learning more before concluding by asking them about what they have learnt, and how their understanding might have changed.
The lesson involves plenty of speaking, a vocabulary focus, which pre-teaches topic related vocabulary later found in the text, a jigsaw reading and a focus on passives.
Unsung Heroes [click on the lesson title for lesson plan and materials]
This lesson, devised for International Women’s Day, will help to raise awareness of some not very famous, but nonetheless important, women.
The lesson begins by asking students to think of well-known people that they consider to be heroes. It is likely that many of these will be men, so the students then go on to learn about 5 remarkable women in a jigsaw reading activity.
The students discuss these women’s achievements, and learn some useful vocabulary for talking about social issues. There is then a focus on relative clauses, before the final task of writing about another female hero, using the vocabulary and relative clauses where appropriate. For a 50-60 minute class the writing stage could be done at home.
This lesson for adults and teenagers at a minimum A2 level is designed to develop fluency skills.
Students are led through a series of activities to create profiles for imaginary characters who live in the same neighbourhood. The lesson then brings these characters together at a neighbourhood party, where students can practice asking and answering simple questions about work, family, hobbies and so on.
As well as developing spoken fluency, there are opportunities to expand vocabulary (personality adjectives) and some useful questions for making small talk.
For many of us it’s that time of year again when we are about to start new classes. Learning a foreign language can be stressful, so we want our students to feel at ease with each other, and with us. But how to break the ice? As a follow up to a previous post, Breaking the Ice, I’ve collected together even more ideas.
Activitiesfor students to find out more about each other
As I mentioned in my previous post, it is important to be sensitive about these kinds of activities, because with a new class, some students may not want to share too much. One way round this is to always let them select what topics they are happy to talk about.
Perhaps the best known ice breaker in ELT is Find Someone Who (described in my previous blog post). A variation on this, which gives the students more topic control, is to give each student a card and ask them to write 5 facts about themselves that they think others in the class will probably not know. For example, my Grandfather was born in Estonia, my favourite ice cream flavour is pistachio etc. Divide the class into two teams, and then collect in the cards. Pick a card from Team A, and read out the clues, one by one. Team B try to guess the person in as few clues as possible.
Or let students choose the questions they want to answer. Start the activity by getting students to write at least two getting to know you type questions onto post it notes. For example, What is your favourite way to waste time? What are you going to do this weekend? What’s the best/worst thing about your job/school? Put all the post it notes onto the board, and let students come up and select one they would like to answer. They then stick the post it note to themselves and mingle asking and answering. Answering the same question more than once is likely to encourage fuller and more fluent answers each time, but whenever they are tired of answering the same question they can come back and choose a different question, or even write their own if nothing appeals.
Or let students find out about you instead. There are some ideas in the previous post, here, but you can also just give them, say, ten minutes, to ask anything they want to (you don’t have to answer). When the ten minutes is up, they have to write down what they found out. This gives you a good idea of how strong their listening and writing skills are.
Activities to just have fun
I would probably avoid anything too individually competitive with a new class, to avoid potential embarrassment, but co-operative activities can work extremely well to start the bonding process.
A simple activity is to give each student a piece of a jigsaw as they come into the room (you can easily make your own simple jigsaw with an image stuck onto card). Once they are seated, explain that they need to work together to complete the jigsaw. There are just two rules- all discussion must be in English, and only the person holding each piece can put it in the jigsaw. Once they have finished, you can then do something with the completed image- perhaps they write a description of the scene, or roleplay a discussion between two characters in the image.
Another fun activity is to put students into groups of about four and give each group the same newspaper (free newspapers from public transport are good for this). Then ask the students to find and give you different bits of the newspaper, which you have previously selected. For example, an advert for shampoo, an article about a new shopping centre. They should take in in turns to find the section (with help from their team-mates) and then rip it out and bring it to you. (Make sure that nothing you ask for is printed on the back of something else you listed).
A link to my latest British Council blog, with one of my favourite speaking activities. It’s a favourite because a) it’s really flexible and can be done with any level and at any stage of the course (though it works particularly well for a first lesson or a cover lesson), b) it takes very little or even no preparation if you’re good at thinking on your feet, and c) students always enjoy it.
A free downloadable lesson, about a new online service, CrowdWish, which invites people to post their wishes on their website. Every day people vote on the most popular wish, and CrowdWish will grant it! Students start by discussing some wishes taken from the site, then read a short text about what the site aims to do (so don’t tell them at the start of the lesson!) There is then a focus on some useful idioms, before going on to watch a video in which the founder of the site, ‘pitches’ his idea. Students then look at the grammar used with ‘wish’, particularly at the use of ‘would’ when you want someone else to change their behaviour. Finally the students come up with their own wishes and vote on them, like on the site. You could even try and grant the top wish if you’re feeling creative..
The lesson would be suitable from B2 upwards, as the video is quite challenging in places. A transcript is provided.
A free downloadable lesson, based around a Russian advertising video for shampoo. Despite what is aims to sell, the video is actually quite inspiring, with the story of a girl who succeeds against the odds through pure grit and determination. Students start by watching the video and trying to guess what it is trying to advertise (so don’t tell them!). They then try to reconstruct the story in pairs, watching the video again to check their ideas. The lesson then goes on to focus on a range of linkers used to give reasons or results, make contrasts and show when something happened. Students then work with some vocabulary to describe personality, and then put it all together by writing the story of the video, using the linkers and the vocabulary where appropriate. Finally, there are some quotes about success for them to discuss.
Assuming you believe that there is some value in teacher corrections (see my last post), the next question might be when to correct.
In my initial teacher training, I was taught that the teacher should correct during stages which focus on accuracy, and not interrupt while students are producing language in a ‘fluency’ stage (though you could note down errors to focus on in a group feedback stage at the end of the lesson).
Broadly speaking, I still think that’s good advice, but, as we have moved away from very rigidly PPP lessons, with clear stages which first focus on accuracy/controlled practice and then have a final fluency or free speaking stage, it has become harder to always judge exactly where the focus is at any given moment. And, anyway, is it always a ‘no-no’ to correct during a fluency stage?
I don’t pretend to have the definitive answer as to when to correct, but here are some factors I think are worth considering, in no particular order. You might have some more, or vehemently disagree. If so, please do comment.
1 Is it actually an error (something they haven’t yet properly understood or assimilated) or just a slip of the tongue? You might wait and see if it appears again.
2 Is the error quick and easy to correct, or to get the student to correct? If it will require a lot of explanation, maybe the student isn’t ready for it yet, or it might not be worth taking them and the class off topic (though see point 6).
3 Is the error something which the class is currently focusing on? If you have been looking at, say, past simple irregular endings, and the error is one of the verbs you looked at earlier, then correcting (or eliciting correction) might be useful for everyone, even if it’s in a nominally ‘fluency’ stage.
4 Is the error something that really impacts on communication? If no-one can understand what they are trying to say, or they are likely to completely misunderstand, then it probably needs dealing with- either immediately or later.
5 Is the error something that a lot of students habitually make, or are likely to make- will the correction be generally useful for the class?
6 Following on from that point, if a lot of students are making similar mistakes, it might be better not to correct them immediately and, instead, plan a new lesson around the area of difficulty, or, if you’re confident about it, change the direction of the lesson in order to focus on that point.
7 Finally, consider how this particular student is likely to react to being corrected. If they are shy or don’t usually speak out, you might decide to let something go in order not to knock their confidence.
In my next post, I’ll look more at how to correct, including who can make the correction and some different techniques for correction.
It’s a cliche, but there’s also some truth in this video. As Mark Bartram and Richard Walton point out in their seminal book, Correction, ‘You don’t correct a mistake, you correct a person.’
If teachers always jump on every little mistake, and fail to even vaguely listen to the message that the students are trying to communicate, the emphasis in the classroom will not be on communication at all, but on producing correct forms. And, surely, language is first and foremost about communicating? The students are also likely to stop trying to take risks with language, or produce anything original, and may even stop speaking altogether. The balance of power will be weighted firmly on the side of the teacher, who appears to be the only person ‘in the know’.
Perhaps this is why so many ESOL teachers that I observed while tutoring on a Diploma in teaching ESOL were happy/proud to say that they never corrected students. They seemed to feel that there was something inherently authoritarian and negative about correction. Incidentally, I specify ESOL teachers because, probably unsurprisingly, I’ve never found teachers who have been through the CELTA/Cert TESOL route who feel this way.
I started to wonder what it was about the way these teachers had been trained which had led to the formation of this belief. In some cases they hadn’t really been trained at all, but had got into teaching through volunteer work. Perhaps, in that case, it was, at least sometimes, a combination of not really knowing the language systems well enough to have the confidence to correct, and the slightly patronising and protective approach to students which can occasionally come as a result of well-intentioned volunteering. [Oops, I can see some angry comments winging their way already- note how tentatively I’ve phrased that point!]
Or perhaps it was the teacher training methodology, firmly rooted in the principles of andragogy, with its emphasis on self-direction and learning from experience.
However, while adult students (and not just adults) clearly need to be self-directed and learning from their experience, that doesn’t mean, I believe, that the role of the teacher is simply to present them with input or opportunities to speak and then step back. ESOL students in particular, have plenty of daily opportunities to read, speak or listen in English, but what they don’t have is anyone to give them feedback. I remember feeling really frustrated as a learner of Polish, living in Poland, when I finally realised that I had been confidently using the wrong case ending to buy something every day for about three years..and no-one had ever corrected me. Ultimately isn’t feedback (or judicious correction) the most important thing that we can do for our students?
In my next post, I plan to take a look at what exactly we might mean by ‘judicious correction’- when and how- but I’d be very interested in any comments on the whole idea of whether we should correct, and if I’m alone in thinking that it’s a particular issue in ESOL teaching?
If you are currently taking CELTA, can I suggest my e-book, The CELTA Teaching Compendium, available from Amazon and Smashwords, containing everything you need to know for CELTA teaching practice.
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