Hypertext is text displayed on a computer display or other electronic devices with references (hyperlinks) to other text that the reader can immediately access. Hypertext documents are interconnected by hyperlinks, which are typically activated by a mouse click, keypress set, or screen touch. Apart from text, the term "hypertext" is also sometimes used to describe tables, images, and other presentational content formats with integrated hyperlinks. Hypertext is one of the key underlying concepts of the World Wide Web, where Web pages are often written in the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). As implemented on the Web, hypertext enables the easy-to-use publication of information over the Internet.
"(...)'Hypertext' is a recent coinage. 'Hyper-' is used in the mathematical sense of extension and generality (as in 'hyperspace,' 'hypercube') rather than the medical sense of 'excessive' ('hyperactivity'). There is no implication about size— a hypertext could contain only 500 words or so. 'Hyper-' refers to structure and not size."— Theodor H. Nelson, Brief Words on the Hypertext, 23 January 1967
The English prefix "hyper-" comes from the Greek prefix "ὑπερ-" and means "over" or "beyond"; it has a common origin with the prefix "super-" which comes from Latin. It signifies the overcoming of the previous linear constraints of written text.
The term "hypertext" is often used where the term "hypermedia" might seem appropriate.
In 1992, author Ted Nelson – who coined both terms in 1963 – wrote:
By now the word "hypertext" has become generally accepted for branching and responding text, but the corresponding word "hypermedia", meaning complexes of branching and responding graphics, movies and sound – as well as text – is much less used. Instead they use the strange term "interactive multimedia": this is four syllables longer, and does not express the idea of extending hypertext.— Nelson, Literary Machines, 1992
Types and uses of hypertext
Hypertext documents can either be static (prepared and stored in advance) or dynamic (continually changing in response to user input, such as dynamic web pages). Static hypertext can be used to cross-reference collections of data in documents, software applications, or books on CDs. A well-constructed system can also incorporate other user-interface conventions, such as menus and command lines. Links used in a hypertext document usually replace the current piece of hypertext with the destination document. A lesser known feature is StretchText, which expands or contracts the content in place, thereby giving more control to the reader in determining the level of detail of the displayed document. Some implementations support transclusion, where text or other content is included by reference and automatically rendered in place.
Hypertext can be used to support very complex and dynamic systems of linking and cross-referencing. The most famous implementation of hypertext is the World Wide Web, written in the final months of 1990 and released on the Internet in 1991.
In 1941, Jorge Luis Borges published "The Garden of Forking Paths", a short story that is often considered an inspiration for the concept of hypertext.
In 1945, Vannevar Bush wrote an article in The Atlantic Monthly called "As We May Think", about a futuristic proto-hypertext device he called a Memex. A Memex would hypothetically store — and record — content on reels of microfilm, using electric photocells to read coded symbols recorded next to individual microfilm frames while the reels spun at high speed, and stopping on command. The coded symbols would enable the Memex to index, search, and link content to create and follow associative trails. Because the Memex was never implemented and could only link content in a relatively crude fashion — by creating chains of entire microfilm frames — the Memex is now regarded only as a proto-hypertext device, but it is fundamental to the history of hypertext because it directly inspired the invention of hypertext by Ted Nelson and Douglas Engelbart.
In 1963, Ted Nelson coined the terms 'hypertext' and 'hypermedia' as part of a model he developed for creating and using linked content (first published reference 1965). He later worked with Andries van Dam to develop the Hypertext Editing System (text editing) in 1967 at Brown University. It was implemented using the terminal IBM 2250 with a light pen which was provided as a pointing device. By 1976, its successor FRESS was used in a poetry class in which students could browse a hyperlinked set of poems and discussion by experts, faculty and other students, in what was arguably the world's first online scholarly community which van Dam says "foreshadowed wikis, blogs and communal documents of all kinds". Ted Nelson said in the 1960s that he began implementation of a hypertext system he theorized, which was named Project Xanadu, but his first and incomplete public release was finished much later, in 1998.
Douglas Engelbart independently began working on his NLS system in 1962 at Stanford Research Institute, although delays in obtaining funding, personnel, and equipment meant that its key features were not completed until 1968. In December of that year, Engelbart demonstrated a 'hypertext' (meaning editing) interface to the public for the first time, in what has come to be known as "The Mother of All Demos".
ZOG, an early hypertext system, was developed at Carnegie Mellon University during the 1970s, used for documents on Nimitz class aircraft carriers, and later evolving as KMS (Knowledge Management System).
The first hypermedia application is generally considered to be the Aspen Movie Map, implemented in 1978. The Movie Map allowed users to arbitrarily choose which way they wished to drive in a virtual cityscape, in two seasons (from actual photographs) as well as 3-D polygons.
In 1980, Tim Berners-Lee created ENQUIRE, an early hypertext database system somewhat like a wiki but without hypertext punctuation, which was not invented until 1987. The early 1980s also saw a number of experimental "hyperediting" functions in word processors and hypermedia programs, many of whose features and terminology were later analogous to the World Wide Web. Guide, the first significant hypertext system for personal computers, was developed by Peter J. Brown at the University of Kent in 1982.
In 1980, Roberto Busa, an Italian Jesuit priest and one of the pioneers in the usage of computers for linguistic and literary analysis, published the Index Thomisticus, as a tool for performing text searches within the massive corpus of Aquinas's works. Sponsored by the founder of IBM, Thomas J. Watson, the project lasted about 30 years (1949-1980), and eventually produced the 56 printed volumes of the Index Thomisticus the first important hypertext work about Saint Thomas Aquinas books and of a few related authors.
In 1983, Ben Shneiderman at the University of Maryland Human - Computer Interaction Lab led a group that developed the HyperTies system that was commercialized by Cognetics Corporation. Hyperties was used to create the July 1988 issue of the Communications of the ACM as a hypertext document and then the first commercial electronic book Hypertext Hands-On!
In August 1987, Apple Computer released HyperCard for the Macintosh line at the MacWorld convention. Its impact, combined with interest in Peter J. Brown's GUIDE (marketed by OWL and released earlier that year) and Brown University's Intermedia, led to broad interest in and enthusiasm for hypertext, hypermedia, databases, and new media in general. The first ACM Hypertext (hyperediting and databases) academic conference took place in November 1987, in Chapel Hill NC, where many other applications, including the branched literature writing software Storyspace, were also demonstrated.
Meanwhile, Nelson (who had been working on and advocating his Xanadu system for over two decades) convinced Autodesk to invest in his revolutionary ideas. The project continued at Autodesk for four years, but no product was released.
In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee, then a scientist at CERN, proposed and later prototyped a new hypertext project in response to a request for a simple, immediate, information-sharing facility, to be used among physicists working at CERN and other academic institutions. He called the project "WorldWideWeb".
HyperText is a way to link and access information of various kinds as a web of nodes in which the user can browse at will. Potentially, HyperText provides a single user-interface to many large classes of stored information, such as reports, notes, data-bases, computer documentation and on-line systems help. We propose the implementation of a simple scheme to incorporate several different servers of machine-stored information already available at CERN, including an analysis of the requirements for information access needs by experiments... A program which provides access to the hypertext world we call a browser. ― T. Berners-Lee, R. Cailliau, 12 November 1990, CERN
In 1992, Lynx was born as an early Internet web browser. Its ability to provide hypertext links within documents that could reach into documents anywhere on the Internet began the creation of the Web on the Internet.
As new web browsers were released, traffic on the World Wide Web quickly exploded from only 500 known web servers in 1993 to over 10,000 in 1994. As a result, all previous hypertext systems were overshadowed by the success of the Web, even though it lacked many features of those earlier systems, such as integrated browsers/editors (a feature of the original WorldWideWeb browser, which was not carried over into most of the other early Web browsers).
Besides the already mentioned Project Xanadu, Hypertext Editing System, NLS, HyperCard, and World Wide Web, there are other noteworthy early implementations of hypertext, with different feature sets:
- FRESS – a 1970s multi-user successor to the Hypertext Editing System.
- ZOG – a 1970s hypertext system developed at Carnegie Mellon University.
- Electronic Document System – an early 1980s text and graphic editor for interactive hypertexts such as equipment repair manuals and computer-aided instruction.
- Information Presentation Facility – used to display online help in IBM operating systems.
- Intermedia – a mid-1980s program for group web-authoring and information sharing.
- HyperTies - a mid-1980s program commercially applied to hundreds of projects, including July 1988 Communications of the ACM and Hypertext Hands-On! book.
- Texinfo – the GNU help system.
- KMS – a 1980s successor to ZOG developed as a commercial product.
- Storyspace – a mid-1980s program for hypertext narrative.
- Document Examiner - an hypertext system developed in 1985 at Symbolics for their Genera operating system.
- Adobe's Portable Document Format – a widely used publication format for electronic documents.
- Amigaguide – released on the Commodore Amiga Workbench 1990.
- Windows Help – released with Windows 3.0 in 1990.
- Wikis – aim to compensate for the lack of integrated editors in most Web browsers. Various wiki software have slightly different conventions for formatting, usually simpler than HTML.
- PaperKiller – a document editor specifically designed for hypertext. Started in 1996 as IPer (educational project for ED-Media 1997).
- XML with the XLink extension – a newer hypertext markup language that extends and expands capabilities introduced by HTML.
Among the top academic conferences for new research in hypertext is the annual ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social Media. The Electronic Literature Organization hosts annual conferences discussing hypertext fiction, poetry and other forms of electronic literature. Although not exclusively about hypertext, the World Wide Web series of conferences, organized by IW3C2, also include many papers of interest. There is a list on the Web with links to all conferences in the series.
Hypertext writing has developed its own style of fiction, coinciding with the growth and proliferation of hypertext development software and the emergence of electronic networks. Hypertext fiction is one of earliest genres of electronic literature, or literary works that are designed to be read in digital media. Two software programs specifically designed for literary hypertext, Storyspace and Intermedia, became available in the 1990s. Judy Malloy's Uncle Roger (1986) and Michael Joyce's afternoon, a story (1987) are generally considered the first works of hypertext fiction.
An advantage of writing a narrative using hypertext technology is that the meaning of the story can be conveyed through a sense of spatiality and perspective that is arguably unique to digitally networked environments. An author's creative use of nodes, the self-contained units of meaning in a hypertextual narrative, can play with the reader's orientation and add meaning to the text.
One of the most successful computer games, Myst, was first written in HyperCard. The game was constructed as a series of Ages, each Age consisting of a separate HyperCard stack. The full stack of the game consists of over 2500 cards. In some ways, Myst redefined interactive fiction, using puzzles and exploration as a replacement for hypertextual narrative.
Critics of hypertext claim that it inhibits the old, linear, reader experience by creating several different tracks to read on. This can also been seen as contributing to a postmodernist fragmentation of worlds. In some cases, hypertext may be detrimental to the development of appealing stories (in the case of hypertext Gamebooks), where ease of linking fragments may lead to non-cohesive or incomprehensible narratives. However, they do see value in its ability to present several different views on the same subject in a simple way. This echoes the arguments of 'medium theorists' like Marshall McLuhan who look at the social and psychological impacts of the media. New media can become so dominant in public culture that they effectively create a "paradigm shift" as people have shifted their perceptions, understanding of the world, and ways of interacting with the world and each other in relation to new technologies and media. So hypertext signifies a change from linear, structured and hierarchical forms of representing and understanding the world into fractured, decentralized and changeable media based on the technological concept of hypertext links.
In the 1990s, women and feminist artists took advantage of hypertext and produced dozens of works. Linda Dement's Cyberflesh Girlmonster a hypertext CD-ROM that incorporates images of women's body parts and remixes them to create new monstrous yet beautiful shapes. Dr. Caitlin Fisher's award-winning online hypertext novella These Waves of Girls (2001) is set in three time periods of the protagonist exploring polymorphous perversity enacted in her queer identity through memory. The story is written as a reflection diary of the interconnected memories of childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. It consists of an associated multi-modal collection of nodes includes linked text, still and moving images, manipulable images, animations, and sound clips. Adrienne Eisen (pen name for Penelope Trunk) wrote hypertexts that were subversive narrative journeys into the mind of a woman whose erotic encounters were charged with a post-feminist satirical edge that cuts deep into the American psyche.
Forms of hypertext
There are various forms of hypertext, each of which are structured differently. Below are four of the existing forms of hypertext:
- Axial hypertexts are the most simple in structure. They are situated along an axis in a linear style. These hypertexts have a straight path from beginning to end and are fairly easy for the reader to follow. An example of an axial hypertext is The Virtual Disappearance of Miriam.
- Arborescent hypertexts are more complex than the axial form. They have a branching structure which resembles a tree. These hypertexts have one beginning but many possible endings. The ending that the reader finishes on depends on their decisions whilst reading the text. This is much like gamebook novels that allow readers to choose their own ending.
- Networked hypertexts are more complex still than the two previous forms of hypertext. They consist of an interconnected system of nodes with no dominant axis of orientation. Unlike the arborescent form, networked hypertexts do not have any designated beginning or any designated endings. An example of a networked hypertext is Shelley Jackson's Patchwork Girl.
- Layered hypertext consist of two layers of linked pages. Each layer is doubly linked sequentially and a page in the top layer is doubly linked with a corresponding page in the bottom layer. The top layer contains plain text, the bottom multimedia layer provides photos, sounds and video. In the Dutch historical novel De man met de hoed designed as layered hypertext in 2006 by Eisjen Schaaf, Pauline van de Ven, and Paul Vitányi, the structure is proposed to enhance the atmosphere of the time, to enrich the text with research and family archive material and to enable readers to insert memories of their own while preserving tension and storyline.
- Timeline of hypertext technology
- Distributed Data Management Architecture
- HTML (HyperText Markup Language)
- ↑ "Hypertext". Marriam-webster Free Online Dictionary. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hypertext.
- ↑ Lehman, Jeffrey; Phelps, Shirelle (2005). West's Encyclopedia of American Law, Vol. 9 (2 ed.). Detroit: Thomson/Gale. p. 451. ISBN 9780787663742.
- ↑ http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=806036 Complex information processing: a file structure for the complex, the changing and the indeterminate
- ↑ Rettberg, Jill Walker. "Complex Information Processing: A File Structure for the Complex, the Changing, and the Indeterminate". Electronic Literature as a Model of Creativity and Innovation in Practice. http://elmcip.net/node/7367.
- ↑ Bolter, Jay David; Joyce, Michael (1987), "Hypertext and creative writing", Proceeding of the ACM conference on Hypertext - HYPERTEXT '87, The Association for Computing Machinery, pp. 41–50, doi:10.1145/317426.317431, ISBN 089791340X, http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=317431 .
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Gary Wolf (June 1995). "The Curse of Xanadu". WIRED 3 (6). https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/3.06/xanadu.html.
- ↑ Joyce, MI, Did Ted Nelson first use the word "hypertext" [sic], meaning fast editing" at Vassar College?, Vassar, http://faculty.vassar.edu/mijoyce/Ted_sed.html, retrieved 2011-01-03
- ↑ Belinda Barnet. Memory Machines: The Evolution of Hypertext, 2013, pp.103-106.
- ↑ Barnet, Belinda (2010-01-01). "Crafting the User-Centered Document Interface: The Hypertext Editing System (HES) and the File Retrieval and Editing System (FRESS)". Digital Humanities Quarterly 4 (1). http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/4/1/000081/000081.html.
- ↑ "Where meter meets mainframe: An early experiment teaching poetry with computers | News from Brown". https://news.brown.edu/articles/2016/05/hypertext.
- ↑ (in Italian) Andrea Tornielli, Padre Busa, il gesuita che ha inventato l'ipertesto , La Stampa - VaticanInsider, 11/08/2011
- ↑ Matthew Zepelin Computers and the Catholic Mind: Religion, Technology, and Social Criticism in the Postwar United States, July 5, 2014
- ↑ Morto padre Busa, è stato il pioniere dell'informatica linguistica, Corriere del Veneto, 15. August 2011
- ↑ "Religion: Sacred Electronics", Time (magazine) , 31 December 1956, 15 August 2011
- ↑ Thomas N. Winter, " Roberto Busa, S.J., and the Invention of the Machine-Generated Condordance", Digital commons, University of Nebraska
- ↑ Hawisher, Gail E., Paul LeBlanc, Charles Moran, and Cynthia L. Selfe (1996). Computers and the Teaching of Writing in American Higher Education, 1979–1994: A History Ablex Publishing, Norwood NJ, p. 213
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 WorldWideWeb: Proposal for a HyperText Project, The World Wide Web consortium, http://www.w3.org/Proposal.html .
- ↑ SIGWEB Hypertext Conference, ACM, http://www.sigweb.org/conferences/ht-cover.shtml .
- ↑ IW3C2, http://www.iw3c2.org/ .
- ↑ "Conferences", IW3C2, http://www.iw3c2.org/conferences/ .
- ↑ Rettberg, Jill Walker (2012). "Electronic Literature Seen from a Distance: The Beginnings of a Field". Dichtung Digital (41). http://www.dichtung-digital.org/2012/41/walker-rettberg.htm.
- ↑ Berens, K. I. (2014-07-30). "Judy Malloy's seat at the (database) table: A feminist reception history of early hypertext literature". Literary and Linguistic Computing 29 (3): 340–348. doi:10.1093/llc/fqu037. ISSN 0268-1145. https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqu037.
- ↑ Parrish, Jeremy. "When SCUMM Ruled the Earth". http://www.1up.com/do/feature?cId=3134600.
- ↑ (in es) ¿Es el hipertexto una bendición o un...?, Biblum literaria, Jul 2008, http://biblumliteraria.blogspot.com/2008/07/es-el-hipertexto-una-bendicin-o-un.html .
- ↑ The Game of Reading an Electronic Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Canada: U Calgary, http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~scriptor/papers/arthur.html .
- ↑ Green 2001, p. 15.
- ↑ https://www.3ammagazine.com/short_stories/fiction/making_scenes/page1.html
- ↑ "Welkom". http://www.demanmetdehoed.nl/presentatie/Welkom.html.
- Andries van Dam: Hypertext: an Educational Experiment in English and Computer Science at Brown University. Brown University, Providence, RI, U.S. 1974, Run time 15:16, Hypertext on IMDb, Full Movie on the Internet Archive
- Green, Lelia (2001), Technoculture: From Alphabet to Cybersex, Allen & Unwin Ep, ISBN 978-1-86508048-2 .
- Engelbart, Douglas C (1962). Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework. AFOSR-3233 Summary Report, SRI Project No. 3579. http://www.dougengelbart.org/pubs/augment-3906.html. Retrieved 2011-05-20.
- Nelson, Theodor H. (September 1965). "Complex information processing: a file structure for the complex, the changing and the indeterminate". http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=806036.
- Nelson, Theodor H. (September 1970). "No More Teachers' Dirty Looks". Computer Decisions. http://www.newmediareader.com/excerpts.html.
- Nelson, Theodor H (1973). "A Conceptual framework for man-machine everything". 42. pp. M22–23.
- Yankelovich, Nicole; Landow, George P; Cody, David (1987). "Creating hypermedia materials for English literature students". SIGCUE Outlook 20 (3).
- Heim, Michael (1987). Electric Language: A Philosophical Study of Word Processing. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07746-9.
- van Dam, Andries (July 1988). "Hypertext: '87 keynote address". Communications of the ACM 31 (7): 887–95. doi:10.1145/48511.48519. http://www.cs.brown.edu/memex/HT_87_Keynote_Address.html.
- Conklin, J. (1987). "Hypertext: An Introduction and Survey". Computer 20 (9): 17–41. doi:10.1109/MC.1987.1663693.
- Byers, T. J. (April 1987). "Built by association". PC World 5: 244–51.
- Crane, Gregory (1988). "Extending the boundaries of instruction and research". T.H.E. Journal (Technological Horizons in Education) (Macintosh Special Issue): 51–54.
- Nelson, Theodor H. (1992). Literary Machines 93.1. Sausalito, CA: Mindful Press. ISBN 978-0-89347-062-3.
- Moulthrop, Stuart; Kaplan, Nancy (1994). "They became what they beheld: The futility of resistance in the space of electronic writing". Literacy and computers: The complications of teaching and learning with technology. pp. 220–237.
- Cicconi, Sergio (1999). "Hypertextuality". Mediapolis (Berlino & New York: Ed. Sam Inkinen & De Gruyter): 21–43. http://www.cisenet.com/cisenet/writing/essays/hypertextuality.htm.
- Bolter, Jay David (2001). Writing Space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 978-0-8058-2919-8.
- Landow, George (2006). Hypertext 3.0 Critical Theory and New Media in an Era of Globalization: Critical Theory and New Media in a Global Era (Parallax, Re-Visions of Culture and Society). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8257-9.
- Buckland, Michael (2006). Emanuel Goldberg and His Knowledge Machine. Libraries Unlimited. ISBN 978-0-313-31332-5.
- Ensslin, Astrid (2007). Canonizing Hypertext: Explorations and Constructions. London: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-9558-7.
- Barnet, Belinda. (2013) Memory Machines: The Evolution of Hypertext (Anthem Press; 2013) A technological history of hypertext,
- Hypertext: Behind the Hype
- Reviving Advanced Hypertext, whether and how concepts from hypertext research can be used on the Web.
- EdMedia + Innovate Learning, an international conference organized by the Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education.
- HyperText - ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia
Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext. Read more


Exploring the Importance of Learning Centers and Hands-On Activities in Early Preschool Classrooms
In order to engage and teach our preschoolers, we educators are always looking for new and innovative approaches. Classrooms for preschoolers are engaging settings where curious minds are eager to explore and learn. The utilization of learning centers and hands-on activities is one strategy that has received a lot of attention lately. In this article, we’ll explore the advantages of hands-on activities for promoting preschoolers’ learning and development, as well as the reasons why learning centers are employed in early preschool classes.
The Power of Hands-On Learning
A method of teaching that actively incorporates toddlers in the learning process through physical interaction and object manipulation is known as hands-on learning, also known as experiential learning. This method enables toddlers to investigate and comprehend their surroundings by using their senses, such as touch, sight, and hearing. Preschoolers have the chance to actively create their knowledge and grow crucial abilities like creativity, problem-solving, and critical thinking via hands-on learning.
Early preschool education places a special emphasis on hands-on learning because it better meets the requirements and personality traits of young preschoolers. Preschoolers learn best via active involvement and play and are naturally interested. In addition to fostering their cognitive growth, hands-on activities provide kids the chance to explore, experiment, and make discoveries, which improves their social, emotional, and physical development.
Learning Centers: Creating Enriched Learning Environments
Preschoolers can participate in hands-on activities in designated learning centers in the classroom that have been carefully created to help their learning and development. A science center, a reading nook, an art station, and a block area are a few examples of learning centers that can be set up in different parts of the classroom. Each learning center is stocked with books, videos, and other resources pertinent to the area’s unique learning objectives.
Because toddlers’ learning experiences are greatly influenced by their environment, learning centers are frequently used in early preschool classes. Preschoolers have the chance to learn in a meaningful and purposeful way in an enriched learning environment, such as one made by learning centers, which stimulates curiosity, encourages discovery, and fosters active involvement. Preschoolers who attend learning centers are also given a sense of ownership and autonomy, enabling them to choose what to do, start things off, and become independent—skills that are crucial for their general development.
Benefits of Hands-On Activities in Learning Centers
Hands-on activities in learning centers offer numerous benefits for preschoolers’ learning and development. Let’s explore some of the key advantages:
1. Engaging and Motivating: Hands-on activities in learning centers are inherently engaging and motivating for preschoolers. They allow them to actively manipulate objects, explore different materials, and make discoveries, which sparks their curiosity and ignites their interest in learning. Hands-on activities in learning centers also provide preschoolers with a multisensory experience, stimulating their senses and making learning a more enjoyable and memorable experience.
2. Meaningful and Relevant: Hands-on activities in learning centers are designed to be meaningful and relevant to preschoolers’ lives and experiences. They are carefully planned to align with the curriculum goals and objectives, as well as the developmental needs and interests of preschoolers. Hands-on activities in learning centers are often open-ended, allowing preschoolers to explore and experiment at their own pace and level, making the learning experience more authentic and purposeful.
3. Facilitating Cognitive Development: Hands-on activities in learning centers promote cognitive development in various domains, including language and literacy, math, science, and social studies. For example, hands-on activities in a science center may involve exploring and observing different objects, conducting experiments, and making predictions, which foster preschoolers’ scientific inquiry skills and conceptual understanding. Similarly, hands-on activities in a reading corner may involve reading books, discussing stories, and engaging in letter recognition and writing, which promote language and literacy skills. Hands-on activities in learning centers provide opportunities for preschoolers to develop problem-solving skills, critical thinking skills, and creativity as they engage in open-ended activities that require them to think, analyze, and make decisions.
4. Enhancing Social and Emotional Development: Hands-on activities in learning centers also support the social and emotional development of preschoolers. Learning centers provide opportunities for preschoolers to engage in cooperative play, collaborate with peers, and communicate with others. Hands-on activities promote social skills such as sharing, taking turns, and resolving conflicts, which are crucial for preschoolers’ social development. Hands-on activities also offer opportunities for self-expression, creativity, and emotional regulation, as preschoolers engage in artistic activities, build with blocks, or engage in dramatic play, which promotes their emotional development and self-awareness.
5. Developing Fine and Gross Motor Skills: Hands-on activities in learning centers also contribute to the development of fine and gross motor skills in preschoolers. Hands-on activities such as cutting, drawing, painting, building, and manipulating objects require the use of small muscles in the hands and fingers, promoting fine motor skills. Gross motor skills are developed through activities such as building with blocks, engaging in physical play, and participating in movement activities in learning centers, which promote coordination, balance, and strength.
6. Fostering a Love for Learning: Hands-on activities in learning centers also play a crucial role in fostering a love for learning in preschoolers. When preschoolers are actively engaged in hands-on activities, they develop a positive attitude towards learning, as they experience the joy of discovery, the satisfaction of accomplishment, and the pride of their own creations. Hands-on activities in learning centers allow preschoolers to develop a sense of ownership and agency in their learning, which instills a lifelong love for learning and a growth mindset.
Practical Tips for Implementing Hands-On Activities in Learning Centers
Implementing hands-on activities in learning centers requires thoughtful planning, organization, and facilitation. Here are some practical tips for educators to effectively implement hands-on activities in learning centers in early preschool classrooms:
1. Align with Learning Goals: Ensure that the hands-on activities in learning centers are aligned with the curriculum goals and objectives, as well as the developmental needs and interests of preschoolers. Plan hands-on activities that promote the specific skills and concepts that you want to target in each learning center, and ensure that the materials and resources are age-appropriate and relevant.
2. Create Inviting Learning Environments: Set up learning centers that are inviting and appealing to preschoolers. Ensure that the learning centers are well-organized, with materials and resources displayed in an attractive and accessible manner. Use colorful labels, visual cues, and signage to support preschoolers’ understanding and use of the learning centers. Consider the layout and arrangement of the learning centers to promote smooth flow and ease of movement.
3. Provide Open-Ended Materials: Offer a variety of open-ended materials and resources in each learning center that allow for creativity, exploration, and experimentation. Avoid materials that have predetermined outcomes or limit preschoolers’ choices and creativity. Provide materials that can be used in different ways and allow for open-ended play, such as blocks, play dough, loose parts, and art materials.
4. Facilitate, Not Dictate: As an educator, your role is to facilitate, not dictate, the hands-on activities in learning centers. Allow preschoolers to explore, experiment, and make their own discoveries. Avoid directing or controlling their play, but instead, observe, listen, and engage with them in meaningful conversations. Ask open-ended questions, offer suggestions, and extend their learning through their interests and inquiries.
5. Foster Collaboration and Communication: Encourage preschoolers to collaborate and communicate with their peers during hands-on activities in learning centers. Provide opportunities for cooperative play, group projects, and discussions that promote collaboration and communication skills. Encourage preschoolers to share their ideas, thoughts, and discoveries with their peers, and provide support in resolving conflicts or misunderstandings that may arise during group activities.
6. Incorporate Reflection and Assessment: Encourage preschoolers to reflect on their learning and experiences during hands-on activities in learning centers. Provide opportunities for self-assessment, peer assessment, and group reflection to promote metacognition and self-awareness. Use observation, documentation, and assessment strategies to gather evidence of preschoolers’ learning, progress, and interests, and use this information to inform your instruction and planning for future hands-on activities.
Early preschool classrooms must include hands-on activities in learning centers since they have several advantages for the holistic development of preschoolers. Hands-on activities at learning centers provide preschoolers with rich and fulfilling learning experiences in all areas of development, from cognitive and linguistic development to social and emotional development, from the development of fine and gross motor skills to nurturing a love of learning. Teachers can successfully implement hands-on activities in learning centers to support preschoolers’ overall development and improve their early learning experiences by aligning with learning goals, creating welcoming learning environments, providing open-ended materials, facilitating rather than dictating, fostering collaboration and communication, and incorporating reflection and assessment.
The Importance of Hands-On Activities for Cognitive Development
Early preschool development is vital for cognitive growth, and preschoolers benefit greatly from the hands-on activities that are offered at learning centers. Preschoolers have the chance to actively engage their minds, explore, experiment, solve problems, and think critically via hands-on activities. Here are some reasons why hands-on activities are important for cognitive development in preschoolers:
1. Active Learning: Hands-on activities promote active learning, where preschoolers are actively engaged in the learning process. Through hands-on activities, preschoolers can manipulate objects, explore cause and effect relationships, and engage in problem-solving tasks that require them to think, analyze, and make decisions. Active learning promotes higher-order thinking skills, such as critical thinking, analysis, and synthesis, which are crucial for cognitive development.
2. Sensorimotor Integration: Hands-on activities involve the integration of sensory and motor skills, promoting sensorimotor development in preschoolers. Sensory experiences, such as touching, smelling, tasting, hearing, and seeing, provide opportunities for preschoolers to make connections between their senses and the world around them. Motor skills, such as grasping, manipulating, and coordinating, are developed through hands-on activities, which promote fine and gross motor development.
3. Concrete Learning: Hands-on activities provide concrete learning experiences, where preschoolers can manipulate and interact with tangible objects and materials. Concrete learning allows preschoolers to make direct connections between their experiences and the concepts they are learning. For example, using counting manipulatives, such as blocks or beads, allows preschoolers to physically count and manipulate objects, which helps them develop a concrete understanding of numbers and counting concepts.
4. Problem-Solving Skills: Hands-on activities require preschoolers to engage in problem-solving tasks, which promote the development of problem-solving skills. As preschoolers engage in hands-on activities, they encounter challenges, obstacles, and puzzles that require them to think critically, analyze situations, and come up with solutions. Problem-solving skills, such as reasoning, logical thinking, and planning, are essential cognitive skills that are developed through hands-on activities.
5. Concept Development: Hands-on activities provide opportunities for preschoolers to develop and reinforce concepts through hands-on experiences. For example, through hands-on activities in a science learning center, preschoolers can explore and investigate properties of matter, observe changes in materials, and make predictions about cause and effect relationships. Through these experiences, they develop a deep understanding of scientific concepts, such as properties of matter, states of matter, and changes in matter. Hands-on activities also support concept development in other subject areas, such as math, literacy, and social studies, by providing opportunities for preschoolers to explore, manipulate, and apply concepts in a meaningful and relevant context.
6. Memory and Recall: Hands-on activities promote memory and recall skills in preschoolers. When preschoolers engage in hands-on activities, they use multiple senses, such as touch, sight, and hearing, which helps to reinforce their learning and memory. For example, when they use manipulatives to sort and classify objects, they are engaging in multisensory learning, which promotes better memory and recall of the concepts being taught.
7. Creativity and Imagination: Hands-on activities encourage creativity and imagination in preschoolers. Open-ended materials in learning centers allow preschoolers to explore, create, and imagine without limitations. They can use blocks to build their own structures, use art materials to express their creativity, or use pretend play props to create imaginative scenarios. These activities promote divergent thinking skills, creativity, and imagination, which are essential cognitive skills for preschoolers’ overall development.
Enhancing Language Development Through Hands-On Activities
Early preschool development is crucial for language development, and preschoolers have many opportunities to improve their language abilities via hands-on activities in learning centers. The numerous facets of language development include vocabulary growth, listening, speaking, and early literacy abilities. Here are some ways in which hands-on activities can enhance language development in preschoolers:
1. Vocabulary Development: Hands-on activities expose preschoolers to a rich vocabulary of words and concepts. As preschoolers engage in hands-on activities, they encounter new words, labels, and descriptions of objects, materials, and actions. They also engage in conversations with peers and educators, which further expands their vocabulary. Vocabulary development is essential for building a strong foundation for language skills and academic success.
2. Listening Skills: Hands-on activities require active listening skills in preschoolers. During hands-on activities, preschoolers need to listen carefully to instructions, follow directions, and engage in discussions with peers. Active listening skills help preschoolers to understand and interpret information, process instructions, and engage in meaningful interactions with others.
3. Speaking Skills: Hands-on activities provide opportunities for preschoolers to express themselves verbally. They can share their ideas, thoughts, and discoveries with peers and educators, ask questions, and engage in discussions during hands-on activities. Speaking skills are crucial for effective communication, self-expression, and social interactions.
4. Early Literacy Skills: Hands-on activities can support early literacy skills, such as letter recognition, letter-sound correspondence, and print awareness. For example, during hands-on activities in a literacy learning center, preschoolers can engage in letter-sound activities, such as matching objects with their corresponding initial letter sounds, or they can explore books and print materials to develop print awareness.
5. Storytelling and Narrative Skills: Hands-on activities can also foster storytelling and narrative skills in preschoolers. Through pretend play activities, such as using dolls, action figures, or props, preschoolers can create their own stories, develop characters, and engage in imaginative play. Storytelling and narrative skills are essential for language development, as they promote oral language skills, sequencing skills, and comprehension skills.
6. Social Interaction Skills: Hands-on activities provide opportunities for preschoolers to engage in social interactions with their peers and educators, which enhances their language development. During hands-on activities, preschoolers can engage in conversations, ask questions, and exchange ideas with their peers. These social interactions promote language skills, such as turn-taking, listening, responding, and expressing thoughts and ideas, which are crucial for effective communication and social development.
Fostering Social and Emotional Development Through Hands-On Activities
Hands-on activities in learning centers may significantly contribute to the development of social and emotional skills in preschoolers, which is an important part of early preschool development. Self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, collaboration, and conflict resolution are just a few examples of the many components that make up social and emotional development. Here are some ways in which hands-on activities can foster social and emotional development in preschoolers:
1. Self-Awareness: Hands-on activities provide opportunities for preschoolers to explore and discover their own abilities, preferences, and interests. Through hands-on activities, preschoolers can learn about their strengths, challenges, and emotions. They can develop a sense of self-awareness, which is crucial for building self-esteem and self-confidence.
2. Self-Regulation: Hands-on activities require preschoolers to practice self-regulation skills, such as waiting for their turn, following rules, and managing their emotions. For example, during a game or a cooperative activity in a learning center, preschoolers need to regulate their impulses, control their emotions, and exhibit patience. Practicing self-regulation skills during hands-on activities can help preschoolers develop self-control and emotional resilience.
3. Empathy and Perspective-Taking: Hands-on activities can promote empathy and perspective-taking skills in preschoolers. When preschoolers engage in cooperative activities, such as building together, working on a puzzle, or role-playing, they learn to understand and appreciate the feelings and perspectives of others. They develop empathy, which is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others, and perspective-taking, which is the ability to see things from others’ viewpoints.
4. Cooperation and Collaboration: Hands-on activities encourage preschoolers to work together, share resources, and collaborate towards a common goal. Through cooperative activities, preschoolers learn to work as a team, communicate effectively, and resolve conflicts. They develop skills, such as cooperation, collaboration, negotiation, and compromise, which are essential for success in social interactions and later academic and professional settings.
5. Problem-Solving Skills: Hands-on activities provide opportunities for preschoolers to engage in problem-solving tasks. For example, when they engage in building, constructing, or designing activities, preschoolers encounter challenges, obstacles, and setbacks that require them to think critically and problem-solve. They learn to analyze situations, generate ideas, make decisions, and implement solutions, which are crucial problem-solving skills for their overall development.
6. Emotional Expression and Regulation: Hands-on activities provide a safe and supportive environment for preschoolers to express and regulate their emotions. For example, through art activities, sensory play, or pretend play, preschoolers can express their emotions, such as joy, frustration, or anger, in a healthy and constructive manner. They also learn strategies, such as deep breathing, counting to ten, or taking a break, to regulate their emotions and manage stress and frustration.
Promoting Fine and Gross Motor Skills Through Hands-On Activities
The growth of preschoolers’ fine and gross motor abilities is crucial for their physical development and general wellbeing. While gross motor skills include the coordination of bigger muscles in the arms, legs, and core, fine motor skills involve the control of smaller muscles in the hands and fingers. Preschoolers can have plenty of opportunity to develop and hone their fine and gross motor skills via hands-on activities at learning centers. Here are some ways in which hands-on activities can promote fine and gross motor skills development in preschoolers:
1. Fine Motor Skills: Hands-on activities, such as manipulating small objects, using tools, or engaging in art and craft activities, can promote fine motor skills development in preschoolers. For example, when preschoolers engage in activities like cutting, coloring, drawing, painting, or using playdough, they are using their hand-eye coordination, finger dexterity, and hand muscles, which are crucial for developing fine motor skills. These activities require precision, control, and coordination of small muscles, which helps preschoolers develop skills needed for writing, drawing, and other daily tasks.
2. Hand Strength and Grip: Hands-on activities that involve gripping, squeezing, pinching, or manipulating objects can help preschoolers develop hand strength and grip. For example, when they play with building blocks, use tongs or tweezers to pick up small objects, or engage in threading and lacing activities, they are strengthening the muscles in their hands and fingers. These activities also help in developing hand-eye coordination, spatial awareness, and manual dexterity, which are essential for various tasks like buttoning, zipping, or tying shoelaces.
3. Bilateral Coordination: Hands-on activities can also promote bilateral coordination, which is the ability to use both sides of the body in a coordinated manner. Activities that involve using both hands simultaneously, such as cutting with scissors, tearing paper, or using tools, can help preschoolers develop bilateral coordination skills. These skills are important for tasks like tying shoelaces, using utensils, or playing musical instruments.
4. Gross Motor Skills: Hands-on activities can also promote gross motor skills development in preschoolers. Gross motor skills involve the coordination of larger muscles in the arms, legs, and core, and are important for activities like running, jumping, balancing, and playing sports. Hands-on activities that involve physical movement, such as dancing, climbing, or playing with large manipulatives, can help preschoolers develop their gross motor skills, strength, coordination, and balance.
5. Body Awareness: Hands-on activities can also promote body awareness, which is the understanding of one’s body and its movements in space. Activities like yoga, dance, or sensory play that involve different body positions, movements, and spatial awareness can help preschoolers develop body awareness. This is important for developing coordination, balance, and spatial orientation skills, which are crucial for various physical activities and sports.
6. Sensory Integration: Hands-on activities often involve sensory experiences, such as touching, feeling, smelling, or listening. Sensory integration refers to the brain’s ability to receive, process, and respond to sensory information from the environment. Hands-on activities in learning centers that involve sensory play, such as sand play, water play, or sensory bins, can help preschoolers develop their sensory integration skills. Sensory play can also provide calming and self-regulation benefits for preschoolers, helping them manage sensory sensitivities or challenges.
In conclusion, preschoolers benefit greatly from the chances that hands-on learning experiences in early preschool learning centers offer to engage in active learning activities that support their cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development. Along with encouraging social connection, emotional expression, fine and gross motor skills, body awareness, and sensory integration, these activities build curiosity, creativity, problem-solving, and critical thinking abilities. Preschoolers can grow holistically in a dynamic setting if instructors include hands-on activities into the early preschool classroom through learning centers. Preschoolers are encouraged to explore, discover, and make sense of their environment through hands-on activities, building a solid foundation for lifetime learning.


TABLE OF CONTENTS
Please note, this is a live document. Changes announced in class and on the list server will be incorporated from time to time. Announcements in class and their mirror here are the definitive version.
An emerging technology, oddly enough, is the technology of simulating human behaviour. This and related technologies have been called expert systems and artificial intellegence. They are currently being used as opponents in computer games and have been started to be used to test interfaces as surrogate users. They are an interesting intersection between technology and human psychology. The National Resarch Council (Pew & Mavor, 1998, 2007) and research councils in the US, UK, and Australia expect this area to become increasingly important and they invest in it. There are a wide range of possible applications including video games, military simulations, knowledge-based computer-based tutors, and assistive agents [Norling on agents and why they need to be more human: ABC Radio [mp4] [mp3]].
To explore this new technology and its science base, this class has three components. The first, short, component examines the application of models of human performance firstly as scientific theories, but also their use in training environments, in operations research, in design, and as opponents in computer games. This section is based on reading and discussion.
The second component examines how to create such models. Students will study how to create such models using an existing cognitive and AI architecture, Soar. Students will be introduced to the ideas of using published descriptions of human behavior (i.e., journal articles and handbooks), as well as how data is gathered when published materials are not available. Tools for analysing the data to help create models will also be covered. This component results in a model created by the student or a team within a somewhat constrained task, dTank. A prototypical final project is to build a model of your own play in this game, but this project can be student-interest driven.
The final component examines how such models in general and the student's model in particular can be tested, validated, and thus can be believed and improved. If the dTank environment is used, a competition between models will be staged, both as models of intelligence (do they win?), and as models of humans (do they act like humans?). Thus questions related to the philosophy of science are also discussed.
This course requires an Instructor technology room on a Monday afternoon and a student technology room on a Wed afternoon. The student room will have Mac/PCs. You should also be able to install the software on your home machine, and many students will choose to do this.
The official pre-requisites are IST 210 and IST 220 (or such). You should also have an interest in modeling human behaviour, and then secondarily, some knowledge of human behaviour or some knowledge of the technology to model it (or both). Knowledge of human behaviour can come from IST 331 or a psychology course. Knowledge of the technology means production systems, Lisp, or JAVA, or expert systems or agent architectures. Students will be paired where possible to create pairs with complementary knowledge. If you have questions about prerequisites, please see me.
This course should change the way you think about human behaviour, providing a theory of cognition that can be extended to help predict human behaviour for use in applications such as video games and interface testing.
This course provides a balance between theory and practice, which are tightly intertwined in this area. Basic and more advanced readings will introduce the student to current thinking about facts, theories, and ways to model data. A small group project, drawing on the different backgrounds students bring to the program, will support integrating these various pieces of knowledge and applying them. The course includes working in small groups, speaking, and other non-traditional processes and outputs, but the processes and outputs used are those that researchers and developers use in this area.
At the conclusion of this course, students will be able to:
3.1 The IST 402 Web Site. This course has an active web page that contains the syllabus, assignments, links to useful sites, and other valuable material (such as how to correctly prepare assignments, citation templates, and other academic and recreational information). We will post late-breaking information and updates to the web page. This page can currently be found at uniform resource locator (URL) acs.ist.psu.edu/ist402, and later will be available through links from the IST home page via course listings. You should bookmark it.
3.2 The IST 402 Listserv. This course has a mandatory listserv that we will use to post course and class information, conduct on-line discussions, and share information. You are encouraged to use your PSU account, and not a hotmail or yahoo account that cannot receive attachments.
If you are in Section 2 (Ritter) your PSU account should be automatically subscribed. If you want to use a different account, you will need to subscribe to the class email list by sending email to Changkun.
Once you have subscribed, you can then send mail to the class at email@example.com
If you send mail to me about this course, please include "IST402" in the subject, as this will help a filter bring it to my attention more quickly.
Stuff on Soar (read, in order, until you know Soar) [passwords available from TA and Ritter]
The Psychological Soar Tutorial, available online
Ritter, F. E. (2003). Soar. In L. Nadel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of cognitive science. vol. 4, 60-65. London: Nature Publishing Group. [A006.pdf]
Laird's online tutorial notes, chapter 1 [from the Soar installation]
Lehman, J. F., Laird, J. E., & Rosenbloom, P. S. (1996). A gentle introduction to Soar, an architecture for human cognition. In S. Sternberg & D. Scarborough (Eds.), Invitation to cognitive science, vol. 4 Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Newell, A. (1992). Précis of "Unified theories of cognition". Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 15, 425-492. Responses Introduction to Newell
Stuff on the software (you will need all of these, and all are free)
Summary installation notes
Herbal [a Description of Ontologies, to help with understanding] Herbal tutorial
The Soar 9 distribution.
Those who like SoarceForge, can also find Soar there
You may find the Soar FAQ helpful.
dTank-Soar game, available locally
Stuff on psychology and writing [one copy of each per group]
(ABCS) The ABCS of HCI. Ritter, F. E, Baxter, G. D., & Churchill, E. 2011. Available from LuLu.com at cost, for about $11.00 plus shipping. approximately 400 pages.
Publication Manual of the APA (available at the PSU Bookstore) as a guide to referencing, citing, and the formatting of papers and manuscripts in general. Each pair should have access to a copy of this, or to Strunk and White's "The elements of style." Abebooks.com is another place to get this book.
3.4.1 The importance and applications of models (read two)
Anderson, J. R., Conrad, F. G., & Corbett, A. T. (1989). Skill acquisition and the LISP tutor. Cognitive Science, 13(4), 467-505.
Laird, J., & van Lent, M. (2001). Interactive Computer Games: Human-level AI's Killer Application, ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/laird/papers/AI-games.pdf.
Hudlicka, E., & McNeese, M. D. (2002). User affective and belief states: Assessment and user interface adaptation. Journal of User Modeling and User Adapted Interaction, 12, 1-47.
Pew, R. W., & Mavor, A. S. (Eds.). (2007). Human-system integration in the system development process: A new look. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11893.
Pew, R. W., & Mavor, A. S. (Eds.). (1998). Modeling human and organizational behavior: Application to military simulations. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. nap.edu/catalog/6173.html (click on the cover of the book on the left to read it online.)
Ritter, F. E., Shadbolt, N. R., Elliman, D., Young, R., Gobet, F., & Baxter, G. D. (2003). Techniques for modeling human performance in synthetic environments: A supplementary review. Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH: Human Systems Information Analysis Center (HSIAC), formerly known as the Crew System Ergonomics Information Analysis Center (CSERIAC). [local cleaner copy]
** Or, paper of your choice, approx. 20 pages, or a whole article, whichever is shorter. **
3.4.2 Testing and validating models (read all)
Ritter, F. E., & Larkin, J. H. (1994). Using process models to summarize sequences of human actions. Human-Computer Interaction, 9(3), 345-383.
Ritter, F. E. (2004). Choosing and getting started with a cognitive architecture to test and use human-machine interfaces. MMI-Interaktiv-Journal's special issue on Modeling and Simulation in Human-Machine Systems. 7. 17-37. [in English, abstract in German] [local copy]
Grant, D. A. (1962). Testing the null hypothesis and the strategy and tactics of investigating theoretical models. Psychological Review, 69(1), 54-61.
3.4.3 Creating and building models (read all)
Ritter, F. E., Lehtinen, E., & Nerb, J. (2007). Putting things in order: Collecting and analysing data on learning. In F. E. Ritter, J. Nerb, T. O'Shea, & E. Lehtinen (Eds.), In order to Learn: How ordering effects in machine learning illuminates human learning and vice versa
Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1993). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Their appendix on collecting protocols. Their 1980 paper as Precis of book [Read appendix, rest is optional]
Nerb, J., Ritter, F. E., & Langley, P. (2007). Rules of order: Process models of human learning. In F. E. Ritter, J. Nerb, T. O'Shea, & E. Lehtinen (Eds.), In order to learn: How ordering effects in machine learning illuminates human learning and vice versa Kidlington, UK: Pergamon.
Nuxoll, A., & Laird, J. (2003). Soar Dogma. (how to write better, safer, faster Soar code.)
The Soar Frequently Asked Questions list (acs.ist.psu.edu/soar-faq) and the ACT-R FAQ (acs.ist.psu.edu/actr-faq).
Agre on writing
Related Douglass class
Comments on writing
How to write an abstract by Mary-Claire Van Leunen
Paschler on testing (simple) models
Sanderson, P. M., McNeese, M. D., & Zaff, B. S. (1994). Handling complex real-world data with two cognitive engineering tools: COGENT and MacSHAPA. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 26(2), 117-124. [email me for macshapa software for Mac]
You earn your grade but it will be assigned by me. The criteria for each assignment will be discussed in detail, as will the grading scheme. Each written assignment will be evaluated on how well it addresses the questions posed, the clarity of thinking, the organization and presentation of the material, the quality of writing, and its timeliness.
Your grade will be based on 100 possible points. You earn points with each assignment (see below). As a maximum scale (i.e., cutoffs may be lowered): A: 100-74, A-: 73-70, B+ 69- 67, B: 66- 64, B-: 63- 60, C+: 59- 57, C: 56- 50, D: 49- 40, F: 39- 0. (The cutoffs for each grade is the lower number, without rounding.)
Your learning will be assessed in
several ways. Please consult the schedule to see when papers/
assignments are due and exams scheduled. You will receive more
written instructions for each assignment well in advance of the due
date. Here is a brief summary of each:
You will do a variety of labs/homeworks. Each lab writeup is nominally 5-10 points, 66 points total including an extra 5 extra credit points and the initial 1 point project writeup. 60 points will be taken to be the maximum lab grade (i.e., you can miss 6 points and get a perfect score). This score may be modified/moderated/adjusted by self and team evaluations.
Typically Wednesdays, as below
(5 points added to lab grade)
Once during the semester your group may find an additional resource that addresses or relies upon topics covered in class. In one page or less, you will comment on how that resource relates to the class. You will share both the article and your comments with the class. You must arrange this before the end of October.
Paragraphs on the readings, up to 20 of them at 1 pt/reading, can also be used this way.
Once, varies by group
In class, 70 points below.
In class, score pro-rated with 3 allowed unexcused absences
71 total points make this up, which you can keep the 1 as a bonus.
Intro - Course, emerging technologies, new uses for old important technologies, UTCs, Cognitive psych review
Hand in: OSs, courses
2 24aug End of intro Install/test software
Summary installation notes
Applications of models
two readings from 3.4.1
1 para on each reading
Further reading on Soar
1 para on each reading
Soar / Herbal
ABCS5 [from now, all ABCS up to now due]
Exercise on Eclipse (in class)
More from 3.4.2
Data for developing
Ericsson & Simon 93A
Ericsson & Simon 80 (optional)
1 page on project
readings above in 3.4.3
dTank Hwk1 (email it in)
two readings from 3.4.3 and ABCS11
midterm in class
Discussion of projects
Video games, hedonics, software engineering
Project - writing techniques
Agre/APA Manual/Strunk/advanced Word
(do another dTank task)
SOAR report and other futures reports
presentations in class
28 5dec Reports discussion presentations in class 29 7dec Hand in Project 65 >209 pts, keep 200
Model the effect of your learning, starting with a naive model, and then a less naive model.
Model how you learn, starting with a naive model, and then with the learning component turned on, show that the model learns like you do (considerably harder).
Extend the dTank interface in some interesting way, and show how it is easier for you and for the model.
Set up two opponents for people to train against. Show how one is a better sparing partner, either for some of your friends, or for your model to learn from.
All projects above, if extended, could be turned into an honors thesis.
Graduate students taking this course for independent study credit (or if approved as a 597 course) will need to modify both the task (multiple interfaces or tasks) and the model (multiple strategies or individual differences).
The laboratory portion of IST 402 provides students with the chance to become familiar with using the concepts, software, and data about modeling people. It is absolutely essential for understanding the material and will be useful for passing the exam and doing the labs.
You have been put into small groups to do your labs because we believe this generally leads to better learning. That means that you must turn in one lab report per group, that conferring within your group is not a violation of academic policy or of ethics on the lab section of this course, and that conferring with other groups *is* a violation of academic policy and ethics if it results in reports that are noticeably similar without citation.
The best way is to work on the lab and then meet to discuss and proofread the report. The worst way is to have each member of the group do (and thus learn) one of the sections. This will result in a noticeably inferior product.
As we explore these topics, we will also practice skills in working together, analytical skills, and information problem-solving approaches.
We have arranged time for group meetings that may need a lab.
Academic Integrity: According to the Penn State Principles and University Code of Conduct:
Academic integrity is a basic guiding principle for all academic activity at Penn State University, allowing the pursuit of scholarly activity in an open, honest, and responsible manner. In according with the University's Code of Conduct, you must not engage in or tolerate academic dishonesty. This includes, but is not limited to cheating, plagiarism, fabrication of information or citations, facilitating acts of academic dishonesty by others, unauthorized possession of examinations, submitting work of another person, or work previously used without informing the instructor, or tampering with the academic work of other students.
Any violation of academic integrity will be investigated, and where warranted, punitive action will be taken. For every incident when a penalty of any kind is assessed, a report must be filed This form is used for both undergraduate and graduate courses. This report must be signed by both the instructor and the student, and then submitted to the Senior Associate Dean.
In this course, academic integrity needs two explanations. The first is that you are expected to contribute to your group. This means making time in your schedule for the group's meetings, being in touch via email, and preparing for those meetings. The second explanation is that your group's writeups are to be done only by your group. This means that while you can discuss the problems with others, and we agree that this is a good thing, the writing up needs to be solely by your group. If you have a question as to whether or not two writeups are too similar, then use the following standard:
- If a pair of writeups are sufficiently similar that you can tell by reading them that the two groups worked together, then they are too similar.
By all means, talk to your colleagues, get help if necessary, but prove to us that, in the end, you understand what you are doing, and you can and must express it in your own words. If you and your group don't understand the material well enough to write it up on your own, and you need to copy, then four things are lost: Your integrity, useful feedback to us on how you are doing, your ability to perform well on the exam, and ultimately, your knowledge.
It is Penn State's policy to not discriminate against qualified students with documented disabilities in its educational programs. If you have a disability-related need for modifications in your testing situation, your instructor should be notified during the first week of classes so that your needs can be accommodated. You will be asked to present documentation from the Office of Disability Services (located in 105 Boucke Building) that describes the nature of your disability and the recommended remedy. You may refer to the Nondiscrimination Policy in the Student Guide to University Policies and Rules 1999.
As each student is an individual with specific needs, academic accommodations are provided on an individual basis based on the student's documentation. A reasonable accommodation is a modification or adjustment to a course, program, service, job, activity, or facility that provides the qualified individual with a disability to have an equal opportunity. An equal opportunity provides the means to attain the same level of performance or to enjoy benefits that are available to students without disabilities. For more information about services for individuals with learning disabilities, please contact the Office for Disability Services at (814) 863-1807.
Americans with Disabilities Act: IST welcomes persons with disabilities to all of its classes, programs, and events. If you need accommodations, or have questions about access to buildings where ISTactivities are held, please contact us in advance of your participation or visit. If you need assistance during a class, program, or event, please contact the member of our staff or faculty in charge.
An Invitation to Students with Learning Disabilities: It is Penn State's policy to not discriminate against qualified students with documented disabilities in its educational programs. If you have a disability-related need for modifications in your testing or learning situation, your instructor should be notified during the first week of classes so that your needs can be accommodated. You will be asked to present documentation from the Office of Disability Services (located in 116 Boucke Building, 863-1807) that describes the nature of your disability and the recommended remedy. You may refer to the Nondiscrimination Policy in the Student Guide to University Policies and Rules.
Affirmative Action & Sexual Harassment: The Pennsylvania State University is committed to a policy that all persons shall have equal access to programs, facilities, admission, and employment without regard to personal characteristics not related to ability, performance, or qualifications as determined by University policy or by Commonwealth or Federal authorities. Penn State does not discriminate against any person because of age, ancestry, color, disability or handicap, national origin, race, religious creed, gender, sexual orientation, or veteran status. Direct all inquiries to the Affirmative Action Office, 211 Willard Building.


Short answer: Amendments to the Constitution for kids
The US Constitution can be changed or amended, and there have been 27 amendments throughout history. Amendments help to ensure that the Constitution remains relevant and reflective of current times. Some important amendments include the Bill of Rights (the first ten amendments) which protect individual freedoms such as freedom of speech, religion, and assembly. Kids can learn about these important changes in US history and how they impact their lives today.
How to Explain Amendments to the Constitution for Kids – Step by Step Guide
The Constitution of the United States, adopted in 1787, is the supreme law of the nation. However, as times change and new challenges arise, amendments may be added to ensure that the law is truly representative and serves the needs of all citizens.
Explaining amendments to children may seem daunting at first, but it can be a fun and educational experience with this step-by-step guide:
Step 1: Start with Basic Definitions
To understand amendments, children need to know what Constitutions are. Explain that a Constitution is like a rulebook for a country and outlines how the government works. You could use examples from everyday life – much like how schools have rules for students to follow; similarly countries must also have rules on how they should operate by following their own set of rules i.e. Constitutions.
Step 2: Emphasize Amendments Are Changes
Once kids understand what a constitution is briefly introduce them to what an amendment means – “an amendment changes things in the constitution”. And that’s it, take your time and wait until they fully grasp those two concepts before moving on to more technical details.
Step 3: Simplify The Process
A process usually follows when making these changes or amendments which involve three steps i.e., Proposal – Passing – Ratification; keep things simple for kids by breaking down each process into its simple parts:
When someone wants to make an amendment (proposal), he or she has to write it down & propose it to Congress (consisting of representatives from all states) — If two-thirds of them agree that this proposal would be good for everyone then half way is over.
Passing simply means other half now remains! This requires three quarters or larger agreement among individual states since some proposed amendments may favor only certain areas and not satisfy every one nationwide.
Finally comes ‘Ratification’. Once passed by Congress, people in each state would get together (!!) again- even though they had already approved the amendment- to make sure everyone still likes it as much as before. If people in enough (at least three quarters) of the states still approve, making it a part of the Constitution.
Step 4: Use Examples
When explaining amendments, give examples of past amendments that have positively impacted society. For example, talk about how women were given the right to vote after the 19th Amendment was passed in 1920 or how slavery was abolished with the 13th Amendment.
Step 5: Encourage Critical Thinking
Ask children why they think some amendments were added and what their own opinions are on potential new amendments that could be added. Allow them to express themselves freely and encourage critical thinking. Also, suggest allowing children to write down their ideas and proposals for possible future amendments.
In conclusion, explaining Amendments should not be confined to dull textbooks only where you discuss an amendment’s history, timeline and its associated constitutional impact. Understanding Amendments in great details requires discussions made easy on levels of all age groups, including children (the future citizens). It is very important for young minds starting at this early age to understand basic changes in laws affecting their daily lives firsthand so they too start participating early on discussing important issues affecting our society today!
FAQ: Commonly Asked Questions About Amendments to the Constitution for Kids
As a kid, learning about the Constitution and its amendments can seem daunting, but it’s actually not as complicated as it may seem. Here are some commonly asked questions about amendments to the Constitution that every kid (and adult) should know!
1. What is the Constitution, and why is it important?
The Constitution is a set of laws that guide how our government works in the United States. It was written over 200 years ago and serves as the foundation for democracy in America.
2. What are Amendments to the Constitution?
Amendments are changes made to the original text of the Constitution. Think of them like updates or patches to a video game or app that add new features or fix glitches.
3. How many Amendments are there?
There are currently 27 Amendments to the Constitution.
4. Which Amendment gives us freedom of speech?
The First Amendment guarantees freedom of speech, religion, assembly and press.
5. Which Amendment abolished slavery?
The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery in America.
6. Which Amendment gave women the right to vote?
The Nineteenth Amendment gave women the right to vote.
7. Which Amendment lowered the voting age from 21 to 18?
The Twenty-Sixth Amendment lowered the voting age from 21 to 18.
8. Can there be more than one amendment at a time?
Yes! Many times several amendments will be proposed simultaneously but may take different amounts of time in order for them all to become law depending on how much support they receive.
9. How does an amendment get added to the Constitution?
An amendment must first be proposed by either Congress with two thirds majority support their proposal in both houses or by two-thirds of state legislatures requesting convention for amending proposed decision-making process happens then up approving needs only three-fourths ratification from either state legislatures or conventions within those states
10.What other amendments do you think we need today?
That’s an excellent question, and one that is constantly debated by politicians and citizens alike. Some people believe we need an amendment to protect the environment or address income inequality. What are your ideas for new amendments?
In conclusion, learning about amendments to the Constitution can be a fun and interesting experience for kids! By understanding our nation’s founding document, we can better appreciate our rights and responsibilities as citizens of the United States.
Top 5 Essential Facts About Amendments to the Constitution for Kids
The Constitution is the fundamental law that governs the United States of America, and it has been guiding our country since its inception. One of the remarkable things about the Constitution is that it can be updated with Amendments, which are changes made to the original document. There have been numerous constitutional amendments throughout history, all aiming to improve our nation’s laws based on societal needs and values.
Here are the top five essential facts kids should know about amendments to the Constitution:
1. The Bill of Rights was an essential Amendment: When people refer to amendments in terms of importance, they often cite the first ten amendments collectively called The Bill of Rights. These 10 additions protect citizens’ fundamental rights such as free speech, religion, press, assembly, and bear arms.
2. The amendment process involves many steps: A proposed amendment must pass through several hurdles before becoming part of Constitutional Law. First, two-thirds (67%) vote in both Senate and House, then requires approval by three-quarters (75% or 38 states) state legislatures or conventions.
3. Some high-profile Amendments address civil rights issues: The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery (1865), Fourteenth Amendment provided citizenship to everyone born on American soil regardless of their race/color (1868), Fifteenth prohibited restrictions in voting based on race/color for black males (1870). Similarly after nearly a hundred years later Twenty-Sixth Amendment lowered voting age from 21 to 18(1971).
4. Not all proposed amendments become part of Law: In History only 27 total amendments were added out more than thousands introduced – That’s not quite a success rate! Some lesser-known failed proposals include establishing “Titles of Nobility” ban in America (1810), “District Voting” Proposal for congressional representation; and allowing Congress a pay raise during its current session(1789).
5. Some modern-day Debates could need constitutional updates too: Every decade, congressional lawmakers propose new amendments. While some of these become law, many others never see the light of day. These days, issues like citizenship for GPS born and redrawing a representative map without bias are particularly topical but not yet addressed via constitution.
In conclusion, amendments are critical to our Constitution and cannot be overlooked if we want to maintain the integrity of our democracy. From freedom and equal rights to improving voting processes and more, our nation’s lawmakers have ensured that every citizen’s voice is heard through amendments to the Constitution. Understanding these essential facts about constitutional changes will not only help kids grasp our Nation’s evolution, but also enable them to ask informed questions that positively impact their future as society members.
Exploring The History Behind Amendments to The Constitution For Kids
The Constitution of the United States is one of the most important documents in our nation’s history. It lays out the framework for our government and outlines the rights and freedoms that all citizens are entitled to. But did you know that there have been 27 amendments made to the Constitution since it was first written in 1787? In this blog post, we’ll explore some of the most significant amendments and their historical significance, all presented in a witty and clever manner that will engage even young readers.
Let’s begin with perhaps the most famous amendment: the First Amendment. This amendment guarantees us freedom of speech, religion, assembly, petition, and press. Without these protections, we might not have many of the freedoms we take for granted today. You wouldn’t be able to express your opinions (even if they’re unpopular), worship as you choose (even if it’s not a mainstream religion), or gather with friends in public spaces without fear of persecution.
Another important amendment is the Fourth Amendment which protects against unreasonable search and seizure by law enforcement officers. Before this amendment was ratified in 1791, British soldiers had unlimited power to search colonists’ homes without cause or warrant. This sparked outrage among Americans who were trying to separate from British rule and led future American lawmakers to enshrine protection against such abuses into law.
Perhaps one of the lesser-known amendments is number three which prohibits Quartering Soldiers during peacetime without consent from homeowners; but its significance cannot be overstated either, as before this time soldiers would often force themselves into private homes throughout history..
Other notable amendments include:
– The Thirteenth Amendment: abolished slavery throughout America
– The Fifteenth Amendment: granted Black men suffrage
– The Nineteenth Amendment: gave women suffrage
– The Twenty-sixth Amendment: lowered voting age from 21 to 18
These amendments show how over time legislators have worked hard towards creating an equal, just and fair on all levels of society. It is through these amendments that America has become an inclusive place for people from all walks of life.
In conclusion, learning about amendments to the Constitution not only educates kids about issues like civil rights and freedoms but also shows them what it really means to be an American in a world where our country continues to change and grow. So let’s raise a glass to all those who have fought for the creation of these amendments, and celebrate with pride a nation that strives towards freedom, equality and justice for all!
Practical Examples of How Amendments Impact The Lives of Children
The United States Constitution is the guiding document upon which our country was founded. It outlines the basic framework of our government and sets forth fundamental rights and protections that are supposed to apply to all citizens. However, over time, we have seen a need for changes – amendments – to be made to this revered document.
Through 27 amendments, significant changes have been made in order to ensure that the principles of fairness and justice are upheld for all individuals. And though many might think these changes are lofty ideals that affect only adults or society as a whole, it’s crucially important to understand how they impact children – who constitute a vital segment of our country’s future.
Here are some practical examples of how amendments impact the lives of children:
1. The Sixth Amendment: “The accused shall enjoy the right…to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor.”
This amendment guarantees an essential part of criminal defense – ensuring that those accused can present witnesses in their favor in court. But additionally, it serves as an incredibly valuable tool for juvenile defendants.
When minors find themselves facing charges, they may lack essential support structures that would help them navigate legal proceedings effectively. For example, parents may not have access or ability to convince potential witnesses on behalf of their child.
However, by making sure young defendants can obtain witnesses through compulsory processes regardless if their guardian or lawyer is able helps level the judicial playing field.
2.The Eighth Amendment: “Excessive bail shall not be required…nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.”
It is somewhat convenient for adult Americans to assume this amendment has nearly no bearing whatsoever on their everyday routine—beyond TV crime shows depicting hapless criminals awaiting trial inside prison cells—and rendering its existence trivial.
But consider what it means when applied to youth incarceration centers (often referred colloquially as “juvenile detention centers). Shockingly more often than not holding offenders before any definitive judgment from a court hearing.This may result fighting for freedom in a seemingly endless cycle of appeals.
If bail is too expensive or not a given option, youths could end up living in subpar conditions and attending inadequate schools and hospitals. This impacts the child’s life trajectory significantly, both mentally and emotionally. Juvenile facilities that expose children to cruel and unusual punishment demonstrated an undeniable amount of damage upon release as well.
This amendment contains language meant to protect all individuals from such treatment, regardless of their age. It’s crucially important to remember this as we work towards reforming the institutions created to support at-risk young people.
3.The Fourteenth Amendment: “nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.”
The landmark Civil Rights Act wasn’t the only way lawmakers sought equality for all (including minors!), and indeed there was one hidden within several long deliberations before it.
The Fourteenth Amendment defines citizenship for all those who were born into America—a fundamental aspect considering many families with generational history now exist here. But it also grants more legal protections covering everyone including children governed by U.S territories residing outside standard norms.
For instance if you’re unmarried with underage children but give birth on their land—you can’t expect equal available education or healthcare services as parents with married status typically do, however children fall under their “equal protection” clauses similar to murder victims have rights albeit via their dead body alone—which is another issue found within this confusing branch of law.
Children should be able to avail themselves fully to our country’s resources and freedoms – regardless if they are partaking in American-born culture outside stateside soil or not– free access based solely on citizenship rather than future complications due on approval status or outdated maxims..
Clearly amendments ratified centuries ago carry important contemporary relevance today. The ways these changes impact society may periodically shift over time – judicial interpretation, culture and technology tend to move fast – but our responsibility remains the same. To heedfully protect those vulnerable entities within it while striving for fairness, equity and justice through fair democratic process.
Teaching Tools And Resources To Make Learning About Constitutional Amendments Fun For Kids
The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the country and it lays out the basic principles of the government and ensures that individual rights and freedoms are protected. The Constitution is a complex document, but it’s also a vital part of American history that children should learn about as early as possible. However, many kids find learning about constitutional amendments to be dull or daunting.
Thankfully, there are a variety of teaching tools and resources available that can make learning about constitutional amendments fun for kids. Here, we’ll explore some ways teachers or parents can get children interested in constitutional amendments:
1. Use Visual Aids
Visual aids like charts, diagrams, and graphic novels can help young learners understand complex concepts better than text alone. Using visual aids also helps to hold children’s attention spans longer allowing children to engage with the content more effectively.
2. Make It Hands-On
Hands-on activities like debates, games or simulations can really bring history to life for kids while making them engaged with one another in friendly competition and boosting their curiosity on the subject matter.
Kids love stories! And what better way to teach them about constitutional amendments than through storytelling? Using character dialogue between important figures from US history could be an effective tool here in getting students excited about learning while reinforcing concepts introduced within lessons.
4. Songs or Raps
Singing tunes such as Schoolhouse Rock historically been an educational technique that has stood the test of time; singing catchy tunes which may include associated body movements could aid memory retention whilst being prone to brightening up any kid’s school day.
5. Debate/discussion sessions
Give room for healthy celebration of different perspectives by introducing debate style discussions into your class interaction area – Whether you choose different discussion topics on each occasion or keep returning back to similar issues frequently debated over time this is sure ongoing approach which will offer fun conversations regarding regulation changes throughout history positively encouraging children to look at from multiple points.
In conclusion, constitutional amendments don’t have to be a boring or intimidating topic for children. There are a variety of teaching tools and resources available that can make learning about them fun and interactive. By using visual aids, hands-on activities, storytelling, songs or raps and debate/discussion sessions; teaching fundamental principles within the United States Constitution is bound to become more engaging whilst increasing student’s enthusiasm towards such an important part of U.S history!
Table with Useful Data:
|1st Amendment||Freedom of Speech, Religion, Press, Assembly, and Petition||Guarantees that individuals can express themselves and worship as they please, without government interference.|
|2nd Amendment||Right to Bear Arms||Allows individuals to own guns for personal protection, hunting, and sport.|
|3rd Amendment||Housing Soldiers||Protects citizens from having to quarter (house) soldiers in their homes during times of peace.|
|4th Amendment||Search and Seizure||Protects citizens from unreasonable government searches and seizures of their property.|
|5th Amendment||Due Process, Double Jeopardy, Self-Incrimination||Guarantees individuals cannot be used as witnesses against themselves and cannot be tried for the same crime twice. Also ensures that individuals receive a fair trial.|
|6th Amendment||Right to a Fair Trial||Establishes the right to a speedy and public trial, the right to an impartial jury, and the right to legal representation.|
|7th Amendment||Right to a Trial by Jury||Ensures that individuals have the right to a jury trial in certain civil cases.|
|8th Amendment||Bail, Fines, Punishment||Protects individuals from cruel and unusual punishment. Also ensures that bail and fines are not excessive.|
|9th Amendment||Individual Rights||States that individuals have rights not specifically mentioned in the Constitution.|
|10th Amendment||State Powers||Grants powers not delegated to the federal government to the states or to the people.|
Information from an expert
As an expert, I believe that it is crucial to educate kids about the amendments to the Constitution. It’s important for them to understand that these changes were made over time based on the needs of society. The amendments guarantee the rights of every individual in our country. For instance, the First Amendment protects freedom of speech and religion while the Nineteenth Amendment granted women the right to vote. By teaching children about this topic, we are equipping them with knowledge that promotes respect for others’ rights and a better understanding of how our nation operates under its fundamental principles.
The 19th Amendment, which granted women the right to vote in the United States, was ratified on August 18, 1920.