Two kinds of internal evidence help to establish that the Gospels are authentic.
- The unity of style and purpose within each Gospel shows that it is the work of a single author.
- Each Gospel writer has left shadows of himself in his work, and these are consistent with the traditional attribution.
Unity of Style and Purpose
Higher criticism of the Gospels has, since 1900, divided into several branches. The two most important are known as form criticism and redaction criticism. Both assume that the Gospels contain material shaped by gradual evolution over a long period of time.
Form criticism, which arose after World War I under the leadership of the German scholars Rudolf Bultmann and Martin Dibelius, treats each Gospel as a collection of "pericopes"—that is, individual sayings and stories. The chief assumption of form criticism is that the Gospel writers found these pericopes in oral tradition, where, through many retellings, they had settled into a small number of traditional forms with certain stereotyped features. Bultmann postulated four basic forms: apophthegms (terse sayings), dominical sayings (authoritative teaching), miracle stories, and historical stories and legends (1).
Redaction criticism arose after World War II as an offshoot of form criticism. Whereas form criticism concentrates on the building blocks of the Gospels, redaction criticism studies the glue, as it were, that holds them together. It attempts to identify the touches of the final compiler, or redactor, as he molded the pericopes into a continuous narrative. It attempts, moreover, to discover the motives underlying his selection, positioning, and refashioning of materials from oral tradition.
Craig L. Blomberg, Robert H. Stein, and other scholars have demonstrated that neither form criticism nor redaction criticism has invalidated an early date for the Gospels (2). The studies produced by these schools of criticism suffer from two serious shortcomings.
- Although touting themselves as scientific, they stand outside true science. The hallmark of genuine scientific research is reproducibility, but no two form critics or redaction critics generate the same results. The methodological errors abounding in their work include the use of arbitrary terms and categories, the treatment of accidental correlations and similarities as significant, and the exclusion of data uncongenial to preconceived ideas.
- They fail to see the individuality of the Gospel writers. In his perusal of each Gospel, a penetrating reader without critical bias would not find a string of anonymous pieces culled from oral tradition. Nor would he find a pastiche of personal strokes upon an impersonal background. Rather, he would find a whole fabric everywhere displaying the method and design of a single craftsman. Through each runs the signature of one author.
A few words sketching the unique style and purpose of each Gospel will be helpful here.
The Gospel of Matthew is imbued with a Jewish point of view. Where the other Gospels speak of the Kingdom of God, Matthew, in deference to Jewish scruples against speaking the divine name, substitutes the expression "kingdom of heaven." The same author is always turning aside to show how Jesus fulfilled some prophecy of the Jewish Scriptures or to note how the Jewish leaders opposed Jesus.
Mark's Gospel is conceived as drama. It emphasizes what Jesus did rather than what He said. To maintain a fast pace, the author often uses a brief account of Jesus' movements to connect incidents in sequence. Moreover, he seldom brings his words to a full stop. Instead, by his constant use of "and," he joins all his statements together. As a result, his Gospel is essentially a single long sentence. To engage the reader's imagination, the author adds many vivid details missing from the other Gospels. He tells us, for example, that when Jesus fed the five thousand, the multitude sat down on green grass (Mark 6:39). Twice, when his story of a miraculous healing reaches the point of dramatic climax, he gives us Jesus' words in the original Aramaic (Mark 5:41; 7:34).
Luke's Gospel is characterized by elegance of style and composition. F. F. Bruce has commented, "In general, we may describe Luke's style as good Hellenistic Greek, somewhat more literary than the Greek of most New Testament writers" (3). Luke uses many grammatical and literary forms that were rare in the spoken Greek of his day, and he commands an unusually large vocabulary (4). Yet he does not allow skillful language to become an end in itself. He employs it merely as an instrument for effective storytelling. As Bruce concludes, "He certainly was an artist in words" (5).
Luke's special burden is to show us Jesus' love for the unlovely. The material unique to this Gospel includes the Parable of the Good Samaritan, presenting Jesus in the role of helper and healer to those scorned by official religion (Luke 10:30-37). It is the only Gospel which records that Jesus allowed a sinful woman to wash His feet with tears of repentance (Luke 7:36-50), and that while hanging on a cross He granted forgiveness to the dying thief beside Him who sought mercy on his soul (Luke 23:39-43).
The Gospel of John shares little content with the Synoptics. Since the author's chief purpose is to show Jesus' exalted standing as Savior and God, his Gospel consists mainly of monologues in which Jesus explains who He is and why He came to the earth. John's style is so distinctive that it is recognizable in almost every line. He favors repetition with slight variation. He constantly uses short declarative sentences to express high-order abstractions of surpassing profundity. "God is a Spirit" (John 4:24). "In the beginning was the Word" (John 1:1).
The unity of style and purpose evident in each Gospel upholds the traditional view that each is the work of a single author.
Clues to Authorship
The judgment of tradition concerning who wrote the Gospels is consistent with internal evidence.
We have said that Papias identified Matthew as the first to collect the sayings of Jesus. The content and structure of the first Gospel tend to verify that it is, or is based on, the book that Papias attributed to Matthew. As to content, most of the exclusively Matthean material consists of sayings and teachings. As to structure, the backbone of the book is a series of long discourses. The narrative sections between them appear to be material added later to illustrate and reinforce what Jesus taught.
Of the two miracle stories contained only in Matthew, one tells how Jesus paid His taxes, a matter in which Matthew, the former tax collector, would have taken special interest (Matt. 17:24-27).
Very little material is unique to Mark, but what there is yields some insight concerning the author. Of the two miracle stories exclusively Markan, one shows that the author spoke Aramaic as well as Greek, the language in which the book is written (Mark 7:32-37). The author's knowledge of the language of Palestine makes it unlikely that he was a Greek writer from another region. And his knowledge of Greek fits the ancient view that he was Mark, for Mark is known in tradition as Peter's interpreter.
After describing Jesus' arrest in the garden, the author of Mark says,
50 And they all forsook him, and fled.
51 And there followed him a certain young man, having a linen cloth cast about his naked body; and the young men laid hold on him:
52 And he left the linen cloth, and fled from them naked.
Who was this young man who deserted Jesus? Why is he left unnamed? Since the story appears only in the second Gospel, we suspect that it is the author's confession of his own faithlessness on the night of Jesus' betrayal. The author is following the self-belittling practice of the other Gospel writers. As we will demonstrate, they refrain from identifying themselves, and they fashion the Gospel story so that they might speak of themselves in a derogatory way. If truly autobiographical, the story of the deserter in the garden strengthens the case that the author of the second Gospel was Mark. Mark was a prominent young man among the early believers in Jerusalem (Acts 12:12). Hence, he might have been the young man with Jesus on the night before His death.
We mentioned earlier that Mark was likely Peter's secretary. Under close examination, Mark's Gospel shows the viewpoint of someone close to Peter. Compared with the other Gospel writers, Mark is more inclined to play down or overlook some of the foolish things Peter did. In the story of Jesus walking on the water, Mark, like John but unlike Matthew, neglects to tell us that Peter tried the same feat and fell in (Matt. 14:25-31; Mark 6:45-51; John 6:16-21). In the Garden of Gethsemane, Peter inflicted one minor casualty in a swashbuckling but ineffectual attempt to defend Jesus with a sword. He tried to split Malchus's head, but cut off his ear instead. Mark, like the other Synoptic writers but unlike John, leaves the perpetrator of this deed unnamed (Matt. 26:51; Mark 14:47; Luke 22:50; John 18:10). Mark, like Luke but unlike Matthew, attaches a weak excuse for the stupid irrelevancies blurted by Peter during the Transfiguration (Matt. 17:4; Mark 9:6; Luke 9:33). When Jesus on one occasion desired to know who touched His garment, Peter rebuked Him by pointing out that He was surrounded by people (Luke 8:45). Mark, the only writer besides Luke to record the insolent reply, assigns it to the disciples collectively (Mark 5:31).
Internal evidence suggests that the writer of Luke and Acts, which were originally a single continuous work (compare Luke 1:1-4 and Acts 1:1-2), was someone who accompanied Paul when he went to stand trial in Rome. Much of Acts 20:5 onward, the portion covering Paul's last journeys as well as his arrival in Rome and his first presentation of the gospel to leaders of the Jewish community in Rome, is written in the first person. Also, the opening statements in Luke and Acts imply that the occasion for writing these books was an official investigation of Christianity. The writer may be referring to the investigation that doubtless took place in connection with Paul's trial. The traditional attribution of Luke-Acts to Luke is therefore reasonable, since the Roman epistles of Paul name him as one of Paul's companions at Rome (Col. 4:14; 2 Tim. 4:11).
As we said before, Luke was a physician. Several scholarly examinations of the Greek text of Luke have verified that the author was familiar with medical terminology (6). The precise notation of a physician is everywhere evident in his treatment of healing miracles (7). He specifies that the withered hand restored by the Lord was the right hand (Luke 6:6). He observes, as a symptom of demon possession, that the man who lived in the Gadarene tombs was unclothed (Luke 8:27). He notices that the Lord's first concern after raising Jairus's daughter from the dead was to give her nourishment (Luke 8:55).
It is uncertain where Luke obtained the material for his Gospel. F. F. Bruce has proposed that during his stay with Philip the Evangelist in Caesarea (Acts 21:8-9), Luke interrogated Philip's four prophetic daughters (8), who, according to Eusebius, were famed for their knowledge of church history (9). Indeed, the material found only in Luke's Gospel has a distinctly feminine point of view (Luke 8:2-3; 10:38-42 et al.). Throughout the Gospel of Luke, women figure far more prominently than they do in the other Gospels.
Yet a strong case can be made that the ultimate source of the uniquely Lukan material was none other than Mary, the mother of Jesus. Undoubtedly she was a major contributor to the opening chapters of Luke, which tell the story of Jesus' birth. This story is marked by a mother's perspective. Is it unreasonable to surmise that, directly or indirectly, Mary furnished other information to Luke as well? Almost half of Luke's Gospel is devoted to the closing days of Jesus' ministry (Luke 9:51-18:17). It is possible that the small company who accompanied Him on His last journeys included His mother, and that the awesome importance of what was happening burdened her to commit His last teachings to memory or writing. We know that Mary always believed in her son (John 2:1-11), that she was with Jesus at His crucifixion (John 19:25), and that she spent the next few weeks with the small company of faithful disciples who waited for an outpouring of the Holy Spirit (Acts 1:14).
A story unique to Luke directly refers to Mary.
27 And it came to pass, as he [Jesus] spake these things, a certain woman of the company lifted up her voice, and said unto him, Blessed is the womb that bare thee, and the paps which thou hast sucked.
28 But he said, Yea rather, blessed are they that hear the word of God, and keep it.
Was not Mary herself the person most likely to remember and disseminate this teaching? As the story of the cowardly young man is Mark's humble and unobtrusive device for revealing himself as the Gospel writer, so this teaching unflattering to Mary may be her very own signature, showing that she is the real source of much Lukan material.
Although James and John belonged to Jesus' inner circle (10), the writer of the fourth Gospel never mentions them by name except once, when he calls them the "sons of Zebedee" (John 21:2). Yet the fourth Gospel names a total of seven other disciples, of whom several appear frequently in the narrative. There is, in addition, another central figure who is called simply "the disciple whom Jesus loved" (John 13:23). This roundabout identification suggests that the writer is speaking of himself in a modest way which avoids the first person and which directs all glory to Jesus for loving an unworthy sinner. Who then is the writer? His prominence in the group of disciples leads us to suppose that he is either James or John, who are otherwise missing from the fourth Gospel. Since James was an early martyr (Acts 12:1-2), we are left with the strong probability that the writer is John.
Further light on who wrote the fourth Gospel comes from an incident at the cross. As Jesus was dying, He gave the "beloved disciple" charge of His mother, Mary (John 19:26-27). This disciple was probably chosen because he was a close relative. From John 19:25, where the third woman at the cross is called the sister of Jesus' mother, and Matthew 27:56, where she is called the mother of the sons of Zebedee, we infer that John was the son of Mary's sister.
Besides the Gospel that we have under his name, tradition has credited John with authorship of four other books in the New Testament. These are the three Epistles of John and the Book of Revelation. The Epistles are undeniably written in the style of John's Gospel. Many thoughts in the Gospel reappear almost verbatim in the First Epistle. Two comparisons will suffice.
For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life.
In this was manifested the love of God toward us, because that God sent his only begotten Son into the world, that we might live through him.
1 John 4:9
If ye love me, keep my commandments.
For this is the love of God, that we keep his commandments: . . .
1 John 5:3
According to Papias, Matthew was the first to produce a collection of Jesus' sayings and Mark was the first to produce a narrative of His ministry. But neither author necessarily stopped after completing an initial draft. It appears that Matthew later enlarged his work, blending narrative material into the sayings, and that he then translated the final product from Aramaic into Greek. The overlapping content of the first two Gospels suggests that their authors consulted each other's work at some stage of completion. The right term is "consulted," not "copied." The evidence for Matthew consulting Mark is stronger than vice versa. We mentioned earlier that the narrative sections in Matthew might be material that the author appended to Jesus' sermons.
If Matthew indeed consulted Mark, perhaps he wanted to know which incidents Peter regarded as central to Jesus' ministry. The orthodox doctrine of inspiration does not exclude the possibility that an inspired author used sources (11).
Luke's Gospel probably came later. It appears that he drew not only from Mark, but also from another document with affinities to Matthew. The critics refer to this document as Q. If Q existed, it was probably just Matthew's Gospel in unfinished form. Luke drew also from the oral testimony of various eyewitnesses (Luke 1:1-4).
The traditional view that John was the last Gospel to be written is probably correct. In nearly all of its content, John is strictly independent of the other Gospels, yet the author seems aware of their existence. Perhaps one of his purposes was to write a final chapter to the Synoptics—to finish off the Gospel story with additional information assuring a complete and balanced picture. For example, the Synoptics expose Peter as rather foolish, no doubt because he himself wished to be remembered as a sinner saved by grace. But John gives a different view. He not only records Peter's three denials; he also recalls that after the Resurrection, Jesus forgave Peter, prompted him to declare three times that he loved the Lord, and commissioned him to "feed my sheep."
The name borne by each of the four Gospels is a most reasonable attribution, consistent with known evidence. In two cases (Mark and John) the writer indirectly identifies himself, and in a third case (Luke) he leaves a glimmer of himself in a companion work (Acts). Moreover, each Gospel carries the particular stamp that the author named by tradition, with his outlook and sources, would have set upon it. If the Gospels were not a witness to both miracle and prophecy, the traditional attributions would be unquestioned.
Critics recoil from granting the Synoptics an early date because all three prophesy the imminent destruction of Jerusalem, an event that actually came to pass in A.D. 70. The Gospel of Luke offers the most explicit foreview of the catastrophe.
42 Saying, If thou hadst known, even thou, at least in this thy day, the things which belong unto thy peace! but now they are hid from thine eyes.
43 For the days shall come upon thee, that thine enemies shall cast a trench about thee, and compass thee round, and keep thee in on every side,
44 And shall lay thee even with the ground, and thy children within thee; and they shall not leave in thee one stone upon another; because thou knewest not the time of thy visitation.
Denying an early date to the Gospels because they predict an event in A.D. 70 falters on two considerations.
- This procedure is a species of circular reasoning. The effect is to undermine the reliability of the Gospels and to cast doubt on their accounts of the supernatural. Yet this effect is accomplished only by assuming that the supernatural does not exist.
- Setting the Gospels late does not remove the events of A.D. 70 from the realm of fulfilled prophecy. These events are predicted not only by the Gospels, but also by various Old Testament texts, such as the following.
And after threescore and two weeks shall Messiah be cut off, but not for himself: and the people of the prince that shall come shall destroy the city and the sanctuary; and the end thereof shall be with a flood, and unto the end of the war desolations are determined.


Parenting (or child rearing) is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the aspects of raising a child aside from the biological relationship.
The most common partaker in parenting is the biological parent(s) of the child in question, although others may be an older sibling, a grandparent, a legal guardian, aunt, uncle or other family member or a family friend. Governments and society take a role as well. In many cases, orphaned or abandoned children receive parental care from non-parent blood relations. Others may be adopted, raised in foster care, or placed in an orphanage. Parenting skills vary, and a parent with good parenting skills may be referred to as a good parent. Views on the characteristics that make one a good parent vary from culture to culture.
- 1 Factors that affect parenting decisions
- 2 Styles
- 3 Practices
- 4 Parenting across the lifespan
- 5 Assistance
- 6 See also
- 7 References
- 8 External links
Factors that affect parenting decisions
Social class, wealth, culture and income have a very strong impact on what methods of child rearing are used by parents. Cultural values play a major role in how a parent raises their child. However, as times change, cultural practices and social norms and traditions evolve as well, therefore parenting is always evolving.
In psychology, the parental investment theory suggests that basic differences between males and females in parental investment have great adaptive significance and lead to gender differences in mating propensities and preferences.
A family's social class plays a large role in the opportunities and resources that will be made available for a child. Working-class children often grow up at a disadvantage with the schooling, communities, and parental attention made available to them compared to middle-class or upper-class. Also, lower working-class families do not get the kind of networking that the middle and upper classes do through helpful family members, friends, and community individuals and groups as well as various professionals or experts.
A parenting style is the overall emotional climate in the home. Developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind identified three main parenting styles in early child development: authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive. These parenting styles were later expanded to four, including an uninvolved style. These four styles of parenting involve combinations of acceptance and responsiveness on the one hand and demand and control on the other.
- Authoritative parenting
- Described by Baumrind as the "just right" style, in combines a medium level demands on the child and a medium level responsiveness from the parents. Authoritative parents rely on positive reinforcement and infrequent use of punishment. Parents are more aware of a child's feelings and capabilities and support the development of a child's autonomy within reasonable limits. There is a give-and-take atmosphere involved in parent-child communication and both control and support are balanced. Research shows that this style is more beneficial than the too-hard authoritarian style or the too-soft permissive style. An example of authoritative parenting would be the parents talking to their child about their emotions.
- Authoritarian parenting styles
- Authoritarian parents are very rigid and strict. They place high demands on the child, but are not responsive to the child. Parents who practice authoritarian style parenting have a rigid set of rules and expectations that are strictly enforced and require rigid obedience. When the rules are not followed, punishment is most often used to promote future obedience. There is usually no explanation of punishment except that the child is in trouble for breaking a rule. "Because I said so" is a typical response to a child's question of authority. This type of authority is used more often in working-class families than the middle class. In 1983 Diana Baumrind found that children raised in an authoritarian-style home were less cheerful, more moody and more vulnerable to stress. In many cases these children also demonstrated passive hostility. An example of authoritarian parenting would be the parents harshly punishing their children and disregarding their children's feelings and emotions.
- Permissive parenting
- Permissive or indulgent parenting is more popular in middle-class families than in working-class families. In these family settings, a child's freedom and autonomy are highly valued, and parents tend to rely mostly on reasoning and explanation. Parents are undemanding, so there tends to be little, if any punishment or explicit rules in this style of parenting. These parents say that their children are free from external constraints and tend to be highly responsive to whatever the child wants at the moment. Children of permissive parents are generally happy but sometimes show low levels of self-control and self-reliance because they lack structure at home. An example of permissive parenting would be the parents not discipling their children.
- Uninvolved parenting
- An uninvolved or neglectful parenting style is when parents are often emotionally absent and sometimes even physically absent. They have little or no expectation of the child and regularly have no communication. They are not responsive to a child's needs and do not demand anything of them in their behavioral expectations. If present, they may provide what the child needs for survival with little to no engagement. There is often a large gap between parents and children with this parenting style. Children with little or no communication with their own parents tended to be the victims of another child’s deviant behavior and may be involved in some deviance themselves. Children of uninvolved parents suffer in social competence, academic performance, psychosocial development and problem behavior.
There is no single or definitive model of parenting. With authoritarian and permissive (indulgent) parenting on opposite sides of the spectrum, most conventional and modern models of parenting fall somewhere in between. Parenting strategies as well as behaviors and ideals of what parents expect, whether communicated verbally and/or non-verbally, also play a significant role in a child's development.
A parenting practice is a specific behavior that a parent uses in raising a child. For example, a common parent practice intended to promote academic success is reading books to the child. Storytelling is an important parenting practice for children in many Indigenous American communities.
Parenting practices reflect the cultural understanding of children. Parents in individualistic countries like Germany spend more time engaged in face-to-face interaction with babies and more time talking to the baby about the baby. Parents in more communal cultures, such as West African cultures, spend more time talking to the baby about other people, and more time with the baby facing outwards, so that the baby sees what the mother sees. Children develop skills at different rates as a result of differences in these culturally driven parenting practices. Children in individualistic cultures learn to act independently and to recognize themselves in a mirror test at a younger age than children whose cultures promote communal values. However, these independent children learn self-regulation and cooperation later than children in communal cultures. In practice, this means that a child in an independent culture will happily play by herself, but a child in a communal culture is more likely to follow his mother's instruction to pick up his toys. Children that grow up in communities with a collaborative orientation to social interaction, such as some Indigenous American communities, are also able to self-regulate and become very self-confident, while remaining involved in the community.
Parenting styles are only a small piece of what it takes to be a "good parent". Parenting takes a lot of skill and patience and is constant work and growth. Research shows that children benefit most when their parents:
- communicate honestly about events or discussions that have happened, also that parents explain clearly to children what happened and how they were involved if they were
- stay consistent, children need structure, parents that have normal routines benefits children incredibly;
- utilize resources available to them, reaching out into the community;
- taking more interest in their child's educational needs and early development; and
- keeping open communication and staying educated on what their child is learning and doing and how it is affecting them.
Parenting skills are often assumed to be self-evident or naturally present in parents. That this is a very much oversimplified view is emphasized by Virginia Satir, pioneer in family therapy:
- In some ways we got the idea that raising families was all instinct and intent, and we behave as if anyone could be an effective parent simply because he wanted to be, or because he just happened to go through the acts of conception and birth. This is the most complicated job in the world […].
Parents around the world want what they believe is best for their children. However, parents in different cultures have different ideas of what is best. For example, parents in a hunter–gatherer society or surviving through subsistence agriculture are likely to promote practical survival skills from a young age. Many such cultures begin teaching babies to use sharp tools, including knives, before their first birthdays. This seen in communities where children have a considerate amount of autonomy at a younger age and are given the opportunity to become skilled in tasks that are sometimes classified as adult work by other cultures. In some Indigenous American communities, child work provides children the opportunity to learn cultural values of collaborative participation and prosocial behavior through observation and participation alongside adults. American parents strongly value intellectual ability, especially in a narrow "book learning" sense. Italian parents value social and emotional abilities and having an even temperament. Spanish parents want their children to be sociable. Swedish parents value security and happiness. Dutch parents value independence, long attention spans, and predictable schedules. The Kipsigis people of Kenya value children who are not only smart, but who employ that intelligence in a responsible and helpful way, which they call ng/om. Many Indigenous American communities value respeto, participation in the community, and non-interference. The practice of non-interference is an important value in Cherokee culture. It requires that one respects the autonomy of others in the community by not interfering in their decision making by giving unsolicited advice.
Differences in values cause parents to interpret different actions in different ways. Asking questions is seen by many European American parents as a sign that the child is smart. Italian parents, who value social and emotional competence, believe that asking questions is a sign that the child has good interpersonal skills. Dutch parents, who value independence, view asking questions negatively, as a sign that the child is not independent. Indigenous American parents often try to encourage curiosity in their children. Many use a permissive parenting style that enables the child to explore and learn through observation of the world around it.
Differences in values also cause parents to employ different tools to promote their values. Many European American parents expect specially purchased educational toys to improve their children's intelligence. Some Spanish parents promote social skills by taking their children out for daily walks around the neighborhood. It is common for parents in many Indigenous American communities to use different forms of storytelling, such as myths, consejos, and educational teasing, to teach their children important values and life lessons.
Storytelling is a way for Indigenous American children to learn about their identity, community, and cultural history. Indigenous myths and folklore often personify animals and objects, reaffirming the belief that everything possess a soul and must be respected. These stories help preserve language and are used to reflect certain values or cultural histories.
Consejos are a narrative form of advice giving that provide the recipient with maximum autonomy in the situation as a result of their indirect teaching style. Rather than directly informing the child what they should do, the parent instead might tell a story of a similar situation or scenario. The character in the story is used to help the child see what the implications of their decision may be, without directly making the decision for them. This teaches the child to be decisive and independent, while still providing some guidance.
The playful form of teasing is a parenting method used in some Indigenous American communities to keep children out of danger and correct their behavior. This form of teasing utilizes stories, lies, or threats to guide children in making safe, intelligent decisions. It can teach children values by establishing expectations and encouraging the child to meet them via playful jokes and/or threats. For example, a parent may tell a child that there is a monster that jumps on children's backs if they walk alone at night. This lie will help keep the child safe because instilling that fear creates greater awareness and lessens the likelihood that they will wander alone into trouble.
Parenting across the lifespan
Planning and pre-pregnancy
Family planning is the decision whether and when to become parents, including planning, preparing, and gathering resources. Parents should assess (amongst other matters) whether they have the required financial resources (the raising of a child costs around $16,198 yearly in the United States) and should also assess whether their family situation is stable enough and whether they themselves are responsible and qualified enough to raise a child. Reproductive health and preconceptional care affect pregnancy, reproductive success and maternal and child physical and mental health.
Pregnancy and prenatal parenting
During pregnancy the unborn child is affected by many decisions his or her parents make, particularly choices linked to their lifestyle. The health and diet decisions of the mother can have either a positive or negative impact on the child during prenatal parenting. In addition to physical management of the pregnancy, medical knowledge of your physician, hospital, and birthing options are important. Here are some key items of advice:
- Ask your prospective obstetrician how often he or she is in the hospital and who covers for them when they’re not available.
- Learn all you can about your backup physician as well as your primary doctor.
- Choose a hospital with a 24-hour, in-house anesthesia team.
Many people believe that parenting begins with birth, but the mother begins raising and nurturing a child well before birth. Scientific evidence indicates that from the fifth month on, the unborn baby is able to hear sounds, become aware of motion, and possibly exhibit short-term memory. Several studies (e.g. Kissilevsky et al., 2003) show evidence that the unborn baby can become familiar with his or her parents' voices. Other research indicates that by the seventh month, external schedule cues influence the unborn baby's sleep habits. Based on this evidence, parenting actually begins well before birth.
Depending on how many children the mother carries also determines the amount of care needed during prenatal and post-natal periods.
Newborns and infants
Newborn parenting, is where the responsibilities of parenthood begins. A newborn's basic needs are food, sleep, comfort and cleaning which the parent provides. An infant's only form of communication is crying, and attentive parents will begin to recognize different types of crying which represent different needs such as hunger, discomfort, boredom, or loneliness. Newborns and young infants require feedings every few hours which is disruptive to adult sleep cycles. They respond enthusiastically to soft stroking, cuddling and caressing. Gentle rocking back and forth often calms a crying infant, as do massages and warm baths. Newborns may comfort themselves by sucking their thumb or a pacifier. The need to suckle is instinctive and allows newborns to feed. Breastfeeding is the recommended method of feeding by all major infant health organizations. If breastfeeding is not possible or desired, bottle feeding is a common alternative. Other alternatives include feeding breastmilk or formula with a cup, spoon, feeding syringe, or nursing supplementer.
The forming of attachments is considered to be the foundation of the infant/child's capacity to form and conduct relationships throughout life. Attachment is not the same as love and/or affection although they often go together. Attachments develop immediately and a lack of attachment or a seriously disrupted capacity for attachment could potentially do serious damage to a child's health and well-being. Physically one may not see symptoms or indications of a disorder but emotionally the child may be affected. Studies show that children with secure attachment have the ability to form successful relationships, express themselves on an interpersonal basis and have higher self-esteem. Conversely children who have caregivers who are neglectful or emotionally unavailable can exhibit behavioral problems such as post-traumatic stress disorder or oppositional-defiant disorder
Oppositional-defiant disorder is a pattern of disobedient, hostile, and defiant behavior toward authority figures
Toddlers are much more active than infants and are challenged with learning how to do simple tasks by themselves. At this stage, parents are heavily involved in showing the child how to do things rather than just doing things for them, and the child will often mimic the parents. Toddlers need help to build their vocabulary, increase their communication skills, and manage their emotions. Toddlers will also begin to understand social etiquette such as being polite and taking turns.
Toddlers are very curious about the world around them and eager to explore it. They seek greater independence and responsibility and may become frustrated when things do not go the way they want or expect. Tantrums begin at this stage, which is sometimes referred to as the 'Terrible Twos'. Tantrums are often caused by the child's frustration over the particular situation, sometimes simply not being able to communicate properly. Parents of toddlers are expected to help guide and teach the child, establish basic routines (such as washing hands before meals or brushing teeth before bed), and increase the child's responsibilities. It is also normal for toddlers to be frequently frustrated. It is an essential step to their development. They will learn through experience; trial and error. This means that they need to experience being frustrated when something does not work for them, in order to move on to the next stage. When the toddler is frustrated, they will often behave badly with actions like screaming, hitting or biting. Parents need to be careful when reacting to such behaviours, giving threats or punishments is not helpful and will only make the situation worse.
Younger children are becoming more independent and are beginning to build friendships. They are able to reason and can make their own decisions given hypothetical situations. Young children demand constant attention, but will learn how to deal with boredom and be able to play independently. They also enjoy helping and feeling useful and able. Parents may assist their child by encouraging social interactions and modelling proper social behaviors. A large part of learning in the early years comes from being involved in activities and household duties. Parents who observe their children in play or join with them in child-driven play have the opportunity to glimpse into their children’s world, learn to communicate more effectively with their children and are given another setting to offer gentle, nurturing guidance. Parents are also teaching their children health, hygiene, and eating habits through instruction and by example.
Parents are expected to make decisions about their child's education. Parenting styles in this area diverge greatly at this stage with some parents becoming heavily involved in arranging organized activities and early learning programs. Other parents choose to let the child develop with few organized activities.
Children begin to learn responsibility, and consequences of their actions, with parental assistance. Some parents provide a small allowance that increases with age to help teach children the value of money and how to be responsible with it.
Parents who are consistent and fair with their discipline, who openly communicate and offer explanations to their children, and who do not neglect the needs of their children in some way often find they have fewer problems with their children as they mature.
During adolescence children are beginning to form their identity and are testing and developing the interpersonal and occupational roles that they will assume as adults. Therefore it is important that parents must treat them as young adults. Although adolescents look to peers and adults outside of the family for guidance and models for how to behave, parents remain influential in their development. A teenager who thinks poorly of him or herself, is not confident, hangs around with gangs, lacks positive values, follows the crowd, is not doing well in studies, is losing interest in school, has few friends, lacks supervision at home or is not close to key adults like parents and is vulnerable to peer pressure. Parents often feel isolated and alone in parenting adolescents, but they should still make efforts to be aware of their adolescents' activities, provide guidance, direction, and consultation. Adolescence can be a time of high risk for children, where new found freedoms can result in decisions that drastically open up or close off life opportunities. Adolescents tend to increase the amount of time they spend with the opposite gender peers, however, they still maintain the amount of time they spend with the same gender, and they do this by decreasing the amount of time they spend with their parents. Also, peer pressure is not the reason why peers have influence on adolescents, yet it is because they respect, admire and like their peers. Parental issues at this stage of parenting include dealing with "rebellious" teenagers, who didn't know freedom while they were smaller. In order to prevent all these, it is important for the parents to build a trusting relationship with their children. This can be achieved by planning and taking part in fun activities together, keeping promises made to them, spending time with them, not reminding them about their past mistakes and listening to and talking to them. When a trusting relationship is built, adolescents are more likely to approach their parents for help when faced with negative peer pressure. Helping the child build a strong foundation will help them to resist negative peer pressure. It is important for the parents to build up the self-esteem of their child: Praise the child's strengths instead of focusing on their weaknesses (It will help to grow the child's sense of self-worth and self-confidence, so he/she does not feel the need to gain acceptance from his/her peers), acknowledge the child's efforts, do not simply focus on the final result (when they notice that the parent recognizes their efforts, they will keep trying), and lastly, disapprove the behavior, not the child, or they will turn to their peers for acceptance and comfort.
Parenting doesn't usually end when a child turns 18. Support can be needed in a child's life well beyond the adolescent years and continues into middle and later adulthood. Parenting can be a lifelong process.
Parents may receive assistance with caring for their children through child care programs.
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|Look up parenting in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.|
- On the Paradoxes of Modern Parenthood (2014-06-05), Zoë Heller, London Review of Books, Vol. 36 No. 11, pages 33–35


|Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute||Home|
Marcella Monk Flake
Because our student population is very racially and ethnically diverse, I would like to take the unit a step further and investigate the role of culture in U.S. Law. I would like to present students with the challenge of deciding if present day immigrants have the right to bring with them their cultural practices, and if those practices should supersede U.S. Laws.
Contrary to the myth of America as “the great melting pot”, our increasingly pluralistic society places great demands on our present judicial system. We have not blended into a single culture, but we bear evidence of may intact cultural and religious practices that are quite different from, and in some cases, unacceptable to “mainstream” U.S.A.
Today many U.S. citizens born and raised in the United States find themselves trying to define U.S. culture. Although a pluralistic religious community existed in the Colonial Period, there was a general consensus that this would be a country founded on Christian beliefs. The protestant culture influenced the formation and execution of the laws. It was primary in the common or public schools, provided an agenda for social reform, and served as the basis for forming denominational colleges during that period. During the 1830’s, this Protestant domination became challenged, and that continuous challenging leaves us grappling with what we deem culturally acceptable or unacceptable.
In the 1830’s, approximately 600,000 catholics arrived in the United States. During the 1840’s, 1,700,000 more arrived while an additional 2,600,000 arrived in the 1850’s. By 1880, there were approximately 6,259,000 Catholics in the U.S. Nearly half of them were Irish, about 1/4 were from Germany, 1/6 from England, Wales and Scotland. The rest were mainly from eastern Europe and Italy.
The immigration of the Jewish population in large numbers began in the 1880’s. In the 1830’s, Jewish people made up less than one tenth of a percent of the American population. By the mid 1920’s, the number of Jews in America had jumped to 4 million. The American culture and legal system found itself faced with further changes to accommodate and incorporate the more diverse, Catholic, Protestant and Jewish Citizenship. With this coming together, America witnessed the emergence of a Judeo-Christian consensus.
As new immigrants with new faiths have come to our shores, we have found ourselves changing to further include our more recent citizens. In 1934, there was only one mosque and less than 20,000 Muslims in this country. In 1988, there were over 600 mosques or temples and more than 4 million Muslims in the U.S.
Although Hinduism is a family religion and most worship takes place in the home, it has been estimated that there were approximately 150,000 Hindus in the United States in 1940. In 1990, this number grew to about three quarters of a million. In 1909, there were approximately 3,000 Buddhists in America. In 1988, there were an estimated 600,000 Buddhists in the U.S.
U.S. culture and law continued to reflect the emergence of other “new religions” embraced by young Americans during the 1970’s. Among these religions are Transcendental Meditation, the Hare Krishna Movement, Zen Buddhism, and the Unification Church. (the Moonies) Perhaps the greatest influence and challenge to America and its laws was the growing number of Americans who did not have any religious practices and objected strongly to the Judeo-Christian assertion of right and wrong. In the late 1980’s, these new “secularists” made up approximately 11 percent of the U.S. population. Their views are seen to be “humanist” and they support what they feel are laws that are for the good of mankind, not laws based on a Judeo-Christian ethic.
While we are struggling to define our culture and devising and revising laws to meet continuing challenges from various groups within, we must make an attempt to show tolerance for the many cultural practices that have come into the U.S. via its most recent immigrants. In an attempt to foster greater justice and to show acceptance of varying immigrant customs and practices, some argue for a “Cultural Defense.” Because of their culture, many immigrants find themselves in conflict with the legal system in the U.S. This cultural defense asserts that many immigrants and ethnic Americans experience legal and social problems as a direct result of their “different” cultural practices.
Because many immigrants are faced with laws and practices so different from what they are accustomed to, many find themselves on the wrong side of the law. In my unit, I briefly explore cultural and/or religious practices from Cuba, Japan, Southeast Asia (Hmong), Hawaii, Cambodia, Vietnam and Africa that raise legal questions when practiced in the United States.
In an effort to better understand a culture, one must examine the influence of religion, written and unwritten laws. In my unit, I present traditional cultural and/or religious practices of several ethnic groups now living in the United States. This view into their practices and beliefs, should help one ascertain the need for a “cultural defense.” However unorthodox many of the practices may seem to mainstream America, many of these practices are alive and well within our country. Because of them, some recent immigrants may find themselves in direct conflict with the United States legal system.
In this unit, I also present conflicts that arise when religious cultures clash with U.S. Law. I present cases that deal with the religious cultures of the Amish, Catholics and Protestants. These cases, though centered around religion, address the issue of parental rights.
Through the use of this unit, students will participate in mock trials, simulations, town meetings and various role-playing activities. I will also use divergent art and writing activities, to allow students the opportunity to creatively express their knowledge of the subject matter.
Most Hmong outside of the U.S. have chosen to live simple lives in the mountains. They have become known as warriors because of their unwillingness to bow to stronger powers. During the 19th century, they fled China to escape a harsh ruler. They opposed taxes imposed upon them by French rulers in Southeast Asia, and served as guerrilla fighters for the Allies in WWII. The Hmong practice several religions, Animism, Shamanism, Confucianism, Buddhism and Christianity.
The Animists believe that there is life after death. Although many Hmong believe that one will practice his/her religion in one’s life after death, they believe the purpose of their worship is to state their intention to live good lives to their loved ones who have already passed away.
Shamanism is part of Hmong Animism. A Shaman is believed to be one who possesses certain powers from heaven to cure sickness and to eliminate ghosts and other spirits.
Confucianism contains three major theories adhered to by the Hmong:
- (l) It is believed that humans are the center of nature and that heaven and earth were created for the benefit of human beings.
- (2) Humans are classified in three groups, and their importance is in this order, the group, the family, and the individual.
- (3) Human nature is divided into three categories; aggressive, restrained and passive.
A young girl living within the U.S. may find that her parents have accepted a bride’s price for her marriage to an older man. The girl is expected to accept this arrangement, leave school and become a wife and mother. She would then become a part of her husband’s clan, and live in a multi-generational home inclusive of his parents and perhaps other siblings.
A couple may also become husband and wife by simply living together. Lastly, a young girl may become a bride by being captured by a suitor. If a man sees a girl that he would like to have as his wife, he may confront her and make his intentions known. The young girl, without her parents’ approval or knowledge, may accept his proposal of marriage. Although the female is usually underage by U.S. standards, the suitor then takes the young girl to his home where they begin to live together as husband and wife. She becomes a part of his family’s clan. They have 24-48 hours to contact her family notifying them of the marriage or “capture” of their daughter.
A Vietnamese folk remedy for headaches, has been the impetus for the investigation of many Vietnamese parents. To rid one of a headache, the serrated edge of a coin is used to massage the shoulders and back. This practice leaves bruises that are quite visible.
A teacher, noticing bruises on a Vietnamese child, reported the family to social services. Because social workers are obligated to investigate any charges of child abuse, charges were made against the child’s family. When the prosecutor learned of the folk remedy used, the charges were dropped.
The Miami suburb of Hialeah was involved in a legal battle over the rights of a religious group to sacrifice animals as part of their worship. This ancient religion called Santeria, originated in Africa and is still practiced in Nigeria. This religion, requiring the sacrifice of chickens, pigeons, ducks, doves, turtles, sheep and goats, was brought to the U.S. in the 1960’s by Cuban refugees.
The church ministers argued that if the state of Florida allowed the killing of animals for sport and food, that it should not ban animal killing for religious purposes. The worshippers viewed this ban as a government infringement, because religious expression was basically the only unacceptable reason for killing animals. The ministers also argued that Santeria should become institutionalized like other faiths so those who practiced it, could become a part of the U.S. mainstream.
In the Samoan culture, there is a forgiveness ritual called an “ifonga”. A Samoan immigrant living in Hawaii was stabbed to death outside of his home by a fellow Samoan. The assailant, Tonny Williams, was placed in jail and charged with murder. William’s family responded to these events by performing an ancient ceremony called an ifonga.
During the ifonga, the family of the assailant, the Williams family, asked forgiveness of the family of the victim, the Foutuuas, by having two high priests place gifts of fine mats, food, handicrafts and money at their home. The Foutuuas accepted, and gave a gift to the Williams family. In accepting their gifts, the Foutuuas agreed that they would not testify in court. Without their testimony, Tonny Williams would receive a ten year prison sentence rather than a life sentence. As a result of this ceremony both families have a good relationship.
Although the ifonga restricted the judicial system, the families involved did not view it as a way of beating the legal system. While it is not uniformly accepted, courts in California and Hawaii are looking for ways to integrate the ifonga into the justice system.
Several cases involving Japanese Americans show the dilemma of culture versus the law. In the Yamanaka Case, neighbors were asked to baby-sit a couple’s three year old son, Yasuyuki. The neighbors took the child with them to the beach where he drowned.
- 1. First and foremost, the social unit or relationships are more important than individuals. Disputes show disharmony and should be avoided at all costs.
- 2. Girl is the guide for all social behavior. Although it is unwritten, it shows the obligation of one person to another.
- 3. One should possess “ninjo” or warm-heartedness when dealing with people. Carrying out one’s obligations and duties should never be seen as burdensome.
- 4. When resolving a dispute, not matter how severe, one must always work to preserve the relationship. Having someone win and someone lose, would damage the relationship.
The Yamanakas sued their neighbor for negligence, and were awarded $24,100 in damages. After their victory in court, the Yamanakas received hundreds of telephone calls denouncing their behavior. Others in their culture were not only appalled by the fact that they accepted monetary compensation from their neighbor, but also for taking the neighbor to court at all. The family could not stand under the social pressure. In less than a month, they went back to court to return the money and to drop the case.
The case of Fumiko Kimura is perhaps one of the most distressing cases thus far. Mrs. Kimura, who lived in Los Angeles, received a phone call from a Japanese-American woman who claimed to have had a long term affair with Mrs. Kimura’s husband. The “other woman” wanted to end the relationship by telling Mrs. Kimura all about it.
The call was made on January 20. On January 29, Mrs. Kimura walked into the ocean carrying her two children, a six month old daughter and a four year old son. While trying to drown herself and the children, she was spotted by two teenagers who jumped in to rescue them. Mrs. Kimura lived, but both of her children died.
When arrested, Mrs. Kimura explained about the phone call and how her husband’s infidelity had brought shame upon the family. The shame was particularly placed on her, because in her culture she had failed as a wife. In the Japanese culture, an honorable way of ridding the family of such shame, is by committing a form of parent-child suicide called “oyako-shinjo”.
Because the Japanese culture views the children as extensions of the mother, the children also had to die. To allow the children to live; would have placed them in a terrible situation within their culture. The children would have been ostracized and the targets of constant harassment, contempt and ridicule. Mrs. Kimura faces the death penalty if she is convicted on the two counts of first-degree murder under California law.
In 1972, almost fifty years later, the power of the states was once again challenged in Wisconsin v. Yoder. Wisconsin law compels children to attend school until age sixteen. Yoder and other members of the Amish community refused to send their 14 and 15 year old children beyond the eighth grade. Yoder and others were found to be in violation of the law and were fined $5.00 each.
The parents saw this ruling and the compulsory school attendance law, as a violation of their First and Fourteenth Amendment rights. Yoder sincerely argued that he and the others risked not only censure from their community, but possibly the salvation of their children and themselves if the children continued to attend school. It was found that the compulsory education requirement interfered with the free exercise of their religious beliefs. The ruling was overturned, and Yoder became a decision that greatly affected the rights of parents regarding the education of their children.
In New York, many parents expressed a desire to have their children receive religious instruction during the school day. Although their children were in public schools, parents felt that religion should also be a part of their daily instruction. A New York statute allowing release time for public school students to attend religious classes held off school property, was challenged. An earlier case, Illinois ex rel McCollum v. Board of Education, was found to be unconstitutional. Religious classes were held in the schools, and funding came from the school district.
However, Zorach v. Clauson (1952) was held constitutional. The court found that there was no coercion to get students to attend these religious classes. The courts found that the statute did not prohibit the free exercise of religion, nor was it seen as a means of establishing religion. Unlike Illinois ex rel McCollum v. Board of Education, 1948, no public school facilities or funds were used for religious instruction. The religious community involved, financed everything, including the applications for participation.
Objective Students will demonstrate knowledge of U.S. marriage laws as they pertain to minors. Students will present an argument for or against the alteration of these laws to accommodate marital practices of the Hmong culture.
Formal Requirements for Marriage in the U.S.
There are three requirements that must be met in order to have a valid marriage.
- 1) Both parties involved must consent to become married. Both parties involved must not only consent, but must also be competent in understanding the nature of the act of marriage.
- 2) There must be solemnization of the marriage. Generally, states require blood tests and a marriage license. The license usually becomes valid three days after it has been issued and expires after 180 days.
- 1) At age 18, people are allowed to marry freely.
- 2) Parties age 17, may marry if they obtain parental consent.
- 3) In some states, a court order is necessary to authorize the marriage of parties less that 17 years old.
- 1) The minimum age of marriage without parental consent is 14 to 18 years of age.
- 2) If one or both of the parties is younger than 14, consent must be given by the parents or guardians.
- 3) In Laos, men may have more than one wife at a time, but women may only have one husband.
- 4) A man or boy may take a girl or woman home to live with him. This form of marriage is called zij pojniam or “capture”. This is not kidnapping, because the female must give her consent. The groom and his family have 24-48 hours to make the bride’s family aware of the “capture.”
- 5) The parents and clan leaders of the groom must go to the house of the bride to make all marriage arrangements. Also, the groom’s family is responsible for all of the wedding costs.
- 6) Parents, relatives and leaders of the wedding issue a certificate of marriage and announce to everyone that the couple is now married.
- 7) In the eyes of the community, the husband and wife are married for life. The wife is under the reasonable control of her husband, and no one is to interfere with their marital affairs.
- 8) If there are marital problems, the couple should turn to their parents and clan leaders for help. They are viewed as authorities on matters concerning marriage.
- 9) It is the responsibility of the man to take care of his wife and children.
Activity Students will participate in a town hearing in which proponents and opponents of the Hmong community marriage practices come together to debate the right of parents to encourage the early marriage of their daughters.
The town meeting will be presided over by Judge Flake, who sees this as a fact finding meeting. She is interested in hearing what everyone has to say, especially the parties involved. She will allow protest signs in the town meeting hall.
All students will receive a copy of the information for role-play. This will give students a point of reference when presenting their argument for or against the ban on Hmong practices.
The classroom will be set up auditorium style. Every member in the class will carry a sign with a graphic and slogan they designed for the hearing. Each sign should take a clear stand for or against a ban.
All interested parties will be allowed to speak and Judge Flake will decide for or against a ban based on the arguments presented.
- 1) The teacher will copy and distribute the information on U.S. and Hmong marriage customs to students.
- 2) The teacher will assign students to various roles, and distribute role-play information particular to each character.
- 3) Students who do not have a specific role, will serve as proponents and opponents of a Hmong marriage practice ban. *Please note: The teacher may have to designate certain students to opposing sides to ensure a balance.
- 4) Students will use art and creative writing skills to produce signs and slogans for and against standard U.S. marriage laws and / or against Hmong marriage practices.
(Hmong Mother #1)
You are the mother of a 14 year old girl. A Hmong man, age 22, wishes to marry this daughter. You and your family are very proud, and have negotiated a bride’s price for her. You are happy that your daughter will not be found among the many women who at age 18, are still without a husband to care for them. The clan and family of the groom will be visiting shortly to finalize the arrangements. You can hardly wait! It seems like only yesterday when you too were a young bride at 15 years of age. Your daughter has done well.
(Hmong Mother #2)
You are very happy that your son has decided to many. It was wise for him to select a young bride so it will be easier to train her in the ways of your clan. You are anxiously awaiting the day that she will arrive in your home. She and your son will sleep in the small room near the kitchen. It will be nice having another pair of hand to help with the household chores. Quite frankly, it will be nice having a new daughter.
(Hmong Father # 1)
You and your wife are pleased with the plans set forth by the groom’s clan. Ishri, your 14 year old daughter, has done well. You hope she has not been ruined by the American culture that you have tried desperately to protect her from.
(Hmong Father #2)
You, like Ishri’s father, have tried to raise your children in the ways of your people. You are glad that your son is prepared to take a wife. He is hard-working and will make a good husband. He will provide well for his new bride and their children. You are a little concerned because you have heard that she may have some career ambitions. You hope she’s not too “Americanized” or there may be trouble.
(Ishiri) Age 14
You have just been told by your parents that the very handsome cousin of Ishi, your best friend, would like to marry you. You have grown up in a traditional Hmong home where parents are always respected and the need to preserve the culture is enforced. Although your mother and sister both married at early ages, you’re not sure that’s what you want to do. You have watched some of the mothers of your non-Hmong friends who have pursued careers outside of the home. From your perspective, there are pros and cons to their life choices just as there are for your mother. These women look prosperous, drive nice cars and go on expensive vacations. They have their own money and they don’t appear to feel inferior to their men. On the other hand, many of them have unhappy marriages, their children are raised by strangers from the time they are infants. They don’t have the love and security of an extended family whose goal is to see the family remain strong. You are an exceptional student and you love children. You’ve toyed with the idea of becoming a pediatrician. Your mom says that love for children will make you a better wife and mother.
(Isho) Age 22
Your parents have spoken to you extensively about a need for a wife. They feel that if you wait much longer, you will have to pay a greater bride’s price for a girl as young as Ishiri. You spotted her on several occasions, and decided that you would like to have her as your bride. Your first cousin Ishi, is her best friend. She has told you of her intelligence and love for children and traditional values. She has also warned you that she is a dreamer who is torn between the values she has learned at home and those she has learned from her “other” friends. You really want a traditional life. You like knowing that your role is clearly defined as the breadwinner and head of the family. You feel a strong family unit may be destroyed if the roles for husbands and wives are not traditional.
(Ishi) Age 15
You are excited about the marriage between your cousin, Isho, and your best friend, Ishiri. You can’t wait until someone has asked for your hand in marriage, after all, you are 15. When the two of them marry, you will have a chance to spend more time together, because you will be in the same clan. Your only worry is that Ishiri may be too American. Her parents have not been as strict as yours on some issues, and Ishiri has been allowed to become friendly with many outsiders. She sometimes talks of high school and college. She’s even mentioned perhaps becoming a doctor. Overall, you think things will work out all right.
A case has been brought against the parents of Ishiri. School officials were notified that she would be withdrawing from school to become a wife. Social services became involved, and the case has come before you. You have angry members of the Hmong community who feel that U.S. courts should not meddle in their cultural affairs, while there are child protection and women’s rights agencies calling for laws against marriage customs that restrict the social educational, and economic advancement of young girls and women.
(Attorney Williams) Attorney for the Hmong
Given all the information presented, you must make an appeal for the rights of the Hmong community to peacefully exist in the U.S. with their culture intact. You must present evidence showing that women in this culture are not harmed, and that it is through the “arrogant eyes” of non-community members that injustice and exploitation of women and young girls is seen.
(Attorney Wamer) Attorney for the State
You are appalled by the practice of the Hmong community. You feel the lives of young women are being sacrificed to preserve the traditions of an antiquated culture. You must describe the ill effects of these marriage customs and argue for a ban of these practices.
Objective Students will compare and contrast three or more cases that show cultural conflict. Students will use visual art, creative writing skills, poetry and/or prose to demonstrate learning.
The end result of this activity should be a visually attractive, replica of a local newspaper. All articles, ads, name of paper, etc. should relate to the cases presented.
- 1. The teacher will arrange students into diverse groups. (limit 4 per group)
- 2. The teacher will distribute summaries of the cultural conflict cases presented in this unit.
- 3. Students will read and discuss the cases with members of their groups.
- 4. Students will design and produce a large group newspaper, inclusive of name of newspaper, date of publication, editor, contributing writers, staff reporters, etc.
- 5. Students will write poems, news articles or editorials expressing their views about these cultural/law issues.
- 6. Visual artists may draw political cartoons or ads to express their views.
Objective Students will use music and writing skills to discuss legal/cultural conflict in America in the form of a protest song.
- 1. Students may work in small groups. (limit 4 per group)
- 2. Students must choose one or more cases from the unit.
- 3. Students will select a melody from a song familiar to all members of the group.
- 4. Students will write lyrics that express cultural conflict as presented in one or more of the cases.
- 5. Students may also choose rap as an alternative form of expression.
- 6. Students will perform their music for the class.
The author presents acceptable and unacceptable body language and gestures as viewed by different countries and cultures.
Carter, Stephen L. The Culture of Disbelief. New York: Doubleday, 1993.
The author makes a case for the practice of religious freedoms in one’s public as well as private life.
Krause, Harry D. Family Law. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., 1988.
This book presents U.S. family law in simple laymen terms. It includes actual cases and decisions.
Klein, Gillian. Multicultural Teaching To Combat Racism In School and Community. Staffs., England: Trentham Books Ltd., 1987.
This book contains reviews of articles and studies that deal with racism. Although there is a particular emphasis on the educational system in England, it is relevant to our system in America.
Lipson, Barclay Greta, Romatowski, Jane A. Ethnic Pride. Carthage, IL: Good Apple Inc., 1983.
This book contains various activities that introduce students to the achievements, foods, music and general culture of various ethnic groups.
Massey, Ian. More Than Shin Deep: Developing Anti-racist Multicultural Education in Schools. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1991.
This book peers into institutionalized racism, and challenges teachers to develop curriculum that reflects a more anti-racist and multicultural approach to education.
Miller, Barbara, Parisi, Lynn. Teaching About Law And Cultures. Social Science Education Consortium, 1992.
Part of a culture/law education project, this publication presents the clash between the law and culture of Japan, Southeast Asia and Mexico.
This book includes reproducible texts and worksheets that explore the drafting of the U.S. Constitution as well as present day laws and Constitutional Amendments.
Lee, George. Decisions That Shaped America 1865-1976. U.S.: Mark Twain Media Inc., 1993.
A clear presentation of land mark decisions that forever changed U.S. Law and the Constitution.
Lewis, Barbara A. The Kid’s Guide To Social Action. Minn., MN: Free Spirit Publishing Inc. 1991.
This book helps students identify and address social issues they would like to become involved with. There are practical steps on a variety of issues from writing editorials, to working to change laws.
Milord, Susan. Hands Around The World. Charlotte, VT: Williamson Publishing, 1992.
Using the calendar, the author presents 365 ways to develop an appreciation for various cultures. Many of the activities include art, writing and music.
Contents of 1996 Volume I | Directory of Volumes | Index | Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute


6.2 Writing Style
- Demonstrate your ability to prepare and present information using a writing style that will increase understanding, retention, and motivation to act.
You are invited to a business dinner at an expensive restaurant that has been the top-rated dining establishment in your town for decades. You are aware of the restaurant’s dress code, which forbids casual attire such as jeans, T-shirts, and sneakers. What will you wear? If you want to fit in with the other guests and make a favorable impression on your hosts, you will choose a good quality suit or dress (and appropriately dressy shoes and accessories). You will avoid calling undue attention to yourself with clothing that is overly formal—an evening gown or a tuxedo, for example—or that would distract from the business purpose of the occasion by being overly revealing or provocative. You may feel that your freedom to express yourself by dressing as you please is being restricted, or you may appreciate the opportunity to look your best. Either way, adhering to these style conventions will serve you well in a business context.
The same is true in business writing. Unlike some other kinds of writing such as poetry or fiction, business writing is not an opportunity for self-expression. Instead it calls for a fairly conservative and unadorned style. Writing style, also known as voice or tone, is the manner in which a writer addresses the reader. It involves qualities of writing such as vocabulary and figures of speech, phrasing, rhythm, sentence structure, and paragraph length. Developing an appropriate business writing style will reflect well on you and increase your success in any career.
Formal versus Informal
There was a time when many business documents were written in third person to give them the impression of objectivity. This formal style was often passive and wordy. Today it has given way to active, clear, concise writing, sometimes known as “Plain English” (Bailey, 2008). As business and industry increasingly trade across borders and languages, writing techniques that obscure meaning or impede understanding can cause serious problems. Efficient writing styles have become the norm. Still, you will experience in your own writing efforts this “old school versus new school” writing debate over abbreviations, contractions, and the use of informal language in what was once considered a formal business context. Consider the following comparison of informal versus formal and bureaucratic styles.
Bureaucratic: Attached is the latest delivery data represented in topographical forms pursuant to the directive ABC123 of the air transportation guide supplied by the Federal Aviation Administration in September of 2008.
- Formal – Please note the attached delivery data for July 2009.
- Informal – Here’s the delivery data for last month.
While it is generally agreed that bureaucratic forms can obscure meaning, there is a debate on the use of formal versus informal styles in business communication. Formal styles often require more detail, adhere to rules of etiquette, and avoid shortcuts like contractions and folksy expressions. Informal styles reflect everyday speech patterns and may include contractions and colloquial expressions. Many managers prefer not to see contractions in a formal business context. Others will point out that a comma preceding the last item in a series (known as the “serial comma”) is the standard, not the exception. Some will make a general recommendation that you should always “keep it professional.” Here lies the heart of the debate: what is professional writing in a business context? If you answered “it depends,” you are correct.
Keep in mind that audiences have expectations and your job is to meet them. Some business audiences prefer a fairly formal tone. If you include contractions or use a style that is too casual, you may lose their interest and attention; you may also give them a negative impression of your level of expertise. If, however, you are writing for an audience that expects informal language, you may lose their interest and attention by writing too formally; your writing may also come across as arrogant or pompous. It is not that one style is better than the other, but simply that styles of writing vary across a range of options. Business writing may need to meet legal standards and include references, as we see in the bureaucratic example above, but that is generally not the norm for communications within an organization. The skilled business writer will know his or her audience and will adapt the message to best facilitate communication. Choosing the right style can make a significant impact on how your writing is received.
You may hear reference to a conversational tone in writing as one option in business communication. A conversational tone, as the name implies, resembles oral communication in style, tone, and word choice. It can be appropriate for some audiences, and may serve you well in specific contexts, but it can easily come across as less than professional.
If you use expressions that imply a relationship or a special awareness of information such as “you know,” or “as we discussed,” without explaining the necessary background, your writing may be seen as overly familiar, intimate, or even secretive. Trust is the foundation for all communication interactions and a careless word or phrase can impair trust.
If you want to use humor, think carefully about how your audience will interpret it. Humor is a fragile form of communication that requires an awareness of irony, of juxtaposition, or a shared sense of attitudes, beliefs, and values. Different people find humor in different situations, and what is funny to one person may be dull, or even hurtful, to someone else.
Although there are business situations such as an interview or a performance self-evaluation where you need to state your accomplishments, in general business writing it is best to avoid self-referential comments that allude to your previous successes. These can come across as selfish or arrogant. Instead, be generous in giving credit where credit is due. Take every opportunity to thank your colleagues for their efforts and to acknowledge those who contributed good ideas.
Jargon is a vocabulary that has been developed by people in a particular group, discipline, or industry, and it can be a useful shorthand as long as the audience knows its meaning. For example, when writing for bank customers, you could refer to “ATM transactions” and feel confident that your readers would know what you meant. It would be unnecessary and inappropriate to write “Automated Teller Machine transactions.” Similarly, if you were working in a hospital, you would probably use many medical terms in your interactions with other medical professionals. However, if you were a hospital employee writing to a patient, using medical jargon would be inappropriate, as it would not contribute to the patient’s understanding.
Finally, in a business context, remember that conversational style is not an excuse to use poor grammar, disrespectful or offensive slang, or profanity. Communication serves as the bridge between minds and your written words will represent you in your absence. One strategy when trying to use a conversation tone is to ask yourself, “Would I say it in this way to their face?” A follow-up question to consider is, “Would I say it in this way in front of everyone?” Your professional use of language is one the hallmark skills in business, and the degree to which you master its use will reflect itself in your success. Take care, take time, and make sure what you write communicates a professional tone that positively represents you and your organization.
Introductions: Direct and Indirect
Sometimes the first sentence is the hardest to write. When you know the two main opening strategies it may not make it any easier, but it will give a plan and form a framework. Business documents often incorporate one of two opening strategies regardless of their organizational pattern. The direct pattern states the main purpose directly, at the beginning, and leaves little room for misinterpretation. The indirect pattern, where you introduce your main idea after the opening paragraph, can be useful if you need a strong opening to get the attention of what you perceive may be an uninterested audience. Normally, if you expect a positive response from the reader you will choose a direct opening, being clear from the first sentence about your purpose and goal. If you do not expect a positive reception, or have to deliver bad news, you may want to be less direct. Each style has its purpose and use; the skilled business writer will learn to be direct and be able to present bad news with a positive opening paragraph.
There are times when you will want to add emphasis to a word, phrase, or statistic so that it stands out from the surrounding text. The use of visual aids in your writing can be an excellent option, and can reinforce the written discussion. For example, if you write that sales are up 4 percent over this time last year, the number alone may not get the attention it deserves. If, however, near the text section you feature a bar graph demonstrating the sales growth figures, the representation of the information in textual and graphical way may reinforce its importance.
As you look across the top of your word processing program you may notice bold, italics, underline, highlights, your choice of colors, and a host of interesting fonts. Although it can be entertaining to experiment with these visual effects, do not use them just for the sake of decoration. Consistency and branding are important features of your firm’s public image, so you will want the visual aspects of your writing to support that image. Still, when you need to highlight an important fact or emphasize a key question in a report, your readers will appreciate your use of visual effects to draw their attention. Consider the following examples:
- Bullets can be effective when used with discretion.
Take care when using the following:
- With subheadings
- In serial lists
- As they can get
- A bit overwhelming to the point where
- The reader loses his or her interest
Emphasis can be influenced by your choice of font. Serif fonts, such as Times New Roman and Garamond, have decorative ends that make the font easy to read. Sans serif fonts, like Arial, lack these visual cues and often serve better as headers.
You can also vary the emphasis according to where you place information within a sentence:
- Maximum emphasis. Sales have increased across the United States because of our latest promotion efforts in our largest and most successful market.
- Medium emphasis. Because of our latest promotion efforts in our largest and most successful market, sales have increased across the United States.
- Minimum emphasis. The United States, which has experienced a sales increase, is our largest and most successful market.
The information at end of the sentence is what people often recall, and is therefore normally considered the location of maximum emphasis. The second best position for recall is the beginning of the sentence, while the middle of the sentence is the area with the least recall. If you want to highlight a point, place it at the beginning or end of the sentence, and if you want to deemphasize a point, the middle is your best option (McLean, 2003).
Active versus Passive Voice
You want your writing to be engaging. Which sentence would you rather read?
- A – All sales orders are processed daily by Mackenzie.
- B – Mackenzie processes all sales orders daily.
Most readers prefer sentence B, but why? You’ll recall that all sentences have a subject and a verb, but you may not have paid much attention to their functions. Let’s look at how the subject and verb function in these two sentences. In sentence A, the subject is “Mackenzie,” and the subject is the doer of the action expressed by the verb (processes). In sentence A, the subject is “sales orders,” and the subject is the receiver of the action expressed by the verb (are processed). Sentence A is written in active voice—a sentence structure in which the subject carries out the action. Sentence B is written in passive voice—a sentence structure in which the subject receives the action.
Active sentences tend to be shorter, more precise, and easier to understand. This is especially true because passive sentences can be written in ways that do not tell the reader who the doer of the action is. For example, “All sales orders are processed daily” is a complete and correct sentence in passive voice.
Active voice is the clear choice for a variety of contexts, but not all. When you want to deemphasize the doer of the action, you may write, “Ten late arrivals were recorded this month” and not even mention who was late. The passive form doesn’t place blame or credit, so it can be more diplomatic in some contexts. Passive voice allows the writer to avoid personal references or personal pronouns (he, she, they) to create a more objective tone. There are also situations where the doer of the action is unknown, as in “graffiti was painted on the side of our building last night.”
Overall, business communication resources tend to recommend active voice as the preferred style. Still, the styles themselves are not the problem or challenge, but it is how we use them that matters. A skilled business writer will see both styles as options within a range of choices and learn to distinguish when each style is most appropriate to facilitate communication.
Commonly Confused Words
The sentences in Table 6.6 “Common Errors in English” focus on some of the most common errors in English. You may recall this exercise from the introduction of this chapter. How did you do? Visit the “Additional Resources” section at the end of the chapter for some resources on English grammar and usage.
Table 6.6 Common Errors in English
|1. accept or except||The office will _______ applications until 5 p.m. on the 31st.||accept||Attendance is required for all employees _______ supervisors.||except|
|2. affect or effect||To _______ the growth of plants, we can regulate the water supply.||affect||A lack of water has a predictable _______ on most plants.||effect|
|3. e.g. or i.e.||Please order 2,000 imprinted giveaways (_______, pens or coffee mugs)||e.g.||Charge them to my account (_______, account #98765).||i.e.|
|4. its or it’s||The department surpassed _______ previous sales record this quarter.||its||_______ my opinion that we reached peak oil in 2008.||It’s|
|5. lay or lie||Please _______ the report on the desk.||lay||The doctor asked him to _______ down on the examination table.||lie|
|6. pressure or pressurize||We need to _______ the liquid nitrogen tanks.||pressurize||It might be possible to _______ him to resign.||pressure|
|7. principle or principal||It’s the basic _________ of farming: no water, no food.||principle||The _______ reason for the trip is to attend the sales meeting.||principal|
|8. regardless or irregardless||_______ of what we do, gas prices are unlikely to go back down.||Regardless||_______ of your beliefs, please try to listen with an open mind.||Regardless (Irregardless is not a standard word; see your dictionary)|
|9. than or then||This year’s losses were worse _______ last year’s.||than||If we can cut our costs, _______ it might be possible to break even.||then|
|10. that or which||_______ type of marketing data did you need?||Which||Karen misplaced the report, _______ caused a delay in making a decision.||which|
|There are several kinds of data _______ could be useful.||that|
|11 there their, or they’re||The report is _________, in the top file drawer.||there||__________ strategic advantage depends on a wide distribution network.||Their|
|__________ planning to attend the sales meeting in Pittsburgh.||They’re|
|12. to, too, or two||Customers need _______ drive slower if they want to save gas.||to||After sales meeting, you should visit customers in the Pittsburgh area _______.||too|
|In fact, the _______ of you should make some customer visits together.||two|
|13. uninterested or disinterested||He would be the best person to make a decision, since he isn’t biased and is relatively _______ in the outcome.||disinterested||The sales manager tried to speak dynamically, but the sales reps were simply _______ in what he had to say.||uninterested|
|14. who, whom, who’s, or whose||__________ truck is that?||Whose||__________ going to pay for the repairs?||Who’s|
|__________ will go to the interview?||Who||To __________ should we address the thank-you note?||whom|
|15 your or you’re||My office is bigger than _______ cubicle.||your||_______ going to learn how to avoid making these common mistakes in English.||You’re|
Making Errors at the Speed of Light
In business and industry there is increasing pressure to produce under deadlines that in some respects have been artificially accelerated by the immediacy inherent in technological communication devices. If you receive an e-mail or text message while you are in the middle of studying a complex problem, you may be tempted to “get it out of the way” by typing out a quick reply, but in your haste you may fail to qualify, include important information, or even check to make sure you have hit “Reply” and not “Reply to All” or even “Delete.” Take care to pause and review your text message, e-mail, or document before you consider it complete. Here is a quick electronic communication do/don’t list to keep in mind before you click “send.”
Do remember the following:
- Everything you access via an employer’s system is subject to inspection.
- Everything you write or record reflects you and your business or organization, even if it is stored in a Google or Yahoo! account.
- Respect personal space by not forwarding every e-mail you think is funny.
- Use a concise but relevant and informative phrase for the subject line.
- E-mail the receiver before sending large attachments, as they may exceed the limit of the receiver’s in-box.
- Attach your intended attachments.
An appropriate business writing style can be formal or informal, depending on the context, but it should always reflect favorably on the writer and the organization.
- Select at least three examples of writing from different kinds of sources, such as a government Web site, a textbook, a popular magazine, and a novel. According to the style characteristics discussed in this section, how would you characterize the style of each? Select a paragraph to rewrite in a different style—for example, if the style is formal, make it informal; if the selection is written in active voice, make it passive. Discuss your results with your classmates.
- What are some qualities of a good business writing style? What makes certain styles more appropriate for business than others? Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.
- Find an example of formal writing and write an informal version. Please share with your classmates.
- Find an example of informal writing and write a formal version. Please share with your classmates
- You are assigned to a work team that has to come up with a formal declaration and an informal explanation for the declaration. The declaration could be a memo indicating that your business will be observing a holiday (each team should have a different holiday).
- How would you characterize your writing style? Do you need to make modifications to make your style suitable for business writing? Write a one- to two-page essay on this subject.
Bailey, E. P. (2008). Plain English at work: A guide to business writing and speaking. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.