The word civilisation refers to an advanced and organised group of people or a society living at a place for a particular time. When we talk about ancient cultures, religions, political systems or family systems then one of the most organised, attractive and advanced civilisations, Egypt Civilisation. The Egypt civilisation developed along the River Nile in northeast Africa. The fertile soil and annual flooding of river water is one of the reasons in developing ancient Egypt civilisation there. Nile River played a vital role in developing agricultural and irrigation system at that time.
The Egypt civilisation ruled for almost 30 centuries, from 3100 BC to 332 BC. This was a powerful and advanced civilisation of the history. They amazingly managed transportation, building materials, food, and many other things. The art and craft shows cultural values, daily life and routine.
of the ancient Egypt.
Timeline of the Ancient Egypt
There are two types or ways to understand the history of the ancient Egyptians. The first way is by dynasties and the second one is by kingdom and periods.
The word dynasty, commonly defined as “a succession of people from the same family who play a prominent role in business, politics, or another field.” The timeline of Egypt history can be first described by dynasties that ruled for 30 centuries. Family members passed the both religious and political power of the Pharaohs to the specific other family members. For 3000 years of Egypt history almost 30 dynasties ruled over ancient Egypt.
The dynasties has following divisions to understand history of the ancient Egypt:
- Early Dynastic Period (2950 -2575 BC) – Dynasties I-III
- Old Kingdom (2575-2150 BC) – Dynasties IV-VIII
- First Intermediate Period (2150-1975 BC) Dynasties IX-XI
- Middle Kingdom (1975-1640 BC) Dynasties XI-XIV
- Second Intermediate Period (1640-1520 BC) Dynasties XV-XVII
- New Kingdom (1520-1075 BC) Dynasties XVIII-XX
- Third Intermediate Period (1075 – 653 BC) Dynasties XXI-XXIV
- Late Period (653 – 332 BC) Dynasties XXV-XXX
- Ptolemaic dynasty
Kingdoms and Periods
Three basic kingdoms; the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom. After each kingdom there is an “intermediate” period.
The old kingdom was considered as best time of Egypt history. Egyptians enjoyed a strong central government and a powerful economy over 400 years. The Egypt had many states, named as nomes. Every state had its own governor named nomarch who was responsible to report about every state affair to the Pharaoh. The state religion and political head, known as the Pharaoh. Vizir was at the second in hierarchy, they were responsible for running and reporting daily affairs to the great pharaoh. The old kingdom lasted from 2575 BC to 2150 BC.
They built first pyramid during this time period. This kingdom was famous for building pyramids. Egyptians were economically strong enough to built Pyramid of Djoser, and the largest pyramid, the Great Pyramids at Giza during old kingdom.
The Middle Kingdom is the second kingdom of Egypt history. This lasted from 1975 BC to 1640 BC. Single religious and political king ruled Egypt after facing political and central government fall of 150 years. The tenth dynasty ruled north Egypt and the eleventh dynasty ruled south Egypt during first intermediate Period. The King of Eleventh dynasty Mentuhotep II planned an attack on northern Egypt. This attack brought whole Egypt under one flag. Mentuhotep II became king of Egypt. Middle Kingdom, actually started after this time according to the historians. The Middle Kingdom, sometimes referred to as Egypt’s Classical Age or The Period of Reunification. Mentuhotep II gave all powers to the Pharaoh again, he set him as god of religion and politics. He himself ruled for 51 years as king of Egypt.
Pharaoh Amenemhat III was the pharaoh of twelfth dynasty, he is memorable in history of Egypt, he ruled for almost 45 years. He played a vital role in establishing economic roots of Egypt. The twelfth dynasty did a great job in forming a strong army. The army was responsible for protecting borders of Egypt from foreigner forces.
The New Kingdom, also known as the golden age of Egypt civilisation. It lasted from 1520 BC to 1075 BC. Egyptians were wealthy, politically strong and prosperous during this time. Ahmose I was a ten year old boy, he became king of Lower Egypt. He conquered northern Egypt from foreigner powers. Hyksos were ruling Egypt at that time. Egyptian Empire defeated a range of lands to its south and east. Kush and Nubia to the south and Israel, Syria and Lebanon to the east. Egyptians started trading with other nations and countries during the New Kingdom. They used gold mines of Nubia to earn money.
Ramses II built the famous Abu Simbel temple during the New Kingdom. There were eleven pharaohs who had the name Ramesses or Ramses during the nineteenth and twentieth dynasties. The period sometimes called as the Ramesside period. Thutmose III, also known as Napoleon of Egypt. Egypt was at its largest during rule of this king. Hatshepsut is few of females who ruled over Egypt. She ruled for almost 20 years. Tutankhamun’s tomb, found in Valley of Kings. A lot of treasure, art work of his time and his mummy found in tomb. Akhenaten was famous for introducing a new god to Egyptians. The name of that god was Aten, he built a new capital city named Amarna in the honor of Aten. These are some of the famous Pharaohs of the New Kingdom.
Culture of the Ancient Egypt
The ancient Egypt civilisation is full of colourful cultural values and roots. It’s a deep sea of information to learn about ancient Egyptians. Life during ancient Egypt was considered so perfect, in fact, that the Egyptian afterlife was imagined as an eternal continuation of life on earth.
Daily life of the ancient Egyptians
Daily life in ancient Egypt revolved around the Nile and the fertile land along its banks. The concept of harmony and balance was central to the Egyptians understanding of life. Egyptians of all social classes valued life and enjoyed themselves as often as they could. The children generally followed the occupation of their parents, usually the father.
Women had almost equal rights to men in the ancient Egypt. No other civilisation of history could give that much equal rights to women as ancient Egyptians had given. They could run their own businesses, buy or sell their land, and their homes, could take divorce, have abortions, and dispose of their own property as they saw fit; this was a level of sexual equality. Marriages in the ancient Egypt believed as a religious affair. Parents of all classes, rich or elite arranged marriages of their children. Girls were usually married around the age of 12 and boys around age of 15.
The bread was main food item of the ancient Egyptians. Fruits, vegetables, goats and lambs, were also included in food. Meat was very expensive, and usually only royalty could afford it. The barley beer was the common drink at that time.
The ancient Egyptians were very particular not only about their dressing but about cleanliness as well. Both men and women took bath daily. They used perfumes and wore makeup to look presentable. They wore simple clothes, the hot climatic conditions did not favour them to wear variety of clothes. Plane white linen was the common dressing of people of ancient Egypt. Farmers grew flax plant to woven clothes.
Working Men wore a short skirt like kilt of white linen. A rectangular shaped cloth, used to made kilts. It was wrapped with a belt on waist. Wealthy men wore knee-length shirts, loincloths or kilts. Working women wore long full length dress. Rich or Elite Women wore long full length dress decorated with beads or jewellery. High ranking priests and the Pharaohs sometimes wore leopard skin cloaks over their shoulders. The Egyptians considered the leopard an sacred animal. Children didn’t wear any clothing until they turned six years old.
Although the dressing of ancient Egyptians was very simple but the jewellery was amazingly mind blowing. Both men and women wore jewellery. They decked the statues of gods and kings with lavish jewels. The ancient Egyptians used bracelets, earrings, armbands, neck collars, anklets, rings and necklace. The jewellery of rich people had Precious stones, precious metals and glass beads. Clay, stone, animal teeth and bones were used by poorer people to made jewellery for them.
The jewellery was not only a fashion symbol but it was considered helpful against evil powers. They loved jewellery designed with scrolls, tigers, scarab beetles, winged birds, jackals, antelopes, and tigers. They used armbands from protection against evils. The neck collar was famous in elite class. Parents also had their children wear charms and amulets to protect them. They put charms with dead bodies to help them in afterlife. The crown of king and queens, gods and goddess were also decorated with snake shaped design. They believed that the snake will spit in evil eyes to protect them.
The ancient Egyptians considered makeup as a symbol of holiness. They linked cosmetics with spiritual importance. Both men and women wore makeup. They carry their makeup cases with them. Some of the most important makeup items are:
- Malachite; a copper ore, provided the green eye makeup colour.
- Kohl; used to draw thick, distinctive black lines, giving an almond shape to the eyes.
- Red ochre; used as lip colour.
- Henna; used to paint their fingertips and toes.
- Oils and perfumes were of great importance for the ancient Egyptians.
- They coloured their cheeks with red ochre.
Hair and Wigs
The hair styles vary time to time. Women of old kingdom usually wore short hair. After that the long hair was in trend. The men normally had short hair cut or shave their head. The wigs were in fashion too. The wealthy people wore wigs to show their richness by decorating them with stones, feathers and beads. The Pharaohs kept their faces and head clean shaven, but they also wore fake beards for religious festivals or other purposes. Even the female Pharaoh Hatshepsut wore a fake beard while she ruled.
The rich people wore sandals made of leather and the poor wore sandals made from woven grass.
There are many different jobs which Egyptians did some of them are:
As the ancient Egypt civilization was around the Nile river so they had fertile soil. Many people had occupation of farming at that time. They grew barley to make beer, wheat for bread, vegetables such as onions and cucumbers, and flax to make into linen.
To keep record of different activities painting, sculpturing, wooden work was very common. The hard work and skills of a craftsman was key to success. The carpenter, weavers, jewelers, leather workers, and potters all were very skilled people.
The Egyptian army had a well defined hierarchy. It was an honor to become a soldier. They also help in governmental affairs.
Those who can write or read are known as scribes. Only the elite class or children of priests could become scribes at that time. It was long and time taking training.
Priests and Priestesses
They were responsible for the temples and held religious ceremonies. Priests could be male or female.
Most of the villagers lived in small houses made of mud bricks.They painted their houses. Flat roofs of the houses were helpful and used to sleep during summer nights. King and his close ones lived in well decorated and luxurious place. Scribes lived in or the temples.
Art and Craft
Art and craft had a great importance in the history of ancient Egypt. Actually art is the main source to know about the ancient Egypt civilisation. It includes paintings, sculptures, drawings on papyrus, faience, jewelry, ivories and architecture. Their art changed very little over 3000 years.
The ancient Egyptians made sculptures, most of the time they made for religious purposes, for decoration of the Pharaohs’ tombs and temples. The famous huge sized sculptures like the Great Sphinx of Giza and the statues of Ramses II at Abu Simbel temple found there .
They used solid gold to made sculptures of their Pharaohs and other religious leaders. They made beautiful sculptures with stones and beads.
The ancient Egyptians were fond of paintings. They used both sculptures and paintings to decorate their temples and tombs. Commonly used colours were red, blue, white, black, golden and green. The walls show paintings of different animals and birds, crop harvests, wine making, cattle herding, stone vessel carving and hunting. The Mayor of Thebes, Ramose, his tomb is the classic example of Egyptians paintings.
The dry weather of Egypt helped to keep the paintings saved for a long time. In many cases, a final coating of protective material applied over the colour to seal out dampness.
The ancient Egyptians contributed many new forms to architecture like columns, pylons and at least three kinds of decoration. The Great Pyramid and Karnak’s Temple are one of the examples of architectural achievements of Egypt civilisation.
The coffins were of great importance for people at that time. The labours decorated them with their hard work. They made coffins of wealthy people with wood import from other countries. Furniture was also carved with that wood.
Entertainment and Games
The ancient Egyptians were very lively and joyful. They loved to celebrate festivals and functions. Not only the rich and wealthy people liked to entertain themselves but the poor were also enjoyed games and fun activities.
The famous mind games of the ancient Egyptians were Senet and Mehen. Two board games were played. Senet is almost 5000 years old and it was played by the Pharaohs as the game was buried by many the Pharaoh. Mehen is played on a round board.
Sports and Physical Activities
As the ancient Egyptians were blessed with Nile River near them so most of the physical activities and festivals were related to swimming and agriculture. The ancient Egyptians were very good swimmers. Chariot racing helped to hone the skills of chariot drivers. Wrestling was also a common game at that time. Young boys showed interest in these kinds of games. Archery contests helped warriors improve their accuracy with the bow and arrow.
Hunting was not the only source to get food but it was also a leisure time pass by elite class. They arranged hunting for fun and entertainment.
Festivals and Parties
The wealthy people held parties for friends and family members. Musicians and dancers were also part of these parties to entertain guests. The ancient Egyptians enjoyed many festivals, most of them were celebrated in honour of their gods. Some of the festivals are:
- Wepet Renpet; meaning the opener of the year. The new year celebrations are named as Wepet Renpet.
- The Festival of Opet; this festival lasts after three days, it is celebrated in honour of three gods.
- Feast of Wagy; associated with the festival of Thoth.
- Festival of Khoiak.
Most of the Egyptians did not know how to write and read. The storytelling was an form of art at that time. People used to listen to others very carefully about things they do not know. One of the example of storytelling is the King Khufu, he entertained his sons by telling them about stories from past.
Activities for Kids
Kids were encouraged to play games that developed strength and agility. They played with marbles, balls, spinning tops and toy lions etc.
Hieroglyphics is the formal writing system used in the ancient Egypt. We know more about Egyptian society than most other ancient cultures. Hieroglyphs were called, by the Egyptians, the words of God and were used mainly by the priests. The symbols were used for decorating the walls of temples but for conducting daily activities there was another way, known as hieratic. This was a handwriting in which the picture signs were abbreviated to the point of abstraction. Hieroglyphs are written in rows or columns and can be read from left to right or from right to left or top to bottom.
Types of Hieroglyphics Signs
It’s a very complicated way of writing involving 1000s of symbols. These signs are divided into four categories:
- Alphabetic signs
- Syllabic signs
- Word signs
The reading and writing was not common for poor people.Only the kids of priests and rich people could learn how to read and write. It took a long time to learn hieroglyphs. The people who trained to write were called scribes.
The ancient Egypt mostly wrote on walls or stones but that was not the only way they used. Papyrus is a tall reed like plant which was used by the ancient Egyptians to write. The stem of the plant was used to make paper, they first put a strip vertical and then a horizontal strip on it, these strips were covered with a linen cloth and then put under a stone or some heavy object. Then a sheet like paper would make by binding strips together.
Without the Rosetta stone, we would know nothing of the ancient Egyptians, and the details of their three thousand years of history would remain a mystery. The Rosetta stone is written in two languages; Egyptian and Greek and three writing systems; hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek. It was discovered by a French captain named Pierre Bouchard in AD 1799, during the Napoleonic wars.
Major god and goddess
Religion played a vital role in the history of the ancient Egyptians. Some the well known god and goddess are:
- Ra; was the sun god. It was believed that he created all forms of life and the ruler of the gods.
- Isis; was the mother goddess. She was believed to help and protect in time of grief.
- Osiris; was the god of dead. He was ruler of afterlife and husband of goddess Isis.
- Horus; was the god of sky. He was son of goddess Isis and god Osiris. The Pharaohs were believed to be the living version of god Horus.
- Thoth; was the god of knowledge and the moon. The knowledge of writing, medicine, and mathematics was a blessing of god Thoth.
Egyptian Mummies and Pyramids
They used process of mummification to bury their Pharaohs, religious leaders, priests or other powerful personalities. They believed on two things about life and death, the life, named as Ka; the body and the afterlife, named as Ba; the soul. They preserved body so both the Ka and Ba will meet each other again in afterlife. This is the best way to keep a dead body preserved for a long time. The key component to preserve the body, is reunion. The Egyptians used the embalming process, or mummification, to preserve the dead. They decorated coffin of a dead body with paintings, pictures and writings. As the ancient Egyptians believed afterlife so all the necessary things were there for the dead body.
Mummies, buried with scrolls called the book of the dead, which explained how to go through the underworld and what spells and chants to use. The process of mummifying and burying a body, believed to help the person travel successfully through the underworld, which would get them to the afterlife and the god Osiris, who was king of the underworld. Canopic jars, used to keep internal organs of a dead body preserved for afterlife. It was an expensive way of burying a dead body, so only people who could afford it were mummified. Estimated two months required to make mummy. Mummies of animals such as cats, dogs and even bulls and crocodiles also found there. These type of animals are mummified to please their gods.
Why did they build the pyramids?
They built pyramids to bury the Pharaohs, the ancient Egyptians considered them their gods so it was a part of religious belief to keep all sorts of items and treasure that they may need to survive in the afterlife. Pyramids took a long time to build, so work would start on them while the pharaoh was still alive. There were different chambers that held things for the king . Pyramids also included shafts that pointed upwards, so the soul could escape.
The Pharaoh in Egyptian Society
Egypt enjoyed tremendous economic prosperity and stability. The pharaohs; the kings and queens of Egypt, were gods for the ancient Egyptians. Somewhere in between human and divine, they believed to chosen by the gods themselves to serve as their mediators on earth. The Pharaohs wore a crown that had an image of the cobra goddess.
Some of the famous Pharaohs of the ancient Egypt are:
- Djoser; the most famous third dynasty Pharaoh. He built the famous step pyramid at Saqqara.
- Khufu; a fourth dynasty Pharaoh. He had the Great Pyramid at Giza built, one of the seven wonders of the world.
- Hatshepsut; she was the wife of Thutmose II. She took to the role of pharaoh and proved an accomplished ruler.
- Thutmose III; he never lost a battle. Some Egyptologists refer to him as the Napoleon of Egypt.
- Amenhotep III; he largely presided over a peaceful and prosperous Egypt.
- Akhenaten; was famous for saying there was only one god, the sun god. He ruled with his wife, Nefertiti.
- Tutankhamun; he became king at the age of 9 only.
- Ramses II; he was a very successful pharaoh. He helped Egypt prosper, and ruled for a long time.
- Cleopatra; the last pharaoh, and known for being very beautiful and very smart.
Types of pyramids
The ancient Egyptians used their knowledge of math to shape well and position properly, the pyramids. Two main types of pyramids are:
- Bent Pyramid; pyramids, which looked like a staircase with different levels.
- Red Pyramid; pyramids which have smooth, perfectly angled sides.
The Early Pyramids
During the early time of the ancient Egyptians buried the Pharaohs in tombs called mastabas. They had tombs beautifully painted and designed with all luxury items. Mastabas, the tombs carved into rocks and covered with a rectangular shaped flat roof structure. The Pharaoh Djoser, buried in a flat-roofed structure with sloping sides on top of one another, creating the very first step pyramid. The pyramid includes a recessed limestone wall, a temple, and a statue of King Djoser. Imhotep, the vizier of the Pharaoh built the pyramid.
After Djoser, the stepped pyramid became the norm for royal burials. Sneferu, the one who made three attempts to build pyramids after pyramid of Djoser. The second pyramid of Egyptians history, the Medium Pyramid, also known as the collapsed pyramid. The Bent Pyramid, the second attempt of the Pharaoh Sneferu, almost succeed to build the first smooth sided pyramid. The Red Pyramid, also known as the North Pyramid, is the third of Sneferu’s pyramids, it is the third largest pyramid in Egypt.
The Great Pyramids of Giza
These massive monuments remains unsurpassed in height for thousands of years after their construction. The three pyramids on Giza built over the period of three generations by the rulers Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure.
The Pharaoh Khufu began the first Giza pyramid. The sides of the pyramid’s base average 755.75 feet, and its original height was 481.4 feet. It is the largest pyramid in the world. Khufu’s three queens found, buried around his pyramid. His mother, Queen Hetepheres, also buried nearby. Khufu’s tomb, surrounded by rows of mastabas, where relatives or officials of the king buried.
The Pharaoh Khafre, son of the Pharaoh Khufu, buried in middle pyramid of Giza. The Pyramid of Khafre is the second tallest pyramid at Giza. His pyramid also includes the Sphinx, a mysterious limestone monument with the body of a lion and a pharaoh’s head. They considered the huge statue a sign of power against evils. It was the largest statue in the ancient world, measuring 240 feet long and 66 feet high.
The Pharaoh Menkaure, he built the third pyramid of Giza. He is son of the Pharaoh Khafre. It is the shortest of the three pyramids at the Giza. Its height is almost 218 feet long.
In addition to these major structures, several smaller pyramids belonging to queens also found there.
Who Built The Pyramids?
The construction of these pyramids is still a mystery. Despite of many theories no one is sure how exactly this construction had happened. Approximately 2.3 million blocks of stone about 2.5 tons had cut, transported and then assembled to build Khufu’s Great Pyramid. They had skilled and well-trained Egyptian workers and builders . The scientists believed that thousands of workers and slaves worked; cut up the large blocks then slowly move them up the pyramid. They built pyramids slowly, one block at a time. Most of the Pharaohs started building of tombs or pyramids during their lives. Scientists estimate it took at least 20,000 workers over 23 years to build the Great Pyramid of Giza.
What is the book of the dead?
The book which contains spell and some magics or formulas to help the person for afterlife. They felt that the spells contained in the Book of the Dead would help protect them from demons. The book have some chapters written on papyrus. There were at least 190 different chapters of the Book of the Dead. The scribes wrote those books. Not every dead body contains this only the rich people who can afford a scribe to write the book for themselves had this book. The book of length 100 feet is also found.
Valley of the Kings
The place where many great Pharaohs buried after 1500 BC. The time when Pharaohs rejected the idea of building pyramids for themselves and selected this place for their burial. Kings were buried in different tombs in the valley of the Kings. There are many tombs which vary from each other. Some are so small like a hole in the ground and others are larger enough with 1oo chambers in them. There are over 60 tombs in the Valley of the Kings. Robbers had stolen almost all treasure from tombs.
The one tomb discovered with much of the treasure and tomb still there, that of Tutankhamun. It was discovered in 1922 by Howard Carter and had been largely untouched by thieves and vandals. Carter found the tomb under the remains of some workmen’s huts. The tomb contained several chambers including the burial chamber, antechamber, treasure chamber, and annex.
Columns and pillars in the temples had design in the shape of sacred plants such as papyrus and lotus. The temples grew in size over time as new pharaohs added to them. The temples employed thousands of workers to supply food, jewelry, and clothing for the offerings as well as the many priests. Some of the famous temples of the ancient Egyptians religious and political powers are:
- Karnak; located in the ancient city of Thebes. Almost thirty Pharaohs took part in its construction as it’s the most largest and visited temple.
- Luxor; located on the east bank of the Nile River. Amun, his wife and son built that for themselves.
- Abu Simbel; located on the southern border of Egypt. The Pharaoh Ramesses II built this.
- Temple of Edfu; located on the west bank of the Nile River.
- Temple of Hatshepsut; located to the northeast of the city of Luxor, for the female Pharaoh.
- Temple of Seti I; constructed in the shape of an “L” and has shrines dedicated to six Egyptian gods.
Famous Cities of the ancient Egypt
There were two types of cities, capital cities were near the central government and important officials. The cities of religious importance were near to the temples. Some of the famous cities of the Egypt are:
- Memphis; the capital and administrative city for a very long time. It has many temples. It was the main city of the ancient Egyptian empire while Thebes was the religious center.
- Thebes; present day Luxor. was the religious capital of Egypt and the center of power. It included the area occupied by Karnak and Luxor.
- Alexandria; the city became the capital when Alexander the Great conquered Egypt and one of his generals established the Ptolemy Dynasty. Alexandria remained the capital for nearly a thousand years.
- Amarna; the city built by the Pharaoh Akhenaten in honour of a new god Aten.
- Abydos; the holy city of the Egypt because they believed that the god Osiris burial place is that city. The city had many temples and tombs of the Pharaohs.
- Hermopolis; the city was famous because of belief that the sun god was first appeared there. They worshiped god Thoth for a long time. The city was a wealthy resort.
- Crocodilopolis; the city was the place for god of crocodile.
- Elephantine; they worshiped god of water khnum. It was famous as defensive fort and trade center.
- Kom Ombo; the city was a trade center of trade routes, Nubia to the rest of Egypt. The city later became famous for the Temple of Kom Ombo.
Inventions of the ancient Egypt
Some of the great inventions are following:
- Papyrus Sheet
- Ship building
- Toothbrush and toothpaste
- Large door locks
- Wooden boats
- Cargo ships
- Funeral Boats
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Technology Integration In K12 Education/Digital Storytelling in Social Studies
Introduction[edit | edit source]
"We must teach communication comprehensively, in all its forms. Today we work with the written or spoken word as the primary form of communication. But we also need to understand the importance of graphics, music, and cinema, which are just as powerful and in some ways more deeply intertwined with young people's culture. We live and work in a visually sophisticated world, so we must be sophisticated in using all the forms of communication, not just the written word.
When people talk to me about the digital divide, I think of it not being so much about who has access to what technology as who knows how to create and express themselves in this new language of the screen. If students aren't taught the language of sound and images, shouldn't they be considered as illiterate as if they left college without being able to read or write?"
-Filmmaker George Lucas
School children today are bombarded with images, video, sound and other media from a variety of sources including television, radio, the world wide web, and even their own cell phones. The current generation of school aged children are consumers of media in unprecedented means and amounts (Cuban, 2001.) Digital storytelling in the classroom offers potential for teachers to combine content learning, various discipline-specific processes (revising, editing, inquiry, analysis, etc.) and 21st century skills in student-centered engaging ways. Challenging students to demonstrate their understanding of a course topic through the creation of digital movies not only engages them in the "language of their generation," but also shifts children from consumer of media to producer (Hofer & Swan, 2006).
Digital storytelling allows students to learn with technology. According to Hofer and Swan, "[in] contrast to using technology as a tutor or practice partner, digital storytelling utilizes technology as a means for students to demonstrate and share their understanding, empowering learners in engaging and authentic ways. The creation of digital stories can give students voice in ways that are not possible without the technology. Rather than limiting students to static expression of understanding, the creation of digital stories provides students with opportunities to leverage the use of images, music, video, and perhaps most importantly, their own voice through narration to tell their story." Digital storytelling gives students a chance to use their creativity and own voice when developing a story. It can also be used in the classroom as an open-ended, divergent means for students to share their understanding of course content (Hofer & Swan, 2006).
Digital storytelling is not a new concept in education and no longer only accessible to affluent school districts as it was in the past. The advancements in technology today have made creating digital narratives available and affordable for many school districts. The level of difficulty in creating these narratives has also decreased making it very user friendly. Educators, who are looking at new ways to engage and motivate today’s digital natives, find digital storytelling a powerful tool to reach students, especially those who may be turned off by traditional text-based learning. Students learn to write, research, collaborate with others and express themselves creatively through these narratives. By incorporating these digital tools into their lessons, teachers are energizing their lessons and preparing children with the necessary information and communication skills they will need for everyday life and future careers.
What is Digital Storytelling?[edit | edit source]
Digital storytelling is much like traditional storytelling but with a multimedia twist. According to the Center for Digital Storytelling (CDS), a digital story is a short, first person video-narrative created by combining recorded voice, still and moving images, and music or other sounds. It incorporates the traditional writing processes of selecting a topic, conducting research, writing a script and developing an interesting story. The person then uses software such as Animoto, Movie Maker or PhotoStory to create a short movie by utilizing photos, digital scans, movie clips, music, voice recordings, etc. which can be viewed by computer, uploaded to a website or burned on a DVD. A good digital story typically has a strong emotional component. In order to create a successful digital story, seven elements must be present: point of view, a dramatic question, emotional content, the gift of one’s voice, the power of the sound track, economy and pacing.
Elements of a Good Digital Story
Originally described by Joe Lambert in his Digital Storytelling Cookbook and summarized by Bull and Kadjer (2004), the seven main elements of digital stories can be described as follows:
- Point of View: "... the goal of digital storytelling is to allow a writer to experience the power of personal expression. Therefore, students' digital stories need to be constructed from their own experience and understanding. Using the first-person pronoun "I" rather than the more distant third-person point of view is essential."
- A Dramatic Question: "A story that holds the attention of the audience has a dramatic question that is resolved by the end of the story. This characteristic distinguishes the digital story from a travelogue. Narratives that lead the reader to become invested typically pursue a compelling question that evokes interest and commitment."
- Emotional Content: "The most effective digital stories evoke an emotion from the audience. We often see laughter, tears, and expressions of pleasure from the audience when digital stories are screened. This can be tremendously rewarding to student writers, validating the effort and investment they have made."
- The Gift of your Voice: "The pitch, inflection, and timbre of the storyteller's voice convey meaning and intent in a very personal way. This has proven to be one of the most essential elements that contribute to the effectiveness of a digital story. There is no substitute for using your own voice to tell your story."
- The Power of the Soundtrack: "Properly employed music can enhance and underscore the accompanying story, adding complexity and depth to the narrative."
- Economy: "Modern digital editors offer a plethora of special effects and transitions. It can be tempting to replicate the visual onslaught of music videos on MTV. We have found that the effective digital story uses only a few images, a few words, and even fewer special effects to clearly and powerfully communicate intended meaning."
- Pacing: "Monotonous refers to an unvaried inflection and pace. The word has become synonymous with boring because an unvaried pace will not hold the audience's attention. For student writers, pacing means pulling back or racing forward when the story calls for it, as opposed to when the time limit approaches."
Another determination of a good digital story comes from Take Six: Elements of Good Digital Storytelling (Porter, 2004). According to Porter, a good digital story includes:
- Living Inside Your Story—The perspective of each story is told in first person using your own storytelling voice to narrate the tale. Rather than a detached telling that this happened and that happened, viewers experience you living inside this story.
- Unfolding Lessons Learned—One of the most unique features of this specific digital storytelling style is the expectation that each story express a personal meaning or insight about how a particular event or situation touches you, your community, or humanity.
- Developing Creative Tension—A good story creates intrigue or tension around a situation that is posed at the beginning of the story and resolved at the end, sometimes with an unexpected twist. The tension of an unresolved or curious situation engages and holds the viewer until reaching a memorable end.
- Economizing the Story Told—A good story has a destination—a point to make—and seeks the shortest path to its destination. The art of shortening a story lies in preserving the essence of the tale—using the fewest words along with images and sound to make your point.
- Showing Not Telling—Unlike traditional oral or written stories, images, sound, and music can be used to show a part of the context, create setting, give story information, and provide emotional meaning not provided by words. Both words and media need to reveal through details rather than named or simply stated.
- Developing Craftsmanship—A good story incorporates technology in artful ways, demonstrating craftsmanship in communicating with images, sound, voice, color, white space, animations, design, transitions, and special effects. Ask yourself whether your media resources are decorating, illustrating, or illuminating.
Types of Digital Stories
There are three types of digital stories: personal narratives, stories that inform/instruct, and stories that examine historical themes and events. Personal narratives allow educators to tap into each of their students' personal experiences and can take many forms. One form of personal narrative, as described by the CDS, is a character story. This type of narrative "explore[s] how we love, who we are inspired by, and the importance of finding meaning in our relationships" (Robin, 2008.) A second type of personal narrative is a memorial story. In this form of storytelling, students "deal with memories of people who are no longer with us. These stories are often difficult but are emotionally powerful and can help with the grieving process" (Robin, 2008.) Stories about events in our lives is a third style of personal narrative an educator can use in the classroom. These types of stories can come in two varieties. Adventure stories revolve around places we visit and the adventures we experience in our travels. Accomplishment stories deal with achieving goals and understanding the defining moments in our lives (Robin, 2008.) A fourth type of personal narrative is a story about places in our lives. In these type of stories, students "examine the important places in our lives: our homes, our towns, and our experiences that connect us to our communities" (Robin, 2008.) A fifth type of personal narrative is a story about what we do. These stories "allow us to talk about our jobs, professions, and careers in terms of how we value and find meaning in the work we do" (Robin, 2008.) Other personal narratives that can be explored using digital storytelling include recovery stories that deal with how we overcome obstacles and challenges in our lives; love stories that provide us with an opportunity to share some of the most meaningful parts of our lives with the people we most cherish; and discovery stories that let us reflect on what we have learned and illustrate our journeys of discovery (Robin, 2008.)
A second type of digital story is one that can be created to deliver instructional content on many different topics. This instructional flexibility allows for digital stories that inform or instruct to be used in a wide range of classrooms, from mathematics and science, to history and literacy. These digital stories allow students the opportunity to present an extensive variety of content in an entertaining, multimedia format.
A third type of digital story is an examination of historical themes and events. Hofer and Swan (2006) describe guidelines for digital stories that examine historical themes and events that state they need to be based on material students explore, need to facilitate research and organizational skills, and need to go beyond the digitized "MTV video" or the "Encyclopedia Entry". Even though digital storytelling has been around for awhile, it is a great way to grab student’s attention, increase their interest in new information, enhance current lessons and incorporate 21st century information literacy skills.
History[edit | edit source]
Digital storytelling was created in the late 1980s by Joe Lambert and Dana Atchley. As cofounders of the Center for Digital Storytelling (CDS) in Berkeley, California, they assisted people who were interested in creating their own personal narratives. They also developed the Seven Elements of Digital Storytelling which are still used today to help guide people through the process of creating a digital story. Technology has changed dramatically since those early days and has also become more affordable for the average person. Software programs can be downloaded freely from the internet. New devices such as digital cameras, microphones, computers, scanners, etc. are readily available to the public. New Web 2.0 technologies are also accessible via the internet and can be incorporated into digital stories such as Voki, Wordle, Wikis and Animoto. Digital storytelling is becoming more popular in education because of these reasons, but it also fits perfectly in today’s curriculum in providing students with the information literacy skills they need to be a citizen in the 21st century.
Advantages/Disadvantages[edit | edit source]
Using digital storytelling in the classroom has numerous advantages. The greatest tangible benefit of digital storytelling is seen in terms of student engagement. Research (Hofer & Swan, 2006) in both elementary and college classrooms has shown that students enthusiastically surpassed teacher expectations. Students spent much more time than was required working on their digital story, the effects, and the overall aesthetic of their projects. Student engagement was not only limited to the moviemaking process, however. Engagement in the course content itself was improved as a result of the digital stories. Teachers reported that students did more detailed, broad research for these projects than they did for other course assignments. When presented with an engaging question, students went far beyond the textbook in researching and telling their stories. Students in these projects went beyond the textbooks not only because they were encouraged to by their teacher, but also because they were more heavily invested in their stories than other previous classroom projects. "Designing and communicating information requires students to deepen their understanding of content while increasing visual, sound, oral language, creativity, and thinking skills" (Porter, 2004). Yet another benefit of digital storytelling is the creativity they stimulate in students. Unlike many other student-centered projects, students are not limited to mainly text and images. Rather, digital stories offer a multi-modal, open-ended forum for students to present their understanding. Just as in a well-crafted film, student digital storytelling products are far more than the sum of their parts. The choices students employ create a synergistic effect in which the multiple forms of media amplify the message and leverage the dual coding nature of how people learn (Clark & Paivio, 1991).
When used in education, digital storytelling can be a wonderfully motivating, creative, instructional tool for students. Today’s Generation Z students (1990s-2000) are the first generation born into the digital age. They utilize technology on a daily basis with their cellphones, iPods, computers, and socialnetworking sites. This generation is a very visual generation and digital storytelling is a very powerful tool for educators to promote higher level thinking skills, collaboration among students and creativity.
- motivates students in new ways versus a traditional research paper
- helps improve writing skills by having students learn how to write from a certain point of view
- encourages research skills
- helps develop organizational skills
- leads to deeper understanding of the material being taught
- can be used with many different learning styles
- incorporates 21st century information skills
Digital storytelling is not without its drawbacks. According to Hofer and Swan, pedagogical challenges have the greatest impact in determining the success of a project. They argue "[the] way a digital storytelling project is framed will help determine the quality, focus, and direction of student products. It is essential, given the divergent and open-ended nature of digital storytelling, that the teacher carefully frame the activity and explicitly tie the project to the core content and process goals encompassed in the curriculum... The challenge is for teachers to frame the exercise in an engaging way that leads to the kinds of knowledge, understanding, and experiences desired." Another aspect to take into consideration is how to support the wide range of abilities present in the classroom. "Oftentimes digital storytelling projects encompass a range of skills, processes, and content goals... [Students] had to undertake research, engage in creative writing, editing and revision, and consider the potential and impact of images, music, and narration on the mood and tone of their stories. And this all had to take place before ever actually sitting down at the computer to create their digital [stories]" (Hofer & Swan, 2006) Teachers need to provide the proper pedagogical scaffolding to ensure all students can succeed. In addition, teachers need to present a clear and concise assessment tool of student learning. The best form of assessment for digital stories is a rubric that clearly states the requirements of the project. The constraints of the modern classroom must also be considered. More and more teachers are feeling pressure to "cover" course content and ensure student mastery of course material. Time is at a premium for teachers and extended projects can be difficult to work into the unit plan. As a result, it is important to design digital storytelling projects in such a way that they align closely with state standards and encourage mastery of the content in a reasonable time frame.
According to Bernard Robin at the University of Houston there are some disadvantages of digital narratives that educators may encounter with their students. Educators should involve their ITs or Library Media Specialists if possible, when planning their digital storytelling projects. Being proactive and knowledgeable about their systems and digital tools would help alleviate difficulties during the project development. Educators need to be aware that their students may have:
- difficulty formulating a sound argument
- more interest in the technology and not the storytelling
- access to technology hardware and software
- limited ability to save from the internet
- time consuming
- copyright and intellectual property issues
Issues/Problems[edit | edit source]
One of the main issues in creating a digital story is the lack of training for educators utilizing these technologies. Many educators are uncomfortable with technology and lack confidence in applying it to their lessons. They also feel that they do not have the extra time to incorporate such technology into their curriculum because they need to cover materials for standardized testing. Digital storytelling is a very time consuming process and can take up to an entire school year to complete, if done properly. In conjunction with the lack of training, teachers also need to have support from their school districts on how to use these technologies with their students and make it meaningful in their curriculum. Another issue is the lack of current technology and “tools” for students to use. School districts across the nation are suffering from various budget issues and many times hard choices have to be made between eliminating teaching staff and technology budgets. On the other hand some school districts purchase new technologies ( iPods, iPads), but then do not utilize them in their curriculum.
Technology can present its own set of problems while creating digital storytelling projects. Even though most of the software used to create these projects is free to download, the programs are impressive enough to lead to a problem of excess. The programs contain so many options and capabilities that students can get bogged down in small details like transitions between images and developing the perfect Ken Burns zoom effect as opposed to focusing on content. Hofer and Swan found that "[while] the aesthetic value in both student and audience engagement cannot be disputed, there is a delicate balance between incorporating effects and elements that enhance a movie and those that either add no value or even distract from the story ... It is a challenge for the teacher to select the software to be used in the project to provide enough, but not too many, features for students to create their movies." File management and storage and management is another issue to consider when starting a digital storytelling project. Managing the multitude of image and sound files can be difficult. Once students begin constructing their projects, file sizes become quite large, often requiring devices with large storage capacities. Finally, teachers need to keep copyright laws in mind when students are searching the world wide web for media to be utilized in their digital storytelling projects.
Uses[edit | edit source]
Digital storytelling can be used in many subject areas and for various activities. A good starting point for educators interested in using digital narratives in their classrooms would be The Educational Uses of Digital Storytelling website through the University of Houston (http://digitalstorytelling.coe.uh.edu/index.html). This website has a plethora of information from hardware/software usage to assessment. It sorts digital stories into three major categories: personal/narrative stories, stories that inform/instruct and stories that document historical events. Here educators can view examples how other students and teachers K-12 globally are using the technologies in their classrooms. It is not only a great resource for planning a project, but the examples are an excellent way to hook students on the creative possibilities through storytelling.
Conclusion[edit | edit source]
The benefits of digital storytelling far outweigh the disadvantages. Educators and students who have participated in creating digital narratives in the classroom find it to be a powerful communication tool. Such projects not only reinforce writing and research skills, but help students to work together, critique one another’s work through discussion and help students gain 21st century literacy skills by utilizing today’s latest technologies. In doing so, educators are not only engaging their students on multiple levels, but also preparing them with the skills for the world beyond their K-12 education.
References[edit | edit source]
Bull, G. & Kajder, S. (2004). Digital Storytelling in the Language Arts Classroom. Learning & Leading with Technology, 32 (4), 46-49. Retrieved November 29, 2010, from http://www.digitalstoryteller.org/docs/DigitalStorytelling.pdf
Center for Digital Storytelling. (n.d.). Center for Digital Storytelling. Retrieved November 22, 2010, from http://www.storycenter.org/
Clark, J. & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3 (3), 149-170.
Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and underused computers in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Educational Uses of Digital Storytelling. (n.d.). Educational Uses of Digital Storytelling. Retrieved November 22, 2010, from http://digitalstorytelling.coe.uh.edu/index.html
Hofer, M. and Swan, K.O. (2006). Digital Storytelling: Moving From Promise to Practice. Retrieved November 23, 2010, from http://www.umbc.edu/oit/newmedia/studio/digitalstories/documents/Dig_Story_Promise_to_Practice.pdf
Kieler, L. (2010). Trials in Using Digital Storytelling Effectively With the Gifted. Gifted Child Today, 33(3), 49-52.
Marrion, E. (2010). Capturing Moments in Time: Student-Produced Digital Stories. Library Media Connection, August/September, 52-53.
Payne, A. (n.d.). The Digitization of Learning -- THE Journal. THE Journal: Technological Horizons in Education -- THE Journal. Retrieved November 23, 2010, from http://thejournal.com/Articles/2005/06/01/The-Digitization-of-Learning.aspx?p=1
Porter, B. (2004). The Art of Digital Storytelling- Part I: Becoming 21st-Century Storykeepers. The Creative Educator. Retrieved on November 23, 2010, from http://www.digitales.us/files/ArtOfStorytelling.pdf
Riedel, C. (n.d.). 5 Ways To Enhance Instruction with Digital Narratives -- THE Journal. THE Journal: Technological Horizons in Education -- THE Journal. Retrieved November 23, 2010, from http://thejournal.com/articles/2010/01/27/5-ways-to-enhance-instruction-with-digital-narratives.aspx?sc_lang=en
Robin, B.R. (2008). The Educational Uses of Digital Storytelling PowerPoint Presentation. Retrieved November 23, 2010, from http://digitalstorytelling.coe.uh.edu/powerpoint.html
Robin, B. R. (2008). Digital Storytelling: A Powerful Technology Tool for the 21st Century Classroom. Theory Into Practice, 47, 220-228.
Sheneman, L. (2010). Digital Storytelling: How to Get the Best Results. School Library Monthly, XXVII(September-October), 40-42.
Vandenbroek, A. (2010). Rtl: The Librarian's Fairy Tale?. Library Media Connection, October, 48-50.


The power of social media in contemporary society cannot be ignored. Social media platforms such as Twitter, Facebook and WhatsApp, among others, provide a space in which society can communicate freely and cheaply, articulating their divergent viewpoints. Social media can be used to promote peace and tolerance if used carefully. However, academics have noted that social media can also have destructive consequences for society, such as heightened conflicts and hatred, due to the spread of “fake” information from various sectors of society. There is empirical evidence showing how social media has been used as a tool to promote hate speech and the isolation of certain groups in society. When parties with divergent viewpoints take their conflict into the offline sphere, it can lead to bloodshed and death.
This article provides examples of movements on Facebook and Twitter, which show how social media is a place for both good and destructive conflict resolution. “Good” refers to the idea that social media can give marginalised groups voice and help protesters acquire solidarity with the international community, resulting in policy change and action from government and other stakeholders. “Destructive” refers to the idea that social media can be used to create tensions and spread “fake news” with the intention to mislead, thereby inciting conflict and violence.
The internet and social media are a huge part of our lives, and they feature prominently in our social and political lives. They affect how we do business, share information and knowledge and how we relate to other people in the local and global contexts. Social media refers to “specific sets of internet-based and networked communication platforms enabling a convergence of public and personal communication”.1 Social media is also defined as referring to the content posted on various social platforms.2 This content ranges from images, videos and texts about personal, social and political lives posted and shared on platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, Instagram and WhatsApp, among others. Other scholarly definitions emphasise how information and ideas are shared within an online community via mobile phones, tablets and desktop computers, among other tools, if they are connected to the internet.3 The power of social media in raising awareness helps issues get out into the global public arena. The explosion of online political groups and activism across the world shows how citizens use social media to air their grievances, which extends their participation in the social and political spheres,4 or their participation in the Habermasian public sphere,5 which refers to the social spaces where individuals gather to discuss their common public affairs. “Digital storytelling and the internet thus provide a powerful counterpoint to mainstream, or political narratives and act as conduits for stimulating dialogue amongst ordinary citizens and influencing change.”6
There has been an increase in the number of online protests, as citizens continue to clamour for the respect of human rights and the rule of law the world over. Through social media, citizens are able to freely express themselves on social and political issues. Scholars argue that “the internet is seen as helping marginalised groups develop their own deliberative forums, link up, and subsequently contest dominant meanings and practices” through the creation and exchange of user-generated content.7 The role of alternative media in reinforcing the ability of subaltern groups to challenge dominant power structures is made evident.8
On the other hand, scholars have noted that there are negative uses of social media by citizens that have detrimental results. People use social media to attack the reputation of others, to post inflammatory and digressive messages, and to persecute others. This is evident in the spread of hate speech for the promotion of violent agendas, and the spread of fake news with the deliberate intention to mislead.9 Social media is used by some as weapons of war to discredit and fight the “enemy” through fake news.10 Fake news and online misinformation are serious problems across the world.11 Bots and the rise of artificial intelligence are contributing to the spread of false content via fake user accounts, making conflict inevitable. With the opening of the democratic space, more fake news is being circulated online, which undermines trust in mainstream media, builds and feeds on community divisions, and distorts democratic processes.12 False news spreads fast on social media, and those behind it do it knowingly or unknowingly.13 The British Broadcasting Corporation’s (BBC) research project on fake news in India, Kenya and Nigeria in 2018 showed that health, religion and terrorism were among the issues circulated under the banner of fake news, with the intention to create scares and fuel hate speech, leading to violence and death.14
Protest movements in Africa and across the world
Through social media, society has witnessed the communication, organisation and mobilisation of various kinds of protests including the Arab Spring (2011), #BlackLivesMatter (2013), #BringBackOurGirls (2014) and #MeToo (2017), among others. Through these protest movements, oppressed groups were able to share their grievances and find support in the global world15 via social media platforms. The #BringBackOurGirls16 campaign, which started in 2014 after more than 200 girls were kidnapped by the Boko Haram insurgent group from Chibok Secondary School in north-east Nigeria, shows how tweets from a few Nigerians gave birth to a global response in support of the cause.17 As soon as the cause spread on social media, it became one of international importance. Social media played a key role in forcing the issue onto the international agenda as millions, including the former first lady of the United States of America (USA), Michelle Obama, posted images of themselves in support of the cause.18 However, without real action on the ground, hashtags, likes and shares cannot bring real meaningful change, as some scholars argue. The advantage of social media in this movement is seen in how “the spotlight continues to shine on the plight of the Chibok girls, years after the kidnapping”.19 However, others argue that the Nigerian government did not do enough to address this challenge, as kidnappings by Boko Haram continued.20 Online campaigns only helped campaigners and journalists put pressure on the Nigerian government, but nothing much changed.
The Women’s March in 2017 in the USA and #MeToo movements began on Facebook and gathered international support. These movements also demonstrated the blurred line between the online and offline worlds. In the USA, women protested policies such as reproductive rights, immigration and civil rights, and police violence immediately after President Donald Trump took office in 2017.21 The marches, across the different states, involved hundreds of thousands of women with support from influential personalities, such as former first lady Hillary Clinton and Senator Elizabeth Warren, and many celebrities. The #MeToo movement involved millions of individuals around the world, who used the #MeToo hashtag in support of survivors of sexual harassment and violence in the wake of sexual harassment and assault allegations against high-profile Hollywood producer, Harvey Weinstein.22 The mass sharing of the #MeToo hashtag in 24 hours made apparent the magnitude of sexual harassment against women across the world, as it gave rise to further movements by women in different parts of the world (China, Spain, Italy and Argentina, among others). It also helped women establish a community of survivors, and is seen as a historic milestone in the fight for women’s rights. In Africa, #MeToo took its own form as African women held marches in various places. Social media23 is thus empowering women and other marginalised groups in society, enabling them to voice their grievances.
In South Africa, thousands of women embarked on marches in 2019 “at the government’s failure to deal with rising violence against women in the wake of a string of brutal attacks that shocked the country”.24 The protest, organised by WomenProtestSA, saw local celebrities and thousands of people take to social media to express their anger and frustrations about gender violence under the hashtags #NotInMyName, #AmINext and #SAShutDown. Before the protest, women used social media to share images of women who were murdered by their partners and were often victims of rape.25 There was anger over the state’s failure to protect women and children. The protest was an indication that there is a crisis of gender-based violence in the country that needs urgent action.
In Zimbabwe, a movement by citizens started on Facebook enabled them to challenge late former president Robert Mugabe’s power in 2016–2017. The #ThisFlag movement, which was started accidentally on Facebook by Pastor Evan Mawarire, attracted tens of thousands of hits and went viral. Local citizens in public and private institutions, together with those in neighbouring countries such as South Africa and in the wider diaspora, joined in the protest when they demonstrated at various Zimbabwean consulate offices, demanding that Mugabe and his government step down. Mawarire’s Facebook video and subsequent posts on Twitter helped set the stage for the biggest protest against the government. The movement, which became known as #ShutdownZimbabwe, came in the wake of a deepening economic crisis in the country that had resulted in failure by the government to pay civil servants on time.26 Increasing levels of unemployment among graduates, corruption and police brutality, among others, were on the list of problems cited by aggrieved protesters. Restricted democratic space has spawned a multiplicity of alternative public spheres that give groups and individuals the power to participate and engage in debates on the Zimbabwean crises and resistance to state propaganda churned out through the mainstream media.27
The #ThisFlag movement gained international sympathy and support, and influenced the global and regional news media agenda when large media organisations such as Cable News Network (CNN), the BBC, Africa News Network (ANN7), South Africa Broadcasting Corporation (SABC), Al Jazeera and Sky News, among others, reported these events, thus placing Zimbabwe in the international spotlight and putting pressure on Mugabe’s government to introduce reforms. The Zimbabwe media, which was largely pro-government, attempted to play down the movement, but it was difficult because it had already gathered momentum and become a global spectacle, with mounting pressure for Mugabe and his government to step down coming from within and outside Zimbabwe. In response to the protest, Mugabe’s government reduced the number of police officers on the streets and provided salary payment dates for civil servants, but the government also intensified efforts to regulate social media.
Social media has become a focal point for uniting individuals, regardless of their personal experiences, cultural differences and geographic location. The importance of social media in enabling citizens to organise themselves and garner support on a national and international scale is evident in the many examples of protests.
The downside of social media is evident in its use to propagate fake news and hate speech with the intention of creating instability and conflict. Fake news is being used as a political weapon in conflict. A Reuters investigation28 exposed more than 1 000 examples of hateful posts, images and comments against the Muslim community in Myanmar. For example, Twitter was used to spread hate speech against the Rohingya. Examples from the Reuters report indicate that posts referred to the Rohingya as “dogs, maggots, rapists and that they should be fed to pigs, be shot and exterminated”, among others.29 The same tools used in the previously mentioned protests that galvanised people for a common good cause can also be used to promote hate and isolation. As social media’s presence in our society grows, there is more fear of increasing polarisation, hate speech and fake news, which all fuel conflict.30 Facebook was blamed for failing to control the crisis in Myanmar. An analyst from the Institute for War and Peace Reporting who led a two-year study of hate speech in Myanmar, Alan Davis, said that in the months before August 2017, he noticed posts on Facebook becoming “more organised and odious, and more militarised”.31
Similarly, in the 2019 xenophobic attacks against migrants in South Africa, which led to thousands being displaced and several dying, social media was used by perpetrators of violence to circulate misinformation and rumours to foster panic and confusion. “Anti-migrant rhetoric had been circulating on social media among groups alleging immigrants cheat their customers with out-of-date produce in their shops, take jobs from locals and defraud the state.”32 During the attacks, old videos and photos of violence from other countries were circulated online and passed off as recent footage, which provoked outrage in South Africa and outside the country.33 Some individuals in other countries such as Nigeria, who saw the images and videos, began attacking South Africans in their country.34 Scholars have highlighted that in conflict, the spread of information on social media is increased, making it difficult to control.
It is clear that social media can be used by people as a tool for good and bad. Some of the good or positive uses are when users share their grievances online with the potential of getting national and international support. This puts pressure on local governments to introduce reforms to help solve problems. On the negative side, people use social media to spread hate speech, fake news and propaganda, which incites conflict and violence and can result in death. While both the positive and negative examples of social media in conflict have been discussed, the positive uses of social media in conflict resolution should be encouraged among people. Social media can be used to prevent conflict if users share constructive messages and create peace campaigns..35 Social media can play a huge role in emancipating and giving voice to those who otherwise may not be heard, with the potential to become a significant factor in conflict resolution.
- Meikle, Graham (2016) Social Media: Communication, Sharing and Visibility. New York: Routledge. p. x.
- Miller, Daniel; Costa, Elisabetta; Haynes, Nell; McDonald, Tom; Nicolescu, Razvan; Sinanan, Jolynna; Spyer, Juliano; Venkatraman, Shriram and Wang, Xinyuan (2016) How the World Changed Social Media. London: UCL. pp. 1–20.
- Castells, Manuel (2013) Communication Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. xxi–xxv.
- Bowen, Charles (1996) Modem Nation: The Handbook of Grassroots American Activism. New York: Random House, pp. 1–25.
- Papacharissi, Zizi (2002) The Virtual Sphere: The Internet as a Public Sphere. New Media and Society 4 (1), pp. 9–27.
- Bohler-Muller, Narnia and Van Der Merwe, Charl (2011) Technosociality: When Technology Meets our Social Behaviour. Rhodes Journalism Review, pp. 27–28.
- Sen, A. Fuyla (2012) The Social Media as a Public Sphere: The Rise of Social Opposition. International Conference on Communication, Media, Technology and Design (ICCMTD). Istanbul: Fırat Universitesi, p. 490.
- Downing, John (2001) Radical Media: Rebellious Communication and Social Movements. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage, pp. 1–22.
- Zeitzoff, Thomas (2017) How Social Media is Changing Conflict. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 61 (9) pp. 1970–1991.
- Singer, Peter W. and Brooking, Emerson T. (2018) LikeWar: The Weaponisation of Social Media. New York: Harcourt, pp. 1–22.
- Chiluwa, Innocent E and Samoilenko, Sergei A. (n.d.) Handbook of Research on Deception, Fake News, and Misinformation Online. IGI Global, p. xxiii.
- British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) (2018) ‘What We’ve Learnt about Fake News in Africa’, BBC News, 12 November, Available at: <https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-46138284> [Accessed 12 January 2020].
- Graham, David A. (2019) ‘Some Real News about Fake News’, The Atlantic, 7 June, Available at: <https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/06/fake-news-republicans-democrats/591211/> [Accessed 12 January 2020].
- Raleva, Ralitsa (2018) ‘Social Media: A Place for Good and Evil in Conflict Resolution’, Shout Out UK, 27 December, Available at: <https://www.shoutoutuk.org/2018/12/27/social-media-a-place-for-good-and-evil-in-conflict-resolution/> [Accessed 12 January 2020].
- Holpuch, Amanda (2018) ‘Stolen Daughters: What Happened after #BringBackOurGirls?’, The Guardian, 22 October, Available at: <https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2018/oct/22/bring-back-our-girls-documentary-stolen-daughters-kidnapped-boko-haram> [Accessed 12 January 2020].
- Collins, Matt (2014) ‘#BringBackOurGirls: The Power of a Social Media Campaign’, The Guardian, 9 May, Available at: <https://www.theguardian.com/voluntary-sector network/2014/may/09/bringbackourgirls-power-of-social-media> [Accessed 12 January 2020].
- Olson, Candi Carter (2016) #BringBackOurGirls: Digital Communities Supporting Real-world Change and Influencing Mainstream Media Agendas. Feminist Media Studies, 16 (5), pp. 77–787.
- Holpuch, Amanda (2018) op. cit.
- Shearlaw, Maeve (2015) ‘Did the #bringbackourgirls Campaign Make a Difference in Nigeria?’, The Guardian, 14 April, Available at: <https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/14/nigeria-bringbackourgirls-campaign-one-year-on> [Accessed 12 January 2020].
- Hartocollis, Anemona and Alcindor, Yamiche (2017) ‘Women’s March Highlights as Huge Crowds Protest Trump: “We’re Not Going Away”, The New York Times, 21 January, <https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/21/us/womens-march.html> [Accessed 12 January 2020].
- Fileborn, Bianca and Loney-Howes, Rachel (2019) #MeToo and the Politics of Social Change. Cham: Palgrave and Macmillan, pp. 1–11.
- Hillstrom, Laurie Collier (2019) The #MeToo Movement. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, pp. 1–7.
- Francke, Robin-Lee (2019) ‘Thousands Protest in South Africa over Rising Violence against Women’, The Guardian, 5 September, Available at: <https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/05/thousands-protest-in-south-africa-over-rising-violence-against-women> [Accessed 12 January 2020].
- Odufuwa, Damilola (2018) ‘Women in South Africa are Marching against Gender Violence with #TotalShutdown Protest’, CNN, 2 August, Available at: <https://edition.cnn.com/2018/08/01/africa/south-africa-women-protest/index.html> [Accessed 12 January 2020].
- Staff reporter (2016) ‘Tension as “Zim Shutdown” Begins’, NewsDay, 6 July, Available at: <https://www.newsday.co.zw/2016/07/tension-zim-shutdown-begins/> [Accessed 12 January 2020].
- Moyo, Dumisani (2007) Alternative Media, Diasporas and the Mediation of the Zimbabwe Crisis. Ecquid Novi, 28 (1–2), pp. 81–105.
- Stecklow, Steve (2018) ‘Why Facebook is Losing the War on Hate Speech in Myanmar’, Reuters, 15 August, Available at: <https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/myanmar-facebook-hate/> [Accessed 10 January 2020].
- British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) (2020) ‘Myanmar Rohingya: What you Need to Know About the Crisis’, BBC News, 23 January, Available at: <https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-41566561> [Accessed January 2020].
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Creativity is only partly recognised in education. A recent meta-analysis estimated a correlation of
Keywords: CreativityeducationwritingConsensual Assessment Technique
Creativity has positive associations in contemporary societies. For example, creativity is essential for new ideas and innovations in business, and it is regarded as a central facet in art and design. In recent decades, the role of creativity has also been emphasised in the educational discourse (Craft, 2003). For example, recognition of creativity is listed as one of the aims of the National Curriculum in the UK (Department of Education, UK, 1994).
Creative idea production is recognised as being an outcome of both divergent and convergent thinking (e.g. Cropley, 2006). However, the education system in the UK emphasises convergent thinking skills (Wilson, 2014). Convergent thinking is characterised by having one correct solution to a clearly defined problem (Guilford, 1957). Most cognitive ability tests, as well as many exams in primary education, measure convergent thinking skills (Chamorro-Premuzic & Reichenbacher, 2008; Cropley, 1967). In contrast, divergent thinking tests have dominated the field of creativity assessment for decades (Runco & Acar, 2012). Divergent thinking involves producing multiple answers or alternative answers from available information, as well as making unexpected combinations, remote associations and transforming information (Cropley, 2006). Divergent thinking is associated with exploratory learning style (Dirkes, 1978). For example, Montessori schools emphasise creative learning through activities based on imagination (Besançon & Lubart, 2008). Research has also highlighted the teachers’ role as facilitators of creative learning (Jeffrey, 2006). However, more research is needed in order to establish the ideal circumstances in education for creativity to flourish.
The assessment or evaluation of creativity in education is not easy, since there are many different ways to define creativity (Plucker, Beghetto & Dow, 2004). This problem was demonstrated in a recent meta-analysis on creativity and educational achievement. The meta-analysis concluded that the differences between studies in which creativity measures were used were reflected in differences across the studies in the strength of associations between creativity and educational achievement (Gajda, Karwowski & Beghetto, 2016). In other words, different creativity measures do not correlate highly among themselves, tapping into largely different aspects of creativity. The combined, overall effect size for all different creativity measures and educational achievement in the meta-analysis was r = .2 (Gajda et al., 2016).
The creativity measures used in the meta-analysis included self-evaluations of one’s own creativity, frequency of taking part to creative activities, divergent thinking and insight tasks (Gajda et al., 2016). Insight tasks present participants with unusual problems that require an alternative, new way of addressing a problem. Arriving at the solution of an insight task is associated with a sudden and clear solution through insight, the ‘A-ha’ or ‘Eureka’ moment (Bowden et al., 2005). Insight tasks correlate poorly with other creativity measures (e.g. divergent thinking and behavioural measures), and they are conceptually very similar to many convergent thinking tasks (Beaty, Nusbaum, & Silvia, 2014). The most commonly used divergent thinking task is the Alternative Uses Task, such as the Torrance tests of Creative Thinking (Torrance, Ball, & Safter, 2003). These tasks require participants to come up with alternative uses to a shown object, such as brick or newspaper. These tasks typically require external, subjective evaluations to score the answers based on their creativity. The Torrance Tests may measure divergent thinking ability in certain specific domains, but they should not be interpreted as measures of creativity in general (Baer, 2011). As the score is based on frequency of the answers, it can be considered a measure of verbal fluency, not necessarily of creativity (Silvia et al., 2008). Overall, divergent thinking tasks measure only a very limited aspect of creativity, and therefore their relevance in education has been questioned (Barbot, Besancon, & Lubart, 2015; Zeng, Proctor, & Salvendy, 2011).
In addition to the measures of creativity as an individual’s ability or potential (e.g. self-evaluations, divergent thinking and insight tasks), creativity can also be measured in a product, such as creativity of a novel. Assessing creativity of a product instead of focusing on individual’s ability or potential may be particularly applicable in education (Barbot, Besancon, & Lubart, 2015). Creative outcome, such as a short story or picture, is not only a product of creative potential but also reflects other factors, such as intrinsic motivation and domain-specific skills (Amabile, 1983).
Previous research on the relationship between creativity and educational achievement has focused on creative potential measures, namely divergent thinking (see meta-analysis, Gajda et al., 2016). Creative potential measures assess individual’s ability, not creative behaviours or outcomes. This study will use Consensual Assessment Technique (CAT; Amabile, 1982) to estimate the creativity of a product, namely written stories. The use of CAT to evaluate creativity in written texts has demonstrated high inter-rater reliability in a previous study (Baer, Kaufman, & Gentile, 2004). Most of the previous studies on creativity and education have applied a cross-sectional design. The longitudinal nature of the current study is a particular strength. The availability of diverse measures in our study sample also allows us to investigate the role of creativity in educational achievement in addition to intelligence and personality. Also, the stories were written at children’s homes, not in the school environment, which may influence the creative expressiveness in the stories.
1. Can CAT be used as a method to estimate creativity inchildren’s written stories at age 9?
2. Does story creativityat age 9 predict educational achievement in English, and/or in Maths at age 16 over intelligence, previous school achievement and personality measures associated with creativity?
Purpose of the Study
This study will add incremental knowledge on the use of CAT to evaluate creativity in written children’s stories. Furthermore, this study will investigate whether creativity in writing can already be detected in primary schooland whetherit relates to further educational achievement.
A randomly selected subsample of 60 twins from the Twins Early Development Study (TEDS) was used in this study. TEDS is a large, longitudinal twin sample that includes more than 13,000 twin pairs, born between 1994 and 1996, representative of the population of England and Wales (Haworth et al., 2013). Only one twin per pair was selected to eliminate the effect of the shared home environment. Data from one participant was excluded from further analyses due to poor handwriting that made it impossible to transcribe the story. The final sample consisted of 40 females and 19 males.
The measures were collected in two different data collection waves at ages 9 and 16.
Written stories at 9
Stories were written at age 9. The children were shown three coloured pictures of animals and buildings at a farm. They were then instructed to write a story that was creative. The pictures and instructions for the task are shown below in Figure
The Consensual Assessment Technique (Amabile, 1983) is widely used, reliable and validated creativity evaluation technique. It is based on the assumption that a group of independent judges are best able to make evaluations on the creativity of a product (Hennessey & Amabile, 1999). Creativity may be difficult to define and characterise, but as demonstrated by CAT, people can recognise and agree on it (Hennessey & Amabile, 1999). CAT has been used in different domains among primary school children, such as on musical compositions and drawings (Hickey, 2001; Lubart et al., 2010). CAT has also previously been used to evaluate creativity in children’s orally told stories (Hennessey & Amabile, 1988).
In the present study, six independent judges coded the stories for 10 different dimensions each on a 5-point Likert-scale using their own subjective interpretation of creativity. As instructed by the method of CAT, no fixed criteria were presented to judges on which their scoring should be based (Amabile, 1983). The judges were instructed to evaluate creativity in the stories as follows: “Please evaluate the creativity of the story on this page in relation to the other 58 stories. Use your own subjective assessment of creativity”. Nine other dimensions that the judges were asked to evaluate in the stories were: Liking, Novelty, Imagination, Logic, Emotion, Grammar, Detail, Vocabulary and Straightforwardness (Hennessey & Amabile, 1988). Three of the judges were primary school teachers, three undergraduate Psychology students. All the judges were females.
General cognitive ability at 9
General cognitive ability at age 9 was a combination of two non-verbal tests and two verbal tests. The non-verbal Puzzle and Shapes tests are part of the Cognitive Abilities Test 3(CAT3; Smith, Fernandez, & Strand, 2001). Verbal ability at age 9 was assessed using the vocabulary and general knowledge tests (WISC-III-UK; Wechsler, 1992).
English and Maths at 9
English and Maths at age 9 were standardised teacher-reported scores, each based on three different evaluations per subject. The three components evaluated in English were Speaking and Listening, Reading, and Writing. In Maths they were Using and Applying Mathematics, Numbers, and Shapes, Space and Measures.
Openness to Experience and Extraversion at 16
Openness to Experience and Extraversion were measured as part of 30-item personality scale (Mullins-Sweatt et al., 2006) based on the Five-Factor Model of personality. Each personality factor was assessed by 6 items.
English and Maths at 16
English and Maths scores at 16 are based on the results of the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), a standardised end of the school exam in the UK. English grade is the average of Language and Literature; Maths grade is the average of Maths, Statistics and Additional Maths.
The inter-rater reliabilities between the six judges for all the story dimensions were high (α = .76 - .95). The total score for each of the ten dimensions was calculated as a sum of the scores from all six judges. All the total dimension scores were normally distributed. To establish clusters between the ten dimensions, a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was run with a Varimax rotation. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure was high (KMO = .90) and Bartlett’s test of sphericity indicated that the correlations between the coded dimensions in the stories were sufficient for PCA (χ2(45) = 851.55, p < .001). The factor loadings are presented in Table
Note.n = 59
The factor loadings revealed two separate factors: Creative Expressiveness and Logic. Factor scores for these two factors were created by combining the scores from the dimensions that had factor loading higher than 0.7 (see bolded valued in Table
To investigate whether the Creative Expressiveness factor score explains variance in Maths and/or English at age 16, hierarchical linear regressions were run. General cognitive ability score at age 9 was entered as a first step into the regression model, followed by previous academic achievement at age 9 (English or Math) in the second step. In the third step, Openness to Experience and Extraversion scores at age 16 were entered to the model. In the fourth and last step, Creative Expressiveness and Logic factor scores were entered into the regression model predicting either English or Maths score at age 16. The results from the hierarchical regression predicting English achievement at age 16 are presented in Table
The hierarchical multiple regression revealed that at the first step, general cognitive ability contributed significantly to the regression model (F(1,58) = 12.52, p < .01) and accounted for 18% of the variance in English results at age 16. Includingthe previous achievement measure, English at age 9, explained an additional 12% of the variance (F(2,58) = 12.01, p < .01). Personality measures of Openness to Experience and Extraversion were not individually significant predictors of English at 16. In the last step, adding Creative Expressiveness and Logic factor scores into the model explained an additional 7% of the variance was in the English score at 16 (F(6,58) = 7.19, p < .01). Only the Creative Expressiveness, and not the Logic, was a significant predictor.
In the regression model explaining variance in Maths grade at 16, general cognitive ability (F(1,58) = 12.52, p < .01) accounted for 21% of the variation in Maths results at age 16. Including the Maths score at age 9, explained an additional 30% of the variation (F(2,58) = 12.01, p < .01). Out of the two personality measures, only Openness to Experience was a significant (negative) predictor of Maths score at 16 (F(1,58) = 12.52, p < .01). Creative Expressiveness and Logic factor scores did not explain any additional variance in the model when added in the last step.
The present study set to test the robustness of the Consensual Assessment Technique as a method to evaluate children’s written stories at age 9. Our results showed that CAT is a reliable measure of creativity in the children’s written stories. The inter-rater reliability for the Creativity dimension was the highest out of all coded ten dimensions. Further factor analysis on the ten dimensions revealed that Creativity loaded onto a single factor along with Imagination, Novelty, Liking, Detail, Emotion and Vocabulary (Creative Expressiveness factor). Straightforwardness, Grammar and Logic formed a second, separate factor (Logic factor).
Additionally, we aimed to investigate whether creativity, measured by CAT, is associated with later educational achievement at age 16. Our results showed that the Creative Expressiveness factor score explained an additional 7% of variance in English GCSE grade at age 16, above and beyond intelligence and English grade measured at age 9. This suggests that marking criteria in English at age 16 includes both, technical knowledge(spelling, grammar, etc.), as reflected in the English grade at age 9; and creativity (explicitly or implicitly), captured by our Creative Expressiveness measure.Our results suggest that creativity in writing is overlooked in the UK primary education marking criteria, as creativity was not captured by the English grade at age 9. It is possible that primary education focuses more on convergent and technical skills, or at least did at the time of the data collection (the stories were written in 2003-2005).
Future studies are needed to explore how to apply the CAT in the evaluation of creative expressiveness in writing, as well as other domains, such as music and arts, in children of different ages. Further research is needed to establish how the evaluation of creativity in primary education, as guided by CAT, can be done in practice. Having independent judges evaluating children’s work may not be easy to organise, but the observed high level of agreement among judges suggests that, with some calibration, single judges may provide accurate evaluations. Additionally, using a bigger sample, we plan to investigatewhether intrinsic motivation and/or enjoyment of writing moderate the relationship between creative expressiveness in written stories and further educational achievement. In conclusion, CAT is a promising direction for measuring creativity in children, with implications for both creativity research and educational practice.
We gratefully acknowledge the on-going contribution of the participants in the Twins Early Development Study (TEDS) and their families. TEDS is supported by a program grant from the UK Medical Research Council (MR/M021475/1 and previously G0901245). TT is supported by the Economic and Social Research Council [grant number ES/J500124/1]. This research was supported by the Tomsk State University competitiveness improvement programme grant 188.8.131.527.
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Toivainen, T., Malanchini, M., Oliver, B. R., & Kovas, Y. (2019). Creative Storytelling In Childhood Is Related To Exam Performance At Age 16. In S. B. Malykh, & E. V. Nikulchev (Eds.), Psychology and Education - ICPE 2017, vol 33. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences (pp. 375-384). Future Academy. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2017.12.40