Steps for this task:
First I tapped out their knowledge about leprechauns, then read them a few picture books over a few days.
Second I asked the kids to tell me everything they knew about leprechauns. On a chart I recorded vocabulary that they generated. Even though most American kids understand that leprechauns are tiny fairies from Ireland who keep a pot of gold hidden, it's important to have a discussion. For example, most of my students did not know that leprechauns earned their gold coins from working as cobblers for the fairies. Nor did they know that leprechauns could never lie and this was why they've come up with inventive ways to trick people. A word bank of relevant vocabulary is not only extremely valuable for non native English speakers, it also provides an anchor for less confident writers.
Third I displayed my chart which lists 5 essential components of a story:
1. An entertaining beginning
2. Describe the setting
3. Build suspense
4. Frame by frame of the problem
5. Solving the problem
After all these months of teaching the steps on this chart the kids are quite familiar with them.
Fourth I explained the task. Write a story that features a leprechaun. You'll do a first draft today. Tomorrow you will revise the story using the steps we've learned, and then you will write a final draft of the story.
My Two Cents on Creative Writing
The buzz all around is Common Core Standards and teachers are swiveling toward non fiction, more opinion based writing. I agree that when kids graduate out of school they should be equipped to formulate arguments and support their positions on a variety of topics. My students write in their journals a few times a week, most of which is expository. Here, the emphasis is on content rather than delivery. While it is important to encourage kids to express their opinions in coherent writing, we should not hastily throw out the baby with the bathwater. I feel strongly that to teach effective writing strategies, creative writing offers the ideal forum. Coming up with a plot and figuring out how all the events will flow requires intense concentration. Students go through a complete thought process for an appreciable length of time. This is also an opportunity to experiment with new vocabulary and channel thoughts into grammatical sentences. In exercising their imagination and expanding their thinking kids are strengthening skills for application later in their lives. Finally, kids learn to write strong sentences and use paragraphs in an enjoyable fashion. These skills will transfer to those expository pieces expected in future years.
My students were thoroughly excited about the writing task right from the beginning. I'm very proud to share a few stories from this assignment which appear below. Notice the experimentation in their styles, vocabulary, and description. It is really important for the teacher to notice and praise the strengths, and to overlook a lot of the mistakes. It's normal for beginning writers to have inaccuracies. These stories are from 9 year olds and I think they are incredible.
Beyond the streets and over the hills in a little valley in Ireland was a little cottage. In this cottage there lived a girl named Annie. She lived with her brother, James and her aunt.
They owed a rather tiny piece of land but apple trees and golden and green apple trees and golden and green grass stretch forever around them. Everyday Annie would go picking apples and would root the potatoes. She did this because you would have to if you don’t have a store for miles away.
Her favorite thing though was to read about or look for leprechauns. She would look by every brook and hollow log. She would look in holes big and small and stumps short and tall.
One day though she forgot how her aunt said to stay close. She got carried away and went farther than her limit. She thought to her self, “I’ve never been here before.”
Well she wasn’t alone. She saw a trail of smoke drifting in the air. As she got close she could see a tiny little chimney popping out of the hill with a weathered tiny door. It was a built into the hill. She got closer.
She kneeled down and to her surprise it said clearly printed, “Leprechauns present.” She rang the little bell. Nobody answered. So she just opened it. She had to crawl because of the tiny size. It was so dark though but there was a glimpse of light at the end.
Then a thing of dust got in her eye. She took her hand to feel things when it brushed on some hair. Then she moved her hand down. Just then the dust came put. She opened her eyes. “Agghh! Agghh!” They both screamed.
“Are you a leprechaun?” she asked. He rang his bell on the tip of his hap, “Jolly good. Follow me over here.” Annie did as she was told. He led her to the light.
Right there was an entire town full of leprechauns. There was a rainbow, and little shops a field of clovers and of course much more. There were flowers with nuggets of the finest gold and grass as green as scattered emeralds. Then something caught her eye. In front of them was a beautiful tree dangled with crisp, shiny, ruby red apples. They had golden pits. “I suppose I must give you my gold,” said the leprechaun.
“No!” Annie interrupted. “How about one of those apples?” The leprechaun grinned and gladly gave her an apple. “Come back, but don’t tell anyone were here.”
She crawled through the cave and exited they tiny wooden door. When she got back she showed her aunt the apple. “Where did you get that?” her aunt asked.
Annie was not prepared for this. She said, “From a new tree I found.” So that answered her aunt’s question. Now she could just go there whenever she wanted hopefully her aunt would stay that way. So she did. Everyday she would go see them and bring back one apple. They stayed friends forever and favored each other.
The Night Before St. Patrick’s Day
Tap, tap, tap. I was lying in bed listening. There it went again. It was the night before St. Patrick’s Day. It must be leprechauns, I thought. Slowly and silently I slipped out of bed. Slowly and silently I tip toed down the stairs.
Half way down my mouth dropped open. My body froze. I almost screamed. No it couldn’t be, but it was. There in the middle of my living room were dozens and dozens of leprechauns. Tap, tap, tap. Now I could hear very clearly.
Silently I tiptoed down the rest of the stairs. Slowly I approached on of the leprechauns. “Hello, “ I whispered. “My name is Sophie. I won’t hurt you. Just tell me what you’re doing.”
“We are digging up our pots of gold to take to the end of the rainbow,” he answered without looking up. “My name is Bob.” Then he and the other leprechauns left. I tiptoed after them.
Very soon we reached the end of a spectacular rainbow. “We must go to the other side,” Bob said.
“Why?” I asked.
“Because we must never bury treasure unless we are in Ireland,” he answered. He climbed onto the rainbow an offered his hand to me. Though I took it, it didn’t do much because he was so much smaller than me. I climbed on after him and the other leprechauns climbed on after me.
Soon we reached the very top of the rainbow. Under our feet was the most amazing mat of colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple. Above our heads the stars shimmered and danced. The moon smiled down on us, lighting up the world. Down below the world was asleep. I dozed with it.
Just then Bob let out a horrifying shriek. I woke up. Bob’s full to the top pot of gold was now falling quickly to the Earth. “Can you fly?” I asked.
“No!” he answered in a panic. “Only the king and queen can fly.”
Suddenly I had an idea. When I had gotten out of bed I had wrapped my blanket around me. The leprechauns worked some magic and the blanket could now be used as a parachute. I grabbed Bob, put him in my pocket and we began our long fall to earth.
When we got there we were surprised to see we were at the end of the rainbow. There propped up neatly on a rock was Bob’s pot of gold. Not one coin had been lost. I helped Bob bury the pot.
Then he worked a spell. I was swept away in a blur of green. Then, plop, I landed warm and safe in my very own bed. When I leaned over to check the time it was 6:30, the time I had left. There was a beautiful charm bracelet with a leprechaun who looked like Bob and lots of clover leaves. When I put it on, it was like I had a touch of magic in me.
That morning I tried to tell my parents and sister but they just said I had a big imagination. So my adventure on the rainbow still remains my secret.
When I was walking on a trail in March, I found a sign. It was in the ground. It said: Beware of some Lepre. The rest of the sign was covered in dirt. I picked it up. The last part was broken off. Then I saw something green move fast. It looked like a tiny man.
There were two of them. Their footprints were green. They were leprechauns! Another sign appeared. On it in tiny letters were: Solve the riddle. I picked up the sign. On the last word chaun was added. I solved the riddle!
I put the sign in my knapsack and followed the leprechauns. Their names were, and still are, Lucky and Cheeky. They led me to a gate. On a sign it said, “Private Property. DO NOT ENTER.” I found a key. It opened the gate.
There was a 3-headed dragon and a phoenix firebird. They chased us to a cave filled with werewolves. Lucky and Cheeky gave them some meat. We captured one and named him Lightening.
We dashed up to a glacier. It came to be a sinkhole. We were caught in a bullet train. We traveled until we came to a station. There was a party.
The leprechauns saw their arch-enemy. He was a black elf named Darkness. He saw them and started running. We followed him, grabbing some silver. He liked silver. We threw it into the werewolf cave. That was the end of him.
The leprechauns turned into constellations.
My New Leprechaun Family
A beige sun set over the mountains of Flockenville, a very small village in Ireland. Only twenty families lived in Flockenville. I was sent into the forest to get firewood. By the way, I am Carter.
So I aimed my ax and chop, chop, chop! Out came a leprechaun. He said, “Ooo, I’ll take you to my pot of gold.” And across the river were hundreds, perhaps thousands of pots full of gold. But I had to ford the river. SPLASH!
I was in the water heading towards a waterfall! Splash! I fell in and all that was left was me and my jack-knife. My ax was too heavy to float down.
It took me hours to cut down a tree with a jack knife. I started a fire and when it got going the light attracted an old couple. They managed to make a house and adopt me.
It was a nice house. My favorite part was the warm fireplace. Also the warm beds. I got an allowance for chopping down trees.
Then one day, years later, I was fit and ready for my adventure home. I ran into more leprechauns. They turned me into a leprechaun! I tried to push the guy off a cliff and into my fire, but I was too small.
So, they adopted me. I kept trying to turn myself back into a human, but I dealt with it and had family time with my new leprechaun family.
St. Patrick’s Day Story
By Lea Pynn
The sun was coming up as the moon went down. It shot through Emily’s curtains. She lifted the sheet over her head. She couldn’t take it. She got up and went downstairs. Her mom was making pancakes for breakfast. She only made pancakes on special occasions. Today was a special occasion. Today was Saint Patrick’s Day!
Emily’s family lived in a beautiful place called Ireland. Her mom’s name was Jan and her dad’s name was Jefferson. Emily always wanted to see a leprechaun. When she could see a leprechaun she would ask, “Do you have any gold?”
One day her mom sent her out to get some firewood. She tripped over a log, dropped her firewood, and tumbled down a dark hole. When her eyes opened she was in a world with giant plants.
Emily looked down. She wasn’t wearing her white dress anymore. She had a green shirt, green pants, a black hat, black shoes, and her hair was loose instead of in braids. When she looked back, the hole was covered with weeds, leaves, grass, and dead flowers.
The people of the village were running around like crazy. When all the people were gone Emily went to a little Irishman sitting on a tree stump. “Why is everything so big and why am I so little?” she asked.
He said, “A pleasant hello would be grand.”
“Sorry,” said Emily.
“Better. My name is Ton, and you’re a leprechaun.”
“WHAT?” she yelled.
“Yes. We do not like people going near our village. We put the log there to make you tumble down our hole. Whenever someone goes into Leprechaun Village they turn into leprechauns,” said Ton.
“That is actually kind of spectacular, “ Emily said.
“Would you like to see what it is like to be a leprechaun?” Ton asked.
“Sure I would!”
The first place they went to was a clear pond full of ducks. They climbed up plants, rested on flower petals, and rode ducks. The next hour they went to a meadow. Ton and Emily ran off to the woods. They tried to climb trees, but it was hard. “My mom said the latest I can be gone is sunset, “ Emily said.
“I’ll let you go off. Just remember never come near this hole again.”
Emily was shot out of Leprechaun Village. She had braids, her white dress, and her Converse shoes on. She grabbed her firewood and ran home. Her mom was very happy to see her and very worried. Her mom said her dinner was on the table. When Emily fell asleep Ton was in her house. He crept into her room. This is what he whispered in her ear, “Didn’t we have a grand time?”
A St. Patrick’s Day Story
My story starts in Ireland in the middle of the mountains in a little house. In that house there lived a little man who was 12 inches tall and always wore the color green. This little man was what we call a leprechaun.
Now this leprechaun was hiding his pot of gold when a big net snatched him and his pot of gold. The leprechaun said, “Please let me go! I haven’t hidden my pot of gold yet! Come and snatch me up tomorrow when I have hidden my pot of gold!”
The man whose name was Tom said “Or. But you have to be in this exact spot OR.”
“OR,” said the leprechaun.
The leprechaun quickly hid his pot of gold. Then he walked to his house and went to bed. There was only one problem. Tom was hiding behind a tree. When the leprechaun was gone he went home, got his shovel, and came back and dug up the pot of gold. Then Tom took the pot of gold home.
The next day Tom came back to the exact spot he last caught the leprechaun. He waited all day, then the leprechaun finally came. Tom scooped him up in the big net. “Where is you pot of gold?”
“My pot of gold is inside the cherry tree,” said the leprechaun. Tom looked inside the cherry tree, but of course, nothing was there.
Then Tom said, “Where’s the pot of gold?”
“It’s not there. Someone must have stolen it.” While the leprechaun was looking for his pot of gold frantically, Tom ran home and never ever told anyone what happened that day.
A Leprechaun Named Izzy
Long ago there lived a leprechaun named Izzy. Izzy ran away from home and was all alone in the woods. One day she met a very kind girl named Jenny. They met while Jenny was on vacation. Their vacation was at a cabin in the woods.
Jenny went for a walk in the woods. She started to hear strange sounds. She also saw a bush shaking. She started to walk faster. Later she saw something green. She wondered what it was and then she thought it must be a leprechaun.
Jenny ran home and got her leprechaun trap. When she came back the leprechaun was still there so Jenny trapped the leprechaun and took him back home.
When they got home Jenny put the leprechaun in a cage. Jenny saw he was scared and said, “Don’t be scared. What’s your name?”
The leprechaun said, “My name is Izzy.”
The girl said, “My name is Jenny and we’re going to be the best of friends. If you promise you will not slip away from me and run away, I will let you out of the cage.” Jenny opened the cage and took Izzy out.
Izzy ran out of the cage. Then he said, “I am hungry.”
Jenny said, “Well, what do you want?”
“Do you have any potatoes? Leprechauns love potatoes.”
They both then said goodbye.
“I had the best day ever!” Jessica Hall exclaimed.
“Why?” asked her mother, Mrs. Hall.
“The sixth grade is going to Ireland next month!” That month passed quickly. Before Jessica knew it, she was on the plane.
When she found her seat she felt a pinch and almost screamed. She was so shocked to see what she saw. A strange quiet voice, almost a whisper, said, “Hello girly, my name is Lucky, the Leprechaun.”
Jessica thought, That was supposed to make me feel better but it didn’t. After all it’s not every day that a girl sees a leprechaun. “Why aren’t you in Ireland?” she asked forgetting where the plane was heading.
“You forgetful little girly,” Lucky replied.
Quickly Jessica picked up Lucky and put him in her carry on. For the rest of the plane ride she slept. When she woke up the plane was landing. She grabbed her carry on and Lucky was still there. She sighed with relief. She turned for a split second and he was gone. She looked around the plane but it was too late.
She realized that this was Lucky’s home and she trusted him to walk around. She left with her class to go to the hotel.When she got there, sitting on her bed, was Lucky and twenty other leprechauns. Jessica’s jaw dropped. Lucky saw this so he quickly said, “You shoved me into your suitcase which means you invited me and my whole family to stay with you.”
“Well then,” replied Jessica.
All of a sudden they started thrashing about. They tore up the pillows and white, fluffy feathers flew around the room. The wool comforter was torn and spread out all over the room. Jessica yelled, “WHAT ARE YOU DOING?” The leprechauns all got a sad look on their faces. “Well anyway I found you, Lucky. Now where is your pot of gold?” Jessica asked after a long silent moment.
“Oh, don’t you know that was the olden times that we did that? This is modern times,” replied Lucky.
Jessica now was in a bad mood. She wanted to get rid of the leprechauns. It was the last day of the trip. The leprechauns were still there. She felt so powerless around them. Whenever she said something they always put on those sad faces.
Jessica packed her bags. While she was packing she realized why she could never manage to tell them to leave. She had grown to love them.
When they weren’t looking, she slipped out the door. On the ride back she felt sad and lonely. She wished Lucky were sitting next to her. When she got home she lugged her bag into her room and lay down.
Years past and everyday she thought about him. She had a sixth grade daughter named Jessie. One day Jessie came home and said, “The sixth grade is going to Ireland.” On the plane she felt a pinch.
“Hello, my name is Lucky Jr.,” said a small voice. Jessie picked him up and put him in her carry on.
Chubby, the Leprechaun
Chubby was a big leprechaun. His name was perfect for him because he was chubby. He lived in LGSG city. Chubby was poor. He kept his only $2,000,000 in the bank. ($2,000,000 is not that money for a leprechaun.)
One day an evil wizard named Zurvak, who wore a vicious looking blood-red cloak, came flying to LGST city on his ghost chariot pulled by two dead ghostly dragons. His chariot shot out millions of ghosts who broke apart the city prison. All the evil wizards of the world escaped.
That night Chubby couldn’t sleep. He was worried about the evil wizards. Then he saw light. He looked out the window. He fell over. The evil wizards were shooting spells at the bank!
KABLOOM! It fell over in pieces. Then a huge crate, probably 500 miles high, dropped down on a rope. It opened. The evil wizards shot a spell and all the gold that had been in the bank flew up and fell into the crate. It was Zurvak’s ghost chariot! It flew away with all the gold, followed by the evil wizards.
Chubby rushed downstairs. He saw police cars and jumped into one. “Thanks,” he yelled, throwing a pound of gold at a policeman. Soon he came to a desert and his car stopped. “The worst time to run out of gas!” he said.
About a mile away he saw a huge cactus. After an hour he came to it. He saw a little rectangular shaped door. He kicked it and it fell over! He walked inside and overheard the wizards having a meeting.
“Whoever is first to destroy this planet gets to be in charge,” said Zurvak. Zurvak and the others ran in different directions. Zurvak ran into a catapult. Just as he was about to crush it, Chubby catapulted him to space.
The other wizards held a meeting behind the huge cactus. “Now that Zurvak is gone I get to be ruler!” shouted a wizard named Donjatv. Up in space Zurvak threw a spear at Earth. It hit the huge cactus. The cactus fell over crushing the other wizards. Zurvak flew away looking back, laughing at Earth. But before he could turn to look ahead, a meteorite hit him. He fell down, down, down, never to be seen again.
Everybody got their gold back. Everyone thanked Chubby.
The Leprechaun’s Rainbow
In a place called Ireland lived a girl named Emma. Emma had blond hair and blue eyes. One morning Emma woke up. She went outside and lay down and looked at the sky. She saw a beautiful rainbow.
When she got up she saw a bush shaking and a strange shadow. “What could it be?” said Emma. It was a leprechaun named Ella.
Ella said, “Please don’t hurt me.
I don’t know who you are,” said Emma.
“You don’t know who I am?” said Ella.”
“No, I don’t,” said Emma.
“Well, I am a leprechaun. I came from a town called The World of Leprechauns,” said Ella.
“That is a beautiful name,” said Emma.
“Why are you here?” asked Emma.
“I came to collect berries because in our town there aren’t any berries and if we don’t eat, rainbows won’t appear,” said Ella.
“You control rainbows?” asked Emma.
“Yes, you didn’t know?”
“No I didn’t.”
“We leprechauns eat different colored berries so we can make the rainbows. I am dressed in blue because I made the color blue in rainbows. Four other leprechauns are with me because they make the other colors of the rainbow. Do you want to meet them? They’re behind the bush.”
“All right,” said Emma. The four leprechauns came out from the bush. The one dressed in orange was Patrick, the one in red was Sally, the one in green was Alex, and the one in yellow was May.
“We all eat berries. Do you eat berries?” asked Ella.
“Of course I do. They are my favorite snack,” said Emma.
Ella said, “May we have some berries?”
“Of course. Take as many as you need. You may come whenever you want.”
“Thank you very much. You are a good friend.”
The Young Leprechaun
A long time ago there was a young boy named Mike. He had curly, blonde hair and his eyes were as blue as the sea. His skin was peach with a hint of brown. Mike’s family was poor. He lived with is mom and sister. His father died before he was born. Mike and his family lived in a little cottage in the middle of the woods. The cottage had only one room. He shared a room with his sister. His mom slept alone.
One day when Mike went out to plant some tomato seeds he saw a shadow. A bush shook. Then he saw something climbing up a tree. Mike froze in his tracks. He said to himself, “Could it be?”
When he went behind the bush he almost fainted. He saw a leprechaun. He couldn’t say a word. Mike asked in a shaky voice, “What is your name?”
The leprechaun answered, “Coral.” Mike fainted.
When Mike woke up he thought it was just a dream. He got dressed and went outside. Right at that moment he saw Coral. Coral said, “Hello. I want to tell you about myself.”
I was born by the ocean side. I didn’t have any parents with me. I almost got sucked up by the ocean. Someone had come to save me. I remember it as being a wizard. Then I was brought here to these bushes. That’s my story.
“Okay,” said Mike.
Now I, the writer, will tell you what Coral looked like. She had blue, curly hair. Her eyes were as brown as dirt. Her skin was peach.
The next day Mike woke up and looked for Coral. She wasn’t there but there was a message. It said: I’ve been stolen. Please come and save me. I lie hidden by the sea.
After Mike read this letter he rushed over to the sea. He looked all over for Coral. Then, in the shadows of the ocean he saw green. He said to himself, “That must be Coral.” He picked her up.
Next Coral said, “I will turn you into a leprechaun.” Zap! Mike was a leprechaun.
The very next day Mike and Coral got married.


Learning With Gardner: Valued Intelligence and Implications for Education
Michael Stier, Christopher Miller, & Jacqueline Diggs
This study considered the concept of multiple intelligences to assess perceived valued intellect esteemed by society and the influence an individual's area of study on intelligence. A convenience sample of participants (N = 82) was selected from classes and popular areas at a small liberal arts university located in the Midwest. Results demonstrated a statistical difference for the individual's most valued type of intelligence based on the individual's strongest type. However, the hypotheses predicting the most valued and least valued intelligence type by society as well as by the individual were not supported. Since we all possess different intelligences, possible implications include a more effective method for differentiated instruction as well as maximize creativity, motivation, and intelligence in students.
Howard Gardner was born in July of 1943 in Scranton, Pennsylvania to Jewish parents that migrated from Germany a year before World War II. He attended college at Harvard University to study history in preparation for a career in law. After studying with prestigious individuals such as Erik Erikson, Jerome Bruner, and David Riesman, Gardner made the decision to investigate human nature and the psychology of human cognition. Howard Gardner viewed intelligence as 'the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural setting.'
Gardner's initial list of intelligences as described in his book, Frames of Mind of 1983, included seven types. The first two, linguistic and logical-mathematical, are typically valued within the school system. Musical, bodily-kinesthetic, and spatial are intelligences associated with the arts. The final two, interpersonal and intrapersonal, were referred to by Gardner as 'personal intelligences.' Gardner meant for the intelligences to work cooperatively in order for the individual to develop skills or to solve problems. In terms of education, Gardner's objective was to provide instructors with seven ways to teach a topic as opposed to just one. Subsequent research by Gardner added three new intelligences: naturalist, spiritual, and existential to his original seven. For the purposes of this experiment, the researchers examined Gardner's eight central intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial-visual, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist.
Linguistic intelligence refers to words and language, both spoken and written. People with high linguistic intelligence display exceptional skills in reading, writing, acquiring foreign language, and storytelling. Linguistically oriented learners often think in words and are best taught by reading, taking notes, listening to lectures, and discussion and debate. Individuals with high linguistic intelligence enjoy word puzzles, writing poetry or stories, and reading. Occupations that reflect superior linguistic intelligence include: authors, public speakers, journalists, lawyers, teachers, and politicians.
Logical-mathematical intelligence refers to reasoning, logic, numbers, and investigate questions scientifically. Logical-mathematical learners detect patterns, experiment, utilize complex calculations, excel at traditional IQ tests, and exercise deductive reasoning. People displaying high logical-mathematical intellect enjoy computer programming, chess, and Sudoku or other logic games. Occupations that reflect advanced logical-mathematical intelligence include: mathematicians, engineers, scientists, doctors, and economists.
Musical intelligence refers to music, rhythm, and sound. Individuals with high musical intelligence display sensitivity to sounds and rhythmic patterns, capacity to recognize pitches and tones, and can exhibit excellence in singing and/or instrumental performance. Students with prominent musical intelligence learn in lecture settings best because musical intelligence has a strong auditory component involved. Individuals with superior musical intelligence may create a song, rhythm, rhyme, or lyrics to help learn new information or to commit information into their memory. Gardner adds that this particular intelligence is structurally related to linguistic intelligence. Occupations that reflect a high musical intelligence include: musicians- both vocal and instrumental, conductors, and composers.
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence refers to an acute sense of bodily awareness and its function in problem solving or in discovering new things. Individuals with high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are typically highly athletic and work well with their hands. Students with superior bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are exceedingly tactile in terms of learning and will benefit best from education if they are allowed to build/create something as opposed to simply hearing about an object. Occupations that best suit individuals with an advanced bodily-kinesthetic intelligence include: professional athletes, dancers, surgeons, builders, and soldiers.
Spatial-Visual intelligence refers to an enhanced awareness of an individual's physical space or environment. Individuals with a high spatial-visual intellect can easily interpret and comprehend cartography, and enjoy drawing, sketching, and three-dimensional modeling. Students with exceptional spatial-visual orientation learn best through verbal imagery, charts, graphs, photographs, drawings/paintings, and video. Occupations that accompany accomplished spatial-visual intelligence include: architects, artists, photographers, cartographers, sailors, and video game designers.
Interpersonal intelligence refers to an exceptional capacity to interpret and comprehend the intentions, impulses, and needs of others. Individuals with high interpersonal intelligence work efficiently and cooperatively with others, possess sensitivity to the feelings and temperaments of others, and can easily empathize with others. Students with interpersonal intelligence are best taught through interaction and group activities. Individuals with a well-developed interpersonal intelligence typically learn better through open discussions and debate. Occupations that reflect a superior level of interpersonal intelligence include interactive professions such as: psychologists, sales, politicians, educators, and religious leaders.
Intrapersonal intelligence refers to the enhanced capacity for self- awareness and introspection. Individuals with superior intrapersonal intelligence have a keen sense of intuition, wisdom, and insight into their true emotions, motivations, aspirations, and fears. They are often excellent at predicting their own behavior in situations and can identify their own strengths and weaknesses. Students with high intrapersonal intelligence are typically introverted and work best independently. Therefore, intrapersonal learners perform well in independent study. Occupations that best reflect individuals with high intrapersonal intelligence include: philosophers, theologians, writers, and psychologists.
Naturalistic intelligence refers to the individual's ability to distinguish, label, and classify specific features within the physical environment. Individuals with high naturalistic intelligence enjoy the outdoors, greatly appreciate national parks, look forward to watching the seasons change, love animals, and enjoy planting and maintaining gardens. Students with high naturalistic intelligence learn best when subjects can be related into real life or ecological situations. Occupations that reflect naturalistic intelligence include: farmers, hunters, ecologists, biologists, forest rangers, and naturalists.
Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences has been broadly accepted and utilized in classrooms worldwide. The world of education has welcomed Gardner's theory into their curriculum in an effort to better identify tools and methods to assist children in learning. Traditionally, schools utilize linguistic and logical-mathematical skills in teaching, learning, and most importantly, testing. Any aptitude test that a student takes in school incorporates knowledge based upon reading comprehension, vocabulary, and math skills. While many children have grown accustomed to learning in this particular way, there remains a small population of students who do not. Incorporating the eight different types of intelligence into the classroom can be easier than some think. For instance, David Thornburg of the Thornburg Institute explains how music can be incorporated into several avenues of learning:
"The mood of a piece of music might communicate, clearer than words, the feeling of an era being studied in history. The exploration of rhythm can help some students understand fractions. The exploration of the sounds of an organ can lead to an understanding of vibrational modes in physics. What caused the great scientist Kepler to think of the motions of planets in musical terms? Astronomy students could program a synthesizer to play Kepler's 'music of the spheres' and explore history, science, math and music all at once."
Moreover, utilizing Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences in the classroom can encourage creativity within its students. Students can also exhibit their strengths and attempt to identify their strengths within other subjects; thus, enabling students to increase their self-esteem. Conclusively, when educators 'teach for understanding,' their students will accrue positive learning experiences and may possess the skills to produce creative solutions to any problems that may occur in life.
Although Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences is one of the most widely accepted for validity and accuracy among proponents of multiple intelligence, other theorists such as Sternberg and Thurstone have developed their own ideas of intelligence. Sternberg posited a 'triarchic' theory of intelligence which was deemed to be more encompassing because it evaluated social and background factors apart from human capacity (Li, 1996). Sternberg indicated the theories that preceded his triarchic theory were not incorrect, however, they were merely incomplete; for instance, in comparison to Gardner's theory, Sternberg takes into account creative or musical intelligence but he also separated the remaining 6 categories of Gardner's theory into two categories named the analytical and practical. Analytical problems involve intelligence used for academic purposes or according to Neisser et al. (1996) (as cited by Paik, 1998):
'Analytic problems tend to have been formulated by other people, be clearly defined, come with all information needed to solve them, have only a single right answer, which can be reached by only a single method, be disembodied from ordinary experience, and have little or no intrinsic interest. Practical problems tend to require problem recognition and formulation, be poorly defined, require information seeking, have various acceptable solutions, be embedded in and require prior everyday experience, and require motivation and personal involvement.'
If an individual could successfully solve one of these problems, then they would either have a high intelligence for analytical or practical problem solving.
One of the reasons that Sternberg's theory has received positive remarks is because of the implications for real-life situations. For instance, Carraher, Carraher, & Schliemann (1985) found that in a sample of Brazilian street children that they were able to calculate mathematical calculations for business of the street, however, were unable to pass a math course at school; this finding indicates that the children were able to manage two types of intelligence on the same intelligence type. In addition to Gardner and Sternberg, Thurstone (1924) proposed that there is a biological function of intelligence to protect the intelligence to protect the organism from risk as well as satisfy the individual's needs using the least amount of effort. Furthermore, Guilford (1967) posited that intelligence was a structure of intellect that was composed of 4 contents, 5 operations, and 6 processes which make ups 120 combinations.
In contrast to the previously described theories which advocate a view of intelligence which favors the notion of multiple forms existing, there are many opponents which instead argue for a single, general form of intelligence. From henceforth, these theories shall be referred to as 'general intelligence' theories. Intelligence researchers, including Spearman, Eysenck, and Jensen support such theoretical constructs which incorporate all types of intelligence into a single factor model. Spearman deemed this single factor the 'positive manifold.' For instance, research conducted by Eysenck supporting this notion found that a high correlation exists between IQ and simple cognitive tasks. Also, Spearman's discovery of the positive manifold or general intelligence factor (also known as 'g') also strengthens the evidence for a single factor model. This g factor was created out of the observation that the individual's test score were highly correlated even if the tasks were of differing nature. For instance, if an individual scores highly on a test of verbal skills, then that person is likely to do well on a test measuring another cognitive ability such as mathematics. In addition, the researchers found that this strong positive correlation between high-performance on cognitive tasks is not a product of test construction but of the individual's cognitive abilities or g (Paik, 1998).
Additional findings which support the postulation that intelligence is a single factor are reported by Eysenck (1982). For instance, it was reported that reaction time is highly correlated with IQ. These tasks were so simple (pressing a button as a light comes on) that may more accurately be described as sensory and motor. Also, Eysenck suggests that these tests are not affected by gender, socioeconomic, cultural, or educational factors. Therefore, if such a measure portrays intelligence or g differences, intelligence is inborn and not cultivated due to environmental factors. In addition, this definition implies that IQ is directly related to information processing and the nervous system and brain operating with relatively no error (Eysenck, 1982). Furthermore, Jensen posits that faster reaction times are indicative of faster transmissions along neural pathways. It is therefore posited that neural processing speed determines IQ since IQ is correlated with reaction time; g may be processing speed.
The behaviorist point of view, as presented by B.F. Skinner, likely opposes the idea of multiple intelligences as well. For instance, in the behaviorist point of view learning is based on reinforcement of behaviors and reactions to stimuli. In the traditional viewpoint, a behaviorist might support the notion that multiple intelligences and the related abilities are cultivated responses to the environmental factors in the individual's life. Also, if learning and behavior is viewed as a scientific, controllable phenomenon, then it is rational to suggest that Skinner's theory would predict that there is a single type of intelligence similar to Spearman, Eysenck, and Jensen. However, this single factor would likely differ from the 'g' concept explained above in that reinforcement might replace neural speed or positive manifold (Paik, 1998).
The purpose of the current study is primarily twofold. First, it seeks to determine the attitudes and perceptions about the differing and multiple types of intelligence. It does so by asking the participant to rate which type is most valued by society and then which type is most valued personally. It is hypothesized that logical/mathematical abilities will be most frequently perceived as most valued by society and musical, bodily-kinesthetic, and naturalist intelligence will be perceived as least valued. Additionally, it is hypothesized that students will most value an intelligence type related to his/her area/s of study. The second focus of this study is to examine the frequency of each of the eight intelligence types.
It is hypothesized that individuals will perceive the logical/mathematical intelligence type as being the most valued by American society as a whole. There are multiple reasons which support this notion. For instance, the American education system heavily emphasizes mathematic, logical, and reasoning skills. Also, college entrance and aptitude exams are based primarily on logical/mathematical skill in combination with reading ability. The SAT measures the mathematic and reading/vocabulary skills of individuals prior to embarking on their collegiate career; the ACT likewise measures individuals in a similar, yet varied, manner. However, both of these standard tests for high school students are based on a foundation of mathematics, logic, and reasoning. While the argument could be made that linguistic intelligence would be just as valued due to its significant representation on the aforementioned measures, the logical intelligence is not only present the mathematic section but also in reading comprehension and extrapolation. In addition, logical/mathematical abilities are lauded in all of the core areas of study in the traditional school system. Students are generally required to take mathematics, English or language arts, and science each year of study. Logical/mathematical intelligence is fostered in each of these subjects. In mathematics one learns arithmetic, algebra, and logical proofs; in English one learns to exercise reading comprehension skills and make inferences about information which is latent in the text; and science relies on the use of formulas and graphs. Furthermore, the grading system of schools is based on logical reasoning and therefore largely ignores additional forms of intelligences such as interpersonal, intrapersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, and naturalistic.
Society also shows favoritism for the logical/mathematical intelligence reflected in its identification of professions that appear more prestigious than others. For instance, physicians and lawyers, two of the most respected and sought after occupations, require an individual to possess superior abilities in mathematics and logical reasoning. Also, valuing mathematical and logical abilities might be explained by Rogers' ideal self and conditions of worth. Rogers posited that if society places more worth on one state being or quality ' in this instance logical intelligence ' then an individual will likely feel it is to be preferred over any alternatives. Essentially, by placing a higher value on one intelligence, the others might be demeaned; this preference creates a condition of worth for intelligence and potentially leads an individual to create an ideal self image which incorporates the logical/mathematical abilities. In addition, the value placed on this form of intellect appears to coincide with Vygotsky's notion of the importance and influence of the role of culture in development. By encouraging the use of such reasoning, the culture affects the perceptions and values of the individual and therefore may impact the development of one's talents and abilities.
Additionally, it is hypothesized that participants will be more likely to choose the intelligence most related to their area of study ' namely their major ' as their most valued type. If an individual is choosing to dedicate such a significant portion of their time and abilities to pursue a more comprehensive knowledge of a topic, they might place a higher value on this area of ability. The one exception to this idea may be those individuals who did not choose a course of study based upon personal development or desire but of outside forces such as pressure from parents, family members, etc.
The individual's perception of society's value of intelligence is measured by their responses to a predetermined choice pool of the eight types and the participant is asked to choose one type as most valued. Likewise, the personally most valued intelligence is measured in the same manner. In order for the participants to have an adequate understanding of all the types to make an informed decision of how to answer the questions, a brief explanation was printed on the questionnaire. Following these two questions is an inventory which is designed to determine which intelligence type the individual reports.
For this study, 82 participants were administered the survey designed by the researcher. Participants included 36 men and 45 women with one additional participant not reporting gender. The age range of the participants is 18 to 34 years of age. The sample was one of convenience and was selected based on the students in the courses available to be surveyed. Additionally, surveys were distributed to students in popular campus areas such as the caf' and student lounges. These courses were of various disciplines in order to obtain a sample consisting of individuals with a varied educational background. Furthermore, the ethical principles according to the American Psychological Association were followed (American Psychological Association, 2002).
The survey which was administered to the participants consists of demographic information, questions concerning which intelligence is most valued, and finally an inventory measuring the participant's strongest intelligence. The first portion of the survey is made of demographic information such as age, race/ethnicity, gender, and major/minor. Then, a description of each of the eight types of intelligences proposed by Gardner is provided for the participant to read. Following the descriptions, the individual is then asked to indicate which of the eight is most valued by society and then which of the eight they personally value the most. Additionally, the participants are asked to complete a shortened version of an inventory measuring the participant's strongest intelligence. See Appendix A to examine the survey used in this research.
After pilot testing the original version of the survey, corrections were made, and the proposed experiment was sent to IRB for approval for ethical standards. Following the review and subsequent approval of the project, surveys were distributed as a convenience sample. Surveys were distributed at the beginning of the class period and participants were informed that participation is completely voluntary. After all the surveys were returned, the data was entered into SPSS and analyzed. To test the first hypothesis that logical/mathematical intelligence is perceived as most valuable to society, a frequency was used. To determine is musical, bodily-kinesthetic, and naturalist intelligences were perceived to be valued least by society, a frequency was utilized. To test the third hypothesis, individuals will most highly value an intelligence related to their area/s of study, a one-way ANOVA was conducted to test for any correlation between the two variables. Finally, a frequency was used in order to determine if Interpersonal intelligence is reported to be the highest developed form of intelligence more frequently than the other seven types.
To test the first hypothesis that individuals perceive logical/mathematical intelligence as the most valued by society, the frequencies were calculated. It was found that individuals most frequently perceived linguistic (19) as most valued by society at 23.2%. The other types resulted in the following order: logical/mathematical had 16 (19.5%), musical had 0 (0.0%), bodily-kinesthetic had 9 (11.0%), spatial/visual had 1 (1.2%), Interpersonal had 18 (22%), Intrapersonal had 12 (14.6%), and naturalist had 2 (2.4%). To test the hypothesis that individuals perceive musical, bodily, and naturalist intelligences are perceived as the least valued by society, the frequencies were calculated. As stated above, these three were among the lowest valued. All three ranked in the lowest four; however, bodily-kinesthetic ranks slightly above spatial/visual and therefore does not fall in the lowest three.
To test the hypothesis that a person's strongest intelligence affected their choice of which type they value most, a highest intelligence type by personal most valued type one-way ANOVA was performed. Results indicated a significant difference in most valued type based on the individuals strongest type, F (7, 76) = 3.21, p = .005. The frequencies of the personal most valued types are as follows: linguistic had 12 (14.6%), logical/mathematical had 10 (12.2%), musical had 2 (2.4%), bodily-kinesthetic had 6 (7.3%), spatial/visual had 3 (3.7%), Interpersonal had 24 (29.3%), Intrapersonal had 18 (22%), and naturalist had 2 (2.4%).
To test the fourth hypothesis that interpersonal intelligence is the most common type among participants, the frequencies were calculated. The frequencies of the individuals' intelligence type are as follows: linguistic had 1 (1.2%), logical/mathematical had 6 (7.3%), musical had 10 (12.2%), bodily-kinesthetic had 8 (9.8%), spatial/visual had 0 (0.0%), Interpersonal had 9 (11.0%), Intrapersonal had 20 (24.4%), and naturalist had 9 (11.0%).
This section will include several theories from Ellis, Adler, Horney, Dollard & Miller, Rogers, Bruner, Vygotsky, Super and Harkness, Frankl, Maslow, Erikson, Snygg & Combs, and Bandura. These 13 theories will discuss the results of our data collection and its implications about the individual and learning.
Theory Analysis. There are many theorists that support the notion of the ability for one individual to have multiple intelligences which include Gardner, Sternberg, and Perkins. All of these theories explain how individuals can excel in certain types of intellect while not succeeding in other types. For instance, according to Gardner's categories of intellect, an individual may possess intelligence relating to mathematical and logical reasoning but have trouble composing or playing music. The inability to play music is not a deficit in the individual's personality, however, a function of the multiple intelligence construct. Conversely, it is important to note that individuals that attempt to or feel obligated to perform well in all aspects of multiple intellects may experience neurosis. For example, Albert Ellis indicates that individuals may have irrational thoughts that can cause or sustain neurosis; more specifically, he continues that an individual may feel the need to be competent, intelligent, and achieving in all possible respects which normally coincides with unconditional self-acceptance or statements such as 'I must be outstandingly competent, or I am worthless' (Ellis, 1994).
As we examine the relationship between the most valued personal intelligence by the individual and the results from the assessment, it was concluded that there was a significant difference between the most valued trait the individual chose and the individual's highest intelligence. Although the connection between what an individual views as important and their assessment results seem logical, there are many theoretical insinuations about how the individual has acquired this desire, how the individual maintained motivation to continue to improve in their chosen intellectual area, and finally why the individual strives to the ultimate goal of competence.
To begin, Adler posits that individuals are born with natural deficits, such as a lack of skill in writing, and as the individual grows older, he or she notices and attempts to improve this insufficiency to reduce feelings of inferiority. In comparison to Adler, Horney explains that individuals will continually search for intrapersonal flaws, or deficits, so then they can be overcome before anyone will notice the discrepancy. Additionally, Dollard and Miller explain for the course of change or improvement to commence, the individual must notice deficits that, even themselves, believe needs to be altered. From these above three theorists, they all hypothesize that an individual is born as an inferior being in some aspect and must notice this inferiority, disguise the difficulty so it is not visible to others, and finally construct a plan that will help them overcome this deficit. Furthermore, Snygg and Combs explains that learning takes place when meaningful information is extracted from the background of all intelligence which allows the individual to focus and concentrate on the chosen intelligence. In the current study, individuals have all chosen areas of intellect in which they excel which suggests that each individual, at one point, struggled with that specific trait and have 'pulled' this intelligence from the background. Furthermore and most critical, the data that was recorded for personal values and assessment value can be directly related to Roger's proposal of the ideal self and the real self. Taking into consideration that everyone presents a persona or fa'ade to some degree, it seems as though the ideal self can be accurately represented by the category that assesses the individual's personal value while the real self can be operationalized by the assessment itself. Individuals that were recorded seem to experience very little dissonance between the ideal and real self since significant differences were found. For example, if an individual indicated that they personally valued interpersonal relations, data supports that they are most likely to complete the assessment with results of strong interpersonal intelligence.
Although how individual become interested and competent in intelligence can be explained by theorists such as Adler, Horney, and Rogers, it seems as though the motivation to continue to improve may be more behaviorally related. For instance, it is stated by Bruner that through the theory of learning, an individual will construct new ideas from what the individual has already learned; this building of intellect provides self-assurance and motivation to continue to learn. Bruner continues that as the individual becomes more motivated about the subject, improvements are no longer made as 'requirements' but as a personal satisfaction and thirst for knowledge. Additionally, it is also imperative to consider influences that are associated within the individual's environment as commonly associated with the theories of Vygotsky and Super and Harkness. Vygotsky indicated that when a task is given to a person that they cannot complete alone, possibly from an intellectual deficit, guidance is needed from a higher individual and the situation produces a zone of proximal development. For example, an individual may need help from a professor writing a paper, but this connection will overcome inferiority feelings of not being a competent writer and motivate them to want to continue to improve.
Once this motivation is able to fully flourish and extrapolate it creates a developmental niche that an individual is engulfed within throughout their lifespan according to Super and Harkness. However, the current studies' results indicate no significant difference among majors in comparison to their assessment scores, or in other words, when examining the assessment scores for the type or types of intelligence an individual encompasses, the major which the person is seeking had little to no effect. Although this comparison was not significant, it can be logically rationalized through Frankl's view on meaning of life; Frankl states that when searching for meaning in life or actively searching for self-actualization, there are many different 'routes' a person can take. For instance, one individual may want to pursue a degree in medicine while another may want to seek a life in construction which can both provide framework for a meaningful life within the individual's own constructs.
Now that the individual has identified the source of inferiority and has found motivating factors to develop a niche from which to operate, it can give an individual full freedom to live a self-actualized life. For instance, Rogers explains that a fully functioning person lives freely, creatively, openly in each moment, and is able to fully trust inner experiences to guide behavior, which suggests the exclusion of societal value influences. Moreover, Maslow introduced the term of self-actualization as a replacement for psychological health and comprises the full potential of a human being without the influence of environmental or cultural situations which self-actualized individuals did not 'adjust' to at the expense of their own character according to his theory of resistance to enculturation. However, self-actualization was not easy to obtain and Maslow estimated that less than 1% of all people are truly self-actualized. For instance, in a sample of 3,000 college students that were surveyed, Maslow only deemed one of the individuals to be self-actualized which complements the claim that self-actualization is very difficult to reach as well as individuals that are young are likely not to be self-actualized until older (Cloninger, 2008). As individuals grow older, Erikson explains that individuals will look back upon their lives and determine whether or not it was meaningful and if they wished that various experiences had been different. It is reasonable to assume that an individual that has reached self-actualization or is considered a fully-functioning person would be more likely to reflect upon a more fulfilling life than an individual that did not reach these levels of functioning. When examining the relationship between what the individual believes that society values and the individual's assessment of intelligence, there was no significant difference found but the statistical datum did trend towards a stronger indication for support of this notion. If the type of intelligence and what they believed that society valued did not always correlate, it is rational to conceive that college students may not be fully self-actualized and may continue to be influenced by societal values that do not relate to their personal intellects but rather influences from parents, the job market, or culture overall. Conversely, with data trending towards significance indicates social control over the types of intelligences people will ultimately find interest in addition to the susceptibility of being swayed; this phenomenon could be explained according to Bandura's notion of observational learning or modeling. For instance, an individual may have always enjoyed music. However, influences from parents on another type of intelligence because of what is viewed as valuable by society may modify the child's thought process, especially if the child is rewarded for behavior congruent with parental expectation and punished for behavior contrasting. Investigating further, Skinner's idea of operant conditioning can explain this system of rewards and punishments and how the past experiences according to their behaviors will inevitably produce future conduct.
Implications. Implications for this study are focused on the process of learning as well as the pedagogy style that would best suit all students of all intelligence types. When considering a classroom setting, or any group of individual for that matter, it is inevitable to experience different cultures, backgrounds, and viewpoints. Furthermore, it is unavoidable to have a group of individuals that have contrasting intelligence types and therefore, different methods that best suit them for learning. If the theory of multiple intelligence would be applied to classes, exams, standardized tests, it would not only produce a more valid test but be tailored to the individual's need more often. This type of instruction would maximize the amount of learning possibility and, logically, raise self-esteem and the motivation of the student. Contrary to the notion of multiple intelligence instruction, it can be argued that this type of teaching may seem to be impractical for large settings. For instance, it is difficult to implement several different teaching styles to a large group of students when the main focus of the economy is to 'cut-back' and let go of teachers from their positions. Although using a single teaching style is economically practical, the quality of education and the amount of information learned will obviously be reduced.
What We Learned. Throughout this study, it was very interesting to observe how individuals were not as likely to project or inflate the value of their own talents as it relates to society. By the data, which showed linguistic being perceived as most valued by society but among the most infrequent strengths, it may be seen that intelligence may not be valued based on the individual's abilities. As hypothesized, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, and naturalist were valued quite less than the more 'school' intelligences of logical/mathematical and linguistic. In addition, theories of learning and intelligence may drastically influence the teaching pedagogies of instructors and therefore encourage a highly diversified and individualized learning environment. If the findings are applied in the classroom along with the application of learning theories such as Vygotsky and Adler's notions of education, the student has the opportunity to maximize their potential in learning.
Carraher, T. N., Carraher, D., & Schliemann, A. D. (1985). Mathematics in the streets and in schools. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 3, 21-29
Eysenck, H. J. (1982). Introduction. In H. J. Eysenck (Ed.), A model for intelligence (pp. 1-10). New York: Springer-Verlag.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
Guilford, J. P. (1967). The nature of human intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Li, R. (1996). A theory of conceptual intelligence: Thinking, learning, creativity and giftedness. Westport, CT: Praeger.
Paik, H.S. (1998). One Intelligence or Many? Washington University. Retrieved from http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/paik.html
Sternberg, R. J. (1985): Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Thurstone, L. L. (1924). The nature of intelligence. New York: Harcourt Brace. http://www.learninginfo.org/multiple-intelligences.htm


Black Confederate Soldiers
Andrew and Silas Chandler, Co. F, 44th Mississippi Infantry
posing with D-Guard
This page is in tribute of these brave Slaves and Freemen of Color who supported and fought for the Confederate States of America, and believed in the cause of Southern Independence.
It has been estimated that over 65,000 Southern blacks were in the Confederate ranks. Over 13,000 of these, "saw the elephant" also known as meeting the enemy in combat. These Black Confederates included both slave and free. The Confederate Congress did not approve blacks to be officially enlisted as soldiers (except as musicians), until late in the war. But in the ranks it was a different story. Many Confederate officers did not obey the mandates of politicians, they frequently enlisted blacks with the simple criteria, "Will you fight?" Historian Ervin Jordan, explains that "biracial units" were frequently organized "by local Confederate and State militia Commanders in response to immediate threats in the form of Union raids". Dr. Leonard Haynes, an African-American professor at Southern University, stated, "When you eliminate the black Confederate soldier, you've eliminated the a part of the history of the South."
People know little about them, but in 1861, noted black abolitionist Frederick Douglass said;
"There are many colored men in the Confederate Army as real soldiers, having muskets on their shoulders, bullets in their pockets, ready to shoot down loyal troops and doing all that soldiers may do to destroy the Federal government."
Black soldiers' contributions to Union armies are already well known, popularized in Hollywood films such as "Glory", but suggesting that Southern blacks fought and died for a government that condoned and supported slavery is politically incorrect nowadays.
The South was the only home most of the slaves and Freemen knew and some sixty thousand of them were willing to risk their lives to protect their way of life against the unknown dangers of defeat by the Union Forces. Black historian, Roland Young, says he is not surprised that blacks fought. He explains that "some, if not most, Black southerners would support their country" and that by doing so they were "demonstrating it's possible to hate the system of slavery and love one's country." Some would ask, "Why would they serve; why would they fight?" They served and fought for the same reasons as their white counterparts. They felt that the South was their home, too. Whether slave or free, each had a stake in the society and each had a home they felt endeared to. For example, many Charleston negroes actually cheered at the possibility that they would be able to shoot Yankees shortly after the outbreak of War. This is the very same reaction that most African Americans showed during the American Revolution, where they fought for the colonies, even though the British offered them freedom if they fought for them.
1. The "Richmond Howitzers" were partially manned by black militiamen. They saw action at 1st Manassas (or 1st Battle of Bull Run) where they operated battery no. 2. In addition two black "regiments", one free and one slave, participated in the battle on behalf of the South. "Many colored people were killed in the action", recorded John Parker, a former slave.
2. At least one Black Confederate was a non-commissioned officer. James Washington, Co. D 35th Texas Cavalry, Confederate States Army, became it's 3rd Sergeant. Higher ranking black commissioned officers served in militia units, but this was on the State militia level (Louisiana) and not in the regular C.S. Army.
3. Free black musicians, cooks, soldiers and teamsters earned the same pay as white confederate privates. This was not the case in the Union army where blacks did not receive equal pay. At the Confederate Buffalo Forge in Rockbridge County, Virginia, skilled black workers "earned on average three times the wages of white Confederate soldiers and more than most Confederate army officers ($350- $600 a year).
4. Dr. Lewis Steiner, Chief Inspector of the United States Sanitary Commission while observing Gen. "Stonewall" Jackson's occupation of Frederick, Maryland, in 1862: "Over 3,000 Negroes must be included in this number [Confederate troops]. These were clad in all kinds of uniforms, not only in cast-off or captured United States uniforms, but in coats with Southern buttons, State buttons, etc. These were shabby, but not shabbier or seedier than those worn by white men in the rebel ranks. Most of the Negroes had arms, rifles, muskets, sabers, bowie-knives, dirks, etc.....and were manifestly an integral portion of the Southern Confederate Army."
5. Black and white militiamen returned heavy fire on Union troops at the Battle of Griswoldsville (near Macon, GA). Approximately 600 boys and elderly men were killed in this skirmish.
6. In 1864, President Jefferson Davis approved a plan that proposed the emancipation of slaves, in return for the official recognition of the Confederacy by Britain and France. France showed interest but Britain refused.
7. The Jackson Battalion included two companies of black soldiers. They saw combat at Petersburg under Col. Shipp. "My men acted with utmost promptness and goodwill...Allow me to state sir that they behaved in an extraordinary acceptable manner."
8. Recently the National Park Service, with a recent discovery, recognized that blacks were asked to help defend the city of Petersburg, Virginia and were offered their freedom if they did so. Regardless of their official classification, black Americans performed support functions that in today's army many would be classified as official military service.
9. Confederate General John B. Gordon (Army of Northern Virginia) reported that all of his troops were in favor of Colored troops and that it's adoption would have "greatly encouraged the army". Gen. Lee was anxious to receive regiments of black soldiers. The Richmond Sentinel reported on 24 Mar 1864, "None will deny that our servants are more worthy of respect than the motley hordes which come against us." "Bad faith [to black Confederates] must be avoided as an indelible dishonor."
10. In March 1865, Judah P. Benjamin, Confederate Secretary Of State, promised freedom for blacks who served from the State of Virginia. Authority for this was finally received from the State of Virginia and on April 1st 1865, $100 bounties were offered to black soldiers. Benjamin exclaimed, "Let us say to every Negro who wants to go into the ranks, go and fight, and you are free Fight for your masters and you shall have your freedom." Confederate Officers were ordered to treat them humanely and protect them from "injustice and oppression".
11. A quota was set for 300,000 black soldiers for the Confederate States Colored Troops. 83% of Richmond's male slave population volunteered for duty. A special ball was held in Richmond to raise money for uniforms for these men. Before Richmond fell, black Confederates in gray uniforms drilled in the streets. Due to the war ending, it is believed only companies or squads of these troops ever saw any action. Many more black soldiers fought for the North, but that difference was simply a difference because the North instituted this progressive policy more sooner than the more conservative South. Black soldiers from both sides received discrimination from whites who opposed the concept .
12. Union General U.S. Grant in Feb 1865, ordered the capture of "all the Negro men before the enemy can put them in their ranks." Frederick Douglass warned Lincoln that unless slaves were guaranteed freedom (those in Union controlled areas were still slaves) and land bounties, "they would take up arms for the rebels".
13. On April 4, 1865 (Amelia County, VA), a Confederate supply train was exclusively manned and guarded by black Infantry. When attacked by Federal Cavalry, they stood their ground and fought off the charge, but on the second charge they were overwhelmed. These soldiers are believed to be from "Major Turner's" Confederate command.
14. A Black Confederate, George _____, when captured by Federals was bribed to desert to the other side. He defiantly spoke, "Sir, you want me to desert, and I ain't no deserter. Down South, deserters disgrace their families and I am never going to do that."
15. Former slave, Horace King, accumulated great wealth as a contractor to the Confederate Navy. He was also an expert engineer and became known as the "Bridge builder of the Confederacy." One of his bridges was burned in a Yankee raid. His home was pillaged by Union troops, as his wife pleaded for mercy.
16. As of Feb. 1865 1,150 black seamen served in the Confederate Navy. One of these was among the last Confederates to surrender, aboard the CSS Shenandoah, six months after the war ended. This surrender took place in England.
17. Nearly 180,000 Black Southerners, from Virginia alone, provided logistical support for the Confederate military. Many were highly skilled workers. These included a wide range of jobs: nurses, military engineers, teamsters, ordnance department workers, brakemen, firemen, harness makers, blacksmiths, wagon makers, boatmen, mechanics, wheelwrights, etc. In the 1920'S Confederate pensions were finally allowed to some of those workers that were still living. Many thousands more served in other Confederate States.
18. During the early 1900's, many members of the United Confederate Veterans (UCV) advocated awarding former slaves rural acreage and a home. There was hope that justice could be given those slaves that were once promised "forty acres and a mule" but never received any. In the 1913 Confederate Veteran magazine published by the UCV, it was printed that this plan "If not Democratic, it is [the] Confederate" thing to do. There was much gratitude toward former slaves, which "thousands were loyal, to the last degree", now living with total poverty of the big cities. Unfortunately, their proposal fell on deaf ears on Capitol Hill.
19. During the 50th Anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg in 1913, arrangements were made for a joint reunion of Union and Confederate veterans. The commission in charge of the event made sure they had enough accommodations for the black Union veterans, but were completely surprised when unexpected black Confederates arrived. The white Confederates immediately welcomed their old comrades, gave them one of their tents, and "saw to their every need". Nearly every Confederate reunion included blacks that served with them, wearing the gray.
20. The first military monument in the US Capitol that honors an African-American soldier is the Confederate monument at Arlington National cemetery. The monument was designed 1914 by Moses Ezekiel, a Jewish Confederate. Who wanted to correctly portray the "racial makeup" in the Confederate Army. A black Confederate soldier is depicted marching in step with white Confederate soldiers. Also shown is one "white soldier giving his child to a black woman for protection".- source: Edward Smith, African American professor at the American University, Washington DC.
21. Black Confederate heritage is beginning to receive the attention it deserves. For instance, Terri Williams, a black journalist for the Suffolk "Virginia Pilot" newspaper, writes: "I've had to re-examine my feelings toward the [Confederate] flag started when I read a newspaper article about an elderly black man whose ancestor worked with the Confederate forces. The man spoke with pride about his family member's contribution to the cause, was photographed with the [Confederate] flag draped over his lap that's why I now have no definite stand on just what the flag symbolizes, because it no longer is their history, or my history, but our history."
Charles Kelly Barrow, et.al. Forgotten Confederates: An Anthology About Black Southerners (1995). Currently the best book on the subject.
Ervin L. Jordan, Jr. Black Confederates and Afro-Yankees in Civil War Virginia (1995). Well researched and very good source of information on Black Confederates, but has a strong Union bias.
Richard Rollins. Black Southerners in Gray (1994). Excellent source.
Dr. Edward Smith and Nelson Winbush, "Black Southern Heritage". An excellent educational video. Mr. Winbush is a descendent of a Black Confederate and a member of the Sons of Confederate Veterans (SCV).
This fact page is not an all inclusive list of Black Confederates, only a small sampling of accounts. For general historical information on Black Confederates, contact Dr. Edward Smith, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, DC 20016; Dean of American Studies. Dr. Smith is a black professor dedicated to clarifying the historical role of African Americans.
A Southern Sympathizer
An Anthology about Black Southerners
Compiled and edited by
Charles Kelly Barrow
J.H.Segars & R.B. Rosenberg
William H. "Ten Cent Bill" Yopp truly was a beloved veteran. He was born in a small slave cabin in Laurens County, Georgia. His master's family was one of the most prominent in the area, producing several members of the state legislature and one member of the Georgia secession convention of 1861. At the age of seven, Bill was bound as a body servant to young T. M. Yopp. The two boys were inseparable. They went everywhere together and became lifelong friends.
When the war broke out, T. M. Yopp, commissioned as a captain in Company H, 14th Georgia Infantry, promptly went to Virginia. Along with him went "Ten Cent Bill." During the many battles of the Army of Northern Virginia, Bill was always by his master's side, twice nursing him back to health from severe wounds. Bill guarded the captain's belongings and consistently found needed provisions. In addition, he served as drummer for the company. When Captain Yopp was wounded at the Battle of Seven Pines, it was Bill who cleaned the wound and nursed the captain back to health. At the Battle of Fredericksburg, Captain Yopp was again severely wounded, and Bill was right there to care for him until, owing to exhaustion, he was sent home. Nevertheless, Bill soon rejoined his master in Virginia and remained at his side for the remainder of the War. He witnessed the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia in April 1865.
As the outcome of the war became clear, slavery ended. During the earliest days of reconstruction, Bill set out to travel and to earn a living. Yet, many years later, Bill returned to the captain's family. In time, he came to care for his former master at the Georgia Confederate Soldiers' Home in Atlanta. While at the home, Bill gained the love and respect of the other veterans. He was admitted to the Atlanta U.C.V. Camp (United Confederate Veterans) and was prominent at all activities. His relationship with the home's chairman of the board of trustees, Col. R.D. Lawrence, was warm and long-lasting.
Bill was very effective in raising funds for the home. For several years he, with the help of the Macon Telegraph, raised enough money to give each veteran in the home a gift of $3.00 at Christmas. A book written by Bill concerning his exploits before, during, and after the war was also used for many years as a fundraiser for the home. The veterans at the home were so thankful that they took up a collection in 1920 to have a medal made for Bill, and the board of trustees voted to allow him to stay at the home as long as he lived. For years Bill was an attraction at both the soldiers' home and at the state fair on the day reserved for blacks who fought for and supported the Confederacy. He was one of the last surviving veterans in the home, which closed its doors to veterans in the 1940s.
At the age of 92, Captain Yopp died. Bill was the featured speaker at the memorial service, and it was a particularly emotional one. Not long afterward, Bill joined his longtime friend in the Confederate Cemetery in Marietta, Georgia, where several residents of the home were interred. Clearly, there was not a more beloved veteran than Bill Yopp.
The grave of 10-cent Bill Yopp
Welters, who served in Capt. John Lott Phillips' Company B, 3rd Florida Infantry Regiment, called the St. Augustine Blues, was also known under other names, such as Anthony Wetters, Tony Fontane and Antonio Huertas. A former slave, he was born in 1810 and enlisted as a fifer in 1861, when he was 51 years old.
He participated in the battles of Perryville, Murfreesboro, Vicksburg, Chattanooga, Chickamauga, Atlanta, Franklin and Nashville.
Returning to St. Augustine, Florida after the war, Welters lived at 79 Bridge St. and became active in politics and with the E. Kirby Smith Camp, United Confederate Veterans. He died in 1902 at 92 years old.
Dr. Winbush as a small boy and his Confederate Veteran grandfather.
Black Confederates Why haven't we heard more about them? National
Park Service historian, Ed Bearrs, stated, "I don't want to call it a conspiracy
to ignore the role of Blacks both above and below the Mason-Dixon line, but it
was definitely a tendency that began around 1910." Historian, Erwin L. Jordan,
Jr., calls it a "cover-up" which started back in 1865. He writes, "During my
research, I came across instances where Black men stated they were soldiers, but
you can plainly see where 'soldier' is crossed out and 'body servant' inserted,
or 'teamster' on pension applications." Another black historian, Roland Young,
says he is not surprised that blacks fought. He explains that "some, if not
most, Black southerners would support their country" and that by doing so they
were "demonstrating it's possible to hate the system of slavery and love one's
country." This is the very same reaction that most African Americans showed
during the American Revolution, where they fought for the colonies, even though
the British offered them freedom if they fought for them.
It has been estimated that over 65,000 Southern blacks were in the Confederate ranks. Over 13,000 of these, "saw the elephant" also known as meeting the enemy in combat. These Black Confederates included both slave and free. Many Confederate officers frequently enlisted blacks with the simple criteria, "Will you fight?" Historian Ervin Jordan, explains that "biracial units" were frequently organized "by local Confederate and State militia Commanders in response to immediate threats in the form of Union raids". Dr. Leonard Haynes, an African-American professor at Southern University, stated, "When you eliminate the black Confederate soldier, you've eliminated the history of the South."
As the war came to an end, the Confederacy took progressive measures to build back up its army. The creation of the Confederate States Colored Troops, copied after the segregated northern colored troops, came too late to be successful. Had the Confederacy been successful, it would have created the world's largest armies (at the time) consisting of black soldiers, even larger than that of the North. This would have given the future of the Confederacy a vastly different appearance than what modern day racist or anti-Confederate liberals conjecture. Not only did Jefferson Davis envision black Confederate veterans receiving bounty lands for their service, there would have been no future for slavery after the goal of 300,000 armed black CSA veterans came home after the war.
When most Americans think of Civil War soldiers, the colors that spring to mind are blue and gray, not black. Until the 1989 movie "Glory," there was little recognition of the 200,000 blacks who fought for the North. Now, many Southerners say, it is time to honor another forgotten group: blacks who served the Confederacy. What makes this revisionism startling is that several of its leading proponents are African Americans who regard their research as liberating.
"There's this caricature of all blacks in the South being victimized and supporting the North," says Edward Smith, a black professor and director of American Studies at American University in Washington. "But we are just as complicated as any people. We're three-dimensional."
Since Dr. Smith began speaking about black Confederates six years ago, the subject has spawned several books, scores of articles and heated debate on the Internet. Some blacks have joined the Sons of Confederate Veterans and donned gray at Civil War re-enactments. Confederate heritage groups have proposed erecting monuments to black rebels and other "Confederates of color," such as Hispanics and American Indians.
FROM THE ST. PETERSBURG, FLORIDA TIMES:
Rebel ancestry isn't uncomfortable at all for the black SCV member in Florida, Nelson Winbush. who fondly recalls his grandfather, Mr. Nelson, and his war tales. "He used to say the Yankees were the dumbest damned people you've ever seen," Dr. Winbush says, telling a story about Union men marching straight at rebel guns.
Dr. Winbush's trove of mementos includes pension papers and newspaper clippings describing his grandfather's service in the Army, He also foraged for the rebels and, "fired rifles like everyone else."
When asked if he thought the role of blacks in the Rebel army was any less than that of whites he said, "Their lives were at risk: they served, thats all that matters."
His grandfather, Dr. Winbush goes on, grew up playing with white boys on the plantation and felt it was only natural to "go along with his pals" to fight Yankees. After the war, he attended 39 Confederate reunions and became a minor celebrity in his native Tennessee. "They all had a spot in their heart for the good old darky. and he loved them devotedly," a Tennessee paper wrote when Mr. Nelson died. Asked about the tone of such reports, Dr, Winbush shrugs. "Those were just the times." he says.
Now times have changed. But Dr. Winbush, a retired school teacher and assistant principal, once taught many of the men who now belong to his SCV group, which has been renamed in honor of his grandfather. Dr. Winbush's fellow members also welcome his Confederate Memorial Day address, which includes a defense of states' rights and of his grandfather's commander. Nathan Bedford Forrest. an oft-reviled figure who was a slave trader and imperial wizard of the Ku Klux Klan.
"We finally have someone who can give a different point of view and no one can say it's just another ignorant redneck trying to promote racism", says John Carroll, a founding member of the Kissimmee SCV camp.
Dr, Winbush has taken his message to groups across the South and has appeared in pro-Confederate videos. He now plans to place a rebel veteran's headstone by his grandfather's grave. "I'm an individual, just like him." he says. driving to Kissimmee's cemetery to adorn rebel graves with battle flags. "People did what they thought was appropriate in that war, black and white, and I'm doing the same now."
FOLLOW-UP TO THE ABOVE STORY:
There is something very disturbing and sad about the way stories of black Confederates are reported in the news. I suspect that much of it has to do with the fact that those reporting these stories have very little understanding of the history behind their subject. This seems to be the case in this story reported by the St. Petersburg Times about Nelson Winbush's memories of his "black Confederate" grandfather. We read about how unusual it is for a black American to adhere to a narrative that is usually associated with white Southerners and are asked to suspend disbelief and acknowledge the bravery of a man who subscribes to "a different version than mainstream America." Why not, after all here we have a decent man who wants nothing more than to acknowledge his family history and a grandfather who apparently had a profound impact on Winbush's life.
Here is a little about Dr. Winbush's grandfather: it is the story of a young slave from a Tennessee plantation named Louis Napoleon Nelson, who went to war with the sons of his master. "They grew up together," Winbush says. At first his grandfather cooked and looked out for the others, but later he saw action, fighting with a rifle under the command of Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest, a slave trader and plantation owner.
At Shiloh, a two-day battle in 1862 in which more than 23,000 American men were killed or wounded, the Confederate Army needed a chaplain. Louis Nelson couldn't read or write, but he had memorized the King James Bible. He stayed on as chaplain for the next four campaigns, leading services for both Confederate and Union soldiers, before they headed back to the battlefield. He also foraged for food. One time, he killed a mule, cut out a quarter and hauled it back to his comrades. "When you don't have anything else, mule meat tastes pretty good," he would tell his grandson.
Over the years, the aging veteran Winbush went to 39 Confederate reunions, wearing a woolly gray uniform that Dr. Winbush still has. In photos, he stands next to two white men who accompanied him to soldiers' reunions until they were old men. Through the sepia gleams a dignity earned on the battlefield. "When he came back, that was storytelling time," Dr. Winbush says. His grandfather died in 1934. The local paper ran an obituary that called him a "darky." Dr. Winbush is proud that his grandfather's death was marked at all.