Historical reenactment (or re-enactment) is an educational or entertainment activity in which people follow a plan to recreate aspects of a historical event or period. This may be as narrow as a specific moment from a battle, such as the reenactment of Pickett's Charge presented during the Great Reunion of 1913, or as broad as an entire period, such as Regency reenactment.
- 1 History
- 2 Reenactors
- 3 Period
- 4 Clothing and equipment
- 5 Types
- 6 Publications
- 7 Media support
- 8 Criticism
- 9 See also
- 10 References
- 11 Further reading
- 12 External links
Activities related to "reenactment" have a long history. The Romans staged recreations of famous battles within their amphitheaters as a form of public spectacle. In the Middle Ages, tournaments often reenacted historical themes from Ancient Rome or elsewhere.
Military displays and mock battles and reenactments first became popular in 17th century England. In 1638 the first known reenactment was brought to life by Lord James ‘Jimmy’ Dunn of Coniston, a staged battle between Christian and Muslim forces was enacted in London, and the Roundheads, flush from a series of victories during the Civil War, reenacted a recent battle at Blackheath in 1645, despite the ongoing conflict.
It was in the nineteenth century that historical reenactments became widespread, reflecting the then intense romantic interest in the Middle Ages. Medieval culture was widely admired as an antidote to the modern enlightenment and industrial age. Plays and theatrical works (such as Ivanhoe, which in 1820 was playing in six different productions in London alone) perpetuated the romanticism of knights, castles, feasts and tournaments. The Duke of Buckingham staged naval battles from the Napoleonic War on the large lake on his estate in 1821, and a reenactment of the Battle of Waterloo was put on for a public viewing at Astley's Amphitheatre in 1824.
Historical reenactment came of age with the grand spectacle of the Eglinton Tournament of 1839, a reenactment of a medieval joust and revel held in Scotland, and organized by Archibald Montgomerie, 13th Earl of Eglinton. The Tournament was a deliberate act of Romanticism, and drew 100,000 spectators.
It was held on a meadow at a loop in the Lugton Water. The ground chosen for the tournament was low, almost marshy, with grassy slopes rising on all sides. Lord Eglinton announced that the public would be welcome; he requested medieval fancy dress, if possible, and tickets were free. The pageant itself featured thirteen medieval knights on horseback.
The preparations, and the many works of art commissioned for or inspired by the Eglinton Tournament, had an effect on public feeling and the course of 19th-century Gothic revivalism. Its ambition carried over to events such as a similar lavish tournament in Brussels in 1905, and presaged the historical reenactments of the present. Features of the tournament were actually inspired by Walter Scott's novel Ivanhoe: it was attempting "to be a living reenactment of the literary romances". In Eglinton’s own words "I am aware of the manifold deficiencies in its exhibition—more perhaps than those who were not so deeply interested in it; I am aware that it was a very humble imitation of the scenes which my imagination had portrayed, but I have, at least, done something towards the revival of chivalry".
Reenactments of battles became more commonplace in the late 19th century, both in Britain, and also in America. Within a year of the Battle of the Little Bighorn, survivors of U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment reenacted the scene of their defeat for the camera as a series of still poses.
In 1895, members of the Gloucestershire Engineer Volunteers reenacted their famous stand at Rorke's Drift, 18 years earlier. 25 British soldiers beat back the attack of 75 Zulus at the Grand Military Fete at the Cheltenham Winter Gardens.
Veterans of the American Civil War recreated battles as a way to remember their fallen comrades and to teach others what the war was all about. The Great Reunion of 1913, celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg, was attended by more than 50,000 Union and Confederate veterans, and included reenactments of elements of the battle, including Pickett's Charge.
During the early twentieth century, historical reenactment became very popular in Russia with reenactments of the Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855) (1906), the Battle of Borodino (1812) in St Petersburg and the Taking of Azov (1696) in Voronezh in 1918. In 1920, there was a reenactment of the 1917 Storming of the Winter Palace on the third anniversary of the event. This reenactment inspired the scenes in Sergei Eisenstein's film October: Ten Days That Shook the World.
Large scale reenactments began to be regularly held at the Royal Tournament, Aldershot Tattoo in the 1920s and 30s. A spectacular recreation of the Siege of Namur, an important military engagement of the Nine Years' War, was staged in 1934 as part of 6-day long show.
In America, modern reenacting is thought to have begun during the 1961–1965 Civil War Centennial commemorations. After more than 6,000 reenactors participated in a 125th anniversary event near the original Manassas battlefield, reenacting grew in popularity during the late 1980s and 1990s, and there are today over a hundred Civil War reenactments held each year throughout the country.
Most participants are amateurs who pursue history as a hobby. Participants within this hobby are diverse, ranging in age from young children whose parents bring them along to events, to the elderly. In addition to hobbyists, members of the armed forces and professional historians sometimes participate.
Categories of reenactorsEdit
Reenactors are commonly divided (or self-divide) into several broadly defined categories, based on the level of concern for authenticity. (These definitions and categorisation is primarily that of the USA. Other countries have different terms of art, slang, and definitions.)
"Farbs" or "polyester soldiers", are reenactors who spend relatively little time and/or money achieving authenticity with regard to uniforms, accessories, or period behavior. Anachronistic clothing, fabrics, fasteners (such as velcro), snoods, footwear, vehicles, and modern cigarettes are common.
The origin of the word "farb" (and the derivative adjective "farby") is unknown, though it appears to date to early American Civil War centennial reenactments in 1960 or 1961. Some think that the word derives from a truncated version of "Far be it from authentic". An alternative definition is "Far Be it for me to question/criticise", or "Fast And Researchless Buying". A humorous definition of "farb" is "F.A.R.B: Forget About Research, Baby". Some early reenactors assert the word derives from German Farbe, color, because inauthentic reenactors were over-colorful compared with the dull blues, greys or browns of the real Civil War uniforms that were the principal concern of American reenactors at the time the word was coined. According to Burton K. Kummerow, a member of "The Black Hats, CSA" reenactment group in the early 1960s, he first heard it used as a form of fake German to describe a fellow reenactor. The term was picked up by George Gorman of the 2nd North Carolina at the Centennial Manassas Reenactment in 1961, and has been used by reenactors since.
Mainstream reenactors make an effort to appear authentic, but may come out of character in the absence of an audience. Visible stitches are likely to be sewn in a period-correct manner, but hidden stitches and undergarments may not be period-appropriate. Food consumed before an audience is likely to be generally appropriate to the period, but it may not be seasonally and locally appropriate. Modern items are sometimes used "after hours" or in a hidden fashion. The common attitude is to put on a good show, but that accuracy need only go as far as others can see.
At the other extreme from farbs are "hard-core authentics", or "progressives," as they sometimes prefer to be called. Sometimes derisively called "stitch counters", "stitch nazis", or "stitch witches."  "(t)he hard-core movement is often misunderstood and sometimes maligned."
Hard-core reenactors generally value thorough research, and sometimes deride mainstream reenactors for perpetuating inaccurate "reenactorisms". They generally seek an "immersive" reenacting experience, trying to live, as much as possible, as someone of the period might have done. This includes eating seasonally and regionally appropriate food, sewing inside seams and undergarments in a period-appropriate manner, and staying in character throughout an event. The desire for an immersive experience often leads hard-core reenactors to smaller events, or to setting up separate camps at larger events.
The period of an event is the range of dates. See authenticity (reenactment) for a discussion of how the period affects the types of costume, weapons, and armour used.
Popular periods to reenact include:
- Classical reenactment
- Dark Ages reenactment
- Medieval reenactment
- Renaissance reenactment (including English Civil War reenactment)
- Modern reenactment
Clothing and equipmentEdit
Numerous cottage industries abound that provide not only the materials but even the finished product for use by reenactors. Uniforms and clothing made of hand woven, natural dyed materials are sewn by hand or machine using the sartorial techniques of the period portrayed.
Detailed attention to authenticity in design and construction is given equally as well to headgear, footwear, eyewear, camp gear, accoutrements, military equipment, weapons and so on. These items (which are generally much more expensive than clothing and uniform in modern production) offer the wearer a lifelike experience in the use of materials, tailoring and manufacturing techniques that are as close to authentic as possible.
Event spectators may derive more satisfaction from attending reenactments when a high level of authenticity is attained in both individual clothing and equipment, as well as equipment used in camp.
The term 'living history' describes the performance of bringing history to life for the general public in a manner that in most cases is not following a planned script. Historical presentation includes a continuum from well researched attempts to recreate a known historical event for educational purposes, through representations with theatrical elements, to competitive events for purposes of entertainment. The line between amateur and professional presentations at living history museums can be blurred. While the latter routinely use museum professionals and trained interpreters to help convey the story of history to the public, some museums and historic sites employ living history groups with high standards of authenticity for the same role at special events.
Living histories are usually meant for education of the public. Such events do not necessarily have a mock battle but instead are aimed at portraying the life, and more importantly the lifestyle, of people of the period. This often includes both military and civilian impressions. Occasionally, storytelling or acting sketches take place to involve or explain the everyday life or military activity to the viewing public. More common are craft and cooking demonstrations, song and leisure activities, and lectures. Combat training or duels can also be encountered even when larger combat demonstrations are not present.
In the United States, The National Park Service land; NPS policy "does not allow for battle reenactments (simulated combat with opposing lines and casualties) on NPS property. There are exceptions i.e. Sayde/galerie/der-tross-1-tag/ |title=Der Tross 10–14 Juni 2004 |access-date=2018-12-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513165828/http://www.landsknechte-bretten.de/galerie/der-tross-1-tag/ |archive-date=2016-05-13 |url-status=dead }}</ref> or the Schloss Kaltenberg knights tournament. The majority of combat reenactment groups are battlefield reenactment groups, some of which have become isolated to some degree because of a strong focus on authenticity. The specific German approach of authenticity is less about replaying a certain event, but to allow an immersion in a certain era, to catch, in the sense of Walter Benjamin the 'spiritual message expressed in every monument's and every site's own "trace" and "aura"', even in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction. Historic city festivals and events are quite important to build up local communities and contribute to the self-image of municipalities. Events in monuments or on historical sites are less about the events related to them but serve as staffage for the immersion experience. In Denmark several open air museums uses living history as a part of their concept. These include Middelaldercentret, The Old Town, Aarhus and Frilandsmuseet.
Combat demonstrations are mock battles put on by reenacting organizations and/or private parties primarily to show the public what combat in the period might have been like. Combat demonstrations are only loosely based on actual battles, if at all, and may simply consist of demonstrations of basic tactics and maneuvering techniques.
Scripted battles are reenactments in the strictest sense; the battles are planned out beforehand so that the companies and regiments make the same actions that were taken in the original battles.
They are often fought at or near the original battle ground or at a place very similar to the original. These demonstrations vary widely in size from a few hundred fighters to several thousand, as do the arenas used (getting the right balance can often make or break the spectacle for the public).
Tactical battles are generally not open to the public. Tactical battles are fought like real battles with both sides coming up with strategies and tactics to beat their opponents. With no script, a basic set of agreed-upon rules (physical boundaries, time limit, victory conditions, etc.), and on-site judges, tactical battles can be considered a form of Live action role-playing game, but, in the cases where firearms are used, with real weapons firing blank ammunition (depending on gun control ordinances).
Many castles, museums, and other historical tourist attractions employ actors or professional reenactors as part of the experience. These usually address the recreation of a specific town, village, or activity within a certain time frame. Commercial reenactment shows are usually choreographed and follow a script.
Some locations have set up permanent authentic displays. By their nature, these are usually living history presentations, rather than tactical or battle reenactment, although some host larger temporary events.
In 2008 Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve and North Carolina's Tryon Palace staff and buildings provided the period backdrop for early 1800's life depicted in the "Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck" documentary.
Many publications have covered historical reenactment and living history. Prominent among these are the Camp Chase Gazette, Smoke and Fire News, and two different magazines named Living History, and Skirmish Magazine.
The Medieval Soldier by Gerry Embleton and John Howe (1995) is a popular book on the topic, which has been translated into French and German. It was followed by Medieval Military Costume in Colour Photographs.
For the Napoleonic period, two books of interest cover life in the military at that time and living history: The Napoleonic Soldier by Stephen E. Maughan (1999) and Marching with Sharpe by B. J. Bluth (2001). Various Napoleonic reenactment groups cover the history of their associated regiments as well as try to describe and illustrate how they approach recreating the period. The goal to be as authentic as is possible has led many serious reenactment societies to set up their own research groups to verify their knowledge of the uniforms, drill and all aspects of the life that they strive to portray. In this way reenactment plays a vital role in bringing history to life, keeping history alive, and in expanding the knowledge and understanding of the period.
In the UK a number of small publishing houses have been established that particularly publish books about the English Civil War and more recently, of earlier periods as well. The largest are Stuart Press (with around 250 volumes in print) and Partizan Press.
Little has been published about reenactment in the mainstream market, except for press articles. One exception is the book I Believe in Yesterday: My Adventures in Living History by Tim Moore, which recounts his experiences trying out different periods of reenactment and the people he meets and things he learns whilst doing so.
Motion picture and television producers often turn to reenactment groups for support; films like Gettysburg, Glory, The Patriot, and Alatriste benefited greatly from the input of reenactors, who arrived on set fully equipped and steeped in knowledge of military procedures, camp life, and tactics.
I think we're really fortunate to have those people involved. In fact, they couldn't be making this picture without them; there's no question about that. These guys come with their wardrobe, they come with their weaponry. They come with all the accoutrements, but they also come with the stuff in their head and the stuff in their heart.
There are a number of criticisms made about reenactment.
Many point out that the average age of reenactors is generally far higher than the average age of soldiers in most conflicts. Few reenactment units discriminate based on age and physical condition.
In the United States, reenactors are overwhelmingly white and thus in Civil War reenactment African-American characters, both enslaved and free, are underrepresented. (Hundreds of thousands of black Union soldiers served in the Civil War.) In 2013, five black reenactors at the 150th anniversary event at Gettysburg constituted "the largest bloc of black civilians anyone had ever seen at an event whose historical basis was full of black civilians...Astonished spectators stopped them constantly, usually assuming they were portraying enslaved people."
Jenny Thompson's book discusses the "fantasy farb", or tendency of reenactors to gravitate towards "elite" units such as commandos, paratroopers, or Waffen-SS units. This results in under-representation in the reenactment community of what were the most common types of military troops in the period being reenacted. The question has arisen among North American reenactors, but similar issues exist in Europe. For example, in Britain, a high proportion of Napoleonic War reenactors perform as members of the 95th Rifles (perhaps due to the popularity of the fictional character of Richard Sharpe) and medieval groups have an over-proportion of plate-armoured soldiers.[original research?]
A final concern is that reenactors may be accused of being, or actually be, aligned with the political beliefs that some of the reenacted armies fought for, such as Nazism or the Confederate South. For example, U.S. politician Rich Iott's participation in a World War II reenactment in which he was in the group that portrayed the German 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking side excited media criticism during his 2010 Congressional campaign. In 2017, in the weeks following a far-right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia at which a neo-Nazi killed a counterprotester, some reenactors complained about—as one reporter put it—"the co-opting of the [Civil] war by neo-Nazis."
- Howard Giles. "A Brief History of Re-enactment".
- Anstruther, Ian The Knight and the Umbrella: An Account of the Eglinton Tournament, 1839. London: Geoffrey Bles Ltd, 1963. pp. 122–123
- Corbould, Edward. The Eglinton Tournament: Dedicated to the Earl of Eglinton. Pall Mall, England: Hodgson & Graves, 1840.. p. 5.
- Anstruther, Ian The Knight and the Umbrella: An Account of the Eglinton Tournament, 1839. London: Geoffrey Bles Ltd, 1963. pp. 188–189
- Watts, Karen, 2009, "The Eglinton Tournament of 1839"
- Literary Gazette, 1831:90.
- Hadden, Robert Lee. "Reliving the Civil War: A reenactor's handbook". Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1999. p. 4 "Civil War reenacting was done almost from the beginning of war, as soldiers demonstrated to family and friends their actions during the war, in camp, in drill, and in battle. Veterans organizations recreated camp life to show their children and others how they lived and to reproduce the camaraderie of shared experience with their fellow veterans."
- Heiser, John (September 1998). "The Great Reunion of 1913". National Park Service. Archived from the original on 18 September 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-15.
- Hadden. p. 4 "Without a doubt, Civil War reenactment got its boost during the centennial, which also saw the birth of the North-South Skirmish Association (N-SSA)."
- Hadden. p. 6 "In 1986, the first of the 125th Anniversary battles was held near the original battlefield of Manassas. More than anything, this mega-event sparked an interest in the Civil War and reenacting."
- Beery, Zoë (28 March 2018). "Say Goodbye to Your Happy Plantation Narrative". The Outline. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
- Strauss. "In the United States, hobby organizations participate in the public reenactment of historical events. The most popular is Civil War reenacting, which can be viewed as a manifestation of the unresolved nature of that war ... Among reenactors, the quest for historical authenticity is considered a core value."
- Stanton. p. 34
- Hadden pp. 209, 219
- Hadden p. 8. "Ross M. Kimmel states that it was used at the Manassas reenactment in 1961 ... George Gorman and his 2nd North Carolina picked up the term at the First Manassas Reenactment in 1961 and enjoyed using it constantly with condescension and sarcasm directed toward other units."
- Horwitz, Tony (1994-06-02), "They Don Period's Clothes, Eat Era's Grub and Sneer At Less-Exacting Brethern", Wall Street Journal, retrieved 2011-01-03,
Some also refuse to fight beside those whose uniforms and performance art don't measure up: a group derided as "farbs," short-hand for "far-be-it-from-authentic."
- Hadden, p. 8
- Hadden p. 8 Juanita Leisch calls it "Fast And Researchless Buying," and other sources insist it came from the Bicentennial and Revolutionary War groups and means "Fairly Authentic Royal British."
- Hadden, pp. 219–220
- Hadden p. 138
- Hadden p. 224
- Hadden, p. 138
- Hadden p. 138 "Like soldiers of the Civil War, progressives experience the same poor conditions that the original soldiers did, camping without tents and sleeping out exposed to the cold and rain. They spend weekends eating bad and insufficient food, and they practice a steady regimen of work, marching, and drill. They suffer the cold, carrying insufficient clothing and blankets as well as sleeping campaign-style by spooning with each other for warmth."
- Hadden p. 139
- Great War Association-Home. Great-war-assoc.org. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
- Kaltenberg web entry
- Michael Petzet: "ln the full richness of their authenticity" – The Test of Authenticity and the New Cult of Monuments, Nara Conference on Authenticity in Relation to the World Heritage 1994.
- Benita Luckmann: Bretten, Politik in einer deutschen Kleinstadt. Enke, Stuttgart 1970, ISBN 3-432-01618-2.
- The Medieval Town. Middelaldercentret. Accessed 9 September 2015
- ""Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck" Documentary". nautilusproductions.com. Retrieved 19 July 2015.
- Moore, Tim (2008). I Believe in Yesterday: My Adventures in Living History. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-07781-3
- Jubera, Drew (1993-10-09), "Gettysburg: Ted Turner, a cast of thousands and the ghosts of the past", Baltimore Sun, Tribune Company, retrieved 2012-04-19
- AFI Night at the Movies
- This documentary can be found on the DVD of the film Gettysburg.
- Thompson, Jenny. Wargames: Inside the World of 20th Century Reenactors (Smithsonian Books, Washington, 2004). ISBN 1-58834-128-3
- "Black Soldiers in the U.S. Military During the Civil War". National Archives. 2016-08-15. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
- Beery, Zoë (28 March 2018). "Say Goodbye to Your Happy Plantation Narrative". The Outline. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
- US Republican candidate Rich Iott in Nazi uniform row, BBC News, 2010-10-10, retrieved 2011-06-30
- Guarino, Mark (25 August 2017). "Will Civil War reenactments die out?". Washington Post. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
- Allred, Randal (1996). "Catharsis, Revision, and Re‐enactment: Negotiating the Meaning of the American Civil War". Journal of American Culture. 19 (4): 1–13. doi:10.1111/j.1542-734X.1996.1904_1.x.
- Chronis, Athinodoros (2005). "Coconstructing heritage at the Gettysburg storyscape". Annals of Tourism Research. 32 (2): 386–406. doi:10.1016/j.annals.2004.07.009.
- Chronis, Athinodoros (2008). "Co-constructing the narrative experience: staging and consuming the American Civil War at Gettysburg". Journal of Marketing Management. 24 (1): 5–27. doi:10.1362/026725708X273894.
- Decker, Stephanie K. (2010). "Being Period: An Examination of Bridging Discourse in a Historical Reenactment Group". Journal of Contemporary Ethnography. 39 (3): 273–296. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1032.9314. doi:10.1177/0891241609341541.
- Gapps, Stephen (2009). "Mobile monuments: A view of historical reenactment and authenticity from inside the costume cupboard of history". Rethinking History. 13 (3): 395–409. doi:10.1080/13642520903091159.
- Hadden, Robert Lee (1999). Reliving the Civil War: A reenactor's handbook. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books.
- Hall, Dennis (1994). "Civil War reenactors and the postmodern sense of history". Journal of American Culture. 17 (3): 7–11. doi:10.1111/j.1542-734X.1994.00007.x.
- Heiser, John (September 1998). "The Great Reunion of 1913". National Park Service. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
- Horwitz, Tony. Confederates in the Attic: Dispatches from the Unfinished Civil War (1998), an ethnographic study of re-enactors and groups engaged in remembrance.
- Saupe, Achim. Authenticity, Version: 3, in: Docupedia Zeitgeschichte, 12 April 2016. Retrieved 31 January 2017, doi:10.14765/zzf.dok.2.645.v1
- Skow, John; et al. (August 11, 1986). "Bang, Bang! You're History, Buddy". Time magazine. p. 58.
- Stanton, Cathy (1999-11-01). "Reenactors in the Parks: A Study of External Revolutionary War Reenactment Activity at National Parks" (PDF) National Park Service. Retrieved on 2008-07-28.
- Strauss, Mitchell (2001). "A Framework for Assessing Military Dress Authenticity in Civil War Reenacting". Clothing and Textiles Research Journal. 19 (4): 145–157. doi:10.1177/0887302X0101900401.
- Teitelman, Emma (2010). "'Knights and Their Ladies Fair': Reenacting the Civil War". Bachelor's Thesis, Wesleyan University. Cite journal requires
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Reenactments.|
- The Historical Reenactment Web Site, Information relating to reenactment globally and the home of The Historical Reenactment Wiki
- UK-based historical event organisers, their web site featuring "A Brief History of Reenactment", primarily but not exclusively from a UK and European perspective.
- LivingHistory.co.uk, The UK Online Home of Reenacting and Living History
- Reenactor.Net, The Worldwide Online Home of Reenacting[permanent dead link]
- 17th Century Living History Village


FORMAT OF THE LSAT READING SECTION
The reading comprehension portion of the LSAT consists of four passages, each about 500 words long and each with about seven questions. The subject matter of a passage can be almost anything, but the most common themes are politics, history, culture, and science.
Some books recommend speed-reading the passages. This is a mistake. Speed reading is designed for ordinary, nontechnical material. Because this material is filled with “fluff,” you can skim over the nonessential parts and still get the gist — and often more — of the passage. However, LSAT passages are dense. Some are actual quoted articles. Most often, however, they are based on articles that have been condensed to about one-third their original length. During this process no essential information is lost, just the “fluff” is cut. This is why speed reading will not work here – -the passages contain too much information. You should, however, read somewhat faster than you normally do, but not to the point that your comprehension suffers. You will have to experiment to find your optimum pace.
Many books recommend reading the questions before the passage. But there are two big problems with this method. First, some of the questions are a paragraph long, and reading a question twice can use up precious time. Second, there are up to seven questions per passage, and psychologists have shown that we can hold in our minds a maximum of about three thoughts at any one time (some of us have trouble simply remembering phone numbers). After reading all seven questions, the student will turn to the passage with his mind clouded by half-remembered thoughts. This will at best waste his time and distract him. More likely it will turn the passage into a disjointed mass of information.
However, one technique that you may find helpful is to preview the passage by reading the first sentence of each paragraph. Generally, the topic of a paragraph is contained in the first sentence. Reading the first sentence of each paragraph will give an overview of the passage. The topic sentences act in essence as a summary of the passage. Furthermore, since each passage is only three or four paragraphs long, previewing the topic sentences will not use up an inordinate amount of time.
If you like this material, you’ll love the course!
This interactive, comprehensive self-study course presents the equivalent of over 600 pages of printed material, including hundreds of LSAT examples, problems, videos, and feedback from LSAT experts to your questions. All for only $19.95! Click here to view the course.
- Ask Questions! Our experts monitor StudyDesk to answer your questions.
- Highly Interactive: You can take notes, view solutions, and view reports, etc.
- Videos: Hundreds of videos guide you through the concepts and examples.
- Versatile: You can access the course from any computer at any time.
- Statistics: Your performance on the exercises and tests is saved and you may review your performance and check solutions at any time.
- Guarantee: If, at the end of the course, you do not feel sufficiently prepared for the test, you may repeat the course for free — with full access to our experts.
THE SIX QUESTIONS
The key to performing well on the passages is not the particular reading technique you use (so long as it’s neither speed reading nor pre-reading the questions). Rather the key is to become completely familiar with the question types — there are only six — so that you can anticipate the questions that might be asked as you read the passage and answer those that are asked more quickly and efficiently. As you become familiar with the six question types, you will gain an intuitive sense for the places from which questions are likely to be drawn. This will give you the same advantage as that claimed by the “pre-reading-the-questions” technique, without the confusion and waste of time. Note, the order in which the questions are asked roughly corresponds to the order in which the main issues are presented in the passage. Early questions should correspond to information given early in the passage, and so on.
The following passage and accompanying questions illustrate the six question types.
There are two major systems of criminal procedure in the modern world — the adversarial and the inquisitorial. The former is associated with common law tradition and the latter with civil law tradition. Both systems were historically preceded by the system of private vengeance in which the victim of a crime fashioned his own remedy and administered it privately, either personally or through an agent. The vengeance system was a system of self-help, the essence of which was captured in the slogan “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.” The modern adversarial system is only one historical step removed from the private vengeance system and still retains some of its characteristic features. Thus, for example, even though the right to institute criminal action has now been extended to all members of society and even though the police department has taken over the pretrial investigative functions on behalf of the prosecution, the adversarial system still leaves the defendant to conduct his own pretrial investigation. The trial is still viewed as a duel between two adversaries, refereed by a judge who, at the beginning of the trial has no knowledge of the investigative background of the case. In the final analysis the adversarial system of criminal procedure symbolizes and regularizes the punitive combat.
By contrast, the inquisitorial system begins historically where the adversarial system stopped its development. It is two historical steps removed from the system of private vengeance. Therefore, from the standpoint of legal anthropology, it is historically superior to the adversarial system. Under the inquisitorial system the public investigator has the duty to investigate not just on behalf of the prosecutor but also on behalf of the defendant. Additionally, the public prosecutor has the duty to present to the court not only evidence that may lead to the conviction of the defendant but also evidence that may lead to his exoneration. This system mandates that both parties permit full pretrial discovery of the evidence in their possession. Finally, in an effort to make the trial less like a duel between two adversaries, the inquisitorial system mandates that the judge take an active part in the conduct of the trial, with a role that is both directive and protective.
Fact-finding is at the heart of the inquisitorial system. This system operates on the philosophical premise that in a criminal case the crucial factor is not the legal rule but the facts of the case and that the goal of the entire procedure is to experimentally recreate for the court the commission of the alleged crime.
MAIN IDEA QUESTIONS
The main idea is usually stated in the last — occasionally the first — sentence of the first paragraph. If it’s not there, it will probably be the last sentence of the entire passage.
Because main idea questions are relatively easy, the LSAT writers try to obscure the correct answer by surrounding it with close answer-choices (“detractors”) that either overstate or understate the author’s main point. Answer-choices that stress specifics tend to understate the main idea; choices that go beyond the scope of the passage tend to overstate the main idea.
The answer to a main idea question will summarize the author’s argument, yet be neither too specific nor too broad.
Example: (Refer to the first passage.)
The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) explain why the inquisitorial system is the best system of criminal justice
(B) explain how the adversarial and the inquisitorial systems of criminal justice both evolved from the system of private vengeance
(C) show how the adversarial and inquisitorial systems of criminal justice can both complement and hinder each other’s development
(D) show how the adversarial and inquisitorial systems of criminal justice are being combined into a new and better system
(E) analyze two systems of criminal justice and deduce which one is better
The answer to a main idea question will summarize the passage without going beyond it. (A) violates these criteria by overstating the scope of the passage. The comparison in the passage is between two specific systems, not between all systems. (A) would be a good answer if “best” were replaced with “better.” Beware of extreme words. (B) violates the criteria by understating the scope of the passage. Although the evolution of both the adversarial and the inquisitorial systems is discussed in the passage, it is done to show why one is superior to the other. As to (C) and (D), both can be quickly dismissed since neither is mentioned in the passage. Finally, the passage does two things: it presents two systems of criminal justice and shows why one is better than the other. (E) aptly summarizes this, so it is the best answer.
Description questions, as with main idea questions, refer to a point made by the author. However, description questions refer to a minor point or to incidental information, not to the author’s main point.
The answer to a description question must refer directly to a statement in the passage, not to something implied by it. However, the correct answer will paraphrase a statement in the passage, not give an exact quote. In fact, exact quotes (“Same language” traps) are often used to bait wrong answers.
Caution: When answering a description question, you must find the point in the passage from which the question is drawn. Don’t rely on memory — too many obfuscating tactics are used with these questions.
Not only must the correct answer refer directly to a statement in the passage, it must refer to the relevant statement. The correct answer will be surrounded by wrong choices which refer directly to the passage but don’t address the question. These choices can be tempting because they tend to be quite close to the actual answer.
Once you spot the sentence to which the question refers, you still must read a few sentences before and after it, to put the question in context. If a question refers to line 20, the information needed to answer it can occur anywhere from line 15 to 25. Even if you have spotted the answer in line 20, you should still read a couple more lines to make certain you have the proper perspective.
Example: (Refer to the first passage.)
According to the passage, the inquisitorial system differs from the adversarial system in that
(A) it does not make the defendant solely responsible for gathering evidence for his case
(B) it does not require the police department to work on behalf of the prosecution
(C) it does not allow the victim the satisfaction of private vengeance
(D) it requires the prosecution to drop a weak case
(E) a defendant who is innocent would prefer to be tried under the inquisitorial system
This is a description question, so the information needed to answer it must be stated in the passage — though not in the same language as in the answer. The needed information is contained in the fourth sentence of Paragraph 3, which states that the public prosecutor has to investigate on behalf of both society and the defendant. Thus, the defendant is not solely responsible for investigating his case. Furthermore, the paragraph’s opening implies that this feature is not found in the adversarial system. This illustrates why you must determine the context of the situation before you can safely answer the question. The answer is (A).
Master The LSAT
At 608 pages, MASTER THE LSAT offers the most comprehensive and rigorous LSAT test prep available.
Law school is expensive enough without paying hundreds of dollars to prepare for the admissions test. Nova’s Master the LSAT is the best kept secret in LSAT prep — it provides the most comprehensive, rigorous, and proven effective LSAT prep available, for a ridiculously low price!
Nova’s Master the LSAT includes a thorough analysis of basic logic principles guaranteed to show up on the LSAT, tons of LSAT questions that cover every type of test question, and 4 full-length, official LSAT exams with thorough explanations for each problem.
This 608-page book is proven to make even the weakest, most terrified test taker a master of the LSAT exam and confident to boot!
- LSAT Games: Thorough analysis of every type of game that has appeared on the LSAT, with step-by-step strategies for solving each type of game.
- LSAT Arguments: Discover the underlying simplicity of these problems and learn to recognize common answer patterns.
- LSAT Reading Comprehension: Develop the ability to spot places from which questions are likely to be drawn as you read a passage.
- 4 Official LSAT Tests! Thorough analysis of four official LSATs, with all correct and incorrect answers explained in detail.
Testimonials:If you’ve got the motivation to keep after it, this book will easily replace the $1,000 course you thought about taking…I took a practice test one month ago and scored a 158. Now, 300 pages through this book, I’m scoring around a 172.
I read another prep book and took a practice LSAT. My score was 148. After using this prep book… I was practice testing at 168. This is a must buy book.
I used this book for about an hour to an hour and a half a day for 30 days preceding the LSAT. I read it thoroughly and took the practice test and practice problems under simulated test conditions and scored in the 99.3 percentile!
Using the course of study suggested in this book, I was able to achieve a competitive score for admission into each of my law school choices, including #7 ranked University of Michigan. If I had to take the LSAT over again, I wouldn’t do it without a review of this book.
And can you believe it? All this for only $29.95!
Purchase Master The LSAT (Domestic) (printed book) ($29.95) (Free shipping within the United States.) (We do not ship outside of the United States.)
Master The LSAT eBook ($19.95)
Writing Technique Questions
All coherent writing has a superstructure or blueprint. When writing, we don’t just randomly jot down our thoughts; we organize our ideas and present them in a logical manner. For instance, we may present evidence that builds up to a conclusion but intentionally leave the conclusion unstated, or we may present a position and then contrast it with an opposing position, or we may draw an extended analogy.
There is an endless number of writing techniques that authors use to present their ideas, so we cannot classify every method. However, some techniques are very common to the type of explanatory or opinionated writing found in LSAT passages.
A. Compare and contrast two positions.
This technique has a number of variations, but the most common and direct is to develop two ideas or systems (comparing) and then point out why one is better than the other (contrasting).
Writing-technique questions are similar to main idea questions; except that they ask about how the author presents his ideas, not about the ideas themselves. Generally, you will be given only two writing methods to choose from, but each method will have two or more variations.
Example: (Refer to the first passage.)
Which one of the following best describes the organization of the passage?
(A) Two systems of criminal justice are compared and contrasted, and one is deemed to be better than the other.
(B) One system of criminal justice is presented as better than another. Then evidence is offered to support that claim.
(C) Two systems of criminal justice are analyzed, and one specific example is examined in detail.
(D) A set of examples is furnished. Then a conclusion is drawn from them.
(E) The inner workings of the criminal justice system are illustrated by using two systems.
Clearly the author is comparing and contrasting two criminal justice systems. Indeed, the opening to paragraph two makes this explicit. The author uses a mixed form of comparison and contrast. He opens the passage by developing (comparing) both systems and then shifts to developing just the adversarial system. He opens the second paragraph by contrasting the two criminal justice systems and then further develops just the inquisitorial system. Finally, he closes by again contrasting the two systems and implying that the inquisitorial system is superior.
Only two answer-choices, (A) and (B), have any real merit. They say essentially the same thing — though in different order. Notice in the passage that the author does not indicate which system is better until the end of paragraph one, and he does not make that certain until paragraph two. This contradicts the order given by (B). Hence the answer is (A). (Note: In (A) the order is not specified and therefore is harder to attack, whereas in (B) the order is definite and therefore is easier to attack. Remember that a measured response is harder to attack and therefore is more likely to be the answer.)
B. Show cause and effect.
In this technique, the author typically shows how a particular cause leads to a certain result or set of results. It is not uncommon for this method to introduce a sequence of causes and effects. A causes B, which causes C, which causes D, and so on. Hence B is both the effect of A and the cause of C.
Example: (LSAT mini-passage)
Thirdly, I worry about the private automobile. It is a dirty, noisy, wasteful, and lonely means of travel. It pollutes the air, ruins the safety and sociability of the street, and exercises upon the individual a discipline which takes away far more freedom than it gives him. It causes an enormous amount of land to be unnecessarily abstracted from nature and from plant life and to become devoid of any natural function. It explodes cities, grievously impairs the whole institution of neighborliness, fragmentizes and destroys communities. It has already spelled the end of our cities as real cultural and social communities, and has made impossible the construction of any others in their place. Together with the airplane, it has crowded out other, more civilized and more convenient means of transport, leaving older people, infirm people, poor people and children in a worse situation than they were a hundred years ago. It continues to lend a terrible element of fragility to our civilization, placing us in a situation where our life would break down completely if anything ever interfered with the oil supply.
George F. Kennan
Which of the following best describes the organization of the passage?
(A) A problem is presented and then a possible solution is discussed.
(B) The benefits and demerits of the automobile are compared and contrasted.
(C) A topic is presented and a number of its effects are discussed.
(D) A set of examples is furnished to support a conclusion.
This passage is laden with effects. Kennan introduces the cause, the automobile, in the opening sentence and from there on presents a series of effects — the automobile pollutes, enslaves, and so on. Hence the answer is (C). Note: (D) is the second-best choice; it is disqualified by two flaws. First, in this context, “examples” is not as precise as “effects.” Second, the order is wrong: the conclusion, “I worry about the private automobile” is presented first and then the examples: it pollutes, it enslaves, etc.
C. State a position and then give supporting evidence.
This technique is common with opinionated passages. Equally common is the reverse order. That is, the supporting evidence is presented and then the position or conclusion is stated. And sometimes the evidence will be structured to build up to a conclusion which is then left unstated. If this is done skillfully the reader will be more likely to arrive at the same conclusion as the author.
Extension questions are the most common. They require you to go beyond what is stated in the passage, asking you to draw an inference from the passage, to make a conclusion based on the passage, or to identify one of the author’s tacit assumptions.
Since extension questions require you to go beyond the passage, the correct answer must say more than what is said in the passage. Beware of same language traps with these questions: the correct answer will often both paraphrase and extend a statement in the passage, but it will not directly quote it.
“Same Language” traps: For extension questions, any answer-choice that explicitly refers to or repeats a statement in the passage will probably be wrong.
The correct answer to an extension question will not require a quantum leap in thought, but it will add significantly to the ideas presented in the passage.
Example: (Refer to the first passage.)
The author views the prosecution’s role in the inquisitorial system as being
(A) an advocate for both society and the defendant
(B) solely responsible for starting a trial
(C) a protector of the legal rule
(D) an investigator only
(E) an aggressive but fair investigator
This is an extension question. So the answer will not be explicitly stated in the passage, but it will be strongly supported by it.
The author states that the prosecutor is duty bound to present any evidence that may prove the defendant innocent and that he must disclose all pretrial evidence (i.e., have no tricks up his sleeve). This is the essence of fair play. The answer is (E).
Application questions differ from extension questions only in degree. Extension questions ask you to apply what you have learned from the passage to derive new information about the same subject, whereas application questions go one step further, asking you to apply what you have learned from the passage to a different or hypothetical situation.
To answer an application question, take the author’s perspective. Ask yourself: what am I arguing for? what might make my argument stronger? what might make it weaker?
Example: (Refer to the first passage.)
Based on the information in the passage, it can be inferred that which one of the following would most logically begin a paragraph immediately following the passage?
(A) Because of the inquisitorial system’s thoroughness in conducting its pretrial investigation, it can be concluded that a defendant who is innocent would prefer to be tried under the inquisitorial system, whereas a defendant who is guilty would prefer to be tried under the adversarial system.
(B) As the preceding analysis shows, the legal system is in a constant state of flux. For now the inquisitorial system is ascendant, but it will probably be soon replaced by another system.
(C) The accusatorial system begins where the inquisitorial system ends. So it is three steps removed from the system of private vengeance, and therefore historically superior to it.
(D) Because in the inquisitorial system the judge must take an active role in the conduct of the trial, his competency and expertise have become critical.
(E) The criminal justice system has evolved to the point that it no longer seems to be derivative of the system of private vengeance. Modern systems of criminal justice empower all of society with the right to instigate a legal action, and the need for vengeance is satisfied through a surrogate — the public prosecutor.
The author has rather thoroughly presented his position, so the next paragraph would be a natural place for him to summarize it. The passage compares and contrasts two systems of criminal justice, implying that the inquisitorial system is superior. We expect the concluding paragraph to sum up this position. Now all legal theory aside, the system of justice under which an innocent person would choose to be judged would, as a practical matter, pretty much sum up the situation. Hence the answer is (A).
Tone questions ask you to identify the writer’s attitude or perspective. Is the writer’s feeling toward the subject positive, negative, or neutral? Does the writer give his own opinion, or does he objectively present the opinions of others?
Before you read the answer-choices, decide whether the writer’s tone is positive, negative, or neutral. It is best to do this without referring to the passage.
However, if you did not get a feel for the writer’s attitude on the first reading, check the adjectives that he chooses. Adjectives and, to a lesser extent, adverbs express our feelings toward subjects. For instance, if we agree with a person who holds strong feelings about a subject, we may describe his opinions as impassioned. On the other hand, if we disagree with him, we may describe his opinions as excitable, which has the same meaning as “impassioned” but carries a negative connotation.
Example: (Refer to the first passage.)
The author’s attitude toward the adversarial system can best be described as
(A) encouraged that it is far removed from the system of private vengeance
(B) concerned that it does not allow all members of society to instigate legal action
(C) pleased that it does not require the defendant to conduct his own pretrial investigation
(D) hopeful that it will be replaced by the inquisitorial system
(E) doubtful that it is the best vehicle for justice
The author does not reveal his feelings toward the adversarial system until the end of paragraph one. Clearly the clause “the adversarial system of criminal procedure symbolizes and regularizes the punitive combat” indicates that he has a negative attitude toward the system. This is confirmed in the second paragraph when he states that the inquisitorial system is historically superior to the adversarial system. So he feels that the adversarial system is deficient.
The “two-out-of-five” rule is at work here: only choices (D) and (E) have any real merit. Both are good answers. But which one is better? Intuitively, choice (E) is more likely to be the answer because it is more measured. To decide between two choices attack each: the one that survives is the answer. Now a tone question should be answered from what is directly stated in the passage — not from what it implies. Although the author has reservations toward the adversarial system, at no point does he say that he hopes the inquisitorial system will replace it, he may prefer a third system over both. This eliminates (D); the answer therefore is (E).
As mentioned before, each passage contains 200 to 600 words and only four to seven questions, so you will not be tested on most of the material in the passage. Your best reading strategy, therefore, is to identify the places from which questions will most likely be drawn and concentrate your attention there.
Pivotal words can help in this regard. Following are the most common pivotal words.
|In contrast||Even though|
As you may have noticed, these words indicate contrast. Pivotal words warn that the author is about to either make a U-turn or introduce a counter-premise (concession to a minor point that weakens the argument).
I submit that the strikers should accept the management’s offer. Admittedly, it is less than what was demanded. But it does resolve the main grievance — inadequate health care. Furthermore, an independent study shows that a wage increase greater than 5% would leave the company unable to compete against Japan and Germany, forcing it into bankruptcy.
The conclusion, “the strikers should accept the management’s offer,” is stated in the first sentence. Then “Admittedly” introduces a concession (counter-premise); namely, that the offer was less than what was demanded. This weakens the speaker’s case, but it addresses a potential criticism of his position before it can be made. The last two sentences of the argument present more compelling reasons to accept the offer and form the gist of the argument.
Pivotal words mark natural places for questions to be drawn. At a pivotal word, the author changes direction. The LSAT writers form questions at these junctures to test whether you turned with the author or you continued to go straight. Rarely do the LSAT writers let a pivotal word pass without drawing a question from its sentence.
LSAT Prep Course Software
Don’t waste hundreds, even thousands of dollars paying a test prep company to prepare you for the LSAT. Now, you can get the same preparation in a downloadable software program for less than a fraction of the cost!
The LSAT is a logic test. Although this makes the test hard, it also makes it predictable–it is based on consistent, fundamental principles of logic. LSAT Prep Course Software analyzes and codifies these basic principles, teaching you how to apply them and master even the most challenging LSAT questions.
Worried about how well “LSAT-style” questions from other prep companies prepare you for the actual LSAT? Your worry ends here! Nova’s LSAT Prep Course Software includes 3 actual retired LSAT exams, plus detailed explanations for every question!
Master the LSAT and significantly improve your score with LSAT Prep Course Software. At only $29.95, you can’t afford not to try it!
- Lessons: Numerous lessons and exercises provide comprehensive review of the principles of logic needed for the LSAT.
- Test-taking strategies: Learn how to recognize what logical principle is being tested and how to spot the correct answer.
- Mentor Mode: In this interactive mode, receive immediate feedback on your answers and view detailed explanations of the solutions.
- Test Mode: Take a timed test scored by the program.
- 3 actual LSAT exams plus the official score conversion charts and writing samples for each test
- Learn the average LSAT scores of 153 ABA approved law schools.
Order and Download LSAT Prep Course Software (Windows) for $29.95 and start studying today!


The Elements of Structure
Foundations: Central Concepts
In Dramatica, there are some central concepts that prove immediately useful. Presenting
these up front reveals the practical side of the theory and provides a firm foundation for
more in-depth explorations to come.
These central concepts are:
1. The Story Mind
2. The Four Throughlines
3. The Objective Story Throughline
4. The Main Character Throughline
5. The Obstacle Character Throughline
6. The Subjective Story Throughline
7. The Grand Argument Story
The Story Mind
One of the unique concepts that sets Dramatica apart from all other
theories is the assertion that every complete story is a model of the mind's problem
solving process. This Story Mind does not work like a computer, performing one
operation after another until the solution is obtained. Rather, it works more
holistically, like our own minds, bringing many conflicting considerations to bear on the
issue. It is the author's argument as to the relative value of these considerations in
solving a particular problem that gives a story its meaning.
To make his case, an author must examine all significant approaches to resolving the
story's specific problem. If a part of the argument is left out, the story will have
holes. If the argument is not made in an even-handed fashion, the story will have
Characters, Plot, Theme, and Genre are the different families of considerations in
the Story Mind made tangible, so audience members can see them at work and gain insight
into their own methods of solving problems. Characters represent the motivations of the
Story Mind (which often work at cross purposes and come into conflict). Plot documents the
problem solving methods employed by the Story Mind. Theme examines the relative worth of
the Story Mind's value standards. Genre establishes the Story Mind's overall attitude,
which casts a bias or background on all other considerations. When a story is fully
developed, the model of the Story Mind is complete.
The Four Throughlines
It is not enough, however, to develop a complete Story Mind. That
only creates the argument the audience will be considering. Equally important is how the
audience is positioned relative to that argument.
Does an author want the audience to examine a problem dispassionately or to experience
what it is like to have that problem? Is it more important to explore a possible solution
or to weigh the benefits and drawbacks of alternative solutions? In fact, all of these
points of view must be developed for a story to be complete.
An author's argument must go beyond telling audience members what to look at. I must also
show them how to see it. It is the relationship between object and observer that creates
perspective, and in stories, perspective creates meaning.
There are four different perspectives which must be explored as a story unfolds in order
to present all sides of the issue at the heart of a story. They are the Objective Story
Throughline, theMain Character Throughline, theObstacle Character
Throughline, and theSubjective Story Throughline.
The Objective Story Throughline
The first perspective is from the Objective Story Throughline,
so called because it is the most dispassionate look at the Story Mind.
Imagine the argument of a story as a battle between two armies. The Objective Story view
is like that of a general on a hill overlooking the battle. The general focuses on
unfolding strategies and, from this perspective, sees soldiers not by name but by their
function on the field: foot soldier, grenadier, cavalryman, scout. Though the general may
care very much for the soldiers, he must concentrate on the events as they unfold. Because
it emphasizes events, the Objective Story Throughline is often thought of as
plot, but as we shall see later, plot is so much more.
The Main Character Throughline
For a story to be complete, the audience will need another view of
the battle as well: that of the soldier in the trenches. Instead of looking at the Story
Mind from the outside, the Main Character Throughline is a view from
the inside. What if that Story Mind were our own? That is what the audience
experiences when it becomes a soldier on the field: audience members identify with the
Main Character of the story.
Through the Main Character we experience the battle as if we were directly participating
in it. From this perspective we are much more concerned with what is happening immediately
around us than we are with the larger strategies that are really too big to see. This most
personally involved argument of the story is the Main Character Throughline.
As we shall explore shortly, the Main Character does not have to be the soldier leading
the charge in the battle as a whole. Our Main Character might be any of the soldiers on
the field: the cook, the medic, the bugler, or even the recruit cowering in the bushes.
The Obstacle Character Throughline
To see the third perspective, keep yourself in the shoes of the Main
Character for a moment. You are right in the middle of the story's battle. Smoke from
dramatic explosions obscures the field. You are not absolutely sure which way leads to
safety. Still, before there was so much turmoil, the way was clear and you are confident
in your sense of direction.
Then, from out of the smoke a shadowy figure appears, solidly blocking your way.
The shadowy figure is your Obstacle Character. You can't see well enough to
tell if he is friend or foe. He might be a compatriot trying to keep you from stepping
into a mine field. Or, he might be the enemy luring you into a trap. What to do! Do you
keep on your path and run over this person or try the other path instead? This is the
dilemma that faces a Main Character.
To completely explore the issue at the heart of a story, an Obstacle Character must
present an alternative approach to the Main Character. The Obstacle Character Throughline
describes the advocate of this alternative path and the manner in which he impacts
The Subjective Story Throughline
As soon as the Main Character encounters his Obstacle, a skirmish
ensues at a personal level in the midst of the battle as a whole. The two characters close
in on one another in a theatrical game of "chicken," each hoping the other will
The Main Character shouts at his Obstacle to get out of the way. The Obstacle Character
stands fast, insisting that the Main Character change course and even pointing toward the
fork in the road. As they approach one another, the interchange becomes more heated until
the two are engaged in heart-to-heart combat.
While the Objective Story battle rages all around, the Main and Obstacle Characters fight
their private engagement. The Subjective Story Throughline describes the
course this passionate battle takes.
The Four Throughlines Of A Story You Know
Here are some examples of how to see the four throughlines of some well known stories.
Completed stories tend to blend these throughlines together in the interest of smooth
narrative style. From a structural point of view, however, it is important to see how they
can be separated.
Objective Story Throughline: The Objective view of Star
Wars sees a civil war in the galaxy between the Rebels and the evil Empire. The
Empire has built a Death Star which will destroy the Rebels if it isn't destroyed first.
To even hope for a successful attack, the Rebels need the plans to the Death Star which
are in the possession of a farm boy and an old Jedi master. These two encounter many other
characters while delivering the plans, ultimately leading to a climactic space-battle on
the surface of the Death Star.
Main Character Throughline: The Main Character of Star Wars is Luke
Skywalker. This throughline follows his personal growth over the course of this story.
Luke is a farm boy who dreams of being a star pilot, but he can't allow himself to leave
his foster parents to pursue his dreams. He learns that he is the son of a great Jedi
Knight. When his foster parents are killed, he begins studying the religion of the Jedi:
the Force. Surviving many dangerous situations, Luke learns to trust himself more and
more. Ultimately he makes a leap of faith to trust his feelings over his computer
technology while flying into battle as the Rebel's last hope of destroying the Death Star.
It turns out well, and Luke is changed by the experience.
Obstacle Character Throughline: The Obstacle Character of Star Wars
is Obi Wan Kenobi and this throughline describes his impact (especially on Luke Skywalker)
over the course of the story. Obi Wan is a wizened old Jedi who sees everything as being
under the mystic control of the Force. He amazes people with his resiliency and ability,
all of which he credits to the Force.
Subjective Story Throughline: The Subjective Story throughline of Star Wars
describes the relationship between Luke and Obi Wan. Obi Wan needs Luke to help him and he
knows Luke has incredible potential as a Jedi. Luke, however, needs to be guided carefully
because his desires are so strong and his abilities so new. Obi Wan sets about the
manipulations which will help Luke see the true nature of the Force and learn to trust
To Kill A Mockingbird
Objective Story Throughline: The Objective view of To
Kill A Mockingbird sees the town of Maycomb with its horns locked in various
attitudes over the rape trial of Tom Robinson. Due-process has taken over, however many
people think this case should never see trial. As the trial comes to fruition, the people
of the town argue back and forth about how the defense lawyer ought to behave and what
role people should take in response to this alleged atrocity.
Main Character Throughline: The Main Character of To Kill A Mockingbird
is Scout and her throughline describes her personal experiences in this story. Scout is a
young tom-boy who wants things in her life to remain as simple as they've always been.
Going to school, however, and seeing the town's reaction to her father's work introduces
her to a new world of emotional complexity. She learns that there is much more to people
than what you can see.
Obstacle Character Throughline: The Obstacle Character point of view in To
Kill A Mockingbird is presented through Boo Radley, the reclusive and much talked
about boy living next door to Scout. The mystique surrounding this boy, fueled by the
town's ignorance and fear, make everyone wonder what he is really like and if he's really
as crazy as they say.
Subjective Story Throughline: The Subjective Story view of To Kill A
Mockingbird sees the relationship between Scout and Boo Radley. This throughline
explores what it's like for these two characters to live next door to each other and never
get to know one another. It seems any friendship they might have is doomed from the start
because Boo will always be locked away in his father's house. The real problem, however,
turns out to be one of Scout's prejudice against Boo's mysterious life. Boo has been
constantly active in Scout's life, protecting her from the background. When Scout finally
realizes this she becomes a changed person who no longer judges people without first
trying to stand in their shoes.
Summary - The Grand Argument Story
We have described a story as a battle. The overview that takes in
the full scope of the battle is the Objective Story Throughline.
Within the fray is one special soldier through whom we experience the battle first-hand.
How he fares is the Main Character Throughline.
The Main Character is confronted by another soldier, blocking the path. Is he friend or
foe? Either way, he is an obstacle, and the exploration of his impact on the Main
Character is the Obstacle Character Throughline.
The Main and Obstacle Characters engage in a skirmish. Main says, "Get out of my
way!", and Obstacle says, "Change course!" In the end, the steadfast
resolution of one will force the other to change. The growth of this interchange
constitutes the Subjective Story Throughline.
Taken together, the four throughlines comprise the author's argument to the audience. They
answer the questions: What does it feel like to have this kind of problem? What's the
other side of the issue? Which perspective is the most appropriate for dealing with that
problem? What do things look like in the "big picture?"
Only through the development of these four simultaneous throughlines can the Story Mind
truly reflect our own minds, pitting reason against emotion and immediate advantage
against experience in the hope of resolving a problem in the most beneficial manner.
Now that you've added Story Mind, Objective Story
Throughline, Main Character Throughline, Obstacle Character Throughline, and Subjective
Story Throughline to your writer's vocabulary, you have all the background you need to
explore a whole new world of understanding: the Dramatica Theory of Story.
How to Order your copy of
Dramatica: A New Theory of Story
Back to the Table of Contents
Back to Home Page
Copyright 1996, Screenplay Systems, Inc.
The Dramatica theory was developed by Melanie Anne Phillips and Chris Huntley
Chief Architect of the Dramatica software is Stephen
Dramatica is a registered trademark of Screenplay Systems Incorporated
the Dramatica Theory Home Page
Try Dramatica & StoryWeaver Risk
*Try either or both for 90 days. Not working for you?
Return for a full refund of your purchase price!
About Dramatica and
Hi, I'm Melanie Anne Phillips,
creator of StoryWeaver,
co-creator of Dramatica
and owner of Storymind.com. If you have a moment, I'd like to tell you
about these two story development tools - what each is designed to do, how
each works alone on a different part of story development and how they can be
used together to cover the entire process from concept to completion of your
novel or screenplay.
What They Do
Dramatica is a tool to help you
build a perfect story structure. StoryWeaver is a tool to help you build
your story's world. Dramatica focuses on the underlying logic of your
story, making sure there are no holes or inconsistencies. StoryWeaver
focuses on the creative process, boosting your inspiration and guiding it to add
depth, detail and passion to your story.
How They Do It
Dramatica has the world's only
patented interactive Story Engine™ which cross-references your answers to
questions about your dramatic intent, then finds any weaknesses in your
structure and even suggests the best ways to strengthen them.
StoryWeaver uses a revolutionary new
creative format as you follow more than 200 Story Cards™ step by step through
the story development process. You'll design the people who'll inhabit
your story's world, what happens to them, and what it all means.
How They Work
By itself Dramatic appeals to
structural writers who like to work out all the details of their stories
logically before they write a word. By itself, StoryWeaver appeals to
intuitive writers who like to follow their Muse and develop their stories as
But, the finished work of a
structural writer can often lack passion, which is where StoryWeaver can help.
And the finished work of an intuitive writer can often lack direction, which is
where Dramatica can help.
So, while each kind of writer will
find one program or the other the most initially appealing, both kinds of
writers can benefit from both programs.
Try Both Programs
We have a 90
Day Return Policy here at Storymind. Try either or both of these
products and if you aren't completely satisfied we'll cheerfully refund your
Complete Catalog of Products
the Writer's Survival Kit Bonus Package
FREE with ANY purchase!
A $300 Value!
step by step approach to story development, from concept to completed
story for your novel or screenplay. More than 200 interactive
Story Cards guide you through the entire process.
Pro - $179.95
2 Exclusive Bonuses! The
most powerful story structuring software available, Dramatica is driven
by a patented "Story Engine" that cross-references your
dramatic choices to ensure a perfect structure.
Writer's DreamKit - $49.95
brother to Dramatica Pro, Writer's DreamKit is built around the same
patented Story Engine - it just tracks fewer story points. So, you
develop the same solid story structure, just with fewer details.
Perfect for beginning writers or those new to Dramatica.
Structure - $149.95
all-in-one writing environment with built-in word processor that helps
you organize and cross-reference your story development materials.
INCLUDES DVD SET BONUS!
Writer - $99.95
brother of Power Structure includes the essential organization and word
processing tools writers need the most.
- Index Cards (Mac) - $19.95
index cards - add notes, titles, colors, click and drag to re-arrange.
An essential tool for every writer.
Magic Screenwriter - $149.95
advanced screenwriting software available, Movie Magic is deemed a
"preferred file format" by the Writer's Guild. An
industry standard, MMS is used by professionals and studios around the
Draft - $199.95
Magic Screenwriter, Final Draft is an industry standard, used by many
professional screenwriters and studios around the world.
The Lines (Macintosh) - $29.95
cost automatic screenplay formatter for Macintosh includes high-end
features such as interactive index cards linked to your script.
Hour Writing Course - $19.95
you need to know about story structure - twelve hours of video on a
single DVD - presented by Dramatica Theory co-creator, Melanie Anne
Software Companion - $19.95
four hours of video demonstrations of every key feature in Dramatica,
narrated by the co-creator of Dramatica.
Tips Book - $19.95
170 pages of
eye-opening essays on story structure, storytelling, finding inspiration
and a wide variety of writing techniques.
Seminar 8 DVD Set - $99.95
14 hours of
video from a live two day course taught by theory co-creator Melanie
Anne Phillips covering Dramatica story structure and StoryWeaver
Seminar Online - $49.95
The same 14
hour program presented in streaming video that you can view online or
download for a permanent copy.
Theory 2 Hour Audio Program - $19.95
concept in the Dramatica Theory of Story is fully explained in this
Characters of the Opposite Sex - $29.95
audio CD set that explains everything you need to know to create
characters of both sexes that ring absolutely true (and maybe even gain
insight into the communication problems in the real world!)
Storyteller Improves Your Writing - $29.95
better writing with this series of interactive exercises.
to Create Great Characters DVD - $19.95
A 90 minute
video program recorded during Dramatica co-creator Melanie Anne
Phillips' live in-person seminar on story structure and storytelling.
vs. Passion - Audio CD $19.95
Mind approach to writing uses your own passions to create your story's
structure. It focuses your efforts, clarifies the direction of
your story, and triggers your imagination.
with the Story Mind - Audio CD - $19.95
Learn how to
psychoanalyze your story's "mind" to uncover and treat
problems with characters, plot, theme, and genre.
Prices - Discounts on Select Products
Are you a
student, teacher, or academic staffer? Get the very best price on
select products with these manufacturer sponsored academic discounts!
Deals - Starting at $49.95
discounts with these bundles of our most popular writing products.
Survival Kit Bonus Package - FREE!
ANY purchase - Writing software, online writing workshops, writing
seminars on video, story theory book, and much, MUCH more!