Adolescence is one of the most difficult stages in life. It is a period filled with both physical and emotional growth, a turbulent, confusing passage from childhood to adulthood. The teen years are rife with anger, self doubt, frustration, confusion, and alienation. Adolescents are in constant pursuit of independence. Every human being must pass through this stage of youth, for it is during adolescence that the child becomes the adult. Autonomy is the desired end result and obtaining this freedom is vital and necessary for future survival in the adult world.
This unit will look at the emotional and cognitive aspects of adolescents as they are found in the world of children’s literature. The fictional young people examined here are all looked at in the context of their family situation. Four novels (
By the Shores of
The Witch of Blackbird Pond
Nobody’s Family Is Going
) will serve as the foundation of this teaching unit, which will also look at the developmental and intellectual needs of the middle school student.
The average middle school student is just entering adolescence. When these students enter junior high as 5th graders, they are still children interested in toys, games, make-believe play, and the latest cartoon shows. In just three short years, an amazing transformation takes place. When the 8th graders graduate, they leave behind their dolls and trucks and replace them with records, dances, make-up, clothing, and serious thoughts of the opposite sex. The subject that interests these young people most is “themselves” or stories and situations about other people the same age and going through similar experiences.
The students’ interest in teenage encounters can be used successfully to motivate and encourage them to read, write, analyze, discuss, and to express themselves. At the Conte Arts Magnet School, I want to provide my students with educational opportunities that will be meaningful. This curriculum unit has been designed to meet the needs of my average level 6th grade English students, who are right on the edge, developmentally, between childhood and adolescence. As we meet only 3 1/2 hours per week, this unit will serve as the year’s curriculum. Though supplemental activities will be needed in the areas of grammar and spelling, most of the class work will come from the chosen works of literature and the topic of family. 1 encourage other teachers to mold this unit to fit the needs of their students. They might easily adapt this project for use with older students or substitute different novels, yet still employ the same philosophies, objectives, and activities. The unit has been purposely designed in an open-ended manner. The children will take from it what they need and teachers should feel free to do the same.
The heart of this unit is the adolescent, himself, and his relationship to his family. The adolescent will be viewed within the context of the family because the family plays a vital role in a teenager’s search for self. Much of the frustration a teenager feels while passing through adolescence is unrecognized and ambiguous. The child blames not himself, but his parents and siblings for much of his uncertainty. Parents, in particular, are singled out. Just a short time ago, Mom and Dad were seen as benevolent protectors but now they are interfering persecutors. This is because they are the people who set the limits, who must say “no.” The teenager, in seeking independence, will constantly test and push those limits, thus causing conflict. These conflicts are necessary for the child’s growth, but all too often cause pain and turmoil within the family structure.
Since the early Greeks, literature has explored the crisis of the adolescent within the family. The need to assert oneself and to be an autonomous individual can be seen in
with the plight of Telemachus and his concern over his birthright to the throne and his fatherless kingdom being consumed by too many suitors. The Greek play wrights often had as piyotal characters, youths having to make challenging decisions that went against their families’ codes. This is true in Sophocles’
, and Aeschylus’ trilogy,
Oresteia. In these tragedies, children become men and women as they seek revenge for a father’s murder or break the King’s law in honoring a dead brother. Much of modern psychology is based on the primitive and primal feelings the Greeks explored in their mythological literature.
Shakespeare wrote of the classic adolescent rebellion in
. Both the young lovers ignore the quarrels of their parents as well as the family law about fraternizing. They meet, fall in love, and marry in secret. Their rebellion brings about their deaths, but it also allows them to grow up. For Juliet, it is the first time she stands on her own and makes independent decisions.
The other teens in the play can be seen as “classic” images of youth that have been repeated again and again in literature just as Romeo and Juliet have often become the stereotype for the young, star-crossed lovers. Mercutio is the smart-alecky, sharp-tongued, clever yet glib young man. Benvolio is the loyal pal who tries to keep the peace, but is still quick to act and should not be crossed. Tybalt is the hot-headed firebrand who tries to solve his problems with his fists. Modern novelists for teens, such as S.E. Hinton in her book,
, owe much to William Shakespeare.
Many novelists have used adolescence and the rites of passage as the text for their work. These writers run the gamut from Jane Austen (
Pride and Prejudice
) and Charles Dickens (
s) to 20th century novelists such as Alice Walker (
) and Harper Lee (
To Kill A Mockingbird
). Many of the authors who write exclusively for young people have explored adolescence from the child’s point of view. Judy Blume is number one among young people for her books that deal with the peculiar problems of growing up. She has covered almost every subject that young adolescents could possibly be interested in and has made a fortune doing it. Her books include
Are You There God? It’s Me, Margaret
(being the odd man out),
Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing
(sibling rivalry), and
(insecurity over one’s physical appearance).
This unit will look at the novels of four recognized and respected authors of literature for young people. These authors have often been honored with the highest award for children’s literature, the Newberry Medal. Their books may not be as “relevant” as Judy Blume’s but once children have been exposed to them, they are as loved. These authors are all excellent writers who may choose to write for children yet do not talk down to them or puree their work to make it more palatable. These men and women write gutsy, fun, interesting, meaningful, and literary books to be read by children of all ages.
The authors are William H. Armstrong (
), Louise Fitzhugh (
Harriet the Spy
The Long Secret
Nobody’s Family Is
Going to Change), Elizabeth George Speare (
The Bronze Bow
The Sign of the Beaver
The Witch of Blackbird Pond
), and Laura Ingalls Wilder (
By the Shores of Silver Lake
and the other books in the “Little House” series).
This unit is literature-based because I see a real need for young people to be exposed to the classics of children’s literature. Many students in the lower grades experience reading only through the use of basal readers. This unit is designed to introduce them to reading and interpreting novels while giving them the background and foundation they will need when they begin to read adult literature in the 7th and 8th grades.
I have created this unit to fill several needs I see in my classroom. I know that other teachers will find these objectives to be similar to their own. They are indicative of a developmental approach to education.
ONE: to present students with challenging, interesting, and stimulating pieces of literature to read, analyze, and discuss.
TWO: to make the classroom literature meaningful, yet to also stimulate the students’ interest in books and good authors so that they will continue to read outside of school and during their free time.
THREE: to explore the developmental learning levels the students are working on using the criteria of the child psychologist Jean Piaget. Knowledge of these levels will assist the teacher in planning educational activities that will stimulate students and give them work that is developmentally appropriate.
FOUR: to assist students in understanding some of the changes they will undergo in entering adolescence and to see these changes in relationship to the family. The family will be viewed from not only a personal perspective, but s historical and sociological perspective as well. By the end of the school year, students should feel more comfortable about themselves and have a better understanding of how families function.
FIVE: to listen to the students and to plan activities based on their needs, ideas, and interests. This unit is teacher-designed but will work successfully only if the students are an integral part of the planning. Since a primary goal is for the child to develop into a motivated self-learner as a result of reading and exploring these family works of literature, this unit must be child-centered. It can only skeletally be planned far in advance. Specific activities must grow directly out of students’ interests and needs. therefore, the teacher and her class must be very flexible and willing to work together.
SIX: to encourage students to express themselves and their opinions and to share their ideas about the families presented in the four novels. The students should be made aware that their choices are important and vital to this course of study. Their feelings and reflections will be discussed in small and large groups, written about in journals and other creative writing assignments, dramatized in class improvisations and playlets, and explored in projects such as oral and written reports. Students should also be urged to communicate their feelings about and perceptions of their own families.
The philosophical approach I am taking in the teaching of this unit is somewhat unique. Literature is usually taught in a Read-Analyze-Discuss-Evaluate pattern. I will follow this traditional method of teaching, yet at the same time I have developed a new thrust in using it. Recently, I was exposed to the educational theories of the Swiss child developmentalist and psychologist, Jean Piaget. His learning theories are most often applied to young children and the study of math and science, yet I discovered his work could also be applicable and meaningful in the teaching of literature.
My ideas about using Piaget’s theories are based on the teachings of Dr. Catherine Fosnot, a professor at Southern Connecticut State University. She is gifted in her ability to translate Piaget’s theories into layman’s terms and to make them viable for the average classroom teacher. I have found his theories to be very relevant. Implementing classroom activities based on his ideas has made me a better teacher. My unit will attempt to share with other teachers how this developmental approach to learning can be taught and why it is so important.
Jean Piaget was a gifted observer who devised several of his learning theories after watching his own children at play. He found many traits and behaviors to be common among children. For instance, all three year olds are animistic in that they give human qualities to inanimate objects; e.g. dolls are thought to be alive, clouds have feelings and it rains when a cloud cries, etc. In grouping these behaviors and the common ages at which they occurred, Piaget devised four levels of learning that all human beings progress through in their cognitive development. The stages are sensorimotor (Age 0-2), pre-operational (Age 2-7), concrete operational (Age 7-11) and formal operational (Age 11-Adult).
The average middle school student is well into the concrete operational stage and is preparing to enter formal operations. A child who is using concrete operational thinking patterns is very structured. He is into the “here and now” and can not yet think hypothetically. He is very logical and will only be able to solve problems using schemes he has already mastered. He can classify and likes to put things in order. He likes to work with patterns and organizational tasks such as picture puzzles, word finds, building blocks, models, paper dolls, and coloring books. There must be a tangible end-result to all activities.
The concrete child likes games with rules. He needs to know and understand the boundaries. This child likes true or realistic stories about characters similar to himself. Beverly Cleary is a very popular author with concrete children, as she writes honestly about being a child in books such as
Ramona Quimby, Age 8
. The concrete operational child can differentiate his own ideas, feelings, and points of view from others. He is not completely egocentric, yet he cannot really empathize with people unlike himself. He has problems slipping inside someone else’s shoes.
Concrete operational children can sometimes be an enigma. They love fairy tales and worlds of make-believe as can be seen in their passion for the t.v. characters, He-man and Rainbow Brite, yet they accept these fantasies in an unquestioning manner. They do not want to discuss the greater meanings found in folklore. They think you are crazy if you want to analyze a fairy tale. Fairy tales are blindly accepted, they are simply what they are. Older children, though, who can think hypothetically, love to interpret the tales of the oral tradition. They are fascinated with the theories of Bruno Bettelheim and like to discover the deeper, hidden meanings found in all fairy tales.
This is not to say that the concrete child is not imaginative and cannot pretend as in make-believe, but some of the uniqueness we see in a younger child’s play has been left behind in this quest for order and rationale. The concrete child is always experimenting with his new found logic and trying to make the world fit into the prescribed patterns he’s already discovered.
Here lies the difference between the formal adolescent and the concrete child. People who think concretely must have solid reasons based on their own experiences for proof. When they believe a fact to be true, it is true, never to be fully developed or questioned. People who think formally must look at all the angles, compare and contrast, and they are driven to discover the hidden truths behind facts.
The child who achieves formal operational thinking can now think like most adults. He can reason, hypothesize, and think what if. He is able to look at all the possible solutions to a problem and systematically try all the elements to see which ones fit. This child can compare and contrast. He will enjoy and understand works of literature such as science fiction. He will be able to tackle logic puzzles and to understand basic concepts of abstract reasoning. He will be able to tackle subjects such as physics. He can now empathize and relate to others unlike himself.
Not all people enter the formal operations stage. Many adults do not progress any further than concrete operations in their ability to think and reason. People cannot be taught to think hypothetically. This is a process that must be learned through interaction with the world around you and through the inner distillation of knowledge. People enter the different phases of learning at their own pace. But even though a teacher cannot directly teach hypothetical reasoning, she can do much to guide a student to that ultimate end.
Teachers can help children to move from concrete thinking to formal operations by constantly challenging them. Children need to learn in an environment that is flexible, open, daring. They need to be shaken up; their logic confronted while they are exposed to situations that will allow them to flip-flop on previous held notions. Students should share their opinions often so that they can see how others think and feel. They need to explore open-ended questions; exercise their brains by reading, thinking, speaking, and writing and, as a class, analyzing the end results of all this work.
The study of literature can be an important tool in getting children to think hypothetically. Literature comes from the collective consciousness of all men. Reading allows the child to experience life in a manner that may not be possible for him in any other way. Through books a reader can travel through time, to new and fantastic worlds, and he can meet people that have much to share. Literature forces the reader to compare and contrast, to identify, to personify, to question, and to wonder why.
The four novels presented in this unit will serve the needs of the teacher attempting to use Piagetian philosophies. Because the leading characters are interesting, sympathetic adolescents these books will appeal to the concrete child, but each child will relate to the hero’s family situation in his own way. Each student will find elements that connect directly to his real life, and yet definite challenges to the current mode of thinking exist. These books were selected because they cover a wide range of heroes, time spans, situations, and family problems. Each book has a pivotal theme that students will respond to. These books with the discussions and activities that will follow each reading, will shake the students up, forcing them to interpret character motivations and to form opinions. This thinking and exercise will give further opportunities for the concrete child to think formally.
BY THE SHORES OF SILVER LAKE
by Laura Ingalls Wilder
I have chosen this book to begin the unit for several reasons. Other teachers should feel free to teach these novels in whatever order works best for them and their students. As 5th graders, my 6th grade students read
On the Banks of Plum Greek
, the novel that precedes
By the Shores of Silver Lake
in the “Little House” series. Starting with this book allows my students to reacquaint themselves with the Ingalls family which they already know and love. It is also at a fairly easy reading level and will not frustrate those children who are not “readers.” I want to hook them now before we move on to the books on a more difficult level. The book is still exciting enough for those students who are stronger readers; no one will be bored with it.
By the Shores of Silver Lake
is a very sweet book that deals positively with difficult family issues (serious illness, moving, parents in disagreement, money troubles). It is fiction grounded in fact as Laura lngalls based this and her other books on her own childhood as a pioneer girl in the 1880’s. It is a realistic portrayal of frontier life.
The book begins as Laura is just about to turn 13. The idyllic life seen in the earlier books has turned into a harsher reality. Laura is no longer the “Little Half-Pint” who can play in the creek or have other adventures. She is being asked to grow up and assume adult responsibilities even though she is still a child. This is a theme that many modern children will be able to relate to. They come home to empty houses and often have to start supper, clean, and look after younger siblings. Like Laura, these children have many adult responsibilities to assume that they are not yet ready for. Class discussions and writing assignments will focus on this issue.
The students will start to keep journals at this time that they will write in throughout the year. The journals should be approached from a developmental point of view and writing topics should not be assigned by the teacher. Children need to be encouraged to write about whatever they would like to. One class period a week can be set aside exclusively for journal keeping. Students will write for the entire period independently, but they can sign up to meet with the teacher for a writing conference.
During the writing conference the teacher reads the child’s work and makes appropriate comments while analyzing the child’s needs. The teacher and student then set goals for the child to work on in future writing sessions. These goals could include drafting, working on grammar or spelling errors, choosing a new topic, or simply continuing with the present piece.
These journals are not to be treated simply as diaries. Using this approach allows a child to keep all of his ideas in one place. It is easier for him to analyze and keep track of his work when it is done in one notebook. In his journal the child will explore, through writing, the topics of most importance to him as he also refines his changing thoughts about growing up and being part of a family.
By the Shores of Silver Lake
is like a journal in that it chronicles Laura’s last days of childhood and her passage into adolescence. It is a story of how one family unites to fight life’s hardships. Laura’s sister, Mary is recently blind after a bout with scarlet fever that has left the whole family weak. Times have been hard for the farmer and Pa must sell their beloved homestead to take a job with the railroad. Too many years of drought and grasshopper plagues have destroyed the family’s dream. But Pa is not down and out. He wants to move west and stake a claim share in the Dakotas, but Ma wants her girls to go to school and be civilized. Ma particularly wants Laura to go to school, for she must now be Mary’s “eyes” and take over the family’s goal of one girl becoming a schoolteacher like Ma.
Laura deals with the disappointment and changes in her life very maturely. My students will be asked if they would behave in the same manner. The differences in the Ingalls family as they are seen in the novel and on the T.V. series,
Little House on the Prairie
, will also be topics for class discussion.
Some Questions and Issues for Discussion
1. How does Laura feel about being Mary’s “eyes”? Do you have to look out for a brother or sister?
2. What are some of Laura’s new responsibilities? What responsibilities do you have at home?
3. Does Laura still want to play or is she really as grown-up as her parents wish her to be? Do you ever want to play? If so, how?
4. How does Laura feel about moving again and leaving behind her house at Plum Creek? Have you ever had to leave behind something you were fond of?
5. Does Laura want to be a school teacher? What do you want to be when you are older? What do your parents want you to be?
THE WITCH OF BLACKBIRD POND
by Elizabeth George Speare
This second novel to be read makes a strong connection to the 6th grade Social Studies curriculum which is a study of Connecticut. “Witch” is set in Wethersfield in the late 1600’s. It presents a strong contrast to family life today as the book looks at life among the rigid Puritans. This novel will be used to look at the family from a historical perspective and will give the students a chance to see how family life has not always been as it is today. The historical period of this book could be used by the children to report on the aspects of this long ago life they are most interested in.
Following the reading of
The Witch of Blackbird Pond
, the students will divide themselves into small groups. Each group will reflect on the novel and select an aspect they wish to explore in detail and then present orally to the class. The book operates on so many levels the children will have a rich variety of topics to choose from. Students may wish to research the lifestyle of the Puritans looking at their clothing, food, homes, skills, weapons, etc. They might want to pursue the history of sailing and the trade ships or look at witchcraft and present information on the Salem witch trials. Others might want to compare the family of the 1680’s with the family of the 1980’s.
Whatever the choice, each group will research its subject and present its findings to the class. Visual aids such as models and charts will be required. This type of exploration will greatly enhance the reading of “Witch” and make it more meaningful for the students.
The Witch of Blackbird Pond
is the story of a 16 year old orphan named Kit. This novel reads like a beautiful fairy tale and students may want to compare it to actual fairy tales and the families presented there. Kit has had to flee Barbados and is forced to live with her only relatives, her Aunt Rachel and her Uncle Matthew. She leaves Barbados because her grandfather’s fortune has been lost and she is at the mercy of an old lecher’s proposal. She has jumped from the frying pan into the fire.
In her new Wethersfield home, Kit is a bright bird among pigeons. Hers is a story about not belonging, not being accepted. Her aunt and uncle do not know what to do with her, and Kit feels lonely and homeless until she meets the old Quaker woman, Hannah Tupper. The discussion of this book will center around this theme of not belonging to a family unit, even one you may be part of.
Kit is put to many tests and challenges, as are many heroes of fairy tales, before she is accepted by her adopted family. The book ends with her autonomous and starting a family of her own.
There is much in this novel to explore. When is someone worthy of your family’s respect? Why is it so hard to earn? What does it take to be alone? Why does Kit earn her own family only when she has learned to stand on her own and be an individual? The questions this novel raises will make interesting class discussions. Students should also be asked to act out scenes from the book. Its exciting action and fairy tale characters lend themselves to the creation of rich dramatizations.
Other Questions for Discussion
1. What was Kit’s life like in Barbados with her grandfather? What was her life like in Connecticut with the Woods family? Which family would you choose to live with?
2. Why doesn’t Kit fit in with the people of Wethersfield? How is she different? How is she the same? What would it feel like to be an orphan like Kit and to not fit into a family?
3. Which girl, Mercy or Judith, tries hardest to be a sister to Kit? Why is Judith jealous of Kit? Have you ever been jealous of your brother or sister?
4. Several people fall in love in this novel. How do they behave towards one another? What was a date like in 1687? How do people fall in love and marry today?
5. How is
The Witch of Blackbird Pond
like a fairy tale? What fairy tales does the book remind you of? In this tale who is the wicked witch? Who is the fairy godmother? Who is Prince Charming? What character in a fairy tale would Prudence be? Where does Kit fit in?
NOBODY’S FAMILY IS GOING TO CHANGE
by Louise Fitzhugh
This novel is very witty, painful, and modern in dealing with sex roles. The heroine, Emma, is seeking acceptance like Kit. Emma never finds it from her family, though. She learns that first she must love herself. Her family may never change its attitudes about what girls and boys should be, but she can change. She has to change or she will not survive.
Emma is a concrete child at the beginning of the novel, just beginning to explore her own possibilities. She is too content and accepting of her painful existence. She blames everything on her father. But as she begins to wrestle with her own demons she can see the brighter days ahead. Emma grabs ahold of herself and realizes that she is the one in charge. Nothing will change unless she envisions her own future goals and strives to achieve them. In wondering why and thinking what if, Emma saves herself.
Students will quickly identify with Emma. Her inner voice, as presented in the book, is perfect for dramatizations. Students will be asked to write monologues using Emma’s thoughts as they are presented in the book. These speeches will be performed with students acting as Emma. Taking these monologues one step further, the class will be asked to write their own monologues based on personal experience. This book presents an excellent opportunity for students to discover how a novel becomes a drama.
Nobody’s Family Is
Going to Change
was first transformed into a teleplay for an ABC afterschool special. It also became the Broadway musical,
. Students should read and view these professional dramatizations because in the musical there is a song Emma sings that is an excellent example of the inner-voice monologue.
Nobody’s Family Is Going to Change
is the story of a present-day black family living in Manhattan. Emma is the oldest child in the family and the only daughter. She is fat, very bright, lonely, and disgusted with herself. She wants to be a lawyer and fantasizes about it constantly. Her father is a lawyer who doesn’t encourage her because “women don’t make good lawyers.” Emma desperately wants her father’s approval but they just do not seem able to understand one another. They are too much alike.
Emma’s little brother, Willie, also has a sex role dilemma. He wants to be a dancer like his Uncle Dipsey and is good enough to be offered a role in a Broadway show. But his father disapproves and this brings all the family tension out into the open.
Because this novel deals with a modern family in a modern situation, I feel students will really empathize with the children in this family. In fact, the author stacks the deck so the parents are all too often two-dimensional. This problem was solved in the ABC afterschool special based on the novel. Like the broadway play, it is called
The Tap Dance Kid
The Tap Dance Kid
the parents are seen as real people and their problems are brought out into the open. Students should look at this family’s dilemma from both the children’s and parent’s points of view. Viewing the t.v. show (which is available on VCR) will present the important issues the novel raises in a more sensitive and realistic manner.
Some Questions and Issues for Discussion
1. Why doesn’t Emma’s father want her to be a lawyer? Why doesn’t he want Willie to be a dancer? Do parents always want what is best for their children?
2. Is Emma a “nice” person? Do people like her? Would you want to be her friend? Does she allow people to get close to her? Is she like her father or mother? How?
3. Why does Willie want to dance? How does it make him feel? Does anything make you feel this way?
4. What is Emma’s and Willie’s relationship like? Do they love one another? Do they like one another? What is your relationship with your brother or sister like?
5. Will this family change? Will they solve their problems? How? Do some families stay the same? Why or why not?
BY William H. Armstrong
The final novel to be read and explored is a very serious, somber piece. It is haunting and the best written book of the four. found it very sad and I think that
will move students profoundly.
The novel is set in the 1930’s and is the tragic story of a black sharecropping family. The title comes from the name of the family hunting dog, but it is symbolic of the themes the book sensitively presents. Sounder is the family pet and best friend of the leading character, “the boy,” When Sounder is wounded and the boy’s father is arrested for stealing a ham to feed his starving family, the boy becomes the family’s “Sounder.” Overnight he is no longer a child but a man of the house, “sounding out” the world around the small family cabin. He searches for food and a job to support the family, earning an education along the way. His most important quest is for his father who has been forced from home to work on a chain gang. With each journey away from home the boy grows stronger. When his father finally does return, beaten and maimed, the boy is now the man who takes care of not only himself, but also of his family.
’s prose is sparse and bare. It is harsh for life is harsh for the boy and his family. The novel deals with prejudice in a very affecting way. The reader also sees how a family can still love and hang together in times of great adversity. Family obligations and responsibilities are important themes in
This book was made into a very fine film about ten years ago. Students will view this film and discuss it. The harsh reality of the prejudice shown here and a family’s ability to rise above it will be important topics of discussion.
Some Questions and Issues for Discussion
1. Why doesn’t the author of
, William H. Armstrong, tell the reader the boy’s name?
2. How does the boy become “the sounder” for his family? Would you be able to leave home and be “the sounder” for your family?
3. How are the dog, Sounder, and the boy’s father alike? Can animals be so close to people that they become part of the family?
4. Was the punishment the boy’s father was given fair? Was it right of him to steal the ham? Why did he do it? What would you have done if you were in the father’s situation?
5. Where do we see people’s prejudice in the novel? How do these incidents affect the family? Are the members of this family strong or weak? How do you think your family would behave if it were in a similar circumstance?
The unit will culminate with a sharing of the writings, dramatic pieces, and other works that have grown from the exploration of these four family novels. A final discussion would include comparing and contrasting the adolescents found in the books with ourselves. I would particularly like to see Emma and her egocentric behavior compared to the boy in
and his unselfish actions.
The characters in these novels begin as concrete children and move into the realms of abstract thinking and in coping with life’s dilemmas. Like my students, Emma, Laura, Kit, and the boy are all on the verge of thinking hypothetically. They are learning to be independent and autonomous; to think like an adult. At first all children are overwhelmed, but through perseverance and with endurance they are able to conquer their fears and to win their own battles. As my students share these problems and experiences with growing up in the family, I hope they will begin to look at their own lives and start to move from the concrete to the abstract; to think what if, to dream whatever is necessary to create the solutions to their own problems.


Identification. Syria is the name that was given to the region by the Greeks and Romans and probably derives from the Babylonian suri. Arabs traditionally referred to Syria and a large, vaguely defined surrounding area as Sham, which translates as "the northern region," "the north," "Syria," or "Damascus." Arabs continued to refer to the area as Sham up until the twentieth century. That name still is used to refer to the entire area of Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and the West Bank and has become a symbol of Arab unity.
Location and Geography. Syria borders Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Israel and Jordan to the south, and Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. It is 71,000 square miles (183,900 square kilometers) in area. One-third of the land is arable, and one-third is pasturable. The terrain is mostly desert, and home to drought resistant plants such as myrtle, boxwood, and wild olive. There is little wildlife. Remote areas have wolves, hyenas, and foxes; the desert has lizards, eagles, and buzzards. Most of the population is concentrated in the western region of the country, near the Mediterranean. Damascus, the capital and the largest city, is located at the foot of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains along the small Barada River. It has a favorable location in a fertile area close to the desert and has historically served as a refueling stop and commercial center for traders making trips through the desert. Inland of this area is a range of limestone mountains, the Jabal al-Nusayriya. The Gharb Depression, a dry but fertile valley, lies between this range and other mountains to the east. The Euphrates River and several of its tributaries pass through Syria, supplying more than 80 percent of the country's water. There are two natural lakes: Arram in the crater of an extinct volcano in the Golan Heights and Daraa along the Jordanian border. There are several artificial lakes created by dams that supply irrigation and electrical power. Most of the country has a desertlike climate, with hot, dry summers and milder winters. What little rain there is falls in the winter, mainly along the coast.
Demography. The population in 2000 was 16,673,282 (not including the 35,150 people living in the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights, of whom 18,150 are Arabs and 17,000 are Israelis). The country is 90.3 percent Arab. Kurds are estimated to constitute between 3 and 9 percent of the population. Also represented are Turks; Armenians, most of whom fled Turkey between 1925 and 1945; and small numbers of Circassians, Assyrians, and Jews. The Bedoins are Arabs, but form a distinct group. They were originally nomadic, but many have been forced to settle in towns and villages.
Linguistic Affiliation. Arabic is the official language, and 90 percent of the population speaks it. The Syrian dialect is very similar to Jordanian and Egyptian and varies little from Modern Standard Arabic, the standardized form used in communications throughout the Arab world. Kurdish, Armenian, and Circassian also are spoken. Kurdish is spoken mostly in the northeast, but even there it is rarely heard, as speaking it is viewed as a gesture of dissent. Some ancient languages are still spoken in parts of the country, including Maalua, Aramaic, and Syriac. As a result of colonial influence, French and English (French in particular) are understood and used in interactions with tourists and other foreigners.
Symbolism. The coat of arms displays a hawk, which is the emblem of Muhammad, the founder of the Islamic faith. The flag consists of three horizontal stripes: red on top, white in the middle, and black on the bottom. In the white section are two green stars, symbolizing Islam.
Emergence of the Nation. The modern-day nation emerged from Sham, an area that historically included Jordan, Israel, and Lebanon. Between 2700 and 2200 B.C.E. , this area was home to the Ebla kingdom. Later, the country's strategic location helped its coastal towns rise to prominence as Phoenician trading posts. It was conquered by the Persians around 500 B.C.E. , and by the Greeks in 333 B.C.E. The Romans took over in 64 B.C.E. , and established a fortress at Palmyra whose remains still stand in the desert. Muslim Arabs conquered Damascus in 635 C.E. Beginning in 1095, Syria was a target of the Crusades, but the Arabs ultimately defeated the Christian invaders. The Turkish Ottoman Empire took control in 1516 and ruled the area for four hundred years. That era came to an end in 1920 with the end of World War I, when the French took control of Syria and Lebanon. The French drew a straight-line border to separate this territory from British-ruled Transjordan. Syria had experienced a brief period of independence from 1918–1920, and was dissatisfied with French rule, which ignored the will of the people and did little for the country as a whole. There was a brief insurrection in 1925 and 1926, which the French put down by bombing Damascus.
Syria held its first parliamentary elections in 1932. All the candidates were hand-picked by the French, but once elected, they declined the constitution France had proposed for the country. Anti-French sentiment grew when France turned over control of the Syrian province of Alexandretta to Turkey. It was exacerbated by the promise of independence in 1941, which was not delivered until five years later. After independence, civilian rule was short-lived, and the early 1950s saw a succession of coups, after which Syria formed the United Arab Republic with Egypt in 1958. This represented an effort to keep the Arab states more powerful than Israel, but it disintegrated in 1961, when Syria came to resent the concentration of power in Egypt. The disbanding was followed by further political instability. The situation was worsened by the Six Day War against Israel in 1967 and the Black September disagreement with Jordan in 1970.
Hafez al-Assad, the leader of a radical wing of the Arab Socialist party, the Baath, seized control in 1971. He cracked down hard on dissent and in 1982 killed thousands of members of the the Muslim Brotherhood opposition organization. However, his tight-reined rule averted the civil war and political anarchy that plagued Middle Eastern countries such as Lebanon. In 1992, he won his fourth consecutive bid for election with 99.9 percent of the vote. During the Gulf War in the early 1990s, the country aligned itself with the anti-Iraq coalition, thus winning the approval of the United States and removing itself from the United States' government's list of nations supporting international terrorism. Hafez al-Assad died in June 2000. The younger of his two sons, Bashar, assumed his father's position.
National Identity. Syrians tend to identify primarily with their religious group or sect; however, as the majority of the country is Sunni Muslim, this creates a strong feeling of cultural unity. Modern-day Syria is in part the result of geographic lines drawn by the French in 1920, and there is still a strong pan-Arab sympathy that defines national identity beyond the current borders. The current map was also redrawn in 1967, when Israel took the Golan Heights, a previously Syrian territory, and the national identity is based in part on the concept of defending and reclaiming this land.
Ethnic Relations. Syria is ethnically fairly homogeneous (80 percent of the population is Arab). Religious differences are tolerated, and minorities tend to retain distinct ethnic, cultural, and religious identities. The Alawite Muslims (about a half-million people) live in the area of Latakia. The Druze, a smaller group that resides in the mountainous region of Jebel Druze, are known as fierce soldiers. The Ismailis are an even smaller sect, that originated in Asia. The Armenians from Turkey are Christian. The Kurds are Muslim but have a distinct culture and language, for which they have been persecuted throughout the Middle East. The Circassians, who are Muslim, are of Russian origin and generally have fair hair and skin. The nomadic Beduoin lead a lifestyle that keeps them largely separated from the rest of society, herding sheep and moving through the desert, although some have settled in towns and villages. Another group that remains on the outside of society both politically and socially, is the roughly 100,000 Palestinian refugees, who left their homeland in 1948 after the founding of Israel.
The focal point of any Middle Eastern city is the souk, or marketplace, a labyrinthine space of alleys, stalls, and tiny shops that also include ancient mosques and shrines. Traditionally, the residential quarters of a city were divided along ethnic and religious lines. Today, this system has been largely replaced by divisions along class lines, with some wealthier neighborhoods and some poorer ones. Damascus is an ancient city, and along with Aleppo, one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in the world. The Great Omayyad Mosque, which dates back to the early days of Islam, is one of its oldest and most famous buildings. It formerly served as a Byzantine church honoring Saint John the Baptist and was constructed on the site of an old temple to pre-Islamic gods. The walls are lined with marble and overlaid with golden vines. Six hundred gold lamps hang from the ceiling. The city is home to ruins as well as intact buildings that date back thousands of years. These structures are located in the area called the Old City. Damascus is also a city of cars, highways, and tall modern buildings made of reinforced concrete.
Aleppo, although smaller, is equally ancient. It is geographically protected by its elevation and rocky terrain, and traces its history back to its days as a fort. Today Aleppo is the nation's second largest urban center and most industrialized city. It engages in silk weaving and cotton printing as well as the tanning of animal hides and the processing of produce. Other cities include Latakia, the country's main port, and Homs and Tartus, both of which have oil refineries.
In villages, houses present a closed front to the outside world, symbolizing the self-contained family unit. They are small, usually with one to three rooms, and are built around an enclosed central courtyard. Traditional rural houses in the northwest are mud structures that are shaped like beehives. In the south and east, most houses are made of stone. The nomadic Bedouin, who live mainly in the south and east, sleep in tents that are easily transportable.
In 1960, 30 percent of the population lived in cities; in 1970, that proportion was 46 percent; and by 1988, the number had climbed to half. Most of this growth has been concentrated in Damascus. The rapid spread of that city into nearby farmland has resulted in traffic congestion, overtaxed water supplies, pollution, and housing shortages. Many older buildings have been taken down to make room for roads and newer structures. The outskirts of the city have become overrun with quickly and shoddily constructed homes that sometimes have electricity but rarely have running water or sewage facilities.
Food in Daily Life. Wheat is the main crop and one of the staple foods. Vegetables, fruits, and dairy products also are eaten. Lamb is popular, but most people cannot afford to eat meat on a regular basis. Islam proscribes the consumption of pork, and other meats must be specially prepared in a method called halal cooking. In middle-class and wealthier homes, meals are like those eaten in other Middle Eastern countries: roast or grilled chicken or lamb with side dishes of rice, chickpeas, yogurt, and vegetables. A mezzeh is a midday meal composed of up to twenty or thirty small dishes. These dishes can include hummous , a puree of chickpeas and tahini (ground sesame paste); baba ganouj, an eggplant puree; meat rissoles; stuffed grape leaves; tabouleh (a salad of cracked wheat and vegetables); falafel (deep-fried balls of mashed chickpeas); and pita bread. Olives, lemon, parsley, onion, and garlic are used for flavoring. Popular fruits that are grown in the region include dates, figs, plums, and watermelons. Damascus has a number of French restaurants remaining from the time of colonial rule.
Tea is the ubiquitous drink and is often consumed at social gatherings. Soda is also very popular, as is milk and a drink made by mixing yogurt with water, salt, and garlic. Alcohol consumption is rare, as it is forbidden by the Islamic religion, but beer and wine are available, as is arak, an aniseed drink that also is popular in other Middle Eastern countries.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Food is an important part of many celebrations. During Ramadan, each day's fast is broken with an evening meal called iftar. This meal begins in silence and is consumed rapidly. Eid al-Fitr, the final breaking of the Ramadan fast, entails the consumption of large quantities of food, sweets in particular. Food is also a central element at weddings, parties, and other festivities.
Basic Economy. The country supplies almost all of its own food needs. The proportion of the population working in agriculture has decreased significantly from 50 percent in 1970, to 30 percent in the 1980s, to 23 percent today. Despite this decline, production has increased, thanks in large part to the dam at Tabqa, which has allowed for increased irrigation. Half of the workforce is employed in industry and mining. There is less of a gap between the rich and the poor in Syria than there is in many other countries, and as more of the population gains access to education, the middle class continues to expand.
The basic unit of currency is the pound.
Land Tenure and Property. Before independence, urban landlords controlled the countryside, often mistreating the peasants and denying them any rights. The majority of peasants worked as sharecroppers and were economically and politically powerless. When the socialist Baath Party took control, it introduced measures to limit and redistribute land ownership and establish peasant unions. It also set up local governing organizations and cooperatives, that have allowed the peasants to attain more control of their lives and livelihood.
Commercial Activities. The center of commercial activity in each town or city is the souk. People from all walks of life and all ethnic and religious backgrounds come together to buy and sell a wide variety of goods. Spices, meats, vegetables, cloth, traditional handicrafts, and imported products jostle for space in the crowded booths and alleyways. Souks are not just commercial centers but gathering places as well, and haggling is a necessary part of social interactions. Shopping centers and supermarkets exist but have not supplanted this uniquely Arab institution.
Major Industries. The main industries are oil, agriculture, and textiles. Wheat is the largest crop, followed by cotton. Vegetables, beans, and fruits
Trade. Syria's primary trading partners are Germany, Italy, and France. Although Syria is not as rich in oil as other Middle Eastern nations, oil is the main export, and the exploration for deposits continues. Other exports are cotton, fruits and vegetables, and textiles. Imports include industrial and agricultural machinery, vehicles and automotive accessories, pharmaceuticals, foodstuffs, and fabric.
Division of Labor. Syrians are legally entitled to pursue the career of their choice; however, those choices are often limited by gender, family, social pressure, and economic hardship. There is often relatively little difference in the salaries of the working class and those of the professional class.
Classes and Castes. Syrian society was traditionally extremely stratified. People from different classes generally do not socialize with one another, and people in the lower classes often adopt a humble attitude and an acceptance of their position. Class lines tend to coincide with racial differences, as lighter-skinned people hold higher economic and political positions and most of the people in the lower-ranked professions are darker-skinned.
The families of landholders and merchants traditionally occupied the highest position socially and politically. They usually lived in Damascus or Aleppo and managed their land from afar. Religious teachers known as ulama were also influential. They served as judges, teachers, and political officials as well as advisers to the government. In this role, the ulama generally supported the status quo. The towns and cities also housed artisans, small merchants, and a small working class.
The Baath government has created some shifts in that pattern. Some peasants are moving to the cities and joining the middle class; others now own land. However, there are still large numbers of indigent and landless peasants. Since the Baath takeover, the army officers who participated in the coup have succeeded the landowners as the new elite. There is also a growing middle class as a result of the spread of education.
Symbols of Social Stratification. The wealthy and well educated have a fairly modern lifestyle with many of the trappings of Western life. Televisions and radios are common except among the extremely poor. Appliances such as air conditioners, dishwashers, and microwaves are only for the very wealthy.
Dress is another indicator of social class. Different tribes and villages have their own distinctive patterns, designs, and colors of clothing. Men traditionally wear long gowns called kaftans, and women wear long robes that leave only their hands and feet exposed. Both men and women wear head wraps. The educated upper classes, particularly the young, tend to prefer modern Western attire. These women favor bright colors, jewelry, makeup, and high heels; men wear dressy slacks and shirts. Blue jeans and T-shirts are rare, as are shorts and miniskirts and bare shoulders or upper arms for women. Traditionally, it is a sign of wealth and status in a family for its women to dress in long robes with their faces veiled.
Government. Syria adopted its current constitution in 1973. There is universal suffrage. The unicameral legislative branch is composed of the People's Council, or Majlis al shaab, whose 195 members are elected for four-year terms. This body proposes laws, discusses cabinet programs, and approves the national budget. The president, who serves as the head of state and is required by the constitution to be a Muslim, is elected every seven years by popular vote. The president appoints a vice president, a prime minister who serves as head of government, a cabinet, and deputy prime ministers. The president has wide-reaching powers, including serving on the supreme court. Despite the distribution of political power, in practice, the military government has the ability to overrule all decisions.
Leadership and Political Officials. The importance placed on the family as the central structure in society has ramifications in politics and government. Family loyalty is a primary consideration, and there is a general sentiment that family members (even distant relatives) can be trusted more than other people. The best jobs in the government generally are held by people related to the president, either of the same religious group or the same regional background or part of his extended family.
While residents generally are interested in politics both at a local level and as a part of the larger Arab world and are critical of leaders, they tend not to join political parties. Even the ruling Baath Party has relatively small numbers of members. It is more
Social Problems and Control. The legal system is based on the French model, with both civil and criminal courts. There is also a State Security Court that tries political opponents of the government. The proceedings of this court violate many international standards for fair trials. There are large numbers of political prisoners in the jails. In 1992, the government announced that it would free 2,864 of these prisoners, perhaps signaling a loosening of its autocratic policies.
For cases dealing with issues such as birth, marriage, and inheritance, the system has different courts for people of different religions. The Muslim courts are called Sharia. There are other ciyrts for Druze, Roman Catholics, Protestants, and Jews.
Military Activity. Syria has armed forces with 408,000 members. This includes an army and an air force but no navy. It spends 30 percent of the national budget on defense as a result of the state of war that has existed between Syria and Israel since the founding of Israel. Syria also has thirty thousand troops stationed in Lebanon to maintain the peace. All men are required to serve thirty months in the armed forces, with the exception of only sons, who are exempt. It is possible to buy exemption from service for a very large sum of money. Women are allowed to serve voluntarily.
The government strictly enforces price controls on basic items as well as rent control laws, that help low-income people get by. Medical fees are covered by the state for those who cannot afford private care. The government also provides assistance to the elderly, invalids, and those suffering from work injuries. Most assistance comes from within the family structure; young people often live with their parents until and even after marriage, and children are expected to take in and care for their elderly parents.
Division of Labor by Gender. Traditionally, wives in towns are responsible for running the household and are restricted to the home. Rural women often work in the fields in addition to performing domestic tasks. While women are legally allowed to work outside the home, there are significant obstacles. For example, the government's Moral Intelligence Department investigates women before allowing them to hold federal jobs. Only 11 percent of women of working age are employed outside the home; among those women, 80 percent work in agriculture. They also are represented in textiles and the tobacco industry, but only 1 percent of employed women have administrative or managerial positions. There are women in the national government, and in the capital a few women work in metal or electrical workshops. It is not uncommon for women to do piecework in their homes.
The Relative Status of Women and Men. The Baath Party was one of the first in the Arab world to declare as one of its goals the emancipation and equal treatment of women; its constitution of 1964 states that all citizens have equal rights. While women are now entitled to receive the same education as men and to seek employment, the traditional attitude that views females as inferior beings prevails. A woman is considered the possession of a man rather than her own person. She is identified as her father's daughter until marriage; after the birth of a male child, her identity is transferred from the wife of her husband to the mother of her son.
Marriage. By Muslim tradition, marriage is arranged by the couple's families. While more leniency is now allowed, particularly in cities and among the upper classes, it is still extremely rare for a couple to marry against their family's wishes. According to the constitution, the state has assumed the duty of protecting and encouraging the institution of marriage. Nonetheless, the marriage rate has declined because of housing shortages, inflation, rising levels of education, bride money, and the prohibitive cost of weddings.
Although the state and the Muslim religion both oppose the current dowry system, it is deeply entrenched in the family structure. It places immense pressure on the husband and his family, who have to raise large sums of money, and on the bride, who often is forced to marry the suitor who can provide the biggest dowry. Syria was the first Arab country to pass laws concerning polygamy. In 1953, it passed the Law of Personal Status, under which a man was bound to demonstrate that he could financially support two wives before marrying the second one. Whereas divorce laws used to follow the Arabic tradition that a man had only to repeat three times "I divorce you" (in his wife's presence or not), court proceedings are now required.
Domestic Unit. The family is the primary social unit. An older male, usually the father or grandfather, has the ultimate authority and is responsible for providing for the other family members. It is customary for several generations to live together in the same house. Particularly for women, who are not allowed to leave the home, family provides the primary or only social outlet and relationships with other people.
Inheritance. An estate passes from the father to the oldest son in a family. Traditionally, not only property is bequeathed, but social and political position as well.
Kin Groups. Syrians identify very strongly with their families, both immediate and extended. While kinship ties have weakened somewhat with urbanization and modernization, the clan mentality is still a strong influence in the nation's political system.
Child Rearing and Education. Children are highly valued as a blessing from God. The more children one has, the more fortunate one is considered,
The literacy rate is 64 percent—78 percent for men and 51 percent for women. Primary education is mandatory and free for six years. Middle school, which begins at age thirteen, marks the end of mixed-sex education. Most schools are run by the state, which combines a French structure with the rigid discipline and rote learning of the Islamic tradition. There are a few religious schools, some schools that are run by the United Nation relief program, and some that are run by the Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees.
Higher Education. Syria has vocational and teacher-training education as well as universities in Damascus, Aleppo, and Latakia. About 165,000 students (40 percent of them women) are enrolled in the universities. The learning situation is less than ideal, with large class sizes and outdated teaching and testing techniques. Students who can afford to obtain visas often prefer to study abroad.
Men and women socialize separately except on occasions when the whole family is involved. Talking is a favorite pastime, and the art of conversation is a prized skill. Men often engage in a sort of banter in which they try to one up each other with witty and eloquent insults.
In social interactions, people stand close together, speak loudly, and gesture widely with their hands and heads. Greetings hold great social significance. They are often lengthy, including questions about health. They usually are accompanied by a handshake and sometimes by a hug and a kiss on each cheek. Placing the right hand on the heart when meeting someone is a signal of affection.
Syrians are very affectionate people. Men walk linking arms or holding hands and hug and kiss a great deal, as do women. Close physical contact in public is more common between people of the same gender than it is between girlfriend and boyfriend or husband and wife.
Religious Beliefs. Seventy-four percent of the population is Sunni Muslim. Sixteen percent belongs
It is speculated, although not certain, that Alawite Muslims do not observe the holy month of Ramadan or make a pilgrimage to Mecca as other Muslims do and celebrate some Christian holidays. The practices of the Druze are also somewhat mysterious. A smaller group known as the Ismailis recognizes a living person, the Aga Khan, as their sacred leader.
The mystical branch of Islam called sufi, has a small presence in Syria, although the government sees this sect as subversive and disapproves of its practice. Sufi rituals involve chanting and dancing while moving in a circular formation.
Despite the powerful influence of Islam in people's lives, some elements of folk religion persist. Particularly in rural areas, there is a strong belief in the evil eye as well as in jinn (spirits). There is also a tradition of local saints to whom people pray.
Religious Practitioners. There are no priests or clergy in Islam. Instead, there are people with the job of leading prayers and reading from the Qur'an, the Muslim holy book. The Qur'an, rather than a religious leader, is considered the ultimate authority and holds the answer to any question or dilemma one might have. There are also muezzins who give the call to prayer and are scholars of the Qur'an and spend their lives studying and interpreting the text.
Rituals and Holy Places. The most important observation in the Islamic calendar is Ramadan. This month of fasting is followed by the joyous feast of Eid al Fitr, during which families visit and exchange gifts. Eid al-Adha commemorates the end of Muhammod's Hajj. The mosque is the Muslim house of worship. Outside the door, there are washing facilities, as cleanliness is a prerequisite to prayer, demonstrating humility before God. One also must remove one's shoes before entering the mosque. According to Islamic tradition, women are not allowed inside. The interior has no altar; it is simply an open carpeted space. Because Muslims are supposed to pray facing Mecca, there is a small niche carved into the wall that points to the direction in which that city lies.
Death and the Afterlife. A death is followed by three days of mourning during which friends, relatives,
There are private medical practices, in addition to the free medical care provided by the state. The health care system is poor but improving. Infectious diseases are a major health threat, especially in rural areas, where water quality is poor and sewage disposal systems are not well developed. There is a high child mortality rate that is due mainly to measles and digestive and respiratory diseases.
The major secular holidays are New Year's Day on 1 January, Revolution Day on 8 March, and the anniversary of the formation of the Arab League, 22 March. Syrians celebrate Martyrs Day in memory of the nation's heroes on 6 April; National Day (also known as Evacuation Day, celebrating independence), on 17 April; and the Day of Mourning on 29 November.
Support for the Arts. The Ministry of Culture and National Guidance promotes the national culture. Most publishing houses are owned by the state, and writers tend to be government employees. Censorship is enforced strictly, and foreign books about politics and contemporary Syrian or Middle Eastern history are banned. The National Film Centre, established in 1966, oversees the production of most films.
Literature. There is a long literary tradition that dates back to poets such as al-Mutanabbi in the 900s and al-Maarri in the 1000s. Writers must contend with government censorship, but fiction writing is not as tightly monitored as is nonfiction. Whereas the punishment for breaking laws concerning nonfiction is usually imprisonment, fiction writers generally are reprimanded. Perhaps for this reason, poetry and the short story are widely read and appreciated, represented by writers such as Nizar Qabbani, Shawqi Baghdadi, and 'Ali Ahmad Sa'id. There are few women in the ranks of well-known Arab writers, but one of them is Ghada al-Samman, who was born in 1942. She writes on many of the same issues as her male contemporaries, including cultural identity and the clash between tradition and progress as well as issues specific to being a woman and writer in a male dominated society.
Graphic Arts. Islam forbids the artistic depiction of animals or human beings. Therefore, Syrian art until World War I consisted mainly of geometric designs in arabesque and calligraphy. These works can be seen in many palaces and mosques. After World War I, Western drawing techniques began to be taught, and fine arts was introduced as a discipline at the University of Damascus. Most sculpture is carved in white marble and often is displayed in palaces and public buildings.
There is a lively tradition of handicraft production. Jewelry, particularly in gold and silver, is popular, as is other metalwork, such as brass and copper plates and bowls. These items traditionally were produced by Syrian Jews, and as their population has diminished, so has this art form. Mosaic woodworking is also practiced and is used in the construction of boxes, trays, tables, desks, and game boards. Damascus is a center of glassblowing and fabric production, including the silk brocade called damask, which was named for the city. The Bedouins are known for their weaving of fabrics, including carpets and prayer rugs made on hand-built looms, and traditional clothing that is painstakingly embroidered.
Films have been produced in Syria since the 1920s. Musicals and light comedies were popular through the late 1940s. During the 1970s, film clubs were important in the resistance to the government, and for this reason they were shut down in 1980. Syria has spawned several internationally regarded filmmakers, including Omar Amirallay and Usama Muhammed, but their films, which deal with social issues, have been banned in the country, or ignored by distribution companies.
Performance Arts. Memorizing and reciting from the Qur'an and from secular poetry is a popular form of entertainment. There is a rich tradition of storytelling that dates back thousands of years. Even today there are coffee shops where men go to drink tea and hear nightly installments of an ongoing saga recited by a professional storyteller.
Arabic music is tied to the storytelling tradition and often recounts tales of love, honor, and family. Technically, it is repetitive and subtle. It uses quarter notes with small jumps in the scale. Classical Arabic music makes use of the oud, an ancient stringed instrument similar to the lute; small drums held in the lap; and flutes. Contemporary music is played by an orchestra that mainly uses European instruments with a lead singer and chorus.
Damascus has a museum for agriculture and one for military history. Aleppo and other important sites have museums of archaeology.
The main challenge in the area of the sciences is that most Syrians study abroad, and many do not return to Syria to work.
Ball, Warwick. Syria: A Historical and Archaeological Guide, 1998.
Beaton, Margaret. Syria, 1988.
Beattie, Andrew, and Timothy Pepper. Syria: The Rough Guide, 1998.
Galvin, James. Divided Loyalties: Nationalism and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of Empire, 1998.
Hopwood, Derek. Syria, 1945–1986, 1988.
Lye, Keith. Take a Trip to Syria, 1988.
Mulloy, Martin. Syria, 1988.
Quilliam, Neil. Syria and the New World Order, 1999.
Sinai, Anne, and Allen Pollack, eds. The Syrian Arab Republic, 1976.
South, Coleman. Syria, 1995.
Tareq, Ismael Y., and Jacqueline S. Tareq. Communist Movement in Syria and Lebanon, 1998.
Wedeen, Lisa. Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric, and Symbols in Contemporary Syria, 1999.
Winkler, Onn. Demographic Developments and Population Policies in Ba'athist Syria, 1998.
Destination Syria, www.lonelyplanet.com/dest/mea/syr
Guide to Syria, www.middleeastnews.com/syria
Syria: A Country Study, www.lcweb2.loc/gov/frd/cs/sytoc
Syria—The Cradle of Civilizations, www.arabicnet.com
U.S. Government, Department of State, Central Intelligence Agency. World Factbook: Syria, www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sy
—E LEANOR S TANFORD


Different Learning Styles – How to Design Learning to Accommodate our Learners?
People learn in different ways. We all have our individual preference for the ways in which we learn. In this post, we will explore different models to categorize learners into different learning styles. We will also explain how to design learning to accommodate our learners.
Understanding the different learning styles will influence the design and assessment strategies. That’s why it is important to know some models so we can cater for a wider group of learners.
What are learning styles?
There are numerous theories which discuss different learning styles. In the past few decades, educational theorists have expanded the work of psychologists in the area of individual learner differences.
As a result, a number of theories have emerged about how people can be classified into different groups based on how they learn more effectively and their preferences.
Generally most theorists describe learning styles as different aspects of the ways that people learn, process information and respond to environmental stimuli in different dimensions.
Some theorists and researchers have identified the following definitions of learning styles:
- The way that individuals attend to and integrate complex new information determines which style categorizes a learner (Dunn, 1978). Additionally, personal choice and preference play a role in what style one chooses for learning.
- Dunn (1978) indicated that learning styles are approaches to learning and studying.
- Keefe (1982) defined learning styles as characteristic cognitive, affective and psychological behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with or respond to the learning environment.
- Dunn and Perrin (1994) described learning styles as “the way in which each learner begins to concentrate on, process and retain new and difficult information. That interaction occurs differently for each individual” (p. 2).
- Gilbert and Han (1999) and Gilbert (2000) confirmed that learning preferences facilitate the way individuals learn when the learning environment considers the various learning styles of students, thereby impacting the comprehension of materials presented.
- Felder and Spurlin (2005) described learning styles as “characteristic strengths and preferences in the ways they take in and process information” (p. 1). Felder (2005) indicated that learning styles are often reflected in “different academic strengths, weaknesses, skills, and interests” (p. 3). Learning styles are often influenced by heredity, upbringing and current environmental demands. Individuals have a tendency to both perceive and process information differently.
Learning styles are not unique and fixed for each individual. They fluctuate within subject or lesson and each person will have a variety of learning styles and preferences.
There are many frameworks or models to classify learners into specific learning styles. In this article we will explore the following models:
- Multiple Intelligence Theory.
- Split Brain Theory (left-brain, right-brain).
- Global and Analytical Learner Model.
Multiple Intelligence Theory
The Theory of Multiple Intelligence was developed in 1983 by Howard Earl Gardner and it was first published in his book Frames Of Mind: The Theory Of Multiple Intelligence.
Its basis opposes the idea of a single dominant type of intelligence, and instead acknowledges the existence of multiple intelligence, that compose a unique blend in each individual.
The Multiple Intelligence Theory indicates that each type of human intelligence represents a different way of processing information. The different intelligence are:
- Verbal-linguistic: refers to an individual’s ability to analyse information and produce work that involves oral and written language, such as speeches, books and memos.
- Logical-mathematical: describes the ability to develop equations and proofs, make calculations and solve abstract problems.
- Visual-spatial: allows people to comprehend maps and other types of graphical information.
- Musical: enables individuals to produce and make meaning of different types of sound.
- Naturalistic: refers to the ability to identify and distinguish among different types of plants, animals and weather formations found in the natural world.
- Bodily-Kinaesthetic: entails using one’s own body to create products or solve problems.
- Interpersonal: reflects an ability to recognize and understand other people’s moods, desires, motivations and intentions.
- Intrapersonal: refers to people’s ability to recognize and assess those same characteristics within themselves.
Design Strategies for Multiple Intelligence Theory in eLearning
The following picture shows the different multiple intelligence and some strategies that can be used to implement them.
Another set of activities suitable for the different multiple intelligence is shown below:
And finally, more design strategies are listed in the following table:
|Verbal-linguistic||Scenarios, discussions on forums, links to additional information concerning the subject matter.|
|Logical-mathematical||Graphics, charts, tables, critical thinking branching scenarios, where learners are required to find the answer using a series of clues.|
|Visual-spatial||Use of color, images, illustrations, graphics, games and multimedia that are visually appealing.|
|Musical||Music and sound, such as multimedia presentations with audio, narrations, podcasts, voice recordings.|
|Bodily-Kinaesthetic||Include virtual environments and activities that require physical involvement, such as drag and drop interactions, eLearning games, and simulations. Include several interactive methods and techniques to encourage kinaesthetic learners feel, touch, move, and manipulate objects. Here some VR/AR experiences might be a good option too.|
|Interpersonal||Forums and chats to encourage the exchange of ideas and social learning. Prompt learners to share their own experiences, views and ask them to make decisions while putting themselves in someone else’s shoes in scenario-based activities.|
|Intrapersonal||Scenarios that offer real world benefits is ideal for them, as they become more engaged when introspecting and reflecting. Moreover, don’t hesitate providing your intrapersonal learners with material for further private study, as it will help them gain a sense of what they want to achieve or what are the mistakes to avoid in their personal or professional lives.|
Split Brain Theory
In the 1960s, neuroscientist Roger W. Sperry discovered that by cutting the corpus callosum, a large bundle of fibres that connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain, he could reduce seizures in patients with epilepsy. The results of these experiments also revealed that the 2 sides of the brain performed different tasks.
Anatomically, the brain is divided into 2 hemispheres; the left and right. Studies have indicated that the 2 hemispheres have different functions and characteristics.
Based on these studies and the lateralization of the brain function, we have the theory of left-brain or right-brain. According to the theory of left-brain or right-brain dominance, each side of the brain controls different types of thinking. Additionally, people are said to prefer one type of thinking over the other.
According to the left-brain, right-brain dominance theory, the right side of the brain is best at expressive and creative tasks. Some of the abilities popularly associated with the right side of the brain include:
- Recognizing faces.
- Expressing emotions.
- Reading emotions.
The left-side of the brain is considered to be adept at tasks that involve logic, language, and analytical thinking. The left-brain is described as being better at:
- Critical thinking.
Design Strategies for Split Brain Theory in eLearning
For learners with more tendency to the left hemisphere, some activities would include presenting information in numerical tables, with facts, figures, statistics, showing content in a logical order and sequences.
The assessments would require learners to organize facts, accurate responses involving recall of information and solutions of specific problems.
For right hemisphere learners, I would include activities that involve presenting images, asking for emotions, opinions and feelings in regards to the information presented rather than factual responses. I would include scenarios or case studies to let learners imagine possible responses and suggest different solutions, predict outcomes and apply solutions to hypothetical problems.
Every eLearning module would include activities for both styles.
Global and Analytical Learner Model
In the Global Learner Model, the learner takes in information holistically. Begins with understanding concepts first, with mastery of details to follow. On the other hand, in the Analytical Learner Model, the learner takes in information sequentially, step-by step, preferring to learn a series of facts that lead toward an understanding of a larger concept.
Global learners need to see the big picture first and know the end result before beginning. While the analytical learners like to learn one piece at a time; they enjoy a clear sequence that starts at the beginning and moves to the end one step at a time.
In my workplace, I would design and adapt the eLearning modules to cater both styles as follows:
- Include the learning objectives of the training.
- Present a list of what learners will achieve at the end of the course.
- Start with the basic concepts, one step at a time and then build up the complexity of the content as the learner progresses.
Identify your Own Learning Style
There are different tests and tools you can use to determine your learning style and preferences.
The DISC assessment is an inventory model of learning styles which is composed of four quadrants classified by behavior. DISC is an acronym for Dominance, Influence, Steadiness, and Conscientiousness.
Other tool I have used is called “HBDI – Herrmann Brain Dominance Instrument”. This instrument was developed by Ned Herrmann after investigating split-brain theory and using technologies such as Electroencephalography (EEG), Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). HBDI allows you to become aware of your thinking preferences in order to use them better in your professional and personal life.
The HBDI test consists of 120 questions and the results and then categorized in four quadrants.
Other test you can do completely free is in this link https://personalitymax.com/
They will also provide with a snapshot on your preferences and your learning styles.
Designing eLearning for All Learning Styles
I believe it is possible in a post-modern world to provide instruction that will serve a wide range of learners without getting too tangled in the maze of learning style theories.
Basically, exposure to different instructional approaches is important. Incorporating a variety of teaching and assessment methods, being aware of cultural differences and providing students with opportunities to reflect on thinking will improve learning outcomes.
The type of instruction needed depends significantly on the discipline, the context and the content of what is being taught (Paschler, McDaniel, Rohrer, & Bjork 2008). A thorough analysis of these elements ensures that instruction will be aligned with expected outcomes.
A geometry course, for example, will likely have a much different presentation than will a writing course. Independently of the course, I would provide learners with plenty of opportunities to engage in critical thinking as a way to deconstruct and reconstruct the desired content in any discipline.
When a learner is exposed to different media in an instructional module, they will develop multiple schemas while working together for mastery of content.
Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning proposes that the best instruction includes information presented both visually and aurally, without redundancy or overload. We discussed these multimedia strategies in the post “Richard Mayer on Multimedia Learning”.
For digital environments, designers need to have a sundry toolbox to make the instruction clear and adaptable.
Approaches and Implementation Techniques for Developing Multiple Intelligence Content
Verbal / Linguistic Intelligence
|Descriptive Writing||Summaries, procedures, problem solving, narrative.|
|Creative Writing||Stories, history, wordplay, metaphors, myths, legends, plays, prose, poetry.|
|Details||Facts, names, places, trivia.|
|Vocabulary Focus||Keywords, origins and definitions of terms.|
|Puzzles||Word puzzles and games.|
Logical / Mathematical Intelligence
|Numbers||Mental arithmetic, calculations, measurements.|
|Mathematical Order||Steps, procedures, sequences, patterns.|
|Logic||Scientific, deductive, syllogisms, Venn diagrams, inductive, analogies.|
|Visual Representation||Graphs, charts, pie charts, grids, matrices.|
|Maths Representation||Codes, symbols, formulas.|
|Puzzles||Logic puzzles and games.|
|Problem Solving||Estimations, predictions, exploration.|
|Causal Knowledge||Questioning, cause and effect, logical meanings and relationships.|
|Classification||Compare/contrast, attribute identification, categorizations, ranking.|
|Outlining||Logical explanations, logical thought maps, sequence charts.|
Visual / Spatial Intelligence
|Pictures||Drawings, maps, diagrams, artwork, photography, videos, slides, movies.|
|Visual Organizers||Flowcharts, visual outlines, concepts maps, mind maps.|
|Internal Visualization||Visual thinking exercises, imaginations, guided imagery, visual memory.|
|Visual Variety||Patterns, designs, color, texture, geometric designs, unusual positions.|
|Puzzles||Visual puzzles, mazes, games.|
Musical / Rhythmic Intelligence
|Music Tuning||Background music, mood setting, sound breaks and jingles.|
|Content Illustration||Songs, raps, chants.|
|Musical Metaphor||Tones, notes, rhythms, clapping.|
|Sounds||Instrumental, environmental, nature.|
The Challenge for Instructional Designers
An instructional designer would find challenging to determine which system of learning-style classification would be most appropriate for a particular project. There are so many style inventories that, in their own right, seem logical and suitable for dividing people into groups for instructional planning purposes.
However, no one model is going to fit or match the potential range of learners.
Instruction that is engaging, flexible and relevant to the intended audience, and that is presented in ways that encompass varied avenues of access is likely to meet the needs of diverse learners, no matter what their current or preferred style may be (Paschler, McDaniel, Rohrer, & Bjork 2008).
A person’s thinking about and attention to their individual learning preferences may be useful in developing a metacognitive awareness of how best to approach a particular learning goal, which is highly dependent on the discipline, the content and the context of the task.
But it is not useful to lock oneself into a learning style that limits participation in engaging learning experiences offered through a variety of well-designed instructional strategies.
It is important not to label a learner within a preferred style but to challenge them to try using different learning materials. Also encourage your students to use a range of activities in an eLearning environment to cater for all styles.
Learners stereotyped as having one particular learning style may find themselves locked into one kind of learning experience, discouraging experimentation with other learning approaches.
Rather, all learners will likely benefit, over time, by being exposed to and using a varied toolbox of cognitive strategies to access content knowledge.
To face these challenges of multiple intelligence and learning styles I would suggest two practices.
Firstly, I would focus on promoting among the learners metacognition strategies for learning effectively such as elaboration, comprehension monitoring, and mnemonics.
And secondly, I support the idea of designing learning experiences that incorporate a variety of methods to cater for all learning styles and that promote the development of multiple intelligence.
When designing instructional systems I would keep in mind the use of technologies to support different learning strengths. For example, there is in the market software to stimulate verbal/linguistic intelligence, or calculus activities to develop logical/mathematical intelligence, logic puzzles and games, or drawings and artwork to promote visual/special intelligence.
Technology can be used in the classroom along with traditional activities to help students develop their intelligence (Bennett & Tipton, 1996).
In the online environment, on the other hand, as internet technologies become more user-friendly and accessible, instructional designers can create learning experiences that incorporate activities that appeal to the different intelligence and thus increasing learner responsiveness (Osciak & Milheim, 2001).
Each strategy in the learning experience will benefit learners in a different way, and learners will get out more or less from a particular strategy, but the important point to keep in mind is to include a variety of instructional methods and encouraging learners to use effective learning habits.
The key message at the end is “to offer variety and learners will be happy” 😀
I hope you liked this post. Feel free to leave your comments below and tell me what are your preferences and learning styles?
See you next time,
Bennett, C.K. & Tipton, P.E. (1996). Using technology to develop multiple intelligence in the classroom. In B. Robin et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 1996 (pp. 976-978). Chesapeake, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE).
Dunn, K. & Dunn, R. (1978). Teaching students through their individual learning styles: A practical approach. Reston, VA: Reston Publishing.
Dunn, R., Dunn, K., & Perrin, J. (1994). Teaching young children through their individual learning styles. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, Inc.
Felder, R. M., & Spurlin, J. E. (2005). Applications, reliability and validity of the Index of Learning Styles. International Journal of Engineering Education, 21(1), 103-112.
Gilbert, J. E., & Han, C. Y. (1999). Adapting instruction in search of a significant difference. Journal of Network and Computing Applications, 22(3), 149-160.
Gilbert, J. E. (2000). Case based reasoning applied to instruction method selection for intelligent tutoring systems. Workshop Proceedings of ITS’ 2000: Fifth International Conference on Intelligent Tutoring Systems, Montreal, CA.11-15.
Keefe, J. (1982). Student learning styles and brain behavior: Programs, instrumentation, research. Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals.
Kelly, D. Brendan, T. (n.d.). A Framework for using multiple intelligence in an ITS.
Khalsa, G. (2013). Should Instructional Designers Accommodate Learning Styles?. In R. McBride & M. Searson (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2013 (pp. 1350-1355). Chesapeake, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE).
Osciak, S. & Milheim, W. D. (2001). Multiple intelligence and the design of web-based instruction. International Journal of Instructional Media (pp. 355-361). Retrieved from http://www.acdowd-designs.com/sfsu_860_11/MI and design of web-based instruction.pdf
Pappas, C. (2015). Multiple Intelligence in eLearning: The Theory and its impact. [Web]. Retrieved from https://elearningindustry.com/multiple-intelligence-in-elearning-the-theory-and-its-impact
Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2008). Learning styles: Concepts and evidence. Psychological Sciences in the Public Interest, 9(3), 103-119.