Oxymoron is a type of figure of speech that will be heard in spoken English many times. It is also found in a literary sense in works such as songs, poems, and fiction. But what exactly is an oxymoron and how can it be used? In this article, we are going to discuss the meaning of oxymoron and look at how it is used in both spoken and written language. We will do this by taking a look at some examples of times in which oxymoron has been used in literature and in everyday conversation.
What Is an Oxymoron?
An oxymoron is a figure of speech that combines seemingly contradictory terms or ideas. This rhetorical device is used to emphasize a particular point, often revealing a deeper or hidden truth. It can be found in various forms of literature, poetry, and everyday language. Elements of an oxymoron may include contrasting words or ideas, placed side by side for effect. While an oxymoron may seem nonsensical or contradictory, its main purpose is to provoke thought and convey complexity.
Oxymoron is a type of figurative language that involves the use of two words that appear to contradict one another but when used together make a true and sometimes positive statement.
It is a rhetorical device that can be used in order to reveal a paradox by using two self-contradicting terms. It is also used in a literary sense in order to add a more complex feel to the text and in order to cause the reader to think in a more profound way about the situation at hand.
The term “oxymoron” itself is derived from the Greek words “oxy” meaning “sharp” and “moron” meaning “dull.” It describes the interplay of opposing terms in a word or phrase, essentially creating a “sharp-dull” idea that captures the attention of the reader or listener.
Different Types of Oxymorons
- Adjective-noun pairs: The most recognizable oxymorons often include an adjective followed by a noun. These combinations create striking mental images and challenge conventional thinking. Examples include “bitter sweet,” “deafening silence,” and “open secret.”
- Verb-noun pairs: In this type, a verb contradicts the noun it modifies, as seen in phrases like “to freeze a burn” or “to organize chaos.”
- Adverb-adjective pairs: These oxymorons involve an adverb modifying a contradicting adjective, such as “incredibly ordinary” and “clearly confusing.”
- Phrasal oxymorons: These are multi-word expressions that contain contradictory elements. Examples include “living death,” “hurry up and wait,” and “peaceful war.”
|Phrasal oxymoron||Peaceful war|
In conclusion, understanding oxymorons requires recognizing the deliberate juxtaposition of contradictory terms to create thought-provoking expressions. Through the use of oxymorons in various forms and combinations, writers and speakers can engage the audience’s intellect and encourage deeper exploration of the ideas they present.
Oxymoron Examples in Literature
Shakespeare and Oxymorons
Oxymorons have been widely employed in literature to emphasize contrasts and evoke deeper meanings. One prominent author who made excellent use of oxymorons is William Shakespeare. In his play Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare frequently uses oxymorons to express the complexity and contradictory nature of emotions. For example, in Act 1, Scene 1, Romeo says, “O brawling love, O loving hate,” which highlights the paradoxical relationship between love and hate.
Shakespeare’s utilization of oxymoronic phrases showcases his mastery of language and allows him to convey intricate emotions to his audience.
Oxymoron Examples in Notable Works and Authors
Other esteemed authors have incorporated oxymorons in their works as well. Some notable examples include:
- Alfred, Lord Tennyson: In his poem Idylls of the King, Tennyson uses oxymorons to describe the melancholic character of King Arthur. An example from the poem is the phrase “faith unfaithful,” which reflects the struggle between trust and betrayal that characterized Arthur’s reign.
- Lord Byron: The famous Romantic poet, Lord Byron, also employs oxymorons in his writings. In the poem Don Juan, for instance, he pens the line “melancholy merriment” to display the character’s conflicting emotions between sorrow and amusement.
- Oscar Wilde: Another literary master, Oscar Wilde, artfully employs oxymorons in his works. In The Picture of Dorian Gray, he writes, “the only way to get rid of a temptation is to yield to it,” skillfully illustrating the contradictory nature of human desires and choices.
Other Examples of Oxymorons in Literature
We often see oxymorons used as a literary device, for the purpose of encouraging the reader to think more deeply about the meaning of a statement. We are now going to look at some examples of times that oxymoron has been used within the written text.
- In the play, Romeo and Juliet written by William Shakespeare, we see many examples of an oxymoron being used, in such phrases as ‘in heavy lightness’ and ‘bright smoke.’ There are other examples in the same play such as ‘in sick health’ and ‘the cold fire.’
- In Lancelot and Elaine written by Alfred Lord Tennyson, we see an example of oxymoron in the phrase ‘his honour which was rooted in dishonour.’
- In ‘Petrachs 134th sonnet written by Sir Thomas Wyatt, there is an example of the use of oxymoron in the line ‘I burn like ice.’ We see further examples in the same piece of writing in the lines ‘I find no peace but all my war is finished.’ and ‘I flee above wind and yet I cannot rise above.’ These examples are written in a more old English style but still fall under the category of oxymoron.
- In ‘essays of criticism’ written by Alexander Pope, we can see an example of oxymoron when we read the line ‘the bookish blockhead who ignorantly reads.’
- In the play Hamlet written by William Shakespeare, we see many examples of oxymoron, one of these examples comes in the line ‘I must be cruel in order to be kind.’
- Once again, in the play Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare, we see further examples of oxymoron in the lines ‘what a beautiful tyrant’ and he is a damned saint and an honourable thief.’
- In a speech made by a president of Egypt, we see the use of oxymoron in the line ‘it is a step forward even though there was no progress.’
- In a speech made by the President of the United States, Donald Trump, we see an example of oxymoron in the sentence which reads ‘there was nothing taken, I had an honest thief.’
- A statement made by the singer Isaac B, we can see an example of oxymoron in the line ‘we have to believe in free will because we have no other choice.’
- In the poem entitled ‘the send off’ by Wilfred Owen, we see an example of oxymoron when he describes something as ‘grimly gay.’
- In ‘A picture of Dorian Grey’ written by Oscar Wilde, we see another example of the use of oxymoron in the statement which reads ‘I can believe in anything provided that it is incredible.’
These examples illustrate how oxymorons in literature have been used to create nuanced and thought-provoking illustrations of emotions, ideas, and themes. Through the careful use of language and the juxtaposition of seemingly opposing words, authors have employed this figure of speech to enhance their storytelling and engage the reader.
Oxymoron Examples in Everyday Language
Common Phrases and Sentences
Oxymorons are often found in everyday language, enhancing the impact of a statement or adding a touch of humor. These are phrases or sentences that combine contradictory or opposing ideas to create a unique image or idea in the reader or listener’s mind. Some examples of oxymorons frequently used in everyday speech include:
- Sweet sorrow
- Cruel kindness
- Alone together
- Same difference
These phrases demonstrate the versatility of oxymorons and their ability to capture life’s incongruities in a succinct and memorable way.
Additionally, there are many common oxymoron examples that have integrated themselves into the fabric of the English language:
- Old news
- Deafening silence
- Jumbo shrimp
- Original copy
These expressions might be used in conversation or texts to convey an idea, emotion, or situation that wouldn’t be as effectively communicated using different words.
Oxymoron Examples in Pop Culture
Oxymorons are a prevalent rhetorical device in various forms of pop culture, including music, film, and literature. They can elicit a range of emotions from love to humor, or even create thought-provoking statements about society, relationships, and the human experience.
A famous example of an oxymoron in pop culture can be found in the song “All of Me” by John Legend. The lyrics contain the phrase “perfect imperfections,” which highlights the beauty and complexity of loving someone despite their flaws.
Within literature and films, oxymorons are often used to heighten drama or create a sense of irony. For example, phrases like “pointedly foolish” and “seriously funny” might be employed to emphasize a character’s qualities or actions in conflict with their intentions or expectations.
Oxymorons are also prevalent in various forms of media and everyday conversation, particularly when discussing modern technology, innovations, or societal trends. Examples include:
- Virtual reality
- Business ethics
- Keen laziness
These oxymorons underscore the inherent contradictions and complexities within the subjects being discussed.
In conclusion, oxymorons are a powerful and versatile literary device that frequently appear in everyday language, pop culture, and various forms of media. They enable individuals to effectively communicate complex ideas and emotions, creating memorable imagery and thought-provoking statements.
More Examples of Oxymorons in Everyday Speech
There are many times in which oxymoron is used in day-to-day conversation. It is a common form of figurative language found in informal conversation. We will now take a look at some examples of the use of oxymorons in a conversational sense. The use of oxymorons will be highlighted in bold.
- He showed a cruel kindness.
- The living death.
- The walking dead.
- It was an open secret.
- The play was a tragic comedy.
- We saw a comedian last night, he was seriously funny.
- The model who won the competition was awfully pretty.
- He had an air of foolish wisdom about him.
- These are the original copies of the manuscript.
- The substance was a liquid gas.
- The couple seemed to have a love-hate relationship.
- We wore our virtual reality helmets to play the game.
- The workers were actually paid volunteers.
- She kept telling me the same thing, it was old news.
- I am going to need an exact estimate of the cost.
- Many fighters were killed in friendly fire.
- I was absolutely uncertain of the cause.
- We will have to agree to disagree on the subject.
- She was regularly irregular.
- She always felt as though she was alone in a crowd.
- We came up with an approximate solution to the problem.
- After the children had gone to bed, there was a deafening silence.
- If I had to give my unbiased opinion…
- We were awfully lucky to have avoided any damage from the flood.
- There were a lot of unpopular celebrities at the award ceremony.
- We are going to a slumber party.
- We are suffering from increasing losses.
- She is a real earth angel.
- He helped to perform assisted suicide.
- I prefer to eat jumbo shrimp.
- I told him to just act natural.
- There was something about the town which was oddly familiar.
- The work that the builders did was partially completed.
- He is known to behave badly.
- There is a large minority within the company.
- She is a fairly nasty person.
- The woman we saw today was pretty ugly.
- My favorite subject at school is modern history.
- He lives in a mobile home.
- His part in the play is the sad clown.
Functions and Effects of Oxymorons
Emphasis and Contrast
Oxymorons serve as a literary device to draw attention to a contradictory or incongruous nature within an idea or concept. By joining two conflicting words, like “sharp-dull” or “civil war,” they create a contrast for the reader to process. This can help highlight specific aspects of the subject, emphasizing particular details or elements that may otherwise be overlooked. For example, the phrase “organized chaos” underscores the paradoxical nature of seemingly chaotic situations that still follow some form of structure.
Humor and Irony
Another function of oxymorons is their ability to convey humor and irony in a clever, concise manner. By pairing words that seemingly oppose each other, such as “awfully good” or “working vacation,” oxymorons create a surprising or entertaining effect that engages the reader. This contradiction in terms often elicits laughter or amusement, as it goes against our expectations. Some notable comical oxymorons are “military intelligence” and “passive-aggressive,” which provide a new way of looking at these familiar concepts by highlighting their inherent contrasts.
Uncovering Deeper Truths
While oxymorons can be a source of humor or emphasis, they can also serve a more profound purpose in revealing deeper truths about the subject at hand. When Alexander Pope, a famous poet, used the oxymoron “terrible beauty” to describe the Atlantic Ocean, he intended to capture the dualistic nature of this vast body of water: its enchanting allure and its potentially dangerous power. By using an oxymoron, writers can challenge and invite readers to dive deeper into the subject and consider different facets or layers that might be overlooked in other forms of figurative language.
In conclusion, oxymorons are a versatile literary device that can serve various functions, from emphasizing contrasts and highlighting incongruities to providing humor and irony or unearthing deeper truths. Whether applied to a poetic description or a comical phrase, oxymorons can communicate complex ideas in an engaging, entertaining, and thought-provoking manner.
How to Use Oxymorons in Your Writing
Creating Impact with Oxymorons
Oxymorons, a rhetorical device that combines two contradictory words, can be a powerful tool to create impact in writing. They can evoke strong emotions or provoke thought and can be used to emphasize a point, highlight irony, or add a touch of humor. For example, phrases like “wise fool” and “friendly fire” can bring attention to the inherent contradictions within these concepts.
One way to use oxymorons effectively in writing is to pair an adjective with a noun that has a seemingly opposite meaning. The result is a surprising and thought-provoking image, like the example “deafening silence.” This juxtaposition of words can help express complex ideas that might be difficult to convey otherwise.
Tips for Effective Use
To integrate oxymorons into your writing and make them impactful, follow these tips:
- Choose words carefully: Select words that have a clear and substantial contrast in meaning. For instance, “student teacher” brings out the paradox of being both a learner and an instructor at the same time.
- Use appropriate context: Ensure that the oxymoron fits the context of your writing. An oxymoron that conveys humor may not work well in a serious or formal piece.
- Avoid overuse: While oxymorons can be powerful, using too many within a limited space can make your writing feel cluttered or forced. Remember, the element of surprise is key to their effectiveness.
- Explore different forms: Oxymorons can be plural, like “living dead,” and can also serve as antonyms for other words. Experimenting with different forms can help you convey your ideas more effectively.
Here’s a concise table summarizing the tips for using oxymorons in your writing:
|Choose words carefully||Select contrasting words that create thought-provoking combinations.|
|Use appropriate context||Fit the oxymoron within the tone and context of your writing.|
|Avoid overuse||Use oxymorons sparingly to preserve their impact.|
|Explore different forms||Experiment with plurals, antonyms, and other forms to create variety in your writing.|
Remember, the use of oxymorons can be a creative and engaging way to enhance your writing. By thoughtfully selecting words and considering their placement in your text, you can make a memorable impact on your readers.
After looking more in-depth at what an oxymoron is and how it can be used, we have discovered that the rhetorical device is formed by using two contradicting words or terms in order to convey a deeper, more positive meaning.
Oxymoron is used frequently in both a conversational sense and in written works such as poetry, song, and stories. When used in this sense it gives a greater complexity to the piece of writing and can cause the reader to have to think more deeply about what they are reading.
FAQs on Oxymoron
What is an oxymoron?
An oxymoron is a figure of speech that combines contradictory words with opposing meanings to make a point, reveal a deeper truth, or create a unique word or phrase. Examples of oxymorons include “old news,” “deafening silence,” and “organized chaos.”
How are oxymorons used in literature?
Oxymorons can be used in various ways in literature, such as:
- Creating an interesting contrast for emphasis
- Highlighting the complexity or ambiguity of a situation
- Adding humor, wit, or irony to a text
- Revealing a hidden truth or deeper meaning
What is the difference between an oxymoron and a paradox?
While both oxymorons and paradoxes involve contradictions, they have distinct differences:
- Oxymoron: A figure of speech combining contradictory terms or ideas, usually in the form of adjective-noun pairs, e.g., “proud humility.”
- Paradox: A statement or argument that seems contradicting or against common sense but might still be true, e.g., “less is more.”
Are there any famous oxymorons in literature?
Yes, many famous literary works contain oxymorons. For instance, in Shakespeare’s “Romeo and Juliet,” the line, “Why, then, O brawling love! O loving hate!” features an oxymoron.
Is “oxymoronic” a word?
Yes, “oxymoronic” is an adjective derived from “oxymoron,” describing something that is or involves an oxymoron.
Last Updated on May 13, 2023


Conlangs are classified into types and subtypes based mainly on why they are created. The three basic types are engelangs (engineered languages), auxlangs (auxiliary languages), and artlangs (artistic languages).
Whatever your reason for making a language, it's good to keep always in mind why you started it in the first place.
Engineered languages Edit
Engelangs, sometimes called englangs, are conlangs designed to meet objective criteria, rather than subjective goals like "elegance" or "ease of use". For example, one might design an engelang so that the arrangement of sounds in a word classifies its meaning; or so that its grammatical structure imitates formal logic; or so that its expressions conform to a certain ideology or point of view (say, Taoism, or feminism). Subjective goals are always around — motivating the choice of objective criteria, and filling in gaps in the language design that the objective criteria don't address. As long as the technical criteria take precedence when deciding features of the language design, it's an engelang.
Be aware (and beware) that the names for this type of conlang and its subtypes vary a bit across the conlanging community. What we're calling engelangs here, some conlangers call loglangs (a term we're using just for the ones that implement formal logic); and some other conlangers call them philosophical languages (a term we're using for a subtype of engelangs distinct from loglangs).
Logical languages Edit
Loglangs are conlangs built around the structure of formal logic. They are usually designed to investigate how the human mind would work when using a language with that structure. Logical languages tend to have few or no irregularities and be similar in style to computer programming or markup languages. They advocate a logical and consistent architectural structure of utterances. Lojban, a language created to test the Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis (the idea that language shapes the operation of the mind), is considered archetypal of the genre. Others are like Ithkuil, a language created by John Quijada: Ithkuil exists as an exercise in how human languages could function. These often overlap with philosophical languages.
Some examples of loglangs:
- Loglan — developed in the mid-twentieth century, originally as a tool with which to test the Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis.
- Lojban — a community-driven offshoot of Loglan. Its development is ongoing.
- Tceqli — originally inspired by Loglan, then took a turn toward the naturalistic.
- CycL — a knowledge representation language, for an attempt to create artificial intelligence through vast accumulation of knowledge.
- Ithkuil — intended to express thoughts precisely and densely.
Philosophical languages Edit
Philosophical languages are conlangs constructed to meet some philosophical goal. This goal can be to explore how the mind works by altering the fundamental structure of the language (which is the aim of some loglangs, such as Ithkuil), or it can be to see if language is even possible when certain elements are changed. In general, philosophical languages are experimental.
In some of them, for example, all the words for manmade objects (artifacts) might begin with the same letter, t for instance, all the words for pieces of furniture would begin with to-, the word for "chair" would be tod, words for different types of chairs would begin with tod-, organisms with v, plant species with ve- while animals would begin with vu-, all vertebrates with vuz-, mammals with vuzu- and rodents with vuzum-.
A common criticism of languages that use such a word categorization system is that the words that are most similar in meaning and topic, and will therefore most need to be distinguished from each other, will sound too alike, and become too confusable to learn, even though the goal of these languages is usually to make memorization easier. In a few of these languages a single phoneme or very short (two-letter) syllable will indicate an element of meaning, such as "light/vision", "female", or "many".
Some examples of philosophical languages:
- Wilkins's philosophical language — seventeenth century classification language. It has been described as paving the way for Roget's Thesaurus.
- aUI — 1960s. Each sound has a meaning, and the meanings of words are built up from the meanings of the sounds.
- Ro — early twentieth century classification language. One of its supporters was Melvil Dewey, creator of the Dewey Decimal System.
- Ygyde — twenty-first century. Two-letter morphemes carry meaning, and longer words are built up as compounds.
- Toki Pona — twenty-first century. Designed to facilitate Taoist thinking. Very few words with no inflections and uncomplicated meanings, and very simple grammar.
- Láadan —1982. Designed to support women's perceptions and thoughts.
Auxiliary languages Edit
Auxlangs are designed to help ease communication between two or more linguistically diverse communities. They use simple phonology and grammar to try to make them easy to learn. Their grammars are made in such a way as to express the widest range of meanings possible. There are many Auxlangs, and some of them were among the first constructed languages ever made.
Some examples of auxlangs:
- Esperanto — probably the most widely known auxlang. It includes words from languages of several Indo-European branches and has a highly developed system of word derivation.
- Volapük — the most successful auxlang prior to Esperanto. Its vocabulary is derived from Germanic roots.
- Ido — derived from Esperanto, separating in an event called the schism (or even the Great Schism) from which resentments have not entirely faded more than a century later. Ido uses a Romance-derived vocabulary.
- Latino sine flexione — based on Latin without inflections.
- Novial — based on modern West European languages.
- Solresol — based on the musical scale. It can be sung and played.
- Interslavic — based on modern Slavic languages; designed to be intelligible to all speakers thereof.
Many auxlangs borrow their vocabulary entirely from the Indo-European languages — often from a mix of Romance and Germanic languages, but most often entirely from Romance languages. As a result, the vocabulary and general method of reaching the goal of universality sound a lot alike from auxlang to auxlang. These auxlangs are often called "Euroclones". More recent auxlangs that take their vocabulary from more diverse sources and use non-Indo-European grammar include Vorlin, Tceqli, Ilomi, and SASXSEK.
Artistic languages Edit
Artlangs are created for a wide range of reasons: fleshing out works of fiction, fun, experimentation, or even historical study (colloquially called "if-langs"). Most people who create artlangs do so simply because they enjoy it. Several artlangs have gained high visibility in popular culture in recent years, such as Klingon, created for the Star Trek franchise by professional linguist Marc Okrand; the many Elvish languages, especially Quenya and Sindarin, in Tolkien's Middle-earth; and Dothraki, created by conlanger David J. Peterson for the Game of Thrones television series.
Fictional languages Edit
The most familiar and general subset of artlangs are fictional languages. These are spoken by the inhabitants of the fictional worlds of a book, movie, television show, video game, comic, or toy, such as Middle-earth, the Star Trek universe, or the game Myst. These worlds in which they are spoken are called conworlds, inhabited by fictional concultures. The conworld influences what words the language will have for flora and fauna, articles of clothing, foods, objects of technology (such as bricks, cannons, or telephones), sports, music genres, ethnic groups, religious concepts, and place names.
The culture will also have an influence on some things like verb tenses (how your people view the future and the past, or whether time should even be grammatically indicated at all any more than place should), pronouns (whether the speakers need fine enough shades of "we" to distinguish the concept of "you and I" from "them and I", or whether they have different levels of formality for "you"), and how kinship terms are split up (some languages have different words for older and younger brothers, others do not distinguish "brother" from "sister", and some have different words for the sister of a sister and the sister of a brother). Tolkien started out inventing languages for his amusement and then retroengineered a fictional universe to have a world in which these languages would be spoken.
Since the Internet became popular, many people have now become able to put up information on their conlangs and associated conworlds on their sites, and these have become famous. Verdurian, the language of Mark Rosenfelder's Verduria on the planet of Almea, is often invoked as a symbolic representative of these Net-based fictional languages.
Some examples of fictional languages:
- Klingon — created for the Star Trek franchise by linguist Marc Okrand; meant to have a harsh sound, but be pronounceable by actors, and to reflect a suitably bellicose worldview.
- Na'vi language — created for the movie Avatar by professor Paul Frommer; meant to fit the film concept, and be pronounceable by actors, but not sound like any particular human language.
- Dothraki — created for the television series Game of Thrones by conlanger David J. Peterson.
- Newspeak — described in George Orwell's novel 1984; supposed to prevent dissident thoughts by not allowing them to be expressed.
- Quenya and Sindarin — the most prominent of J.R.R. Tolkien's Elvish languages; designed to Tolkien's personal taste. He created Middle-earth as background for the languages.
- Verdurian — created by Mark Rosenfelder for a Dungeons & Dragons world; borrows from various European languages, but doesn't closely resemble any of them.
Altlangs are also known as What if? languages or if-langs. They speculate on an alternate history and try to reconstruct how a family of natural languages would have evolved if things had been different. What if King Harold had won the Battle of Hastings? What if the Polynesians had settled in Central America during the time of Meso-American Empires? What if Alexander the Great had not been able to conquer Egypt? What if Greek civilization went on to thrive without a Roman Empire, leaving Greek and not Latin to develop several modern descendants? The language that would have evolved is then traced step by step in its evolution, to reach its final form.
The revered grandfather of this genre is Andrew Smith's Brithenig, which attempts to determine what Romance languages would have evolved into had the Romans displaced the Celtic people in Great Britain. The vocabulary of Latin is altered through the same evolution that befell Welsh from the evolution of the Celtic languages through the present day. An altlang will typically base itself on the core vocabulary of one language and the phonology of another. An altlang will ideally have meticulous understanding and admirable imagination as to world history, sturdy knowledge of linguistics, and ingenious improvisation when it becomes necessary to "toss it up".
Some examples of altlangs:
- Brithenig — might have evolved if Latin had displaced the native Celtic language in Great Britain.
- Breathanach — might have evolved if Latin had displaced the native Celtic language in Ireland.
- Wenedyk — might have evolved if the Romans had conquered Poland.
Personal languages Edit
Personal languages are languages that are created by and belong just to the inventor, for just the inventor to see, or perhaps to show off. A personal language is created for the ultimate purpose of creating a language. There is no conworld motivating it, no people whom the creator actually expects to speak it, no product that will be manufactured in its language. A personal language is considered by many to be artlanging in its purest form, although a personal language may well have no artistic intention behind it. A personal language may be invented to create a beautiful language or for self-expression. It may be invented to give out a tribute to a language or language family the creator really likes, attempting to capture the flavor of the original as much as possible, or it may be created just for the fun that there is in creating a language.
Personal languages are often created as practices in linguistics; a conlanger learning about ergativity might write out the grammar of an ergative conlang in order to understand how ergative languages work. Some exist to test outlandish phonologies or orthographic systems, or have hundreds of noun cases or tens of millions of possible verb forms. Many are invented simply because people love constructing languages! The creators of personal languages often share their languages and update their progress over the Internet, and many habitually scrap an old conlang project that hasn't gotten beyond a lexicon of 50 words and start a new one. These personal languages tend to have short lifespans, but others are developed for years on end as their creators try to become truly fluent in them, perhaps using them for diaries and other writings.
- Teonaht — well-known personal language of conlanger Sally Caves. Winner of the 2007 Smiley Award.
Micronational languages Edit
Some artlangs are micronational languages — like fictional languages, but their creators make them real. They declare territory, issue official flags and currency, and recruit citizens, then have the citizens learn the language. These are the languages of micronations, sometimes created for entertainment, but often breakaway nations that are created for political purposes, declaring themselves to exist alongside UN-recognized nations (such as Sealand, the Conch Republic, or Atlantium). The members of these micronations meet up and speak the language they have learned when they are participating in these meets. The language and its creation belong to all the citizens of these micronations. They determine the direction of its evolution, invent new grammatical constructions when they discover it is necessary, and coin new words as they speak.
- Talossan — created in 1980 by Robert Ben Madison for his micronation Talosa. Has its own ISO language code.
Other ways of classifying conlangs Edit
In-between goals Edit
The three broad kinds of goals we've described — technical features, cross-cultural communication, and art — aren't mutually exclusive. What if your goal is to see whether a certain technical goal can be successfully combined with your personal aesthetics? Is that an engelang or an artlang? Liva is a conlang with just that sort of goals, and its author has suggested that conlangs should be placed on the interior of a triangle, with the three pure types of conlangs at its corners (the Gnoli triangle).
Even if a conlang has a single, pure primary goal, there are enough details in any conlang that the primary goal probably doesn't cover all of them. Auxlangs have some artistry in their making — it's been argued (see sources) that artistic merit is part of why Esperanto has succeeded so much better than its competitors. Engelangs may have some artistry in them, too; and artlangs often have some technical aspirations lurking under the surface.
A particular class of mixed-goal conlangs with its own name is the fauxlangs, short for fictional auxlangs. These are supposed auxlangs created by characters in a fictional setting, often in an alternative history. Examples include
- Rex May's Texperanto — created by L.L. Zamenhof, the creator of Esperanto, in an alternative history where he emigrated to the Republic of Texas.
- At one time, Ray Brown's το άνευ κλίσι Ελληνικό ("Greek without inflections") was a fauxlang — the analog, in an alternative history where Alexander the Great conquered Rome, of Giuseppe Peano's 1903 auxlang Latino sine flexione. It was revised a few years ago, though, to be more of an englang because the fictional setting was found too limiting.
A relex is a conlang generated from a pre-existing language by replacing the forms of the words, while leaving most of the rest of the original language unchanged — especially,
- the exact meanings of the words from the original language, and/or
- the grammar of the original language.
With both of these unchanged, the conlang is a sort of word-replacement code for the original language. By extension, relex is sometimes used as a broad criticism of any conlang seen as too closely copying another language.
The largest class of relexes are (by reputation, at least) artlangs whose authors failed to notice that they were copying most of the look and feel of their native language. Not all relexes are artlangs, though, and not all are unintentional. Auxlangs Speedwords and Glosa have both been criticized as relexes of English. The loglang Lojban started as a deliberate relex of Loglan, since which their grammars and vocabularies have gradually diverged as both languages underwent further development (see sources).
Some relexes may be used for specific purposes. For example, the Israeli military uses a relex of Hebrew called "NADBAR".
The conlanging term relex is a shortening of the term relexification, borrowed and adapted from linguistics proper. The linguistic term has a narrower meaning: in linguistic relexification, a pre-existing language keeps its grammar but replaces its vocabulary from another pre-existing language. The language from which the vocabulary is taken is called the lexifier.
A priori and a posteriori Edit
Particular features of a conlang can be a posteriori — meaning borrowed from natural languages, rather than invented — or a priori, meaning invented rather than borrowed from natural languages. These terms are most often used to describe the forms of words, as with the Toki Pona words toki, from the English word talk, and pona, from Latin bona (good). An entire conlang may also be described as a priori/posteriori if most of its grammar and vocabulary are of that type. A conlang described as a posteriori usually borrows from several, or even many, different natlangs; relexes are not normally called a posteriori.
Classification-based vocabulary is an a priori strategy that has been used in a number of engelangs (e.g., Ro) and some auxlangs (e.g., Solresol). Most auxlangs make extensive use of a posteriori vocabulary.
Diachronic languages Edit
A diachronic conlang is equipped with an internal, i.e., fictional, linguistic history. Since the internal history is fictional, all diachronic conlangs are artlangs; but most subtypes of artlangs include both diachronic and non-diachronic (synchronic) languages.
Tolkien's Elvish languages are the most famous example of diachronic conlanging, with an entire family of languages descended from a common ancestor, Primitive Quendian. Many artlangs, though by no means all, have at least some suggestions of internal history about them, even if no parent language has been fully worked out.
Altlangs are diachronic, by definition.
Kitchen sink languages Edit
A kitchen sink conlang is one that has way too many exotic features, all at once for no apparent reason — "everything including the kitchen sink" in an uncoordinated mishmash. Unlike relex, kitchen sink has no neutral technical sense; it's always a strong term of opprobrium.
Kitchen sink languages are at the opposite end of a spectrum from relexes: where too little tinkering can produce a relex (that lacks interest), too much tinkering can produce a kitchen sink language (that lacks plausibility). It has been suggested that a conlanger's second conlang — after they've made a relex for their first — is often a kitchen sink language; but even experienced conlangers, tempted by the lure of exotic features, can sometimes fall into the trap of kitchen-sink-ism.
Caution should also be exercised, though, in applying the term kitchen sink to a conlang — not only because it's such a strong term, but because just having many unusual features doesn't necessarily make it a kitchen sink language (which is why the term is so strong). For proper use of the term, the many unusual features should be unjustified; in principle, at least, it's possible for many unusual features to occur in a smoothly coherent design, so that they all feel quite natural in context. The catch is that — as David Peterson remarked when awarding the 2007 Smiley Award to Teonaht, a highly respected conlang with several unusual features — there is a double standard at work between natlangs and conlangs: any bizarre features of a natlang are natural by definition, but the same features in a conlang would have to persuade on their own merits. His case in point is Pirahã, a natlang with no way of expressing time; no way of counting; a culture with no storytelling, oral history, or art; it can be spoken, whistled, hummed, or drummed; and it has different phonologies for men and women. If it were a conlang instead of a natlang, its creator would have a hard time passing it off as naturalistic.


Some people think that sexuality is determined by biology. They argue that people are born homosexual or heterosexual, and that foetal brain development and hormones determine sexual desires and behaviours.
Others say that sexuality is shaped by social understandings about sex. For example, among European settlers in the late 19th century, for a woman to show an ankle was considered sexy – a view that faded as dress codes changed. In the 21st century, it is commonly thought that sexual behaviour is a product of interactions between biological and social factors.
Sexuality is often understood to have three aspects:
These different aspects of sexuality do not always sit neatly together. Someone’s sexual identity (how they project themselves to others) may differ from their orientation (who they find attractive) and their behaviour (what they do). A man might identify as heterosexual and live in a traditional marriage, but could also be sexually attracted to men and engage in sexual activity with them. People’s sexual orientations, identities and behaviours may change over time. Increasingly the word ‘sexualities’ is used to capture diversity in sexual desires, identities and behaviours.
Christian religious beliefs had a major impact on Māori ideas about sexuality and sexual practices. A research participant in the Māori Sexuality Project said that ‘when Pakeha [Europeans] came we were made to believe that the way we portrayed our sexuality was wrong. We weren’t doing it according to … the way they portrayed their sexuality.’1
Pre-colonial Māori society is thought to have celebrated sexuality and sexual diversity. Carvings, written documents and oral storytelling suggest that erotic love occurred between people of the same gender, and that women and men had several sexual partners during their lives. Some men had more than one wife.
Christian missionaries and settlers brought an ideal of monogamous heterosexual marriage, prejudices against homosexuals, and expectations that children would be conceived within marriage. Māori children born outside marriage were welcomed into their mother’s kinship group, but European women who were sexually active outside marriage were stigmatised and their children defined as illegitimate. While attitudes to single mothers changed over time, their children were legally illegitimate until the passing of the Status of Children Act 1969.
Women’s groups in the late 19th century challenged the double standard that punished women much more harshly than men for sex outside marriage. They wanted men to adhere to the same moral standards as women, and argued for community and state support for single mothers. Challenges to different rules for women and men continued into the 20th century, especially from the 1960s and 1970s as more people engaged openly in sexual relationships outside marriage.
By the 2000s many earlier rules about sexuality had changed. Sex between men was decriminalised in 1986 (sex between women had never been legislated against), and sex work was decriminalised in 2003. In the 2010s almost half of all births occurred outside marriage. However, sex with a minor (under 16 years) was against the law and the distribution of pornography and sexually explicit material was regulated.
State agencies and community organisations focused on sexual health, planned parenting, sexuality education, the protection of children from sexual exploitation and the human rights of those with a variety of sexual orientations. However, while formal discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation was illegal, those who identified as gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgender still sometimes experienced discrimination.
Alongside attempts to control bodies and desires, and to impose standards of sexual behaviour, people have always taken pleasure in bodies, erotic images and sexual activity. However, New Zealand historians have often focused on the activities of sexual ‘puritans’ who wanted to control sexuality, rather than those who enjoyed ‘the pleasures of the flesh’.2
Sexual practices can be intensely private and therefore hard to research. On the other hand, sexual images and sexual advice are available through television, movies, magazines, books and the internet. Families, friends, school sexuality-education programmes, the law, and religious and health organisations are other important sources of information about sexuality. People may also discover what pleases them through experimentation.
Many stereotypes exist about young people and sexuality – for instance, that they have many fleeting relationships that lack emotional commitment. Research on New Zealand youth indicates a somewhat different picture.
A national survey of 8,500 high-school students in 2012 found that 25% of males and 24% of females had experienced sexual intercourse. 18.5% indicated they were currently sexually active.
In 2012 almost 50% of New Zealand high-school students aged 17 or older had had sexual intercourse. The average age of first sexual experience for New Zealanders was similar to that in the United States, Australia and Germany but higher than Norway, Sweden and Denmark.
Young people are often seen as having ‘short and sweet’ relationships. However, a study of 17–19-year-olds in the early 2000s found that most of those in relationships had been together for 6–12 months. Almost a third indicated that their longest relationship had lasted between one and five years. These findings suggest that young people’s relationships are not always brief. Couples spoke about the emotional bond with their partners and how sex was just a component of their relationship.
It is sometimes assumed that young men just want sex while young women want love. However, research has shown that young men also value the emotional side of sexual relationships. Chris (19) spoke about how sex with his girlfriend was different from one-night stands because it involved ‘more emotion’ and ‘real caring’. He said that ‘sex for sex sake isn’t worthwhile’. Ashby (17) commented that casual sex was ‘more about lust’, while sex with his girlfriend was more intimate and he felt more comfortable.1
Young men are often seen as being emotionally uninvolved in sexual relationships, and only interested in sexual activity. While this is true in some cases, many young men do not see sex as the most important element in relationships and say that they want friendship and love as well as sex.
Young women are often thought to be more interested in the emotional elements of a relationship rather than sexual activity. However, in the 21st century some young women were expressing their sexuality in more traditionally masculine ways. They initiated relationships purely for sexual pleasure and expected male partners to please them.
For some young people their sexuality does not conform to expected heterosexual models. They are attracted to people of their own gender, or sometimes multiple genders. Most high-school students who are attracted to their own or multiple genders have not talked to other people about their sexual orientation.
A 2012 survey found that 58% of sexually active teenagers used some form of contraception all of the time to prevent pregnancy, and 46% used condoms to avoid sexually transmitted infections all of the time. Of those who were sexually active, 17% did not regularly use condoms or other contraception.
Some teenagers become parents. While sometimes this is unplanned, in other instances it is an active choice. The teenage birth rate has dropped considerably since the 1970s. It peaked at 69 per 1,000 in 1972 and was 19 per 1,000 in 2014 – still high internationally.
Women are increasingly rejecting different sexual standards for women and men. Melissa, who was interviewed about casual sex, said, ‘Guys can have sex with however many [people] they want and … they’re perceived to be a stud or … a great chick magnet or whatever, whereas girls can’t do the same, they get labelled as like a slut … I think it’s very wrong.’ 2
At one time teen mothers had to leave school, but in the 21st century they are encouraged to continue their education, complete qualifications and find employment. Little information is available about teenage fathers because mothers are not required to name or provide details about their baby’s father. Some teenage mothers do not want to name their child’s father, especially if the pregnancy is the outcome of rape or incest.
While teenage fathers are assumed to be less likely to be involved in the care of their children than teenage mothers, research suggests that fatherhood sometimes turns fun-loving adolescents into responsible fathers who enjoy being involved in the lives of their children.
Sexuality education in New Zealand in the 21st century typically covers information on sexual relationships, safer sex, contraception and sexually transmitted infections. However, some young people find this information too medical and clinical, and not particularly relevant to their lives. In the early 2000s, 17–19-year-olds rated friends as the best source of information on sex, followed by school sexuality-education programmes and parents.
In a major study in the early 2000s young people said that they wanted to know practical things such as how to get condoms, how to find out if someone you liked wanted to have sex, and also what Peter (18) described as ‘just like the basics, like positioning or whatever’. His girlfriend Amy (17) said that without this knowledge ‘you’ve got basically no idea, you’re just going to stuff around for ages and … most times it’s painful, if you don’t know what you are on about.’1
The introduction of sex education in schools was debated in Parliament in 1910, but for a long time there were no coordinated programmes. Students got information from books, pamphlets and lectures outside school hours.
Often referred to as ‘sex hygiene’, sex education in high schools in the early 1900s focused on sexual purity and preparation for marriage. Students were told to avoid premarital sex and masturbation, which was seen as a vice and a cause of mental illness. Against the background of ideas about ‘race improvement’, sex education was sometimes used to encourage those who were white and middle class to marry within this group.
Sex education was prohibited in primary schools until the Education Amendment Act 1985 permitted it under certain conditions. Limited sex education was offered in some high schools from the late 1960s. Parents had to be consulted, the school committee had to approve sex-education programmes following a written report by the school principal, and parents had the right to withdraw their children. A new health syllabus, Understanding change in puberty, was introduced in 1987, and in 1989 legal restrictions on advising under-16-year-olds on the use of contraceptives were removed.
Sex education in schools concentrated on reproductive issues and was highly medicalised and clinical. Often it was used to respond to perceived social problems and health issues. After the first reported case of HIV/AIDS in New Zealand in 1983, fears about the spread of the virus led to a strong focus on condom use. In the 21st century the focus was less on the risk of HIV/AIDS and more on preventing sexually transmitted infections and reducing unplanned pregnancies.
When the new health and physical education curriculum was introduced in 1999, sex education became ‘sexuality education’. Attempts were made to move away from a narrow focus on biology, reproduction and contraception towards broader issues, including the physical, social, mental, emotional and spiritual dimensions of sexuality.
Sexuality education is the only part of the curriculum from which parents can have a child removed. Under section 105D of the Education Amendment Act 1985 parents can apply to the principal, in writing, to have their child excluded from these classes. Health education is also the only part of the curriculum on which principals are required to consult with the school’s board of trustees, and with parents of children currently enrolled and those likely to enrol over the next two years.
Sexuality education has often ignored gay, lesbian and bisexual identities, or presented them as negative, deviant or different. When a group of same-sex-attracted 16–19-year-old high-school students were interviewed, one said: ‘Everything that comes out about sex is straight and being gay is an alternative thing, like they don’t treat it equally.’2 A senior high-school student interviewed for a different research project said that when homosexuality was discussed it was often in terms of HIV/AIDS, and was associated with danger and disease.
In the early 21st century sexuality education was compulsory until year 10. After that, only senior students who chose health as a subject received further sexuality education. Students were least likely to receive sexuality education at the time when most were having their first sexual experiences.
Many of our ideas about what is ‘sexually normal’ are perpetuated by institutions such as schools. Schools have often reinforced beliefs that heterosexuality is normal and that homosexuality and bisexuality are abnormal.
Many children know quite early which gender or genders they are attracted to. Almost a third know before the age of 12. But a 2007 survey found that only 40% of gay or bisexual high-school students had talked to other people about it. Of these students, 30% of 13-year-olds had told someone close to them about their sexuality, as had 47% of those aged 17 and older. Of those who had spoken to others about their attraction to their own or multiple genders, 24% reported that they could talk easily to family members – but 54% could not talk to their family at all about this.
The official curriculum is what schools intentionally teach and promote. This includes the sexuality-education curriculum, and discussion of sexuality in other subject areas, such as biology, English and social studies. Sexuality education often ignores gay, lesbian and bisexual identities. One of the gay students who evaluated a proposed sexuality-education resource in the early 2000s commented that he did not encounter anything against being gay when he was at school, ‘but there was never anything for it, and there was never any mention of the word ever.’1
The ‘unofficial curriculum’ involves things that are learned at school, but that are not officially or intentionally taught. The unofficial curriculum operates when a student calls another a ‘homo’ as a term of abuse. Some schools ban the use of this term.
In a 2007 study approximately 4% of secondary-school students in New Zealand reported being attracted to their own or multiple genders. This finding was repeated when the study was done again in 2012. In 2007, 74% of these students felt safe at school all or most of the time, compared with 85% of their heterosexual peers. However, others found school unsupportive and decided not to tell others about their sexual identity. Of students who were bullied at school, young people attracted to their own or multiple genders were five times more likely to report being bullied because they were thought to be gay.
Some students report discrimination from other students and teachers. A 17-year-old lesbian said that after other students had ‘outed’ her, some teachers began to ignore her when she raised her hand in class. Other students called her ‘little dyke’, and said, ‘ewe she touched me,’ when she pushed past them on the stairwell. The situation became so bad that she eventually changed schools.2
Gay, lesbian, bisexual, intersex and transgender students have the legal right to be free from sexual discrimination at school. Schools are required to provide an environment in which all students can experience their schooling positively. The 1990 National Education Goals include a statement about the need for ‘equality of educational opportunity for all New Zealanders, by identifying and removing barriers to achievement’.3 This was reaffirmed when the goals were updated in 2004.
The Professional Standards for Teachers also require that teachers ‘demonstrate expertise and refined strategies in the development and maintenance of environments that enhance learning by recognising and catering for the learning needs of a diversity of students’.4
People meet future sexual partners in a variety of different situations, including bars, workplaces, schools, polytechnics, sports clubs, gyms, parties or the homes of friends and family. Some relationships start as casual encounters and become ongoing attachments. Increasingly people of all ages – heterosexual, gay, lesbian and bisexual – are using internet dating sites to find romantic and sexual partners.
European settlers arrived in New Zealand with ideas about differences in men and women’s sexuality. These included the idea that men, once aroused, need sexual satisfaction. In heterosexual relationships this contributed to a focus on men’s sexual pleasure, with little concern for women’s pleasure – both in popular culture and among those providing expert advice.
Sexual-health activist Ettie Rout argued that both women and men have sex for pleasure. In Safe marriage (1922), she stated that sexual desire and pleasure in sexual intercourse was normal and healthy for both women and men. Rout worked to ensure that New Zealand soldiers had access to condoms during the First World War.
Women’s rights to sexual pleasure were asserted more forcefully in the 1960s and 1970s. This coincided with the availability of the contraceptive pill, which made it easier for sexually active women to avoid pregnancy.
Men in New Zealand sometimes use what is called 'the wingman strategy' to pick up a woman when they are at a pub or a party with their friends. According to Terry, who was part of a focus-group discussion in the early 2000s, ‘girls often tend to travel in twos so you need your wingman to take the friend away so you can hit on the girl that you're after ... You know it is like fighter planes, they travel around in pairs, and the wingman always sort of watches out for you ...'1
From the later 20th century, heterosexual couples have increasingly tried to ensure that they both experience pleasure. One male research participant said it was a matter of 'one for her and one for me'.2 Simultaneous orgasm was sometimes seen as the best thing, but was not easily achieved. For many women, penetrative sex was not the major way they experienced orgasm.
Conversations with heterosexual women and men suggest that women’s orgasms are perceived as more difficult to achieve, and are a mark of men’s sexual competence or ‘sexpertise’. Some younger women also see themselves as sexual experts whose partners benefit from their well-honed sexual techniques.
For heterosexuals, sex has traditionally been defined as sexual intercourse. However, research among younger adults suggests that many people view sex more broadly, including practices such as oral sex.
Many people, including gay men, lesbians and bisexuals, engage in a variety of sexual practices. Physical closeness, erotic touching and emotional intimacy – as well as orgasm – are important in many different sexual relationships.
Paul and Barry met at Paul’s workplace – a takeaway bar – 20 years ago. They were attracted to one another, exchanged phone numbers and arranged to meet when Paul had a night off. According to Barry they have ‘shared everything from then on because we’ve got a lot in common … shared experiences, shared interests, love still after 20 years’.3
Interviews with gay male couples suggest that, as for many heterosexual and lesbian couples, sex is a special way of knowing their partner that they do not share with anyone else. Couples see their relationship as unique and important to their sense of self, and usually value monogamy, even if they sometimes have sex with other people. Talking to partners about sex with others is usually difficult, and can be a threat to coupled relationships.
Long-term gay couples sometimes chose not to use condoms with one another, as opposed to during casual sex. Some heterosexual couples also reported not using condoms in established relationships. The decision not to practise safer sex can be a way of showing commitment to one another.
Bisexuals fall in love with, are attracted to, or have sex with people regardless of their gender. They often see sexuality as a continuum, and may be critical of pressures to fit into conventional gender or sexuality categories. Some bisexuals are equally attracted to their own and other genders, while others are attracted more to people of one gender. Their degree of attraction to different genders can change over time.
Some people are attracted to partners of different genders, but do not define themselves as bisexual. People who are sexually active with only one gender often still consider themselves bisexual.
While middle-aged and older people are often not seen as sexually active, or as objects of desire, sexuality is a lifelong experience. Since the 1990s the sexual lives of older people have received more attention on television, and in movies and advertisements.
Research has challenged assumptions about an inevitable decline in sexual desire and activity for men and women as they age. In a survey conducted by Relationship Services in 2009, people over 60 reported the most overall satisfaction with their current intimate relationship (94%, compared to 83% for all participants). The people most satisfied with their relationship overall were those most satisfied with their sexual relationship.
Interviews in 2001 with 27 midlife women whose partners used Viagra (a drug to treat erection difficulties) suggested that, while some women found that interest in sex declined with age, over half of them experienced more pleasure in sexual encounters than they had when they were younger.
Allison (43) described herself as ‘a late developer’. She said that she enjoyed sex much more as she got older and only experienced an orgasm for the first time when she was about 30. For her, pleasure was greater when she learnt about her own body and felt comfortable with one partner. She said it was really about ‘becoming more relaxed with one person’.1
New Zealand research with men aged 54–70 who used Viagra demonstrates that sexual satisfaction may not decrease with age, but it can change. Some men in this study reported being less focused on penetrative sex and orgasm than when they were younger. They may also focus less on their penis and more on other body sensations and pleasures. These men also reported becoming less self-centred in their pursuit of orgasm and more focused on their partner’s pleasure as they aged.
The advent of what is sometimes called ‘the Viagra era’ in the late 1990s brought a new focus on the sexuality of older adults and affected perceptions of it. The marketing of drugs to treat ‘erectile dysfunction’ suggests that remaining sexually active in later life is an indicator of general health and fitness, and something to strive for. Previously, erectile changes and a lowering of sexual desire were viewed as a normal part of male ageing. Some men (and women) experience this emphasis on ongoing sexual vitality as an unwelcome obligation to perform and to engage in sexual intercourse.
While sexuality issues are often a sensitive topic, for people with disabilities they pose additional challenges. This is because of the way others view people with disabilities and seek to define and regulate their sexuality.
People with disabilities are often seen as asexual or without sexual desires or experiences. It is sometimes assumed that people with physical disabilities do not have ‘normal’ sexual functions and needs. People with intellectual disabilities can be seen as incapable of responsible sexual relationships. However, people with disabilities have the same sexual needs and desires as everyone else.
Sexuality and relationships consultant Claire Ryan offers workshops on sexuality for those with disabilities and their support people. Topics include sexual desire, romance, contraception, online dating, sexual orientation and sexual identity. Advice is also offered on how to access the services of sex workers. People are invited to bring up 'anything you want to talk about'.1
Sexuality education has been criticised for not exploring pleasure and desire – and this is especially the case for people with disabilities. Because many people assume that those with disabilities are incapable of desire or sexual pleasure, education on these issues is often seen as unnecessary. While people without disabilities are most likely to receive sexuality education from parents and friends, people with disabilities may have to rely on other sources.
Research indicates that people with disabilities experience a higher incidence of sexual abuse than other groups. As a result, parents and carers can be protective of them and restrict their sexual freedom. Incidence of sexual abuse and lack of sexuality education mean that people with disabilities are more vulnerable to sexually transmissible infections.
Disability advocates have argued that the right to sexual pleasure is the real accessibility issue for people with disabilities. A recent project in Australia has produced a training and resource pack for people with learning disabilities and those who support them. It used the stories of 25 people with learning disabilities to develop materials which focus on the rights of people with disabilities to be sexual in ways that are safe for them. The resource pack is also used in New Zealand.
Sexual surrogates are paid to give people who are not sexually active an opportunity to explore their sexuality. Surrogates may be used by people with disabilities who have few opportunities for sexual encounters, for example those in institutional care with significant mobility disabilities. Advocates for sexual surrogacy argue that everyone has a right to experience sexual pleasure.
Some people are critical of sexual surrogacy because they think that paying someone for sex is immoral. Others would prefer people with disabilities to have opportunities to have relationships that include emotional intimacy as well as sex. A sex worker may provide sexual pleasure, but not an ongoing emotional connection.
Allen, Louisa. 'Picturing heteronormativity in secondary schools'. In Alexandra Gunn and Lee Smith, eds. Sexual cultures in Aotearoa New Zealand education. Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2015.
Allen, L., M. Rasmussen and K. Quinlivan. The politics of pleasure in sexuality education: pleasure bound. New York: Routledge, 2014.
Allen, L. and K. Quinlivan. 'A radical plurality: re-thinking cultural and religious diversity in sexuality education'. In Louisa Allen and Mary Lou Rasmussen, eds. The handbook of sexuality education. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016.
Clark, T., M. Lucassen, P. Bullen, S. Denny, T. Fleming, E. Robinson and F. Rossen. 'The health and well-being of transgender high school students: results from the New Zealand adolescent health survey (Youth'12)'. Journal of Adolescent Health 55, no. 2 (2014): 93–99.
Gunn, Alexandra and Lee Smith, eds. Sexual Cultures in Aotearoa New Zealand education. Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2015.
Kerekere, E. 'Part of the whānau: the emergence of takatāpui identity – he whāriki takatāpui'. Wellington: Tīwhanawhana Trust (PhD), 2017.
Kerekere, E. 'Growing up takatāpui: whānau journeys'. Auckland: Tīwhanawhana Trust and Rainbow Youth, 2017
Kerekere, E. 'Takatāpui: part of the whānau'. Auckland: Tīwhanawhana Trust and Mental Health Foundation, 2015.
Lucassen, M., T. Clark, E. Moselen, E. Robinson, and Adolescent Research Group. Youth’12 the health and wellbeing of secondary school students in New Zealand: results for young people attracted to the same sex or both sexes. Auckland: University of Auckland, 2014.


Ms. Pelligrino’s 7th and 8yh grade students are bringing literature to life by creating virtual reality reenactments of their favorite scenes. Virtual Reality is a 3d generated image or video that makes users feel like they are actually inside that environment. Users can view virtual reality through the use of head mounted viewers (Google™ Cardboard).
For this lesson the students chose a scene from a book they are reading or recently read. The students chose a part of the book that they wanted to share with other people. After choosing the scene the students examines the visual elements in the story, the character’s interactions with the environment and the critical elements. After noting these the students got to work creating their virtual worlds.
We used a free website called cospace.io. The students got a quick tutorial in the software and quickly created. The students were able to build the scene and use computer code to create interactions. Dialogue for the characters was created using thought bubbles.
Creating Virtual and Augmented Reality could be easy for students. Here are a couple free resources teachers and students and teachers could use to create content:
By: Rob Miller, CA BOCES Professional Development
What would your ideal classroom look like? Sound like? Is it a place where there are minimal distractions, students are respectfully collaborating and engaged with each other, sharing ideas, and learning is taking place? Have you ever seen a classroom where students respect each other and their teacher, positively comment on and support each other’s opinions, are eager to learn, motivated, determined to do their best, and excited to try new things? Does this classroom even exist?
It does! Though it’s not easy and requires a lot of work on the teacher’s part. If the commitment is made and the plan is meticulously carried through, this could be your classroom. Many teachers say that they don’t have the time to establish this sort of classroom. It’s easy to see why, with so many things expected of teachers including curriculum to cover, tests to prepare for, and required extracurricular activities.
However, in order for student learning to be optimal, effective classroom management is a must! In spite of the time commitment, research overwhelmingly shows that teachers that invest in their classroom management techniques have fewer discipline issues and increased learning occurs. Don’t worry about losing a little time at the beginning of the school year since with effective classroom management practices in place, you will get that time back plus some throughout the rest of the school year! Effective classroom management is a TIME SAVER not a time killer.
Wait, didn’t John Hattie’s meta-analysis research in Visible Learning state that classroom management has an effective size of 0.35? If you are unfamiliar with Hattie’s work, the primary basis is that teacher practices with an effective size over 0.40 are the ones that have the most positive influence on student learning. So why is classroom management so important then?
Successful classroom management practices are the foundation leading to more effective student learning. These practices lead to better classroom discussions, higher self-efficacy and effort amongst students, more time on task, and more. Research continually proves that classroom management leads to a more effective classroom experience for students.
The classroom described in the opening of this article may seem far-fetched but it is completely attainable. It is also never too late to try and implement in your classroom. Start today if you haven’t established a classroom you are happy with. Furthermore, if you would like to hear more about the research behind successful classroom management practices and how to obtain a similar classroom yourself, consider joining Patty Rhinehart and myself in an upcoming workshop on the topic. No dates have been confirmed yet but stay tuned, they are coming! In the meantime, here are some quick DO’s and DON’Ts of successful classroom management practices to tide you over.
By: Justin Shumaker, CA BOCES Professional Development
It is my belief that students do well when they can, not simply when they want to. Furthermore, students learn best when their physical, mental and emotional needs are met. This type of scenario is ideal for schools, but it is not the reality. What does it look like when a student’s needs are not met? Avoidance, distraction, disengagement, defiance, disrespect, aggression, truancy, anger and the list goes on. Educators have seen the impact of unmet student needs within their classrooms and report, that the impact is greater than ever.
The rural landscape of the Cattaraugus-Allegany Region presents a unique set of barriers that increase the complexity of existing systemic barriers for school districts, educators, students, families and communities when it comes to ensuring that all students have access to necessary resources. Despite the pressure, barriers and growing scope of student needs, is it possible to create conditions that enable every child to succeed?
Not only is it possible to create such conditions, it is necessary. This school year, with the help of 17 of our component school districts, Cattaraugus-Allegany BOCES has begun the work of building the brand new Community Schools CoSer within their Instructional Support Services Division. The community schools strategy, is an exceptional, evidence-based school improvement tool that enables schools to create supportive conditions for students by sustaining an integrated focus on student support services, expanded learning opportunities, family and community engagement and collaborative leadership.
Each community school is unique and defined based upon needs and assets specific to the respective local context and community. Therefore, the Community Schools CoSer will also be unique as it grows and develops to fit the needs within the local context of our rural, regional area. In an effort to influence the region in a meaningful way, we are working collaboratively to complete a thorough assessment of needs and assets, at the district level, as well as at the regional level.
Simultaneously, while working directly with school leaders within each district, there have been ongoing opportunities to meet directly with community partners that provide supports and services to students and families. The Community Schools CoSer hosted the first Service Showcase in September, bringing community partners and school leaders together to learn about specific services available to districts. School leaders were provided more information about school based dental care, substance abuse prevention curriculum and a mentoring program. As a result, six additional districts have school-based dental services available to students and four additional districts have begun preparing to implement a mentoring program for students.
Students do well when they can. Period. Through continued collaborative work and problem solving, our region can provide all students with equitable access to resources that allow them to exceed our highest expectations.
By: Kathryn Mendell, CA BOCES Community Schools
On October 19th, 2018, Cuba-Rushford staff welcomed Mollie Lapi, behavioral specialist from C-A BOCES. Mollie presented the staff with an overview of brain research on trauma, how the brain works after a student experiences a traumatic event, and trauma informed interventions A brief overview of the biology of the brain and how it reacts to trauma was addressed. “This “fight or flight” response is a natural response to stress”, she said. Mollie also addressed Adverse Childhood Experiences, also known as A.C.E.S. (Adverse Childhood Experiences) can dramatically affect the quality of health and wellness. Trauma is toxic to the body, and we can do something about it.
Mollie, then talked about strategies to help support the students. She said, “Educators can make a difference; believe your students can grow, change, and succeed? The common denominator could be YOU! Help promote resiliency within your classroom.” Mollie also talked about the “sweet spot”, which means being able to provide emotional nurturance and still expect our students to perform and own, but not judge, their shortcomings. It is a PROCESS. There has to be a balance between availability and accountability with the students.
The staff was also challenged to make sure to take care of themselves. Mollie stated, “it is so important for the adults working with any students to make sure to manage their own stress. Health, and wellness are not to be forgotten, especially to help regulate the body and mind.” The morning was filled with fantastic learning, and the staff was thankful for Mollie’s presentation.
By: Kathleen Agnello, CA BOCES Professional Development
This month’s spotlight as we dig a little deeper into the resources we have available to our component school districts in our warehouse is…..our Real Care Baby Simulators!
RealCare Baby® 3 (formerly known as Baby Think It Over® or BTIO®) is the world’s most advanced infant simulator. Educators around the world use this unique learning aid to add meaning and accountability to teach early childhood, parenting, infant health lessons and sex education. This smart baby uses wireless programming to track and report on caregiver behaviors, including care events, mishandling actions, time in a car seat and clothing changes. Baby includes four sets of curriculum and activities to help instructors create learning experiences that are relevant and career-driven.
The RealCare curriculum sections are:
Basic Infant Care – covers child safety, emergency procedures, child abuse prevention, and infant/toddler development.
Life Skills and Healthy Choices for Middle School Students - an abstinence-plus, comprehensive curriculum focused on sexual education and pregnancy prevention for youth 12-14 years of age.
Parenting: A Guide to Parenting Skills for Life – focuses on the stages of child development, parenting styles/impact, the costs involved in raising a child, and much more.
Healthy Choices: Relationships, Sexuality, and Family Planning – an abstinence-based, comprehensive curriculum focusing on teen pregnancy prevention. It covers relationships, self-esteem, refusal skills, adolescent health, and reproductive issues, among many other topics.
All sections are aligned to the National FACS standards and include Crosswalk documents.
So what are you waiting for? Take a look at our warehouse and give our RealCare Babies a try!
By: Alexandra Freer, CA BOCES Learning Resources
The distance learning team at CA BOCES, including Christina McGee, Justine Lombardi, and Karen Insley, have been busy traveling all over the region getting students enrolled in credit accrual and credit recovery courses. Students have a chance to increase the breadth of their transcripts, develop interests, try out vocational fields, and develop skillsets that can’t be offered within their districts. Further, if students are on medical leave or injured, they can keep up with their curriculum, and even with gym classes, in an online setting. Students also have opportunities to recover lessons, units, quarters, and semesters through the CA BOCES credit recovery program, meaning that students can catch up before they need further interventions. The CA BOCES team offers courses through seven different providers, including courses taught by our own teachers, Christina McGee and Justine Lombardi.
The most popular courses this year are Sociology, Health, Forensic Science, Marine Science, Physical Education, Spanish, Careers in Criminal Justice, English 10, Introduction to Military Careers, Physics, and Psychology. Students are also learning about astronomy, sports marketing, digital art, 3D Modeling and animation, world religions, mythology and folklore, social problems facing the world, and many other notable studies.
For more information please contact Distance Learning at 716-376-8270.
By: Christina McGee, CA BOCES Learning Resources
As Pre-kindergarten-2nd grade teachers start the 2018-19 School Year they took a moment to focus on the importance of learning through play and movement. 66 educators from across the Cattaraugus-Allegany BOCES Region attended a professional development opportunity with Lisa Murphy, M.Ed., an Early Childhood Specialist. Lisa Murphy has been involved in early childhood education for over 20 years, teaching and learning with young children. She is the founder and CEO of Ooey Gooey, Inc., and is a nationally recognized presenter and keynote speaker. Lisa’s topics for the workshop sessions included:
What if Today Was Their Only Day? (Keynote)
In this motivational keynote address Lisa shared the powerful story of her first day of school. Through active and engaging storytelling Lisa brought participants back to her first day, taking you on a grand tour of Miss Mary’s Nursery School. And, in the style she has become famous for, she shared many observations, lessons and anecdotes about how early childhood has changed along the way. Lisa shared the sights sounds and smells of the place where, at the young age of three, she decided to become a teacher and identified the how, and why, that one day solidified her decision to become an educator. This inspiring keynote encouraged participants to get back in touch with their personal how and why.
Identifying and Creating Child Centered Environments
This session provided an in-depth exploration of the 9 points within the framework of Lisa Murphy’s approach to working with children. Via interactive lecture, true-to-life examples, anecdotes and her signature “learning and laughing” style, this session presented what it really means to be a hands-on, play-based, child-centered program. Lisa stated that “Environments that encourage play are environments that are preparing children for kindergarten, future elementary school academics, and a love of life long learning. This foundation then supports the house of higher learning.” Educators must create, move, sing, discuss, observe, read and play with children through daily interactions.
The Importance of Early Experiences: How play IS Kindergarten Readiness!
During this session Lisa identified the seven things we need to do with children each day. These seven things make up the foundation that supports the house of higher learning. There is nothing wrong with the “academic” expectations within this house: reading, writing, math… the trouble is that many early childhood educators are being pressured to build a house where there is no foundation. Lisa stated, “And you do not need to be an architect to know that if you build where there is no foundation, the house will come crashing down!” Playing is “getting them ready” and through an investigation of each of the “seven things,” Lisa showed us how.
Lisa concluded the workshop with encouraging educators across the region to create a 10-day challenge for themselves. She encouraged educators to identify a workshop takeaway after 10 days that they are still thinking about and use that as their baby step for creating engaging experiences in the classroom!
By: Jillian Putnam, CA BOCES Professional Development
Deselecting books, also referred to as weeding, is necessary for maintaining a school’s library collection of resources. The process of deselecting includes removing damaged, outdated, or books no longer relevant to the curriculum. Prior to deciding what should be removed from the library, librarians often use Titlewise by Follett to analyze the collection’s strengths and weaknesses based on industry standards. For example, a book on computers with a copyright date of 2000 will likely be outdated, (perhaps not if the focus is on the historical aspect), and books on robotics, forensics, and artificial intelligence may be recommended for strengthening the sciences.
When recently asked to help a librarian ‘weed’ the elementary library, I found a book on New York City with a copyright date of 1998. Although it appeared to be in new condition, the Twin Towers were pictured, and Governor Pataki has since been replaced. Some other examples of weeded books include The Lincoln Library of Sports Champions featuring Terry Bradshaw, Peggy Fleming, and other popular athletes at the time this text was printed; and The Chinese in America with a copyright date of 1959.
When a library has not been ‘weeded’ for many years, the process can be overwhelming. Making room for new materials offers an additional opportunity to make the library attractive and inviting. Similar to marketing strategies used by retailers, displaying products often piques the interests of those who may be visiting for another purpose.
Research studies have shown college students prefer to read materials in print rather than in electronic format (Baron, 2016; Foasberg, 2014; Mizrachi, 2015), and a large percentage of students ages 4-15 enjoy reading print books (Kleeman, 2016). Although the popularity of Amazon Kindle and Apple’s iPhone beginning in 2007 made reading books electronically convenient, print publishers have remained constant for the past ten years ( Mcilroy, 2017). Balancing the library collection with print and electronic resources is a necessary duty that not all librarians have time to do.
Schools needing assistance with the deselection process may contact the school library system coordinator: firstname.lastname@example.org
By: Cece Fuoco, CA BOCES Learning Resources
Baron, N. (2015). Words onscreen: The fate of reading in a digital world. New York, NY: Oxford University Press,
Foasberg, N. (2014). Student reading practices in print and electronic media. College & Research Libraries, 75(5), 705-723.
Kleeman, D. (2016). Books and reading are powerful with kids, but content discovery is challenging. Publishing Research Quarterly, 32(1), 38-43.
Mizrachi, D. (2015). Undergraduates' academic reading format preferences and behaviors. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 41(3) 301-311
Mcilroy, T. (2017). Startups within the U.S. book publishing industry. Publishing Research Quarterly, 33(1), 1-9.
Check out this month's Advancing STEM Challenge!
Advancing STEM Challenges are designed to bring engineering and design to your classroom in a simple, easy-to-implement, challenge-based way. Modify our Advancing STEM Challenges for your classroom. A new challenge will be posted monthly.
A truly successful schooling experience for students starts with a healthy and supportive school climate. Above all else, when students know they are cared for, they can truly focus on their educational experience and learning all that they can. Two staff developers and over thirty teachers and administrators from around the region took it upon themselves to collaborate and discuss ways to make positive changes to their school climates to better the learning experience of our students!
In late spring, Tessa Levitt and I had an idea to do a professional book study around a book we were both highly interested in ourselves, Lead with Culture, from author and Principal Jay Billy. This book is one of the Dave Burgess Publishing Company’s titles, made famous from the Like A Pirate series of books. We discussed different methods for how we wanted to approach this book study, and we both knew we wanted to try something “unconventional” in the sense of our current professional development opportunities.
We eventually decided that with it being summer and all, we wanted any participation to be completely voluntary from those interested in the book study. We also wanted to harness the power of the summer, and conduct the book study from an online platform, where participants wouldn’t need to physically be all in the same place to share ideas, discuss topics, and raise their questions to one another. In the end, we created a Facebook group, #BOCESLeads Summer Book Study, and anyone that expressed interest in participating in the book study was invited to join the group.
We met in person once, at the beginning of the book study, to distribute copies of the book to the participants, and to outline the dates and the layout of the Facebook page itself: We would meet online, from 8:00-9:00 on the Facebook page, Tessa and I would post questions from a few chapters at a time, and they could respond and share ideas and questions with one another, with Tessa and I there to help moderate and facilitate discussions.
The support and discussion from the participants were highly overwhelming! The amount of ideas shared and questions posited to one another were powerful, and really made this an interesting and unique experience for professional growth. The response from the participants was also noteworthy, as they liked being able to chime in from wherever they were at the time, and if they missed the discussion window, they could still go to the Facebook page and comment or discuss between the arranged question-posting days. The flexibility and freedom were lauded from those who took part!
Once the book was completed, we were excited to commence upon the final aspect of the book study: a live chat hosted on Zoom with author Jay Billy! Participants were able to take part in an online discussion forum with Jay himself, who answered their questions, shared advice, and helped spur more creative ideas for those who were able to join in. The session was also recorded and posted on the Facebook group page for those who were unable to make the meeting, so they could view it at a later time.
Overall, this experience was a phenomenal new approach to combating some logistical issues that we all experience: wanting to take part in something, but time and location not cooperating to allow it to happen. The discussion was rich and powerful, and multiple great ideas were shared and collaborated upon throughout the course of studying this excellent book. One of the most impactful results from this book study? The request to keep the discussion going over the course of this school year through the online group page and with regularly scheduled meet-ups for those that can attend, bringing that flexibility and freedom even further into the process. We look forward to continue documenting the journey of the region in regards to building and supporting the students of our schools through a positive and caring school climate and culture. When all else fails, lead with culture!
By: Ryan McGinnis, CA BOCES Professional Development
What if instead of going to math class, English class, or science class, students went to school? Would they be able to say things like “I don’t like math” if they were unable to differentiate between math class and history class? While this idea may seem like an impossibility, a team of 8th grade teachers at Genesee Valley Central School hopes to make this vision a reality.
On paper, Mark Levine, Kelley McGinnis, and Donna Slawson can be identified as a technology, English, and history teacher, respectively, but in reality, innovator, risk-taker, and enthusiast would be more appropriate. This team of 8th grade teachers, in conjunction with Chris Gyr and Lindsay Simpson, technology integrators at GVCS, has implemented an interdisciplinary teaching and learning model, referred to as STEAM 8, with a focus on increased student learning by reevaluating time and relevance.
Buying Back Time
Possibly the most important concern for educators, time structures were re-examined. Hypothetically, if all 8th grade students, for instance, have either 1st period technology, 2nd period ELA, or 3rd period history, do they all need, say, 40 minutes of each period? What about the students who need 10 minutes for a quiz and others 20 and others still 40? How can we effectively ensure all students are productively and continually meeting learning targets at all times? With their new learning model, the teachers at GVCS decided to embrace these challenges.
By eliminating the “I have 40 minutes to teach ____” barrier, teachers recognized they now have 120 minutes to teach everything for the three content areas. Now, the students’ learning needs drive how time is allocated. For example, the 15 minute science lesson just allowed 25 more minutes to have a more meaningful, in-depth round-table discussion of the Battle of Gettysburg. Another option is to redistribute time as shown in the weekly schedule below in which students were teamed in group A, B, or C.
Why Do I Need This?
Beyond better use of time, STEAM 8 teachers have built greater connections between and stronger relevance in the curricula. For example, the first unit of instruction of the year for this team of teachers covers the Civil War. Consequently, Mr. Levine, Ms. McGinnis, and Mrs. Slawson use the Civil War as a means of meeting all learning targets. This approach as allowed students to review the Civil War holistically while simultaneously learning how to research, write, solve algebraic problems, and so much more; and although STEAM 8 isn’t comprised of your typical “STEM” teachers, they are undoubtedly addressing each strand of STEAM education.
Pine Grove Middle School
STEAM 8 is, in part, a product of the work with GVCS and Jason Fahy, middle school science teacher at Pine Grove Middle School. Jason was able to experience, first-hand, how changing both the physical environment and the instructional approach can heavily impact student learning. However, one glaring difference worth noting between East Syracuse Minoa Central School District and Genesee Valley Central School District is the focus on physical environment. ESMCSD was able to vastly change the manner in which learning took place due to its extensive structural changes; GVCS has made similar instructional changes while making minimal changes to the physical building.
Do not underestimate the importance of this difference. Often times we allow ourselves to get discouraged in thinking “I don’t have enough space,” or “we don’t have the right technology to do that.” Yes, GVCS did repurpose some of its space and has updated that environment, but as any successful educator can attest, good pedagogy supersedes good stuff.
By: Mark Beckwith, CA BOCES Professional Development
This is what creativity and problem-solving looks like at Seneca/Salamanca Odyssey of the Mind
This is an exciting season for supporters of New York Odyssey of the Mind. This year marks NYSOMA’s 40th anniversary. The inaugural NY State Tournament was held in Binghamton, New York in 1979. The 2019 NY State Tournament, in Binghamton, will be a celebration of 40 years of creative problem solving.
Region 19 is starting the festivities early by launching a 40 in 40th Campaign, meaning that the goal this season is to host 40 teams at the Regional Tournament on March 2, 2019 at Wellsville Middle/High School. To celebrate NYSOMA’s 40th anniversary, Region 19 will party like it’s 1979 all season long with extra incentives and fun activities.
Opportunities for support and training will be offered to all teams and coaches, as well as additional experiences like buddy teams and Spontaneous Zoom practices. Training sessions can be scheduled “virtually” and in person at school districts.
Do you know of a school district that:
This IS the year to make it happen. Regional Odyssey experts will provide the help needed to meet the school districts’ goals and ensure an unforgettable experience for Region 19’s creative minds.
For more information about Odyssey of the Mind, visit odysseyofthemind.com and nysoma.org.
For more information about getting involved in Odyssey of the Mind in Region 19, email or call email@example.com or 716-376-8323.
For more information about partying like it’s 1979, you’ll have to show up at Wellsville Middle/High School on Saturday, March 2, 2019 and see for yourself.
By: Jean Oliverio, CA BOCES Student Programs
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