Natural language generation
Natural language generation (NLG) is a software process that produces natural language output. In one of the most widely-cited survey of NLG methods, NLG is characterized as "the subfield of artificial intelligence and computational linguistics that is concerned with the construction of computer systems than can produce understandable texts in English or other human languages from some underlying non-linguistic representation of information".
While it is widely agreed that the output of any NLG process is text, there is some disagreement on whether the inputs of an NLG system need to be non-linguistic. Common applications of NLG methods include the production of various reports, for example weather  and patient reports; image captions; and chatbots.
Automated NLG can be compared to the process humans use when they turn ideas into writing or speech. Psycholinguists prefer the term language production for this process, which can also be described in mathematical terms, or modeled in a computer for psychological research. NLG systems can also be compared to translators of artificial computer languages, such as decompilers or transpilers, which also produce human-readable code generated from an intermediate representation. Human languages tend to be considerably more complex and allow for much more ambiguity and variety of expression than programming languages, which makes NLG more challenging.
NLG may be viewed as complementary to natural-language understanding (NLU): whereas in natural-language understanding, the system needs to disambiguate the input sentence to produce the machine representation language, in NLG the system needs to make decisions about how to put a representation into words. The practical considerations in building NLU vs. NLG systems are not symmetrical. NLU needs to deal with ambiguous or erroneous user input, whereas the ideas the system wants to express through NLG are generally known precisely. NLG needs to choose a specific, self-consistent textual representation from many potential representations, whereas NLU generally tries to produce a single, normalized representation of the idea expressed.
NLG has existed since ELIZA was developed in the mid 1960s, but the methods were first used commercially in the 1990s. NLG techniques range from simple template-based systems like a mail merge that generates form letters, to systems that have a complex understanding of human grammar. NLG can also be accomplished by training a statistical model using machine learning, typically on a large corpus of human-written texts.
The Pollen Forecast for Scotland system is a simple example of a simple NLG system that could essentially be a template. This system takes as input six numbers, which give predicted pollen levels in different parts of Scotland. From these numbers, the system generates a short textual summary of pollen levels as its output.
For example, using the historical data for July 1, 2005, the software produces:
Grass pollen levels for Friday have increased from the moderate to high levels of yesterday with values of around 6 to 7 across most parts of the country. However, in Northern areas, pollen levels will be moderate with values of 4.
In contrast, the actual forecast (written by a human meteorologist) from this data was:
Pollen counts are expected to remain high at level 6 over most of Scotland, and even level 7 in the south east. The only relief is in the Northern Isles and far northeast of mainland Scotland with medium levels of pollen count.
Comparing these two illustrates some of the choices that NLG systems must make; these are further discussed below.
The process to generate text can be as simple as keeping a list of canned text that is copied and pasted, possibly linked with some glue text. The results may be satisfactory in simple domains such as horoscope machines or generators of personalised business letters. However, a sophisticated NLG system needs to include stages of planning and merging of information to enable the generation of text that looks natural and does not become repetitive. The typical stages of natural-language generation, as proposed by Dale and Reiter, are:
Content determination: Deciding what information to mention in the text. For instance, in the pollen example above, deciding whether to explicitly mention that pollen level is 7 in the south east.
Document structuring: Overall organisation of the information to convey. For example, deciding to describe the areas with high pollen levels first, instead of the areas with low pollen levels.
Aggregation: Merging of similar sentences to improve readability and naturalness. For instance, merging the two following sentences:
- Grass pollen levels for Friday have increased from the moderate to high levels of yesterday and
- Grass pollen levels will be around 6 to 7 across most parts of the country
into the following single sentence:
- Grass pollen levels for Friday have increased from the moderate to high levels of yesterday with values of around 6 to 7 across most parts of the country.
Lexical choice: Putting words to the concepts. For example, deciding whether medium or moderate should be used when describing a pollen level of 4.
Referring expression generation: Creating referring expressions that identify objects and regions. For example, deciding to use in the Northern Isles and far northeast of mainland Scotland to refer to a certain region in Scotland. This task also includes making decisions about pronouns and other types of anaphora.
An alternative approach to NLG is to use "end-to-end" machine learning to build a system, without having separate stages as above. In other words, we build an NLG system by training a machine learning algorithm (often an LSTM) on a large data set of input data and corresponding (human-written) output texts. The end-to-end approach has perhaps been most successful in image captioning, that is automatically generating a textual caption for an image.
Automatic Report Generation
From a commercial perspective, the most successful NLG applications have been data-to-text systems which generate textual summaries of databases and data sets; these systems usually perform data analysis as well as text generation. Research has shown that textual summaries can be more effective than graphs and other visuals for decision support, and that computer-generated texts can be superior (from the reader's perspective) to human-written texts.
The first commercial data-to-text systems produced weather forecasts from weather data. The earliest such system to be deployed was FoG, which was used by Environment Canada to generate weather forecasts in French and English in the early 1990s. The success of FoG triggered other work, both research and commercial. Recent applications include the UK Met Office's text-enhanced forecast.
Data-to-text systems have since been applied in a range of settings. Following the minor earthquake near Beverly Hills, California on March 17, 2014, The Los Angeles Times reported details about the time, location and strength of the quake within 3 minutes of the event. This report was automatically generated by a ‘robo-journalist’, which converted the incoming data into text via a preset template. Currently there is considerable commercial interest in using NLG to summarise financial and business data. Indeed, Gartner has said that NLG will become a standard feature of 90% of modern BI and analytics platforms. NLG is also being used commercially in automated journalism, chatbots, generating product descriptions for e-commerce sites, summarising medical records, and enhancing accessibility (for example by describing graphs and data sets to blind people).
An example of an interactive use of NLG is the WYSIWYM framework. It stands for What you see is what you meant and allows users to see and manipulate the continuously rendered view (NLG output) of an underlying formal language document (NLG input), thereby editing the formal language without learning it.
Looking ahead, the current progress in data-to-text generation paves the way for tailoring texts to specific audiences. For example, data from babies in neonatal care can be converted into text differently in a clinical setting, with different levels of technical detail and explanatory language, depending on intended recipient of the text (doctor, nurse, patient). The same idea can be applied in a sports setting, with different reports generated for fans of specific teams.
Over the past few years, there has been an increased interest in automatically generating captions for images, as part of a broader endeavor to investigate the interface between vision and language. A case of data-to-text generation, the algorithm of image captioning (or automatic image description) involves taking an image, analyzing its visual content, and generating a textual description (typically a sentence) that verbalizes the most prominent aspects of the image.
An image captioning system involves two sub-tasks. In Image Analysis, features and attributes of an image are detected and labelled, before mapping these outputs to linguistic structures. Recent research utilizes deep learning approaches through features from a pre-trained convolutional neural network such as AlexNet, VGG or Caffe, where caption generators use an activation layer from the pre-trained network as their input features. Text Generation, the second task, is performed using a wide range of techniques. For example, in the Midge system, input images are represented as triples consisting of object/stuff detections, action/pose detections and spatial relations. These are subsequently mapped to <noun, verb, preposition> triples and realized using a tree substitution grammar.
Despite advancements, challenges and opportunities remain in image capturing research. Notwithstanding the recent introduction of Flickr30K, MS COCO and other large datasets have enabled the training of more complex models such as neural networks, it has been argued that research in image captioning could benefit from larger and diversified datasets. Designing automatic measures that can mimic human judgments in evaluating the suitability of image descriptions is another need in the area. Other open challenges include visual question-answering (VQA), as well as the construction and evaluation multilingual repositories for image description.
Another area where NLG has been widely applied is automated dialogue systems, frequently in the form of chatbots. A chatbot or chatterbot is a software application used to conduct an on-line chat conversation via text or text-to-speech, in lieu of providing direct contact with a live human agent. While Natural Language Processing (NLP) techniques are applied in deciphering human input, NLG informs the output part of the chatbot algorithms in facilitating real-time dialogues.
Early Chatbot systems, including CleverBot created by Rollo Carpenter in 1988 and published in 1997, reply to questions by identifying how a human responded to the same question in a conversation database via an Informational Retrieval (IR) approach. Modern chatbot systems predominantly rely on machine learning (ML) models, such as sequence-to-sequence learning and reinforcement learning in generating human language output. Hybrid models have also been explored. For example, Alibaba shopping assistant uses an IR approach to retrieve the best candidates from the knowledge base, before the ML-driven seq2seq model is used to re-rank the candidates and generate the answer.
Creative Writing and Computational Humor
Creative language generation by NLG has been hypothesized since the field’s origins. A recent pioneer in the area is Phillip Parker, who has developed an arsenal of algorithms capable of automatically generating textbooks, crossword puzzles, poems and books on topics ranging from bookbinding to cataracts. The advent of large pretrained transformer-based language models such as GPT-3 has also enabled breakthroughs, with such models demonstrating recognizable ability for creating-writing tasks.
A related area of NLG application is computational humor production. JAPE (Joke Analysis and Production Engine) is one of the earliest large, automated humor production systems that uses a hand-coded template-based approach to create punning riddles for children. HAHAcronym creates humorous reinterpretations of any given acronym, as well as proposing new fitting acronyms given some keywords.
Despite progresses, many challenges remain in producing automated creative and humorous content that rival human output. In an experiment for generating satirical headlines, outputs of their best BERT-based model were perceived as funny 9.4% of the time (while real Onion headlines were 38.4%) and a GPT-2 model fine-tuned on satirical headlines achieved 6.9%. It has been pointed out that two main issues with humor-generation systems are the lack of annotated data sets and the lack of formal evaluation methods, which could be applicable to other creative content generation. Some have argued relative to other applications, there has been a lack of attention to creative aspects of language production within NLG. NLG researchers stand to benefit from insights into what constitutes creative language production, as well as structural features of narrative that have the potential to improve NLG output even in data-to-text systems.
As in other scientific fields, NLG researchers need to test how well their systems, modules, and algorithms work. This is called evaluation. There are three basic techniques for evaluating NLG systems:
- Task-based (extrinsic) evaluation: give the generated text to a person, and assess how well it helps them perform a task (or otherwise achieves its communicative goal). For example, a system which generates summaries of medical data can be evaluated by giving these summaries to doctors, and assessing whether the summaries help doctors make better decisions.
- Human ratings: give the generated text to a person, and ask them to rate the quality and usefulness of the text.
- Metrics: compare generated texts to texts written by people from the same input data, using an automatic metric such as BLEU, METEOR, ROUGE and LEPOR.
An ultimate goal is how useful NLG systems are at helping people, which is the first of the above techniques. However, task-based evaluations are time-consuming and expensive, and can be difficult to carry out (especially if they require subjects with specialised expertise, such as doctors). Hence (as in other areas of NLP) task-based evaluations are the exception, not the norm.
Recently researchers are assessing how well human-ratings and metrics correlate with (predict) task-based evaluations. Work is being conducted in the context of Generation Challenges shared-task events. Initial results suggest that human ratings are much better than metrics in this regard. In other words, human ratings usually do predict task-effectiveness at least to some degree (although there are exceptions), while ratings produced by metrics often do not predict task-effectiveness well. These results are preliminary. In any case, human ratings are the most popular evaluation technique in NLG; this is contrast to machine translation, where metrics are widely used.
- Automated journalism
- Automated paraphrasing
- Markov text generators
- Meaning-text theory
- Generative art § Literature
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- Dale, Robert; Reiter, Ehud (2000). Building natural language generation systems. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-02451-8.
- Ehud Reiter (2021-03-21). History of NLG. Archived from the original on 2021-12-12.
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- "Text or Graphics?". 2016-12-26.
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- S Sripada, N Burnett, R Turner, J Mastin, D Evans(2014). Generating A Case Study: NLG meeting Weather Industry Demand for Quality and Quantity of Textual Weather Forecasts. Proceedings of INLG 2014
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- Levenson, Eric (2014-03-17). "L.A. Times Journalist Explains How a Bot Wrote His Earthquake Story for Him". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2022-06-03.
- "Neural Networks and Modern BI Platforms Will Evolve Data and Analytics".
- Harris MD (2008). "Building a Large-Scale Commercial NLG System for an EMR" (PDF). Proceedings of the Fifth International Natural Language Generation Conference. pp. 157–60.
- "Welcome to the iGraph-Lite page". www.inf.udec.cl. Archived from the original on 2010-03-16.
- Gatt, Albert; Krahmer, Emiel (2018-01-29). "Survey of the State of the Art in Natural Language Generation: Core tasks, applications and evaluation". arXiv:1703.09902 [cs.CL].
- Kodali, Venkat; Berleant, Daniel (2022). "Recent, Rapid Advancement in Visual Question Answering Architecture: a Review". Proceedings of the 22nd IEEE International Conference on EIT. pp. 133–146.
- Mnasri, Maali (2019-03-21). "Recent advances in conversational NLP : Towards the standardization of Chatbot building". arXiv:1903.09025 [cs.CL].
- "How To Author Over 1 Million Books". HuffPost. 2013-02-11. Retrieved 2022-06-03.
- "Exploring GPT-3: A New Breakthrough in Language Generation". KDnuggets. Retrieved 2022-06-03.
- Winters, Thomas (2021-04-30). "Computers Learning Humor Is No Joke". Harvard Data Science Review. 3 (2). doi:10.1162/99608f92.f13a2337. S2CID 235589737.
- Horvitz, Zachary; Do, Nam; Littman, Michael L. (July 2020). "Context-Driven Satirical News Generation". Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Figurative Language Processing. Online: Association for Computational Linguistics: 40–50. doi:10.18653/v1/2020.figlang-1.5. S2CID 220330989.
- Generation Challenges 2009
- Dale, Robert; Reiter, Ehud (2000). Building natural language generation systems. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-02451-8.
- Evans, Roger; Piwek, Paul; Cahill, Lynne (2002). What is NLG?. INLG2002. New York, US. paper
- Gatt, Albert; Krahmer, Emiel (2018). "Survey of the State of the Art in Natural Language Generation: Core tasks, applications and evaluation". Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research. 61: 65–170. arXiv:1703.09902. doi:10.1613/jair.5477. S2CID 16946362.
- Reiter, Ehud (2018-01-16). "How do I Learn about NLG?".
- ACL Special Interest Group on Generation (SIGGEN)
- SIGGEN part of ACL Anthology (contains NLG research papers)
- ACL NLG Portal (contains list of NLG resources)
- Bateman and Zock's 'almost complete' list of NLG systems now maintained as a Wiki with a variety of visualisations and overview tables available on demand
- Ehud Reiter's blog on Natural Language Generation
- Interactive Multimedia Explanation for Equipment Maintenance and Repair - article describing Coordinated Multimedia Explanation Testbed (COMET)


The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture
American Indians living in Oklahoma have a complicated, interesting, and unique history. Their story involves hardship, tribal and individual victories, clashes of cultures, and juxtaposed realities with the American mainstream. Several themes resonate throughout the history of Oklahoma Indians, and they all involve a Native reality of physical and metaphysical forces. Understanding these themes gives much insight into the Indian identity. Adaptation and adjustment, always an important part of Native cultures, became an integral part of Oklahoma Indian lives, especially after removal to Indian Territory, as tribal communities rebuilt their governments and medicine people reestablished ceremonial ways.
The story of Oklahoma Indians begins with the people already here many centuries ago, the indigenous Spiro Mound builders, 500 to 1300 A.D. Regulators of early trade, these proud people flourished as an extension of the Mississippian mound builders east of the great Mississippi River. In the following generation early people settled along rivers: indigenous Caddoans (Caddo, Wichita, and Pawnee), Siouans (Quapaw and Osage), and Athapascans (Plains Apache). The early Spanish explorer Francisco Vásquez de Coronado recorded observations of Indian activities during the sixteenth century, and his men encountered Plains tribes hunting and raiding in this part of the vast West. Kiowa, Comanche, Arapaho, and Apache raided into the region and claimed hunting territories. The Cheyenne also used the region.
For Native peoples, the early decades of the nineteenth century became the period of "Indian Removal." Over a period of years in the 1830s the U.S. government removed eastern Indian tribes to Indian Territory. These people included the Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw. Other southeastern tribes included the Alabama. Later, around the time of the Civil War and afterward, removed tribes from the Northeast would join them—the Delaware, Sac and Fox, Shawnee, Potawatomi, Kickapoo, Peoria, Ottawa, Wyandotte, Seneca, and Iowa. Prairie tribes included the Kaw, Ponca, Otoe, and Missouri. The Indian Wars of the 1870s produced "reservations" in the Oklahoma region for Plains tribes such as the Comanche, Kiowa, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and others. Further western tribes represented here included the Nez Perce and Modoc. In the end, the U.S. government removed a total of sixty-seven different tribes. All of these peoples and their communities developed cultures whose traditions have survived today in spite of several setbacks due to contact with non-Indians.
After Indian Removal and reservation making brought them here, these Native peoples adapted to the environmental conditions and climate. Elemental forces of creation—the sun, water, earth, and wind—guided their daily lives. Daily rituals of life and many traditional ceremonies continued to be practiced on a regular basis and continued to evolve as the indigenous cultures reemerged and readapted to new conditions. The oral tradition of storytelling preserved legends about important leaders and events and also recorded verbal accounts of new experiences and leaders. Thus, tribal accounts of the past continue to be based on oral tradition, rather than written, documentary sources.
The survival and success of Oklahoma Indians incorporates several significant themes. One theme involves a learned, shared experience that comprises a presumptive "collective identity" called "Oklahoma Indian." It has been said by many non-Oklahoma Indians and noted by other people that Oklahoma Indians are "different." But why? Perhaps they are so because of the collective experience of tragedy and triumph, defeat and survival, destruction and reconstruction, a shared fate of having to overcome setbacks and being forced to rebuild their communities and their nations several times. Oklahoma Indians are much like the metaphorical phoenix rising from the ashes in a rebirth. Each time, Oklahoma Indians have had to reconstruct their families, homes, communities, and nations.
A second theme involves the Indian view of the universe, of the physical and metaphysical worlds that comprise the Indian universe. The reality of Oklahoma Indians is one that comprises seeming contradictions: on the one hand, there is a continuation of traditional values and beliefs, deriving from their ancient forefathers from all parts of America. On the other hand, there is a progressive outlook. This "Indianness" is usually manifested via mixed-bloods raised in the Oklahoma Indian communities. Oklahoma Indians are steeped in this Native ethos. The tribes of Oklahoma carried the ethos, the beliefs, with them during their removals to the Indian Territory, and it sustained them while they rebuilt their fires of communities during the nineteenth century.
In this Native mind-set, physical and metaphysical dimensions work in tandem, so that dreams, visions, and aberrations are very much a part of the reality and the "day" consciousness of Indian people. In addition, Oklahoma Indians who hold closest to their traditional beliefs also bear witness to the influence of ghosts, spirits, and witches in their lives. Indian traditionalists believe that spiritual beings have control over their lives, and they use protective medicines and take precautions to keep themselves safe. In this kind of life, the metaphysical is more powerful than the physical world, and certain ceremonies and important rites need to be performed in order to ensure that greater powers will give protection or bestow blessings. Whether ultratraditional or progressive, the vast majority of these people are industrious, hardworking, educated, and intelligent.
A third theme involves the traditional Native belief in devotion to family and community, with a corresponding de-emphasis on the "individual" person. In this scheme of things, a natural democracy exists among human beings, flora, and fauna; a physical creation such as a river, a meadow, a mountain, or a cloud also has a life and a spirit. Man is not above nature. All things are related. Within this natural democracy, the Creator made a universe of four elements—earth, fire, water, and air. From earth springs life; fire, also represented by sun, gives light and warmth; water, a substance necessary for life, is also symbolized by blood; and air is not only the oxygen for breathing but is also the wind of a tornado or even a song carried on the wings of the wind. Indians believe in fate and believe certain things were meant to be, since all is in order according to the Creator.
Thus, Native logic is guided by the knowledge that the metaphysical and physical forces both operate in life, by thinking from a communal perspective, and also by thinking in a circular pattern. As nonlinear people, Indians are cyclical by nature. Day changing into night is a cycle, the full moon's monthly repetition is another cycle, and the seasons rotate as well. Life itself, then, is a rotation of circles. Indian peoples' concept of time is that their stories, transmitted through the oral tradition, enliven the past, and that prophecies bring the future back to the present in a time continuum. This is Indian reality; this is the thought pattern of Oklahoma traditional Indians. Nonlinear reality is a powerful theme in the Oklahoma Indian experience. The presence of the white man and development of the United States government and its military brought radical change to Indians in their home regions. It also brought about the forced removal of Indian nations from many parts of the United States to what was called Indian Territory. The ensuing destruction of Native peoples' settled lives also reflects the history of Oklahoma and that of Oklahoma Indians. Moving fires is another powerful theme in native traditional history, because the people had to camp frequently during the sad process of being forced to come to Indian Territory. Many died along the trail; hence, the people created a new terminology to describe the experience: the Trail of Tears, or the Trail of Courage (also called Trail of Death) in the case of the Potawatomi.
During the 1840s and 1850s missionaries, especially the Baptists, Methodists, and Presbyterians, worked among the tribes to help the people, and in the process they converted many Indians to Christianity. Thereafter, many Indians practiced both Christianity and traditional beliefs and continued to do so even into the twenty-first century. Many tribal leaders viewed education as an important social mechanism, and schools were built all over the Indian nations during the pre–Civil War years.
In the 1860s the United States and also the territories became embroiled in the struggle between North and South. Forced to fight for the Confederacy, the tribes of Indian Territory suffered much devastation and death in their homeland, and their lives were uprooted again. The largest conflict of the American Civil War in Oklahoma was the Battle of Honey Springs on July 17, 1863. Involving nine thousand soldiers, it represented a turning of the war in favor of the North. Gen. Stand Watie, a Cherokee, was the last Confederate general to surrender. A Union victory and the tribes' allegiance to the Confederacy compelled retaliation by the United States. Forced to sign the Reconstruction Treaties of 1866, the Five Tribes found their lands reduced in order for the U.S. to move more western tribes into Indian Territory. Subsequently, railroads were allowed across Indian lands. Despite these hardships, the tribes rebuilt their lives and rekindled community fires again during the era that mainstream historians call Reconstruction. Mixed-blood Indians and all of those who were progressive toward the ways of the white man believed that seminaries, missions, and schools were important and continued building them.
In the late nineteenth century Oklahoma Indians of all tribes and nations experienced a new federal Indian policy, much of which was aimed at destroying de facto tribal sovereignty by ending the traditional Indian system of tribal, rather than individual, land ownership. The much debated Dawes Severalty Act (General Allotment Act) of 1887 promised individual land ownership and U.S. citizenship to American Indians. Although the Oklahoma tribes of the eastern half of the Indian Territory at first were exempt from the Dawes Act, successive amendments to the law began the process of allotment of tribal lands to individual Indians. The Jerome Commission and Dawes Commission carried out the surveying and distributing of allotments to the tribes. The recipients were registered in what came to be called the Dawes Rolls of tribal memberships. Over all, allotment of tribal land stripped Oklahoma Indian nations of about twenty-seven million acres.
Then came an in-migration of fifty thousand non-Indian settlers with the first land opening, the Land Run of April 22, 1889, into the Unassigned Lands of central Oklahoma. Within the next two decades additional land lotteries brought hundreds of thousands more outsiders into the territories, but primarily into the western half of present Oklahoma. Cattlemen and mining interests in southeastern Indian Territory increased pressure for white ways among the tribes and caused political strife within tribes as Indian Territory became increasingly open to white opportunists.
The Curtis Act of 1898, designed to permanently dissolve all formal tribal governments, cancelled reservation status and nullified tribal schools and judicial systems. Political pressure for statehood compelled Indian tribes to push for a state of their own, called the State of Sequoyah, but they had little lobbying power in Washington. Despite these setbacks, and despite the federal demand for the end of tribal sovereignty, informal government still ran most tribes' affairs. The Indian nations did not disappear.
They rebuilt again following Oklahoma statehood in 1907, when federal paternalism suppressed their sovereignty. Of an estimated ten thousand American Indians who served in World War I for the United States, many of them from Oklahoma. Although many Oklahoma Indians became U.S. citizens upon receiving land allotments, they ultimately lost their lands by fraud and deception from white opportunists.
During the Great Depression that began in 1929 and held on into the 1930s, Indian communities suffered, as did all Americans. Many Oklahoma Indians moved westward during the Dust Bowl years. An increasing Native population in California was part of the now-famous Dust Bowl migration. Like the Dawes Act, the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) of 1934 exempted American Indians of Oklahoma. Two years later the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act extended IRA provisions, allowing Oklahoma Indians to reestablish tribal entities and Indian communities into Native governments patterned after the U.S. government. Other provisions of this Indian New Deal legislation helped Oklahoma Indian communities, as well as communities throughout Indian Country, to pull through the Great Depression.
The sudden entrance of the United States into World War II in 1941 encouraged many Oklahoma Indian young men to join the armed services. Oklahoma Indians, many of whom were already members of National Guard units, filled a noticeable portion of the ranks of the U.S. Army's famed Forty-fifth Division. Serving courageously, Oklahoma Indians earned many medals. Ernest Childers, a Muscogee Creek, Jack Montgomery, a Cherokee, and Ernest Evans, a Cherokee-Pawnee, received Medals of Honor. They were the only Native Americans to win the nation's highest military honor in World War II. Following the war, Congress recognized the United Keetoowah Band of Indians under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act, but further recognition of tribes in general halted in the following decade.
Termination, a new federal Indian policy of the 1950s and 1960s, once again threatened to end all tribal self-government, but Oklahoma tribes were able to avoid the final ending of trust obligations by the United States. Tribal governments remained under the firm control of the Bureau of Indian Affairs of the Department of the Interior. The Relocation Program of 1952, however, affected many individual Oklahoma Indians by sending them to major cities for employment and housing. This program continued until the early 1970s and in many instances had negative consequences for Native family life.
The cycle of change continued through the twentieth century. In 1975 the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act supported and reinforced tribal governments. As a result of the IRA legislation and Indian self-determination policy, American Indians in Oklahoma formed thirty-nine tribal governments that have been federally recognized. These nations exercise powers of self-government, including business councils, and many have tribal courts with law enforcement. These tribal governments and communities have formed a positive relationship with the state of Oklahoma, and their progress in the last decades of the twentieth century truly reflect Oklahoma's deep heritage as the "Land of the Red Man."
Self-determination was a modest boon to the Oklahoma Indian community's economy. By the end of the twentieth century the tribes in Oklahoma owned twenty-three bingo and gaming operations. Eight tribes (the Choctaw Nation, Citizen Band of Potawatomi Nation, Comanche Indian Tribe, Iowa Tribe, Miami Tribe, Modoc Tribe of Oklahoma, Otoe-Missouri Tribe, and Tonkawa Tribe of Indians) had successfully negotiated gaming compacts with the State of Oklahoma. In addition to gaming, the Oklahoma tribes invested in various businesses and industries, and their success produced tribal programs of college scholarships, elder care, health care services, and other social services. Old fires of communal life were renewed as the Oklahoma tribes developed new economic and health programs to assist their peoples.
Cultural revitalization among Oklahoma's Indian communities has followed the national pattern from the 1920s. The pan-Indian movements of the early and mid-twentieth century, as well as cultural activities generated by the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1935 and the 1978 American Indian Religious Freedom Act, motivated many tribes to reinstate traditional sacred rites and ceremonies and also to present public events expressing Native community identity.
For example, many tribes now host an annual heritage day, festival, or homecoming. Powwows and dances, both private and public, became regular community activities in the late twentieth century. Revival of arts and crafts also became important as forces to unify Native communities and also to generate much-needed income. Tribal historic preservation officers monitor threats to sites important in the community's history. Many tribes have opened museums at tribal headquarters complexes. Most importantly, because the survival of language is the key to the survival of culture, many Oklahoma tribes have instituted preservation policies and activities, such as language classes and dictionary compilation projects.
The Oklahoma Indian experience is a collective saga of many encounters with external forces that caused permanent changes to traditional communities. All of the recurring themes of Indian removal, renewed tribalism, moving fires, destruction, rebirth, Native ethos, Native sovereignty, identity, and inherent communal beliefs comprise a collective epic. It reflects the Native peoples' strength and traditionalism within a Native reality that experienced and successfully withstood abrupt changes. These resilient people have integrated a successful dichotomy (traditionalism and progressivism) as a part of their lives and prosperity.
ALLOTMENT, AMERICAN INDIANS AND CHRISTIANITY, AMERICAN INDIANS AND EDUCATION, INDIAN REMOVAL, INDIAN TERRITORY, OKLAHOMA TERRITORY, PREHISTORIC NATIVE PEOPLES, SETTLEMENT PATTERNS, TERMINATION AND RELOCATION PROGRAMS
Jeffrey Burton, Indian Territory and the United States, 1866–1906: Courts, Government, and the Movement for Oklahoma Statehood (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995).
Angie Debo, And Still the Waters Run: The Betrayal of the Five Civilized Tribes (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1940; reprint, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1984).
Angie Debo, The Rise and Fall of the Choctaw Republic (2d ed.; Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961).
Angie Debo, The Road to Disappearance: A History of the Creek Indians (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1941).
Clyde Ellis, To Change Them Forever: Indian Education at the Rainy Mountain Boarding School, 1893–1920 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996).
Sandra Faiman-Silva, Choctaws at the Crossroads: The Political Economy Class and Culture in the Oklahoma Timber Region (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997).
Grant Foreman, Advancing the Frontier, 1830–1860 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1933).
Grant Foreman, The Five Civilized Tribes: Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Seminole (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1934).
Grant Foreman, Indian Removal: The Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1932).
Arrell M. Gibson, The Chickasaws (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1972).
James H. Howard, with Willie Lena, Oklahoma Seminoles, Medicines, Magic, and Religion (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1984).
Jack F. Kilpatrick and Anna G. Kilpatrick, Friends of Thunder: Folktales of the Oklahoma Cherokee (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994).
Georgia Rae Leeds, The United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians in Oklahoma (New York: Peter Lang, 1996).
Daniel L. Littlefield, Jr., Alex Posey, Creek Poet, Journalist, & Humorist (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991).
Daniel L. Littlefield, Jr., and Carol A. Petty Hunter, eds., The Fus Fixico Letters (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993).
K. Tsianina Lomawaima, They Called It Prairie Light: The Story of Chilocco Indian School (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994).
Edwin C. McReynolds, The Seminoles (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1957). Wilma Mankiller and Michael Wallis, Mankiller: A Chief and Her People (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993).
John Joseph Mathews, The Osages: Children of the Middle Waters (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961).
Amos D. Maxwell, The Sequoyah Constitutional Convention (Boston: Meador Publishing Co., 1953).
Katja May, African Americans and Native Americans in the Creek and Cherokee Nations, 1830s to 1920s (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1996).
William C. Meadows, Kiowa, Apache, and Comanche Military Societies: Enduring Veterans, 1800 to the Present (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999).
Howard L. Meredith, Bartley Milam: Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation (Muskogee, Okla.: Indian University Press. 1985).
Devon A. Mihesuah, Cultivating the Rosebuds: The Education of Women at the Cherokee Female Seminary, 1851–1909 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
H. Craig Miner, The Corporation and the Indian: Tribal Sovereignty And Industrial Civilization in Indian Territory, 1865–1907 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1976).
James D. Morrison, The Social History of the Choctaw Nation: 1865–1907 (Durant, Okla.: Creative Informatics, Inc., 1987).
Theda Perdue, ed., Nations Remembered: An Oral History of the Five Civilized Tribes, 1865–1907 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980).
George A. Schultz, An Indian Canaan: Isaac McCoy and the Vision for an Indian State (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1972).
Christine Schultze and Benton R. White, Now the Wolf Has Come: The Creek Nation in the Civil War (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1996).
Alexander Spoehr, Changing Kinship Systems: A Study in the Acculturation of the Creeks, Cherokee, and Choctaw (Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History, 1947).
Emmet Starr, History of the Cherokee Indians and Their Legends and Folk Lore (Oklahoma City, Okla.: Warden Co., 1921; reprinted Tulsa, Okla.: Oklahoma Yesterday Publications, 1984).
Rennard A. Strickland, Fire and the Spirits: Cherokee Law from Clan to Court (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1975).
Rennard Strickland, The Indians of Oklahoma (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1981).
John R. Swanton, Social Organization and Social Usage of the Indians of the Creek Confederacy, Forty-Second Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1924–25 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1928).
William R. Unrau, Mixed-bloods and Tribal Dissoluton: Charles Curtis and the Quest for Indian Identity (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1989).
Mary Jane Warde, George Washington Grayson and the Creek Nation, 1843–1920 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999).
Morris L. Wardell, A Political History of the Cherokee Nation, 1838–1907 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1938).
Terry P. Wilson, The Underground Reservation: Osage Oil (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985).
Grace Steele Woodward, The Cherokees (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963).
Muriel H. Wright, A Guide to the Indian Tribes of Oklahoma (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1951).
Browse By TopicAmerican Indians
The following (as per The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th edition) is the preferred citation for articles:
Donald Fixico, “American Indians,” The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture, https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=AM010.
© Oklahoma Historical Society


Using adjectives in descriptive writing - middle school worksheet. Have them share their words, and create a class list. 2. Distribute students’ previously assessed writings, and have students look through them to find commonly misspelled words to add to the chart. 3. Compare the class list with a published list of commonly misspelled words, such as one contained in a grammar book. 03.01.2020 · 10 adjectives worksheets; Range of levels from gaining initial knowledge to applying it in sentence writing. Hope that people find them useful.. Resources Resources home Early years / Pre-K and TEENgarten Primary / Elementary Middle school Secondary / High school Whole school Special Educational Needs Blog. Oct 6, 2016 - Give your TEEN adjective practice with this simple worksheet. After filling in the blanks, they'll see how many different adjectives they can add to the list. Descriptive Adjectives: Fantastic! | Worksheet | Education.com The sentences on this third grade writing worksheet are pretty boring. TEENs liven up the sentences by adding descriptive adjectives to the fairy tale nouns. Descriptive Writing : Writing : Fourth Grade English Language Arts Worksheets. Here is a collection of our printable worksheets for topic Descriptive Writing of chapter Writing Narratives in section Writing. A brief description of the worksheets is on each of the worksheet widgets. Click on the images to view, download, or print them. What is Descriptive Writing? When it comes to writing in English, there are thought be four different types of pieces. These include expository, persuasive, narrative, and descriptive. In this section, our focus will be on descriptive writing. As its name suggests, this type of English writing gives a clear and concise description of everything. Adjective Worksheet for Middle School Here is an adjective worksheet for middle school that will review adjectives. The second worksheet will have the students identify adjectives and learn the different types of adjectives. Advertisement Worksheets that Review Adjectives The first worksheet is partially a review of the kinds of adjectives. Descriptive Adjectives Worksheets and Printables “You are exploring Descriptive Adjectives worksheets section of EnglishBix. Here You would find resources of general adjective words which describe both nouns and pronouns. 19.08.2021 · English worksheets for grade 5 adjectives. These worksheets review the ordering of adjectives in sentences and introduce adverb phrases and the use of prepositional phrases as adjectives and adverbs. The same word can serve as an adjective of quantity or adjective of number. A good collection of worksheet for grade 5 students for english grammar. Middle School English: Narrative and Descriptive Writing Unit for Grades 7-8This highly engaging and enjoyable creative writing unit is designed to help students write effectively with a particular focus on narrative and descriptive writing. It supports students in actively exploring and enjoying bo 10.02.2022 · Descriptive adjectives By Rotetho This worksheet can be used in 2 ways: your student can just use it as a picture 'dictionary' and learn the meaning of the adjectives, or. Descriptive writing is an attempt to give a clear description of people, places, objects, or events using descriptive language and informative details. Descriptive writing exercises can include: brainstorming. outlining. word sorting. sentence writing with pictures. transitions exercises. Descriptive Prompts for Elementary, Middle and High Schools Note: Most states do not ask students to describe people, so only one prompt of this type is included in the suggested topics. Some states require that students write only a visual description and others ask students to include other senses such as feel, touch, smell, and taste. Descriptiveness is essential to good writing. Unfortunately, it’s a skill not readily achieved by many language impaired students. This four-page worksheet begins with a clear discussion of descriptive writing and the use of adjectives, followed by an exercise requiring students to insert adjectives from a given list into various sentences. Adjectives are a basic building block of our sentences. With the help of our adjectives worksheets, your students will learn how to identify and use adjectives in their own writing. No matter your TEEN's age or skill level, these adjectives worksheets provide the perfect challenge--from defining adjectives and exploring comparatives and antonyms to building descriptive. Good descriptive writing often uses figurative language that is precise and lends itself to using sensory language to make people, events, and concepts lively. When preparing to write in this fashion you should ask yourself what you want your reader to see, hear, taste, smell, or feel. Seasons – Write one sentence to describe each of the four seasons with descriptive words (adjectives.) Use at least 3 adjectives in each sentence. Self Portrait – Students are going to create a "self portrait with adjectives." You will get a. Descriptive Adjectives: Handsome, Silly, Stupid, Fast, Loud,. Write one meaningful sentence using each of the adjective examples provided in the “Adjective Examples. While helping my TEENs with their studies I find that schools are providing very few worksheets for practice at home which is not sufficient for the TEENs to think beyond the. 16.05.2021 · Regular Adjectives Worksheets Descriptive Adjectives Worksheet Adjective Worksheet Describing Words Adjectives . Adjectives Worksheets Regular Adjectives Worksheets In 2020 Adjective Worksheet Adjectives Nouns Verbs Adjectives . Free Common Core Worksheets Pin Common Core Worksheets Teaching Writing Middle School. Middle School Writing Worksheets in PDF: Linguistic Specificity.. Descriptive Writing - Adjectives and Adverbs. This four-page worksheet, also found in Grammar section, contains a wide variety of exercises teaching students to use adjectives and adverbs in their writing.. 26.01.2021 · Worksheets grammar grade 4 adjectives adverbs. Help your fourth grader recognize adjectives that start with the letter a. Writing sentences with multiple adjectives. Adjective clauses are easy to find in a sentence if you know how to look for them. Order adjectives within sentences. In this adjective clause worksheet you re the grammar detective. Adjectives #10: Identifying Proper Adjectives Directions: Write all the proper adjectives on a sheet of notebook paper. Not every capitalized word is a proper adjective, and many sentences will have more than one. 1. The remains of several Roman roads can be seen in England today. 2. American tourists in Paris enjoy going to the Eiffel Tower. 3. 1. An adjective describes a verb. The answer is: B. False. An adjective describes a noun. An adverb describes a verb. 2. You can begin a sentence with an adjective. The answer is: A. True: e.g. Loud music was playing all night. 3. It is very _____ to write clearly. The answer is: B. It is very important to write clearly. 4. Adjective Worksheets. A series of adjective worksheets ranging from basic to intermediate. Adjective modify nouns and help the reader better understand the attributes of the noun. For example, The man ran past me. Let's add an adjective. The big man ran past me. Now you have a description of the man. Mastering the use of Adjectives - We use a. Descriptive Writing Skill Sheet Generates attribute charts to develop and sort ideas and details for descriptive writing. Writes concluding sentences that use a concluding word or phrase, give advice, or summarize the description. Organizes descriptions either by time, visual field (left to right; top to bottom; small to large), details, or. 28.12.2021 · Ezschool s grade 4 english adjectives. Displaying top 8 worksheets found for types of adjectives grade 4. Our grade 4 adjectives worksheets focus on using the correct order of adjectives within sentences the big blue car rather than the blue big car. Often we use more than one adjective to describe a noun. Live worksheets > English. Descriptive adjectives. Descriptive adjectives Weather, atmosphere, taste. ID: 431445. Language: English. School subject: English as a Second Language (ESL) Grade/level: Pre-intermediate. Age: 12+. Main content: Descriptive adjectives. Descriptive Writing Worksheets. A collection of descriptive writing worksheets and resources. Descriptive writing is writing that describes people, places, animals or objects in such a way that allows the reader to build a strong image in their. 24.09.2011 · Printable Adjective Worksheets 4th Grade Using Descriptive Words Worksheet Describing Objects Worksheets The Highwayman Poem Worksheet using descriptive words worksheet and descriptive writing word search are three main things we want to present to you based on. 19 Photos of Tell Me About Yourself Worksheet Middle School. The Family Descriptions (elementary /middle school) family relationships and family tree. Spanish Adjectives Agreement Worksheets & Handouts: Hispanic N ationalities Worksheet Spanish 4 Teachers.org (middle/high school). Fill the chart with the nationality for masculine, feminine, singular and plural. Using adjectives to make sentences more interesting. In these worksheets, students rewrite sentences with their own adjectives to make the sentences more interesting. Answers will vary, but students should be encouraged to use a variety of strong adjectives. Open PDF. Displaying all worksheets related to - Using Descriptive Adjectives. Worksheets are Adjective, Adjectives, Using adjectives work, Name date grammar work adjectives describing people, Commas with adjectives, Word choice, Adjectives with er and est, Lesson 81 adjectives describing our classmate. *Click on Open button to open and print to worksheet. 26.01.2020 · Adjective worksheets can provide direct instruction and a quick review. If your students need in-depth practice with adjectives, add a one-pager, station work, or task cards to your adjective lesson plans. Mentor sentences or a writing opportunity can mold grammar lessons for mature students. List of adjectives for TEENs. Interesting adjectives list for students, storytellers, creative writing. Choose adjectives word list for elementary or advanced adjectives lists for TEENs in middle school grades. Lists of interesting adjectives. 01.01.2021 · Grade 5 grammar worksheets. Multiple versions of some worksheets are provided for additional practice. These worksheets ask students to list adjectives in the correct order. These grammar worksheets help grade 1 3 students learn to recognize and use adjectives adjectives are words that describe nouns. All worksheets are pdf files. Displaying all worksheets related to - Writing Adjectives Using Adjectives. Worksheets are Using a blog to guide beginner students to use adjectives, Grade 2 grammar work, Adjectives, Grade 3 grammar work, Name date grammar work adjectives and adverbs, Lesson skill developing an essay using specific nouns, Adverb or adjective, Grab and go writing activity. Procedure: 1. After having students brainstorm ideas of what descriptive writing may be, offer feedback to the students about what a possible definition could be. 2. Ask students to think of ways in which to make their writing descriptive. Example: word choice, terminology, adjectives, using senses. 3. With this worksheet, students can choose from a variety of fun and engaging activities for learning or reviewing vocabulary words. Vocabulary Worksheets. Writing Worksheets. Worksheets For TEENs. School Resources. Learning Resources. Teaching Tools. F Adjectives. Middle School Reading. Printable adjective worksheets. Includes finding adjectives in sentences, comparative and superlative adjectives, and more. 05.10.2020 · Descriptive Writing : Worksheet for Fourth Grade English Language Arts . Some of the worksheets for this concept are Writing, Descriptive paragraphs work,. 4th grade, and 5th grade Regular Adjectives Worksheets. A collection of fiction and non-fiction passages written for middle school students in students in 6th, 7th,. Adjective Worksheets for Elementary and Middle School. Adjective worksheets for TEENs and tweens can be used to teach or practice adjective lessons. Challenge elementary students to find adjectives in simple sentences, then move on for. by using adjectives, by “showing” specific details in a sentence, by incorporating similes and metaphors, etc. Pick at least five of the sentences below and make this idea more evocative, fresh, or appealing. pptx, 148.48 KB. This resource revises the use of adverbs in different positions within sentences and asks pupils to create sentences using adverbs appropriately. Students rearrange sentences to make them flow and look at descriptive extracts which. Everything you need for an entire unit to get middle & high school students actively engaged in describing themselves and others using Spanish descriptive adjectives and the verb SER! 120 pages of engaging and meaningful activities to promote. 13.01.2022 · 3 adjectives to describe crowd. In figurative language the reader must determine the writers intended meaning as the words by themselves do not express it clearly. Figurative language is the opposite of literal language where the words convey meaning exactly as defined. Descriptive adjectives are words that describe nouns or pronouns.. Scripts prior
The top 10 high schools in the USA are some of the most exclusive. That goes without saying. But if you’ve got a bright TEEN (or indeed you are one), they’re well worth the effort to get in — even if it involves moving out of state. Granted. Oct 18, 2021. Help students with descriptive writing skills by teaching these five writing activities that will allow them to practice "showing not . Your TEEN’s education is one of the greatest investments you will ever make. Choosing the right school will help your TEEN through their high school years, but how do you choose the ‘right’ school? There are so many things to consider, an. It's a secret! You can find them for sure. Seasons – Write one sentence to describe each of the four seasons with descriptive words (adjectives.) Use . Help me find my tender heart that I lost along the way. Take me back to where it all began. In that hospital room. In that hospital gown. With you. Edit Your Post Published by jthreeNMe on July 24, 2021 Help me find my tender heart that I. My first purpose was to use it for descriptive writing. Students can keep track of wonderful sensory words that they come across in their reading or in other . Results 1 - 24 of 39000+. Not only will this help students practice using adjectives,. 15 NO PREP DESCRIPTIVE WRITING WORKSHEETS designed to help students . this worksheet helps build vocabulary and develop students' understanding of parts of speech. For more adjectives practice, try Adding Details with . Results 1 - 24 of 42000+. This is a fun and creative activity for students to practice writing and using adjectives. Students write adjectives about a monster . Creative writing can be a powerful tool for increasing your students' vocabulary. Having fun whilst learning is an objective that most teachers aim for and . Adjective Sentences Worksheet. Students will practice writing sentences using five adjectives on this worksheet. Students will also need to choose an adjective . Here, students will learn to craft vivid scenes by selecting powerful verbs and adjectives, as well as to critique descriptive writing using the same . simple yet evocative sentences in this short essay, but other descriptive, by using adjectives, by “showing” specific details in a sentence, .
. Results 1 - 24 of 39000+. Not only will this help students practice using adjectives,. 15 NO PREP DESCRIPTIVE WRITING WORKSHEETS designed to help students . It's a secret! You can find them for sure. Seasons – Write one sentence to describe each of the four seasons with descriptive words (adjectives.) Use . this worksheet helps build vocabulary and develop students' understanding of parts of speech. For more adjectives practice, try Adding Details with . Adjective Sentences Worksheet. Students will practice writing sentences using five adjectives on this worksheet. Students will also need to choose an adjective . Creative writing can be a powerful tool for increasing your students' vocabulary. Having fun whilst learning is an objective that most teachers aim for and . simple yet evocative sentences in this short essay, but other descriptive, by using adjectives, by “showing” specific details in a sentence, . Oct 18, 2021. Help students with descriptive writing skills by teaching these five writing activities that will allow them to practice "showing not . Results 1 - 24 of 42000+. This is a fun and creative activity for students to practice writing and using adjectives. Students write adjectives about a monster . Help me find my tender heart that I lost along the way. Take me back to where it all began. In that hospital room. In that hospital gown. With you. Edit Your Post Published by jthreeNMe on July 24, 2021 Help me find my tender heart that I. Here, students will learn to craft vivid scenes by selecting powerful verbs and adjectives, as well as to critique descriptive writing using the same . My first purpose was to use it for descriptive writing. Students can keep track of wonderful sensory words that they come across in their reading or in other . Your TEEN’s education is one of the greatest investments you will ever make. Choosing the right school will help your TEEN through their high school years, but how do you choose the ‘right’ school? There are so many things to consider, an. The top 10 high schools in the USA are some of the most exclusive. That goes without saying. But if you’ve got a bright TEEN (or indeed you are one), they’re well worth the effort to get in — even if it involves moving out of state. Granted.
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