To understand the importance of toddler speech development, it is vital to explore the introductory section of "Eight Ways Toddlers Begin Speaking Between 18 and 24 Months." In this section, we will uncover key insights into how toddlers start speaking during this critical period.
Importance of toddler speech development
The development of speech in toddlers is hugely important for their growth and cognitive abilities. Without good communication skills, children might struggle to express themselves, understand others, or form relationships.
As they start speaking, toddlers can express their needs, feelings, and thoughts more clearly. This boosts their confidence and self-esteem, as well as laying the groundwork for language and literacy skills in later life.
Research suggests that early speech development also positively affects cognitive development and academic performance. As children learn new words and expand their vocabulary, their knowledge of the world around them grows. This encourages curiosity and critical thinking - essential for future learning.
Furthermore, strong speech skills help toddlers to communicate with peers and adults. Good communication helps them to make friends, resolve issues peacefully, and show empathy. Having these social skills sets them up for a lifetime of healthy relationships.
To help their toddler's speech development, parents can incorporate certain strategies into their daily routines:
- Talking regularly with their child can help language skills. Describing everyday activities or objects around them can stimulate vocabulary growth.
- Reading to toddlers is a great way to introduce them to new words and concepts, while stoking a love for books. Interactive books with textures or sound effects can engage them further, and get them involved in storytelling.
Lastly, creating a language-rich environment at home by playing games or singing songs promotes language learning. Listening to different accents and languages also broadens their linguistic diversity.
By following these tips consistently, parents can support their toddler's speech development. Remember that every child is different; patience and encouragement are key for nurturing this essential aspect of their growth.
Factors influencing toddler speech development
To understand the factors influencing toddler speech development, delve into the section on biological and environmental factors. Explore how these two sub-sections contribute to the process of toddlers beginning to speak between the ages of 18 and 24 months. Discover the key influences that shape their language development journey.
Apart from genetic predisposition, brain development, and overall health are all factors which contribute to a toddler's speech development. The brain changes rapidly during early childhood, allowing for language acquisition and processing. Moreover, the child's overall health - including hearing abilities - can also affect their speech development.
Studies have shown that children with certain genetic variations may experience delays in speech and language development. Smith et al. (2018) conducted a study and discovered that toddlers with a specific gene mutation had trouble producing speech sounds correctly.
Toddlers are like sponges - they absorb every word they hear! So, if they grow up in a zoo, it wouldn't be a surprise if they start babbling in animal language.
Family environment significantly aids in a toddler's speech development. Encourage conversation, storytelling and reading to expose them to a wide range of words. Interacting with peers, caregivers and individuals from different backgrounds is important too. Access to books, educational toys and interactive learning tools has a positive effect. Limit screen time to reduce reliance on passive media content.
Noise levels at home or school can affect a child's ability to concentrate on spoken language. Living spaces can influence the ease with which children engage in conversations. The past century has seen increased understanding of how external surroundings impact early language acquisition. This has led to interventions such as literacy-rich environments and language-based training in educational settings.
Preparing for 'why' and 'I said so.'
Signs of speech readiness in toddlers
Toddlers between 18 and 24 months showcase signs of speech readiness. These vary from child to child and help parents and caregivers support their language development. Such signs include:
- More and diverse babbling;
- Imitating sounds;
- Showing comprehension;
- Vocalizing needs.
It's important to remember that each child may progress differently due to individual development pace and language exposure. Speech readiness includes more than vocalization; toddlers show a desire for communication through eye contact and non-verbal cues.
The case of Victor, the "wild boy of Aveyron," serves as a reminder of the importance of early language exposure and social interaction in speech development. Thus, caregivers should foster speech readiness regularly.
Eight ways toddlers begin speaking between 18 and 24 months
To understand how toddlers begin speaking between 18 and 24 months, explore eight different ways that contribute to their language development. From babbling and cooing to engaging in simple conversations, these sub-sections will shed light on the progression of language skills during this critical stage of early childhood.
Way 1: Babbling and cooing
Toddlers' language development occurs between 18 and 24 months, and includes babbling and cooing. This exciting process involves vocal exploration, melodic cooing, and repeating syllables. It also consists of imitation, gesturing, and turn-taking.
Every child progresses differently. Some may be quicker to move forward while others may require more time.
Noam Chomsky has proposed the theory of a "language acquisition device," suggesting that children are born with an innate capability for language learning. Babbling and cooing are vital for unlocking their linguistic potential!
Way 2: Imitation of sounds and words
Imitating sounds and words is key for toddlers to develop their language skills from 18 to 24 months. Through copying what they hear, they learn how to communicate. Here's a 5-step guide to toddler speech development through imitation:
- Observation: Toddlers watch the people around them and pick up the sounds they make.
- Repetition: They try to copy the sounds and words they heard. They start with single syllables and words, then progress to sentences.
- Pronunciation Practice: Toddlers fine-tune their pronunciation of intonation, rhythm, and cadence.
- Contextual Imitation: Toddlers imitate sounds and words depending on the context. For instance, if they hear someone say "hello" when answering a phone, they may do the same with their toy phone.
- Role Play: Through pretend play, toddlers imitate conversations they've heard in real life. This helps them practice using words and phrases in the right situations.
Not all children progress at the same pace in imitating sounds and words. This may be due to exposure to language at home or individual differences.
A parent shared an interesting experience. While cooking, she dropped a pot making a loud noise. Her toddler then exclaimed "uh-oh!" It was remarkable how fast her child picked up on and repeated the sound. This shows how toddlers take part in their environment by imitating, aiding their language development.
Way 3: Simple one-word expressions
Toddlers between 18 and 24 months start using single words to express themselves. This milestone plays an important role in their language growth. Let's learn more!
Examples of one-word expressions used by toddlers include:
- Mama - Mother
- Dada - Father
- Bye-bye - Goodbye
- Doggie - Dog
- Juice - Juice
These single words help toddlers communicate their needs and wishes. As they expand their vocabulary, they will move from one-word expressions to forming more complex sentences.
Parents and carers should encourage this progression. Talk to them, and build on their single words.
Don't miss out on these precious moments! Each stage of language development is special - let's treasure it while they learn to communicate.
Way 4: Understanding and following simple instructions
Understanding and following simple instructions is a crucial milestone in a toddler's language development journey. Let's explore how they acquire this skill effortlessly!
- Toddlers imitate actions: They watch and imitate their caregivers or loved ones. It could be as simple as clapping hands or waving goodbye.
- Repetition is key: Toddlers need to repeat instructions multiple times to remember them. This helps them understand the meaning.
- Visual cues aid comprehension: Pointing at objects and using gestures give toddlers a clearer idea of what is expected.
- Simplify: Keep instructions short and sweet. Using one or two keywords makes it easier for toddlers to process information.
- Acknowledge success: Positive reinforcement builds their confidence and encourages them to learn more.
Mastering this skill showcases their growing ability to comprehend the world around them. Some toddlers rely on visuals, while others prefer verbal prompts.
Here's an example: My friend's 20-month-old daughter, Lily, was asked to put her toys away before bedtime. She picked them up one by one and put them in their designated place, without hesitation. Her father was amazed at her understanding and willingness. It's incredible how far they progress in their language development!
Understanding and following simple instructions is an essential part of a toddler's growth. As parents and caregivers, we should provide them with opportunities to practice this skill and celebrate their achievements.
Way 5: Recognizing and naming objects
Parents, recognize and rejoice! Your toddlers are on the way to becoming tiny linguists. Object recognition is a key milestone in language development; by understanding this process, you can support your child's growth effectively.
Here are some tips to help:
- Introduce simple objects and label them consistently.
- Encourage your child to repeat the names of objects.
- Play pointing games and ask them to point at objects when you name them.
- Use visual aids such as flashcards or picture books.
- Incorporate object names into everyday conversations.
Toddlers start vocalizing more often and trying to identify various objects they come across. Fascinatingly, they build their vocabulary by recognizing and naming familiar objects in their environment. So, parents, take heart - your little babbler is soon becoming a tiny linguist!
Way 6: Combining words into short phrases
Toddlers start to use two-word sentences, expanding their vocabulary and expressing ideas. They also experiment with basic grammatical patterns such as noun+verb and noun+adjective, combining words to create meaningful connections. To support this development, parents and caregivers should have conversations, read aloud, and encourage children to express themselves. Each child develops at their own pace and success should be celebrated.
Let me share a story about Lily, a two-year-old. She amazed her family by using phrases like "Big car go fast!" This marked the beginning of her language journey.
Moreover, toddlers ask many simple questions, like "Where's my nose?" - as if they lost it!
Way 7: Asking simple questions
As toddlers grow, they start questioning. It's a great sign of curiosity and interest in the world. Questions help them gather info and learn.
This milestone means they understand language and communication better. They know words have different meanings and can use questions to get answers. It's amazing to see them become more curious!
Plus, asking questions boosts their vocabulary and language skills. Different words and concepts broaden their understanding. It also helps them express themselves verbally and communicate better.
I recall a toddler at a park watching a squirrel climbing a tree. He asked his caregiver, "What's the squirrel doing?" It was sweet to see how his inquisitiveness prompted him to learn from his observations. His simple question showed his developing ability to explore his environment.
Way 8: Engaging in simple conversations
Toddlers start speaking between 18 and 24 months, and simple conversations are a key part of this! They'll begin with single words like "milk" or "play" and then move on to two-word phrases such as "more juice" or "big dog". They'll also use non-verbal cues like pointing or gestures.
To make sure you don't miss this stage, take an active role in the conversation. Respond attentively and give them opportunities to talk. This will help foster their language skills and support their growth. Don't miss out on these precious moments - be engaged with your toddler's language journey!
Strategies to encourage toddler speech development
To encourage toddler speech development with engaging strategies, use frequent conversations, read books and tell stories, sing nursery rhymes and play word games, and provide a rich language environment. These techniques will support your toddler's language skills and help them begin speaking between 18 and 24 months.
Engaging in frequent conversations
Caregivers should create a supportive environment where toddlers feel comfortable expressing themselves. Listen to their thoughts and ideas. Validate their feelings. Respond positively to their attempts at communication. Offer clear language models, with correct grammar and enunciation.
Help introduce new words and concepts with books or flashcards. Incorporate storytelling to help practice narrative skills. Utilize tech-based resources like educational apps or toys to stimulate conversation and engage through audiovisual elements and interactive scenarios.
Engaging in frequent conversations with toddlers plays an important role in their speech development. ASHA states that between 12-24 months old, they typically have a vocab of 50-100 words. Make bedtime stories fun and educational for your toddler!
Reading books and storytelling
Reading aloud to little ones can introduce them to different words and phrases. This helps broaden their vocabulary and understand concepts. Storytelling sessions allow kids to make connections between events, characters, and emotions, aiding comprehension. It also creates a bond between carers and children.
Interactive books with tactile elements or sound buttons can be effective too. They keep toddlers engaged and help them communicate. An example of this is Mark Twain's experience with storytelling. Growing up with avid readers meant he was exposed to literature early on, which helped him become an author.
Reading and storytelling provide numerous benefits for toddler speech development. They help expand vocabulary, improve language comprehension skills, and foster bonding. Therefore, regular reading sessions are highly recommended.
Singing nursery rhymes and playing word games
Nursery rhymes and word games can be great for encouraging toddler speech development. Not only do they entertain toddlers, but they help them learn and practice new words and sounds. Here are some of the benefits:
- Singing nursery rhymes introduces kids to melodies, rhythms, and sounds. This expands their vocabulary and improves pronunciation.
- Playing word games like "I Spy" or "Simon Says" helps toddlers listen carefully and follow instructions. This enhances their ability to express themselves in words.
- Repetitive lines in nursery rhymes help children recognize language patterns. This makes it easier for them to memorize words and improve communication skills.
- Word games that name objects or identify colors help toddlers broaden their vocabulary and understand the world.
- Nursery rhymes introduce kids to rhyme schemes and syllables. This develops phonological awareness, which helps prepare them to read.
- Singing nursery rhymes stimulates parent/caregiver and child interaction. This creates a nurturing environment where toddlers feel free to express themselves.
These strategies make language learning enjoyable for everyone. Through interactive play, kids are more likely to engage with the language they are exposed to.
Every child develops at their own pace. Some may start speaking earlier than others. It is important to provide a supportive environment with no pressure or judgement.
HISTORY: Singing nursery rhymes has been a long-time tradition in many cultures. These rhymes have proven to be effective in aiding language development - making them an excellent tool for promoting speech skills in toddlers. So prepare for more conversations on Paw Patrol than you ever thought possible!
Providing a rich language environment
Rich language environments are key for toddler speech growth! Providing a nurturing atmosphere for kids to effortlessly learn and practice language is essential. Here are some helpful tips to make it happen:
- Chat away: Talk to your tot with simple words and sentences. Urge them to answer and express themselves.
- Read together: Get age-appropriate books with bright pictures to stimulate their curiosity and widen their vocabulary.
- Sing songs and rhymes: Music attracts their attention and boosts their listening skills while introducing new words and tunes.
- Provide visuals: Show labels, charts, and posters with pictures or symbols representing objects or concepts to help language learning.
- Create a print-rich environment: Surround your child with books, papers, and magazines. Let them scribble and discover letters and words.
- Play pretend games: Stimulate imaginative play where your child can act out scenarios, which fosters their creativity and communication.
Plus, sign language can come in handy for communication with toddlers who are still growing their speech abilities.
Pro Tip: Be patient and supportive during this key period. Celebrate your kid's efforts to communicate properly, as it builds their confidence in expressing themselves fluently.
Encouraging speech development at home
To encourage speech development at home, create a language-rich play environment and use gestures and visual aids. By immersing your child in a stimulating linguistic atmosphere and incorporating visual cues, you can support their language acquisition skills and help them communicate effectively.
Creating a language-rich play environment
For your little one's language-enriched playtime, follow these 3 steps:
- Storytelling: Use props, like puppets or dolls, to make up stories. This helps their vocabulary and narrative skills grow.
- Descriptive language: Describe objects with words, like "bouncy," "round," or "blue." It increases their word bank and helps them understand different contexts.
- Conversation: Ask open-ended questions to get your child thinking and using language. This boosts communication and confidence.
Regular exposure to rich vocabulary, descriptive language, and conversations are great for children's speech skills. So why not bust out some dance moves and costumes?
Using gestures and visual aids
Gestures and visuals are an important part of language development! Incorporate hand movements and body language to help your child understand the meaning behind words. Flashcards, picture books, and digital resources can help build vocabulary. Use props or drawings to make storytelling more interactive and help kids grasp abstract concepts. Video modeling can teach social interaction and conversation.
Adapt strategies to your child's developmental stage and preferences. Consistency is key! Create an environment where communication is encouraged and empowered. Unlock your child's communication potential with gestures and visuals - start today! But remember, for speech delays, seek professional help sooner than later.
When to seek professional help for speech delays
Toddlers can have speech delays, but it's important to know when to get help. Between 18 and 24 months old, if your child is saying only a few words or none, consult a speech-language pathologist. They are trained in helping young children with speech delays. Early assistance can have a huge effect on their communication.
Speech delays could be from hearing problems, developmental disorders, or just slower language development. With professional help, you can learn what is causing the delay and how to help them.
Also, watch for other signs of communication issues. These can include lack of eye contact, not understanding instructions, and being frustrated when trying to communicate.
Every child develops differently, so don't worry if they haven't hit certain milestones yet. But if there are significant delays, it's best to get help. According to ASHA, early intervention can really help children with communication problems.
So, if you think your toddler needs assistance with speech, don't wait - seek help! And soon enough, they'll be able to articulate their demands for candy and refuse to take 'no' as an answer!
Tots around 18-to-24 months start to discover the incredible realm of speech and language. This stage is key in laying the groundwork for communication skills that'll affect their entire lives. Here, we've looked at 8 ways toddlers begin to talk. From babbling and repeating sounds to widening their vocab and using two-word phrases, each step brings them closer to effective communication.
We've discussed the need for an encouraging environment that encourages talking with parents and caregivers. Reading books aloud, conversing, and exposing toddlers to various words and ideas helps them develop language. Regular exposure to such things helps them pick up new words and phrases quickly.
Also, we've discussed how repetition is a learning tool for toddlers. Repeating words and sentences not just reinforces their understanding, but also helps them learn new words. This gives them the confidence to talk.
Playing with puzzles, blocks, or dolls offers toddlers chances to learn new words while having fun. This encourages their curiosity and aids their speaking progress.
Plus, social interaction is key in a toddler's language growth. Through watching other people's conversations and taking part in group settings like daycare or playdates, children improve their communication by observing and practice.
Overall, everyone's language development timeline is different; so, comparisons should be avoided. It's important to celebrate each achievement of our kids, instead of worrying about delays.
Frequently Asked Questions
FAQs about Eight Ways Toddlers Begin Speaking Between 18 and 24 Months
Q: What are some common signs that my toddler is starting to speak?
A: Between 18 and 24 months, toddlers may begin to speak by using simple words, imitating familiar sounds, pointing to objects they want, or following simple instructions.
Q: How can I encourage my toddler to start speaking?
A: You can encourage your toddler's speech development by engaging in frequent conversation, reading books aloud, singing songs, playing word games, and providing a language-rich environment with lots of talking and listening opportunities.
Q: Is it normal for my toddler to have a limited vocabulary at this age?
A: Yes, it is normal for toddlers to have a limited vocabulary at this stage. Most toddlers will have around 20-50 words in their vocabulary by the age of 2. The important thing is that they are making progress in their language development.
Q: What should I do if my toddler is not speaking much?
A: If your toddler is not speaking much or showing signs of delayed speech, you should consult with a pediatrician or a speech-language pathologist for an evaluation. Early intervention can be helpful in addressing any speech or language delays.
Q: Are there any red flags that indicate a potential speech delay in toddlers?
A: Some red flags that may indicate a potential speech delay in toddlers include not speaking any words by 18 months, inability to follow simple instructions, lack of gestures or pointing, or difficulty understanding simple questions.
Q: Can I assist my toddler's language development without professional help?
A: Yes, there are various ways you can support your toddler's language development at home. These include speaking clearly and slowly, using simple and repetitive language, affirming and expanding on their words, and providing opportunities for social interaction and pretend play.


The Grapes of Wrath, describes the difficulty of migrant labors during the Great Depression. Written by, John Steinbeck, this novel went on to receive many awards. Generally viewed as Steinbeck's best and most striving novel, The Grapes of Wrath was published in 1939. Stating the story of an expelled Oklahoma family and their fight to form a reestablished life in California at the peak of the Great Depression, the book captures the sorrow and anguish of the land throughout this time-period. The bank forecloses on the Joads land, so they decide to move west in search of new jobs. Though the Joads travel west in expectations of creating a restored life, the American Dream avoids them, their journey to California proves to be sorrowful and disappointing. Though they find some comfort in a camp and eventually get jobs, the life they dream of has only slipped further away. The parallels between John Steinbeck's life and the narrative story he carved are apparent and distinct. Steinbeck used imagery to paint a picture of current world situations that were going on in his life during the 1930's. His goal in writing this novel was to paint a picture and make his readers experience the life of the Dust Bowl immigrants. Though not a Dust Bowl immigrant himself, he spent a lot of time with them and got to know their anguish well. From the first chapters, to the unforgettable ending, The Grapes of Wrath remains a debated work in critical discussions, with themes and a setting that are uniquely American
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Beginning to write the novel in the mid to late 1930's, Steinbeck was surrounded by poverty, and hardship, and as are the Joads in the novel. Steinbeck modeled the setting to represent how things really were for migrant workers during this period. The Grapes of Wrath takes place during the Dust Bowl era of the 1930s. After being released from jail, protagonist, Tom Joad, quickly realizes that his family's farm has been repossessed by the bank. Tom finds the family at Uncle John's home as they get ready for a long journey to California in search of work, a journey numerous desperate families are also taking. Route 66 provides the transportation by which the migrants will arrive to California. It is "the path of a people in flight, refugees from dust and shrinking land, from the thunder of tractors and shrinking ownership,. from the floods that bring no richness to the land and steal what little richness is there" (Steinbeck 118).In California, "there was a Hooverville on the edge of every town," where migrant individuals camp all together and care for one another (Steinbeck 234). The Joads experience the surroundings of a Hooverville when they cross the desert into California, "There was no order in the camp; little gray tents, shacks, cars were scattered about at random" (241).
"Steinbeck was inspired to write the novel after researching and producing a series of articles for the San Francisco News about migrant workers in California" (Conder 248). Throughout the 1930s, due to drought and years of agriculture without crop rotation or other destruction prevention, severe dust storms blew away the lives of many in many areas of the central plains, which developed into what is known as the, "Dust Bowl". Tied with the economic catastrophe of the Great Depression, this crisis forced thousands of people, many of them agriculturalists, off their property, wandering from place to place in hunt of work to survive. Several of these people, attracted by promises of opportunity, moved to California. Although they were from several states, "'the term 'Okie' - coined for a native of Oklahoma, one of the hardest-hit areas - was attached to the waves of families desperately heading West, their few remaining possessions piled high on old, barely operating vehicles. Those who made it to California found little work, poor living conditions, a great deal of resentment and prejudice, and even violence directed against them."(The Grapes of Wrath)
John Steinbeck formed a fictional plot using current realities of the Dust Bowl. The exposition begins when Tom gets out of jail for good behavior and he realizes that everything he left was now different and his family is absent as well. The conflict arises when, Tom is out on parole, and he strictly cannot leave Oklahoma. However, his family is planning to move to California, where a government program offers a beautiful future for emigrant sharecroppers. The entire family and Casy, a longtime family friend, fit into a small truck to travel across the country. The rising action occurs when, the Joads set off for California, where many others are migrating west. As the Joads drive on, they begin to hear rumors that there aren't enough jobs in California. The climax is revealed when they arrive in California. As they go from place to place, searching for work, Casy, former reverend and current friend of Toms, leads a strike against the owners of Weedpatch, which in conclusion costs him his life. Tom spurs to lead the people, but the Joads must leave again when Tom thoughtlessly kills the corrupt policeman who murdered Casy. The falling action is seen when the Joads move onto a cotton-picking field where Tom hides out until his wounds are healed from the conflict. The resolution occurs when the Joads come to a farm where they find a barn. Inside the barn, they find a young boy and a man. They are sick from starving, and the man is not able to eat solid foods anymore without getting ill. Rose of Sharon gives the fading man her breast, which has milk from her recent birth, and comforts him with a blanket. They are all strangely at peace.
The push for writing The Grapes of Wrath came out of John Steinbeck's involvement of studying and publishing Harvest Gypsies, "a seven-part San Francisco News series about the plight of agricultural migrant workers in California" (Steinbeck's Use). While leading that research, Steinbeck met and traveled with a man named Tom Collins, the manager of the "Arvin Migrant Camp (informally known as "Weedpatch Camp)" (Steinbeck's Use). The relationship Steinbeck formed with Collins grew between 1936 and 1938, when the two began traveling over the San Joaquin valley to gather information and offer aid to migrant families in crisis. "He wrote about the Okie exodus by the seat of his pants, as it happened" (O'Connell 60). "The Associated Farmers of California terminated the book as a "pack of lies" and "communist propaganda'" (The Grapes of Wrath). Steinbeck was put under surveillance of the FBI and received many death threats. The book was banned in many libraries and copies were burned in towns across The United States (Conder 248).
" Steinbeck's speech, is found in Tom Joad, the novel's protagonist." ( McCarthy) Tom Joad is the novels protagonist .Joad is first seen coming home to Oklahoma after jail time for killing a man in a brawl, only to find an overcome land with local farms being repossessed by the banks. Tom and his family begin on their trek to California over highway 66. "Tom Joad, Steinbeck's figure of smoldering witness, the passive observer turned violent activist and communitarian conscience, has been grabbed by figures right and left to stand for something, represent something, or, in recent vintage, to represent nothing at all, rendered void of the political meaning deliberately invested in him by John Steinbeck (and others)" (Simon and Deverell 181). Through Tom Joad, Steinbeck builds anger and a sense of injustice over the migrant's misery. (McCarthy)
Rose of Sharon is always watching out for the greatest interests of her unborn child and its seems to symbolize motherly instinct and protection. "Steinbeck departs from strictly Biblical imagery in portraying Rose of Sharon as an 'earth mother'. " (Rombold 161). Her natural protective nature over her baby, makes it even more heartrending when it is delivered as a stillborn. "By letting the stillborn child go upon the waters in its apple box, Uncle John inverts the story of baby Moses let go in a basket upon the Nile" (Rombold 160). "The symbolism of the earth mother is also a strong context within which to understand the final scene" (Rombold 162). Steinbeck ends the novel by having Rose of Sharon nurse a dying man from her breast. "Rose of Sharon loosened one side of the blanket and bared her breast. She looked up and across the barn, and her lips came together and smiled mysteriously" (Steinbeck 455). A symbol of hope is understood through Rose of Sharon's fostering actions in reviving the starving man. "By ending the novel this way, Steinbeck continues his literary references to the Bible as it provides symbolic resurrection of humanity and steps towards societies regrowth" ( Taliawaite).
Jim Casy is an ex-preacher who knew the Joads as far back as Tom's childhood, claims that he has totally given up preaching "I ain't preachin no more. " (Steinbeck 20). Casy now places his faith in the astonishing power of human spirit. Steinbeck is representing Casey as a parallel to Jesus as his character carries optimism to the people that are in misery (Taliawaite). A more literal similarity that Steinbeck indicates to is his name, Jim Casey, which fatefully, has the same initials as Jesus Christ. "I ain't sayin' I'm like Jesus. But I got tired like Him, an' I got mixed up like Him, an' I went into the wilderness like Him. " (Steinbeck 81). Although he still did not believe himself to be a preacher, he had the courage to stand up to the corruption and the unfairness. Casey planned on leading the people in a strike that would help the laborers attain reasonable wages however he gets murdered during the objection. "The preacher, on'y he was a-leadin' the strike. They come for him. They killed 'im. Busted his head" (Steinbeck 390). Like Jesus who sacrificed himself on the cross, Casey's death is a sacrifice for the wellbeing of others. Casey's last words were "You don' know what you're a-doin" (Steinbeck 386) which can be paralleled to Jesus last words. "Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do (Luke 23:24)" (Rombold 157). Casey dies with honor and self-respect, as Jesus did.
"John Steinbeck says that in growing up he 'absorbed' the Bible through his skin" (Rombold 146). Characters from the book mimic real life people suffering through the Depression. They had a reason to believe that there was a higher power watching over them during this time of hardship (Rombold 146). While Steinbeck used Biblical references, he chooses to keep God as an absent character, "For Steinbeck, the people themselves are the agents of change and the parties responsible for action. His use of Biblical allusions which generalize and deepen the Joad's experience within the tradition of the mythos, place this novel within a very broad context." (Rombold 147). Readers were shocked by the notion of neglecting God, but they had to consider the source, and learned to accept that it was Steinbeck's (Rombold146).
Land and place are so more than just passive settings in The Grapes of Wrath. A man's connection to land is a very important theme, "Man's love of the land, his need not so much to own it as to embrace it, to sink his hands and feet in it, to cry for joy when the corn is peeking through and to sleep like a dead man when the last load is in the silo- this is the strongest force in the book" (O'Connell 59). Despite the ruggedness of the landscape, it develops the backdrop in contradiction of a wide range of human concern. Famers and country men had a very strong relationship to the property they grew to know. When they lose their land, the Joads not only lose their means of support, but they also lose their home. California is supposed to be a land flowing with milk and honey, a place of chance and change(McCarthy). For a farmer, land is opportunity, and therefore land is money. "The Grapes of Wrath, Steinbeck endorses the philosophy that economic, legal, religious, and societal forces largely control individual destiny, but lays out a philosophy to rise above those forces and achieve personal freedom" (Conder 260).
The American dream is unattainable to immigrants. In The Grapes of Wrath, Steinbeck often challenges whether or not California is the, "promise land". He questioned if the whole thing of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness are achievable. For so many, the American Dream is a capitalist dream. Instead, Steinbeck, through his characters and themes, sought the dream of unity and compassion. Through Jim Casy and Tom Joad, it is seen that their passion lays in standing up for what is right, rather than sitting back and taking the hit. But that wasn't always the case for them, towards the beginning of the novel, all of them were eager to reach this so called, promise land. But eventually, they came to the realization that they were indeed just chasing an unrealistic dream. The Joad family is leading down "something of a problematic golden road- a path of escape from destitution to an ambiguous Californian deliverance. when the only option becomes putting the family on the road to a strange and unknown destination, problems are compounded" (Spangler). The Joads' persistent letdown to find supportive work and pay led to economic decay, lessening the likelihood that the American Dream would come to completion. Arthur G. Neal stated, "[the] economic hardships after the Great Depression fell disproportionately on the family unit" (Spangler). Throughout all the economic struggle and failures on finding the American Dream, the Joads managed to stick together through the triumph. John Steinbeck emphasized the theme of the unattainable American Dream; however, he added in that maybe people can achieve their own dream just by sticking together and never giving up.
From the Joad family leaving Oklahoma, to the struggles in California, The Grapes of Wrath remains a moving and an extremely well written piece of art. The plot, setting, and characters are very expressive, and Steinbeck's fascinating writing techniques give the themes of the book a distinct feel. The parallels between John Steinbeck's life and the narrative story he carved are apparent and distinct. Throughout the 1930's, real people with real problems faced issues like what the Joad faced. John Steinbeck wrote a brilliant piece work in expressing the economic and emotional anguish the "Oakies" experienced.
February 27,1902- John Steinbeck was born in Salinas, California. He was the third of four children and the only son of John Ernst II and Olive Hamilton Steinbeck. He spent his childhood in the Salinas Valley (John Steinbeck).
1919- Steinbeck attended classes at Stanford University, and left without a degree. "During these years Steinbeck dropped out for several months, and was employed intermittently as a sales clerk, farm laborer, ranch hand, and factory worker" (John Steinbeck).
January 14,1930- John Steinbeck marries Carol Henning (John Steinbeck).
Winter of 1934- He gathered information on farm labor unions. Interviews labor organizer in Seaside(John Steinbeck).
April 1939- The Grapes of Wrath, was published by Viking (John Steinbeck).
Spring of 1941- He separated from Carol; fall, later he moves to New York City with singer Gwyndolyn Conger (John Steinbeck).
1943- He marries Gwyn Conger in New Orleans (John Steinbeck).
August 2, 1944- birth of first son, Thom (John Steinbeck).
June 12, 1946 - birth of second son, John IV (John Steinbeck).
September 14, 1964- presented with United States Medal of Freedom by President Lyndon B. Johnson (John Steinbeck).
December 20, 1968- dies of arteriosclerosis in New York (John Steinbeck).
Conder, J John. "Grapes of Wrath." Literary Themes for Students, Vol. 1, edited by Anne Marie Hacht, 2007, pp. 248-263.
"John Steinbeck: A Brief Chronology." Monterey County Historical Society, Local History Pages, Montrerey Country Historical Society , 2010, mchsmuseum.com/steinbeckchronology.html. Date accessed 8 January, 2017.
McCarthy, Paul. "John Steinbeck." Contemporary Literary Criticism, edited by Sharon R. Gunton, vol. 21, Gale, 1982. Literature Resource Center, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&u=pike&v=2.1&id=GALE%7CH1100000796&it=r&asid=427c16e5f57e22fd0bc6c3cbf3811a0c. Originally published in John Steinbeck, by Paul McCarthy, Ungar, 1980. Date accessed 9 Nov, 2016.
O'Connel, Mike. "An American Farmer Looks at The Grapes of Wrath." The Steinbeck Review, vol. 6, no. 2, 2009, pp. 56-63. www.jstor.org/stable/41582115. Date accessed November 14, 2016.
Rombold, Tamara. "Biblical Inversion in The Grapes of Wrath." College Literature, vol. 14, no. 2, 1987, pp. 146-166. www.jstor.org/stable/25111734. . Date accessed November 19, 2016.
Simon, Bryant, and William Deverell. "Come Back, Tom Joad: Thoughts on a California Dreamer." California History, vol. 79, no. 4, 2000, pp. 180-191. www.jstor.org/stable/25463704. Date accessed November 10, 2016
Spangler, Jason. "We'Re on a Road to Nowhere: Steinbeck, Kerouac, and the Legacy of the Great Depression." Studies in the Novel, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 19 Feb. 2009, muse.jhu.edu/article/259422. Accessed 14 Feb. 2017.
"Steinbeck's Use of Nonfiction Sources in 'The Grapes of Wrath' | EDSITEment." EDSITEment! The Best of the Humanities on the Web, 17 Sept. 2012, edsitement.neh.gov/lesson-plan/steinbecks-use-nonfiction-sources-grapes-wrath#sect-introduction. Date accessed 16 January, 2017.
Steinbeck, John. The Grapes of Wrath. New York, NY, Penguin Group, 2006.
Taliawaite. "A Look at Biblical Allusions." The Angry Grapes, 1 Dec. 2012, taliawaite.wordpress.com/2012/11/29/did-you-know-a-look-at-biblical-allusions/. Date accessed 5 December, 2016.
"The Grapes of Wrath: 10 Surprising Facts about John Steinbeck's Novel ." The Telegraph, Telegraph Media Group, www.telegraph.co.uk/books/authors/john-steinbeck-grapes-of-wrath-what-you-should-know/. Date accessed 10 December, 2016.
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The Strength of Storytelling Skills among Black Children and Positive Outcomes for Emergent Literacy
Written by Sureshi Jayawardene
Historical Significance of Storytelling and “Good Speech”
Oral traditions are a strong feature in the Black community. This has been the case for many, many years. Rarely do we acknowledge the strength of these cultural forms even today. Over the years, various scholars have studied the continuities between these traditions and their roots on the African continent. The significance of the spoken word can be traced all the way to African antiquity. In ancient Egypt, the category, mdw nfr (medu nefer), refers to “good speech,” meaning speech that is not just effective and eloquent, but also anchored in an ethical value system (Karenga, 2014). “Good speech” applies equally in the private and public realms (Karenga, 2014). Tracing this tradition from antiquity, the principle of “good speech” is very much present in the storytelling practices found in other parts of the continent. In West Africa, storytelling functioned as both a social and cultural practice during the daily rituals of any given day.
Storytelling was thought to be an art form and thus, nurtured in order to help preserve history, and to teach and comfort community members (Champion, 2003). Here too the principle of “good speech” is clearly in operation.
Under conditions of slavery, we see a continued, and perhaps even necessary, reliance on oral narratives. Despite the horrific conditions of their new homes in the New World, Africans continued to tell stories as a way of comforting and teaching each other, as well as recording their history (Champion, 2003). In fact, “Africans took the language forced on them and interwove patterns of their native languages” such that storytelling continued well into the Jim Crow era, the Civil Rights movement, and is prominent even today (Champion, 2003). In other words, as Molefi Asante has written, “the African brought to America a fertile oral tradition, and the generating and sustaining powers of the spoken word permeated every area of life” (Smith and Robb, 1971, p. 1).
Forcing Africans to face alien environments and cultural forms did not result in the complete annihilation of the storytelling tradition. These cultural forms are very much a part of contemporary Black communities. More specifically, however, oral narratives within the Black community tend to involve sophisticated literary techniques such as sound play, parallelism, and prosody (i.e., rhythm of sound like in poetry) (Gee, 1985). What’s more, these techniques reflect African forms of discourse further reinforcing the continuities of storytelling between Africa and the Americas (Smitherman, 1977). This article summarizes the findings of a recent study that builds on these rich traditions. In this study, investigators examine the associations between race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and pathways to literacy acquisition among young children.
Linking Early Language , Oral Narrative Skill, and Emergent Literacy
In this study, researchers explored the linkages between early language, oral narrative skill, and emergent literacy development. Although there is some evidence linking language and emergent literacy in general, differences by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status remain understudied. Past research also focuses on associations and patterns among school-age children. Addressing these gaps, in their study, Gardner-Neblett and Iruka (2015) investigated the role of preschool oral narrative skills in the language-emergent literacy pathway. They used data compiled from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort, a nationally representative dataset, to examine the role that oral narrative skill splay in the pathway between early language and emergent literacy. They explored how language in toddlerhood (age 2) is associated with oral narrative skills in preschool (age 4) and the subsequent associations with emergent literacy skills in kindergarten (age 5) (Gardner-Neblett and Iruka, 2015). The sample included approximately 6,150 African American, Latino, Asian American, and European American children of varying socioeconomic designations born in 2001. African Americans comprised 18% of the sample.
Racial and Socioeconomic in Disparities in Literacy
Disparities based on race and socioeconomic status in literacy acquisition have been documented (Snyder and Dillow, 2013). For instance, 56% of African American and Latino (54%) children demonstrated proficiency in expressive (words used by one in their own speech and writing) vocabulary compared to European American (71%) and Asian American (62%) peers. This is measured by the ability to communicate using gestures, words, and sentences (Snyder and Dillow, 2013). With socioeconomic status, children from higher socioeconomic backgrounds demonstrated greater expressive vocabulary than those from lower socioeconomic families (Snyder and Dillow, 2013). In terms of kindergarten reading, African American (33%) and Latino (30%) children scored lower compared with European American (37%) and Asian American (40%) children (Snyder and Dillow, 2013). Here too, children from higher socioeconomic families scored had higher reading scores than those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds (Snyder and Dillow, 2013). Gardner-Neblett and Iruka (2015) note that a greater percentage of African American children live in poverty (39%) than European American (13%) and Asian American children (13%). These data indicate that African American (and Latino) children are at greater risk of poor reading achievement.
Although the expressive and receptive (words one understands when used by others) vocabulary skills of African American preschoolers tend to be below expectations when they enter kindergarten, some research suggests those who regularly use both Ebonics and Standard American English possess the linguistic skills that can benefit their literacy development (Connor and Craig, 2006). In terms of the linkage between early language skills and the oral narrative skills developed at a later age, another recent study found that among Black preschoolers of primarily low-income households, their complex syntax and higher vocabulary scores were associated with oral narratives of greater quality (Terry et al, 2013). Gardner-Neblett and Iruka (2015) contend that for African American children oral narrative skills may reflect a strength that can prove useful in later reading development. In addition, research shows that African American children tell vivid, elaborative, and well-developed narratives that are also rich in detail and imagery (Reese et al, 2010). These narratives comprise complex organizational structures (Mainess et al, 2002). The quality of storytelling among Black children, research suggests, parallels and sometimes even exceeds that of narratives by their European American counterparts (Curenton, 2004).
African American Children's Storytelling Skills
The results of Gardner-Neblett and Iruka’s (2015) study are as follows: Nonpoor European American and nonpoor Asian American children had toddler language skills that were above the overall sample mean. In terms of preschool narrative skills, in general, all nonpoor children scored above the overall sample mean, and poor children scored below the sample mean. In the emergent literacy category, nonpoor Asian American children had the highest score, and poor African American and poor Latino children had the lowest scores.
The researchers conducted a path analysis to determine the paths from toddler language and narrative skills through emergent literacy based on race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status. For poor African American children, toddler language predicted preschool narrative skills and emergent literacy. Narrative skills also predicted emergent literacy. Oral narrative skills partially mediated the language-emergent literacy link for poor African American children. For nonpoor African American children, toddler language was predictive of narrative skills, but not emergent literacy. Narrative skills were also predictive of emergent literacy. These analyses showed that narrative skill was a significant mediator of the association between toddler language and emergent literacy for both poor and nonpoor African American children. That oral narrative skills fully mediated the link between early language and emergent literacy among nonpoor African Americans likely reflects the influence of additional resources. However, overall, these findings highlight that oral narrative skills have important implications for African Americans’ literacy development.
Early language skills include syntax, vocabulary, communicative ability, and morphology which is thought to be both directly and indirectly related to the development of emergent literacy skills (Gardner-Neblett and Iruka, 2015). This means that the stronger children’s early language skills are, the greater their reading achievement in later years (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2005). In Gardner-Neblett and Iruka’s (2015) study, African Americans were the only racial category for whom narrative skills were a significant mediating factor in emergent literacy. This finding reflects the long historical and cultural influences of storytelling and rich oral traditions in the Black community. Over the years, these influences have likely fortified oral communicative practices such that storytelling has emerged as a strength among African American children today.
If we approach the oral narrative skills, or storytelling abilities, of Black children through the African cultural framework of nommo, the word, we are also able to appreciate the communal character of the practice. We see that it is a “rhetoric of community,” one through which communal action, discourse, and debate are activated toward the overall good of the community (Karenga, 2014). Through this approach, we can see the importance of continuing to nurture our children’s early language skills. Moreover, the findings of Gardner-Neblett and Iruka’s (2015) study show that solutions to our community’s problems are within reach, not ones that need to be sought from external sources. As Black families and parents continue to stimulate storytelling skills not just for the high scores on reading tests, but toward developing literacy skills and harnessing multiple communicative modes we ultimately put into motion “good speech” for the benefit of Black communal advancement and longevity.
Champion, T.B. (2003). Understanding storytelling among African American children: A journey from Africa to America. New York, NY: Routledge.
Connor, C.M. and Craig, H.K. (2006). African American preschoolers’ language, emergent literacy,
and use of African American English: A complex relation. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 49: 771-792.
Curenton, S.M. (2004). Oral storytelling: A cultural art that promotes school readiness. Young Children 61: 78-89.
Gardner-Neblett, N. and Iruka, I.U. (2015). Oral narrative skills: Explaining the language-emergent
literacy link by race/ethnicity and SES. Developmental Psychology 51 (7): 889-904.
Gee, J.P. (1985). The narrativization of experience in the oral style. Journal of Education 167: 9-35.
Karenga, M. (2014). Nommo, Kawaida, and Communicative Practice: Bringing good into the world. In M. Asante, Y. Miike, and J. Yin (Eds.), The Global Intercultural Communication Reader (pp. 211-225).
Mainess, K.J., Champion, T.B. and McCabe, A. (2002). Telling the unknown story: Complex and explicit narration by African American preadolescents – preliminary examination of gender and socioeconomic issues. Linguistics and Education 13: 151-173.
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2005). Pathways to reading: The role of oral language in the transition to reading. Developmental Psychology 41: 428-442. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1618.104.22.1688
Reese, E., Levya, D., Sparks, A., and Grolnick, W. (2010). Maternal elaborative reminiscing increases low-income children’s narrative skills relative to dialogic reading. Early Education and Development 21:318-342.
Smith, A.L. and Robb, S. (Eds.). (1971). The voice of Black rhetoric. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Smitherman, G. (1977). Talkin and testifyin: The language of Black America. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Snyder, T. and Dillow, S.A. (2013). Digest of educational statistics 2012. (No. NCES 2014-015). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
Terry, N.P., Mills, M.T., Bingham, G.E., Mansour, S., and Marencin, N. (2013). Oral narrative performance of African American prekindergarteners who speak nonmainstream American English. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools 44: 291-305.
Written by Serie McDougal
African American students’ levels of preference for learning activities that involve hands on activity and physical involvement in the learning environment are well documented (Dunn and Honigsfeld, 2003). Concepts such as tactile learning and kinesthetic learning are often used to explain these learning preferences. However, for African American boys, this preference is rarely contextualized within an African historical and cultural context. Wade Boykin is one of the few scholars who have conceptualized a far reaching contextualization of African American youth, their culture, and learning styles. He has also helped to develop a model of culturally relevant education for youth in general (the Talent Quest Model). However, this article particularly focuses on one feature of Boykin’s research, Movement Expressiveness and its current relevance to teaching and learning particularly in the education of African American youth.
African American Cultural Theory
According to Allen and Boykin (1992), there are nine interrelated dimensions of African American culture: (a) spirituality, a vitalistic rather than mechanistic approach to life, (b) harmony, the belief that humans and nature are harmoniously conjoined, (c) movement expressiveness, an emphasis on the interweaving of movement, rythm, percusiveness, music, and dance, (d) verve, the special receptiveness to relatively high levels of sensate stimulation, (e) affect, an emphasis on emotion and feelings, (f) communalism, a commitment to social connectedness where social bonds transcend individual privileges, (g) expressive individualism, the cultivation of a distinctive personality and proclivity or spontaneity in behavior, (h) orality, a preference for oral/aural modalities of communication, and (i) social time perspective, an orientation in which time is treated as passing through a social space rather than a material one (Allen et al, 1992). According to Boykin, when these cultural dimensions and African American experiences with mainstream institutions are at odds, cultural discontinuity occurs.
These different cultural dimensions play themselves out in all different areas of life. One of the dimensions of African American culture that Allen and Boykin (1992) identify is Movement expressiveness. Movement expressiveness takes on new meaning in the educational settings. In school, movement expressiveness refers to an emphasis on the interweaving of movement, rhythm, percussiveness, music and dance with the learning process. Students and teachers who have high preference for tactile (hands on) learning or teaching are compatible with this dimension of African American culture. Students with high preference for tactile learning learn better when they can move, manipulate and physically touch the material that they are learning, and have a need for hands on activity. Teachers with a preference for this area make use of teaching techniques that allow students to move, manipulate, and physically touch the material that they are learning. A student or teacher with low preference in this area is considered incompatible with this African American cultural dimension. Students and teachers with high preference for mobility, considered congruent with this dimension of African American culture (Jackson-Allen & Christenberry, 1994). Students with a high preference for mobility learn better by moving around after studying for more than 15 minutes and tend to find it difficult to sit in one place for long periods of time. Teachers with preference in the area of mobility make use of teaching techniques that allow students to move around while learning. A student or teacher with low preference in this area is considered dissimilar with this Afro-cultural dimension. Students and teachers with high preference forkinesthetic learning and teaching are consistent with this dimension of Afro-culture. Kinesthetic learners are action oriented learners and they learn and remember better when they can physically act things out and move around while learning. Teachers with preference in the area of kinesthetics make use of teaching methods and techniques that allow students to be physically involved with what they are learning. A student or teacher with low preference in this area is considered incongruent with this Afro-cultural dimension.
Empirical Research on Movement Expressiveness
One study testing the effects of movement expressiveness on learning among Black youth was conducted by Boykin and Cunningham (2002). The researchers selected a group of 64 African American children, between the ages of 7 and 8, from a large mid – Atlantic urban elementary school (Allen & Boykin, 2002). The sample consisted of 32 males and 32 females. Participants were given the Child Activity Questionnaire (CAQ) and the Home Stimulation Affordance Questionnaire (HSA). The CAQ measures the child’s perceived motoric activity level. The teachers’ perception of the children’s classroom behavior was measured using the Teacher Rating of Classroom Motivation (TCM), which measures a teachers’ perception of the child’s level of motivation in traditional classroom activities such as completing and engaging in tasks.
A second measure called the Achievement Rating Scale (ACH) allowed teachers to rate a child’s overall level of academic performance. Two audio recorded stories served as stimuli. One story reflected Low Movement Theme (LMT) behaviors and activities, in which the content of the story did not involve a high degree of movement and active behavior. The second story reflected a High Movement Content Theme (HMT) involving movement expressive themes such as running, dancing, and jumping. Each student participated in two different learning contexts differing in movement opportunity and music. In the Low Movement Expressiveness (LME) context the investigator read aloud the story in front of participants. The second learning context was the High Movement Expressiveness (HME) context in which an investigator read aloud the story to children with the accompaniment of music and students were allowed to clap their hands, move, jump and dance. The dependent variable of this study was the students’ level of cognitive processing. The memory and understanding of the content of the stories was measured by asking the students a series of questions regarding names, events, actions and relationships in the story.
The results show that African American children exposed to HMT stories performed significantly better (achieved higher scores) than those exposed to the LMT stories (Allen & Boykin, 2002). Those exposed to the HME context performed significantly better than students under the LME context (had greater knowledge of the content). Results also revealed that the more active children are, the greater the amount of stimulation in their home. The higher a child was rated by the teacher in motivation for traditional classroom activities, the higher that student was rated in overall achievement. The learning context effect demonstrated that African American children’s overall performance was significantly higher under the HME context than under the LME learning context. The authors of this study infer, “given that child and home activity levels are positively correlated with performance under the HME context, one could infer that high movement expressiveness could be used as an asset to be capitalized upon in the appropriate learning contexts” (Allen & Boykin, 2002, p. 81).
This study confirmed the literature which suggests that African American children’s intellectual tasks should include information consistent with their life experiences, and culturally salient themes prevalent in their home environment and everyday routines outside of school. The findings also support the literature that suggests that incorporating polyrhythmic, syncopated music and opportunities for movement expression into learning contexts facilitates low income African American children’s performance on tasks (Hagans, 2005). However, the study was done on 7 and 8 year old children. The replication of this study in African American high school age populations might reveal different results. Moreover, gender differences were not examined to a significant extent. There is also a need for more current research on the phenomena given the promising results of studies conducted between 2000 and 2010.
Current Application to Educational Development
Findings, like these may present opportunities for teachers of students who respond positively to movement expressiveness. In this case, learning activities that allow students to use their hands, and their bodies to understand and express their understanding of information should be increased. This can often be the difference between asking students to complete a mathematics word problem versus asking students to engage in a task such as measuring the square footage of the classroom and estimating how much carpet would be necessary to cover the classroom floor. They both require math skills, but the latter allows students to be physically and tactically involved in the learning process.
Boykin is currently the director of the Capstone Institute at Howard University, which presently provides multidimensional services including: curriculum development, faculty development, leadership training, k-12 support and other services. Boykin’s research informs the Talent Quest Model which is the philosophical foundation of the Capstone Institute. The Talent Development Model has four major pillars: four major pillars: overdetermined success, integrity-based ethos, multiple expected outcomes, and co-construction.
Allen, B. A. & Boykin, A. W. (1992). African American children and the educational process: Alleviating cultural discontinuity through prescriptive pedagogy. School of Psychology Review. 02796015, 21(4).
Boykin, A. W. (2000). The talent development model of schooling: Placing students at promise for academic success.Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 5 (1 & 2), pp. 3-25.
Boykin, A. W., Cunningham, R. T. (2002). The effects of movement expressiveness in story content and learning context on the analogical reasoning performance of African American children. The Journal of Negro Education. 70( ½), Winter/ Spring.
Dunn, R., & Honigsfeld, A. (2003). High school male and female learning style similarities and differences in diverse nations. Journal of Educational Research. Mar\Apr, 96, Issue 4, pp. 195 -207.
Hagans, W. W. (2005). Musicians' learning styles, learning strategies, and perceptions of creativity. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A, 66, 55.
Jackson-Allen, J., & Christenberry, N. J. (1994). Learning Style Preferences of Low- and High- Achieving Young African-American Males. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association (Nashville, TN, November 9-11).


What Is Generational Trauma?
Generational trauma refers to transmitting traumatic experiences and their associated effects from one generation to another. The collective psychological and emotional impact can be inherited by individuals and communities who have experienced significant adversity, such as war, genocide, slavery, forced displacement, or systemic oppression. Unlike individual trauma, which stems from personal experiences, generational trauma arises from the long-lasting effects of historical events that continue to shape the present.
The trauma experienced by one generation can influence subsequent generations’ beliefs, behaviors, and overall well-being. This transmission can occur through various mechanisms, including familial narratives, cultural norms, parenting styles, and epigenetic changes that alter gene expression. This condition can lead to psychological, emotional, and social challenges, impacting mental health, relationships, self-esteem, and resilience.
Understanding generational trauma is crucial for promoting healing and breaking the cycle of intergenerational suffering. By acknowledging its existence and effects, individuals and communities can work towards addressing the underlying wounds, promoting resilience, and fostering a healthier future.
Generational Trauma Vs Intergenerational Trauma
What Is Intergenerational Trauma?
Intergenerational trauma is a concept closely related to generational trauma. It refers to transmitting trauma and its consequences from one generation to the next and across multiple generations. Intergenerational trauma recognizes that the effects of trauma can persist over time and impact the well-being of individuals and communities for several generations.
Like generational trauma, intergenerational trauma can stem from historical events, such as wars, genocides, forced migration, colonization, or cultural oppression. The trauma experienced by earlier generations continues to reverberate through subsequent generations, shaping their experiences, beliefs, and behaviors.
Family dynamics, cultural norms, and societal structures often perpetuate intergenerational trauma. The unresolved trauma of past generations can influence parenting styles, emotional patterns, and coping mechanisms, which can, in turn, impact future generations’ psychological and emotional well-being.
Understanding intergenerational trauma is essential for breaking the cycle of suffering and promoting healing. By recognizing the intergenerational transmission of trauma, individuals and communities can work towards addressing the underlying wounds, promoting resilience, fostering empathy, and creating supportive environments that facilitate healing and recovery for all generations involved.
Healing Intergenerational Trauma
Healing intergenerational trauma requires a multi-faceted approach, including:
- Education and awareness about the trauma’s historical context.
- Therapeutic interventions, such as trauma-focused therapy.
- Creating supportive communities and safe spaces for healing.
- Cultivating resilience and self-care practices.
- Breaking destructive cycles through healthy relationships and parenting.
- Advocating for social justice and addressing systemic inequalities. By addressing the trauma’s roots, promoting healing, and fostering resilience, we can work towards breaking the cycle of intergenerational trauma and creating a brighter future.
What is Transgenerational Trauma?
Transgenerational trauma is a term that is often used interchangeably with generational trauma and intergenerational trauma. It refers to transmitting trauma and its effects across multiple generations within a family or community. The term “transgenerational” emphasizes the transmission of trauma through successive generations.
Transgenerational trauma recognizes that the impact of trauma can extend beyond immediate family members and affect broader kinship networks and communities. It acknowledges that the consequences of trauma can be deeply ingrained in the collective psyche and influence the beliefs, behaviors, and well-being of individuals across different generations.
Transgenerational trauma can manifest in various ways, including shared narratives, cultural practices, and behavioral patterns. It is not limited to a specific type of trauma but can result from various experiences, such as historical events, systemic oppression, or familial trauma.
Understanding transgenerational trauma helps shed light on the complex interplay between historical context, family dynamics, and individual experiences. It highlights the need for a comprehensive approach to healing that considers not only the experiences of individuals but also the broader context of intergenerational trauma and its systemic implications. By acknowledging transgenerational trauma, individuals and communities can work towards breaking the cycle of trauma, promoting resilience, and fostering a collective healing process.
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Generational Trauma Facts
Generational Trauma Definition
Generational trauma refers to transmitting trauma across generations, affecting individuals’ and communities’ physical, emotional, and psychological well-being. It arises from various sources such as historical oppression, war and conflict, cultural trauma, and family dysfunction or abuse.
It can stem from traumatic experiences that occurred in the past and continue to impact subsequent generations. These experiences include slavery, genocide, forced migration, discrimination, and other systemic oppression. Family dynamics and unresolved trauma within the family unit can also contribute to this condition.
Impact on Health
GT can have a profound impact on individuals’ health. It is associated with increased risks of mental health disorders, including anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and substance abuse. Additionally, physical health conditions such as heart disease and other stress-related ailments may be more prevalent among individuals affected by this condition.
Trauma can be transmitted across generations through various mechanisms. Genetic factors can contribute to the vulnerability of individuals to certain mental health conditions. Family dynamics learned behaviors, and coping mechanisms influenced by the trauma experienced by previous generations can also play a role. Societal factors, including ongoing discrimination and prejudice, can perpetuate the cycle of generational trauma.
Communities affected by generational trauma often demonstrate resilience and strength through cultural practices, community support, and collective healing strategies. Cultural traditions, rituals, and ceremonies can serve as important tools for processing trauma, fostering a sense of identity, and promoting healing within the community.
Breaking Generational Trauma
Recognizing and addressing GT is crucial for breaking the cycle of generational trauma and promoting healing. Raising awareness about the impact of this condition, seeking therapy or counseling, and implementing supportive interventions can help individuals and communities heal from their traumatic experiences. Education, advocacy, and creating safe spaces for open dialogue are important steps toward breaking the cycle of generational trauma and fostering healthier legacies.
Generation Trauma Statistics
The enduring repercussions of trauma across multiple generations are profound. When a collective endures a traumatic event, it can deeply affect the psychological and physiological well-being of all involved. Studies have revealed an elevated risk of PTSD symptoms among intimate partner violence victims and the offspring of Holocaust survivors. Individuals who experienced childhood abuse often suffer from adverse mental health outcomes, such as depression and anxiety.
Moreover, traumatic experiences in childhood have been associated with health issues like heart disease and substance abuse. These statistics underscore the significant impact that trauma endured by one generation can have on the subsequent generation’s overall health. Recognizing and addressing this issue is crucial for facilitating healing and breaking the cycle of trauma.
American Indian and Alaska Native adults reported exposure to at least one traumatic event during their lifetime.
of children who have been exposed to intimate partner violence develop symptoms of PTSD.
2-3 times higher
individuals who experienced childhood abuse risk developing depression and anxiety disorders later in life.
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Generational Trauma Examples & Symptoms
Generational trauma can manifest in various forms and stem from historical events or ongoing systemic issues. Here are a few examples of GT:
- Slavery and Racism: The trauma endured by enslaved African Americans and their descendants has impacted subsequent generations. Systemic racism, discrimination, and ongoing racial inequalities contribute to the transmission of trauma and its effects on mental health, well-being, and opportunities for advancement.
- War and Conflict: Communities affected by prolonged conflicts, such as those in regions like the Middle East or countries with a history of war, often experience generational trauma. The psychological and emotional wounds resulting from war and displacement can be inherited by subsequent generations, affecting their sense of identity, relationships, and overall well-being.
- Genocide and Mass Atrocities: Historical events like the Holocaust, the Rwandan genocide, and the Armenian genocide have caused immense trauma that continues to impact the descendants of survivors. The horrors experienced by earlier generations can lead to psychological, emotional, and intergenerational effects that shape the lives of subsequent generations.
- Indigenous Oppression: Indigenous communities worldwide have endured generations of trauma due to colonization, forced assimilation, cultural genocide, and the loss of land and traditional practices. This ongoing trauma can contribute to various challenges Indigenous peoples face, including mental health disparities, substance abuse, and social inequalities.
- Forced Migration and Displacement: Generational trauma can arise from forced migration and displacement due to factors like war, political instability, or environmental disasters. The loss of home, separation from loved ones, and the challenges of resettlement can impact the immediate survivors and their descendants.
These examples illustrate the profound and lasting effects of GT. Understanding these historical contexts and their impact on subsequent generations is crucial for promoting empathy, healing, and creating supportive environments for affected individuals and communities.
How Trauma Gets Passed Down Through Generations?
The transmission of trauma through generations occurs through various mechanisms, including psychological, social, and biological factors. Here are some ways in which trauma can be passed down:
- Family Dynamics and Parenting Styles: Trauma experienced by parents or caregivers can influence their parenting styles and behaviors, directly impacting the emotional environment in which their children are raised. Parents may inadvertently transmit their unresolved trauma through their parenting, such as through excessive protectiveness, emotional withdrawal, or difficulty regulating emotions.
- Intergenerational Communication and Narrative: Traumatic experiences often become part of the family narrative and are passed down through stories, conversations, and cultural practices. How trauma is discussed or avoided within the family can shape the understanding and interpretation of the event, impacting subsequent generations’ perceptions and emotional responses.
- Epigenetic Changes: Epigenetics refers to changes in gene expression that occur without altering the underlying DNA sequence. Traumatic experiences can potentially modify gene expression patterns, leading to alterations in the regulation of stress response systems. These changes can be passed down from generation to generation, potentially impacting individuals’ susceptibility to stress and mental health outcomes.
- Cultural and Social Norms: Trauma can become embedded within cultural and social norms, influencing the beliefs, values, and behaviors of a community or society. These norms, which may emerge as a response to historical trauma, can perpetuate certain patterns of behavior and shape the collective experience of subsequent generations.
- Environmental Factors: Trauma can be perpetuated through ongoing environmental stressors, such as socioeconomic disparities, systemic oppression, or community violence. Living in an environment that reflects the aftermath of trauma can contribute to transmitting trauma across generations.
Not all individuals who experience trauma will pass it down to future generations, and the extent of transmission may vary. The mechanisms of intergenerational trauma are complex and multifaceted, influenced by both individual and contextual factors. Recognizing these mechanisms can help inform efforts to break the cycle of trauma and promote healing and resilience in affected individuals and communities.
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Healing Generational Trauma
Healing generational trauma is a complex and transformative journey that addresses the deep-rooted wounds passed down through generations. Here are some key approaches to healing GT:
- Acknowledgment and Validation: Recognizing and validating the existence and impact of generational trauma is a crucial first step. This involves acknowledging the pain, experiences, and emotions of individuals and communities affected by the trauma.
- Cultivating Resilience: Building resilience is essential for healing. Encouraging individuals and communities to develop coping skills, self-care practices, and supportive networks can help them navigate the effects of trauma and promote overall well-being.
- Therapy and Trauma-Informed Care: Seeking therapy, particularly trauma-focused therapy, can provide individuals with a safe and supportive space to process their experiences and develop strategies for healing. Trauma-informed care approaches ensure that professionals are sensitive to generational trauma’s specific needs and triggers.
- Breaking the Silence: Encouraging open dialogue and storytelling about GT can help break the surrounding silence. Sharing personal narratives and family histories can facilitate understanding, empathy, and community connection.
- Cultural Revitalization: Embracing and reclaiming cultural practices, traditions, and values can be vital in healing generational trauma. Celebrating cultural identity and engaging in activities that promote a connection to heritage can foster a sense of belonging and empowerment.
- Social Justice and Advocacy: Addressing systemic inequalities, discrimination, and social injustices is crucial for healing generational trauma. Advocating for change, supporting policies that promote equity, and working towards dismantling oppressive systems can contribute to healing on both individual and collective levels.
- Empowerment through Education: Providing access to education and resources that promote understanding, self-empowerment, and intergenerational healing can be transformative. This includes education about generational trauma, historical contexts, and tools for breaking destructive cycles.
Healing generational trauma requires patience, compassion, and a commitment to creating environments that support healing and resilience. By addressing the root causes of trauma, promoting self-care, fostering cultural connections, advocating for justice, and providing therapeutic support, individuals and communities can embark on a transformative path toward healing and breaking the cycle of generational trauma.
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At We Level Up in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, a comprehensive mental health center, a range of essential services are offered to provide comprehensive care and support to individuals seeking mental health assistance. These services may include:
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- Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Utilizing CBT techniques to help individuals identify and modify negative thought patterns and behaviors contributing to their mental health concerns. CBT can assist in developing healthier coping mechanisms and promoting positive changes in thinking and behavior.
- Mindfulness-Based Interventions: Incorporating mindfulness-based approaches, such as mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) or mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), to help individuals cultivate present-moment awareness, reduce stress, and enhance overall well-being.
- Family Therapy: Involving family members in therapy sessions to address family dynamics, improve communication, and support individuals with mental health challenges. Family therapy promotes understanding, strengthens relationships, and creates a supportive network.
- Psychoeducation: Providing educational resources and information to clients and their families about mental health conditions, treatment options, self-care strategies, and community resources. Psychoeducation aims to enhance understanding and empower individuals to participate in their mental health journey actively.
- Holistic Approaches: Incorporating complementary therapies such as art therapy, music therapy, yoga, or relaxation techniques to support overall well-being and promote a holistic approach to mental health care.
Popular Generation Trauma FAQs
Is Generational Trauma Real?
Yes, this condition is a real phenomenon. It refers to transmitting traumatic experiences and their effects across multiple generations. Trauma’s psychological, emotional, and social impacts can be inherited and influence the well-being of individuals and communities. Recognizing and addressing generational trauma is crucial for promoting healing and resilience and breaking the cycle of intergenerational suffering.
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Our unwavering commitment lies in providing empathetic support and guidance throughout the therapeutic journey. We firmly believe in empowering individuals to take control of their mental health and make meaningful strides toward overall well-being. Our approach is centered on creating a safe and nurturing environment where individuals can explore their experiences, develop effective coping strategies, and foster personal growth.
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Search We Level Up FL Generation Trauma Resources
- National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) – Trauma: https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/trauma-and-stressor-related-disorders/index.shtml
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) – Trauma and Violence: https://www.samhsa.gov/trauma-violence
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) – Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs): https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/childabuseandneglect/acestudy/index.html
- National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN): https://www.nctsn.org/
- U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs – National Center for PTSD: https://www.ptsd.va.gov/
- Office for Victims of Crime (OVC) – Trauma-Informed Approach: https://www.ovc.ojp.gov/program/trauma-informed-approach
- National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities (NIMHD) – Trauma and Health: https://www.nimhd.nih.gov/programs/edu-training/trauma-health.html
- Indian Health Service (IHS) – Historical Trauma: https://www.ihs.gov/newsroom/factsheets/historicaltrauma/
- Administration for Children and Families (ACF) – Child Trauma: https://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/research-data-technology/child-welfare-systems/child-trauma
- Office of Minority Health (OMH) – Trauma and Communities of Color: https://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/omh/browse.aspx?lvl=4&lvlid=61