Homer (Greek Όμηρος, Homeros) was a legendary early Greek poet traditionally credited with the composition of the epic poems the Iliad (Ἰλιάς) and the Odyssey (Ὀδύσσεια). Throughout antiquity and subsequent history, Homer's influence on literature has been unequalled, and the Homeric epics are among the oldest surviving writings in any language.
Scholars debate whether the epics are works of a single author or multiple authors, and the dating of both the compositions and the events they describe remain in doubt. Homer is tentatively located in the Greek archaic period, c. 750 B.C.E. The poems portray events surrounding the shadowy Trojan War, likely a fusion of various military exploits by Mycenaean Greeks of the Bronze Age, predating Homer by some four centuries.
The Greeks believed that Homer was a blind rhapsode, or professional singer, and the poems were passed on for decades by oral tradition before being committed to writing. From the first recorded appearance of the Iliad and the Odyssey, they assume a status apart from other literature, classics upon which Greeks developed their canon of literary texts, values, and exceptionalism. All epic poetry in Western literature ultimately derives from Homer.
Homer's great poems remained foundational works of art, not religious scripture, for later classical Greeks. Virtue and honor are central preoccupations of the epics. Honor is "perhaps the most reiterated cultural and moral value in Ancient Greece," says classical scholar Richard Hooker, and means "achieving, morally and otherwise, your greatest potential as a human being." The Greek turn toward drama, science, architecture, and humanistic philosophy rather than religious speculations may be traceable to Homer's emphasis on human values, as well as his unflattering portrayal of the gods, buffeted by all-too-human weaknesses.
We know almost nothing of Homer's life; and, surprisingly, the writers of antiquity knew little more. No record of Homer's life, real or pretended, ever existed. Herodotus (2.53) maintains that Hesiod and Homer lived not more than 400 years before his own time, consequently not much before 850 B.C.E. From the controversial tone in which he expresses himself it is evident that others had made Homer more ancient; and accordingly the dates given by later authorities, though widely varied, generally fall within the tenth and eleventh centuries B.C.E., but none of these claims is grounded in historical fact. Other than a putative date of birth, the only thing that authors of antiquity agree upon is that Homer was blind, and that he probably lived in the Greek isles of the Mediterranean. Beyond this, nothing of Homer's life is known or even hinted at in his own writings.
Due to this dearth of information, for nearly a hundred years scholars have begun to question whether Homer ever really existed. Through textual research it has become clear that the Iliad and Odyssey underwent a process of standardization and refinement from older material beginning in the eighth century B.C.E. An important role in this standardization appears to have been played by the Athenian tyrant Hipparchus, who reformed the recitation of Homeric poetry at the Panathenaic festival. Many classicists hold that this reform must have involved the production of a canonical written text, and that the name "Homer" was later somehow attached to this amalgamation.
Other scholars, however, maintain their belief in the reality of an actual Homer. So little is known or even guessed of his actual life, that a common joke has it that the poems "were not written by Homer, but by another man of the same name." The classical scholar Richmond Lattimore, author of well regarded poetic translations to English of both epics, once wrote a paper entitled "Homer: Who Was She?" Samuel Butler (1835-1902) was more specific, theorizing a young Sicilian woman as author of the Odyssey (but not the Iliad), an idea further speculated on by Robert Graves in his novel Homer's Daughter.
In Greek his name is Homēros, which is Greek for "hostage." This has led to the development of a theory that his name was extracted from the name of a society of poets called the Homeridae, which literally means "sons of hostages," as in descendants of prisoners of war. As these men were not sent to war because their loyalty on the battlefield was suspect, they were entrusted with remembering Greece's stock of epic poetry in the times before literacy came to the ancient world.
Most Classicists would agree that, whether there was ever such a composer as "Homer" or not, the Homeric poems are the product of an oral tradition, a generations-old technique that was the collective inheritance of many singer-poets (aoidoi). An analysis of the structure and vocabulary of the Iliad and Odyssey shows that the poems consist of regular, repeating phrases; even entire verses repeat. It has hence been speculated that the Iliad and Odyssey could have been oral-formulaic poems, composed on the spot by the poet using a collection of memorized traditional verses and phases. Milman Parry and Albert Lord pointed out that an oral tradition to compose a poem of the length and complexity of the Iliad is not as far-fetched as it might seem; in a paper on the subject, Parry and Lord make reference to the recent discovery of an oral culture living in remote parts of contemporary Yugoslavia, where poet-rhapsodes compose on-the-spot epics using formulas remarkably similar to those found in Homer.
Many poems that were ascribed to Homer in antiquity are now known to be spurious. Other poems of Homer, which probably once existed, have been lost. Of what survives, only the epic Iliad and Odyssey are considered to be authoritatively Homeric works. The two poems are closely related in style and language as well as content. Both poems are concerned with the Trojan War and its aftermath, and both involve the actions of epic heroes, such as Achilles and Odysseus, who are more like the gods of mythological stories than the three-dimensional characters of contemporary fiction.
The most prominent characteristics of Homer's poetic style were probably best captured by the nineteenth century poet Matthew Arnold. "The translator of Homer," he writes, "should above all be penetrated by a sense of four qualities of his author: that he is eminently rapid; that he is eminently plain and direct, both in the evolution of his thought and in the expression of it, that is, both in his syntax and in his words; that he is eminently plain and direct in the substance of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and, finally, that he is eminently noble." (On translating Homer, 9).
In contrast to the other canonical epic poets Virgil, Dante, and Milton, Homer's poetry is characterized by plainspoken language and straightforward, rapidly moving narrative. The rapidity of Homer is probably a result of his use of dactylic hexameter, a meter which tends to sound hurried to most listeners (it has often been called the "hoofbeat" meter, in contrast to the iamb's "heartbeat.") Homer's plainness is probably an attribute of his time; as an oral poet, Homer could not afford to confuse himself or his audience with convoluted metaphors and digressions. As a result his epics sound much like the work of a master story-teller. Homer's "nobility,” as Arnold calls it, is probably the most difficult aspect of his poetry for contemporary readers to digest. Simply put, there are no moral dilemmas in Homer. The heroes of the epics often do things that today we would find horrifying; but there is never any doubt in their minds (or, for all we can discern, the author's mind) that what they are doing is eminently right.
The Iliad narrates several weeks of action during the tenth and final year of the Trojan War, concentrating on the wrath of Achilles. It begins with the dispute between Achilles and Agamemnon, and ends with the funeral rites of Hector. Neither the background and early years of the war (Paris' abduction of Helen from King Menelaus), nor its end (the death of Achilles), are directly narrated in the Iliad. The Iliad and the Odyssey are part of a larger cycle of epic poems of varying lengths and authors; only fragments survive of the other poems, however.
Of the many themes in the Iliad, perhaps the most important is the idea of what constitutes the hero in ancient Greek culture. Achilles is forced to make a choice between living a long life or dying young on the battlefield. In his culture, the latter would have been a better choice because death in battle leads to honor and glory, the most important values of the day—even more important than right and wrong. Part of what makes the Iliad interesting as a literary work is the way that Achilles, especially in Book 9, both embraces concepts of honor and glory and also simultaneously rejects them.
Plot and themes
In the midst of the war, Apollo sends a plague against the Greeks, who had captured the daughter of the priest, Chryses, and given her as a prize to Agamemnon. He is compelled to restore her to her father. To assuage his pride, Agamemnon takes Briseis, whom the Athenians had given to Achilles, the greatest warrior of the age, as a reward for his efforts. Following the advice of his mother, Thetis, Achilles withdraws from battle in revenge. As a result the allied Achaean (Greek) armies nearly lose the war.
In counterpoint to Achilles' pride and arrogance stands the Trojan prince, Hector, son of King Priam. As a husband and father, Hector fights to defend his city and his family. When Hector kills Patroclus, Achilles' dearest friend (and possibly his lover), Achilles rejoins the fight to seek revenge, slaying Hector. Later, King Priam comes to Achilles disguised as a beggar to ransom back his son's body. Priam's love for his son moves Achilles to pity. The poem concludes with Hector's funeral.
The poem is a poignant depiction of the tragedy and agony of family and friendship destroyed by battle. The first word of the Greek poem is "Μηνιν" ("mēnin," meaning "wrath"); the main subject of the poem is the wrath of Achilles; the second word is "aeide," meaning "sing"; ancient Greek poetry is sung; the third word is "thea," meaning "goddess"; the goddess here being the "Mousa" or "muse"; a literal translation of the first line would read "Wrath, sing goddess, of Peleus' son Achilles" or more intelligibly "Sing, goddess, the wrath of Peleus' son Achilles."
- Book 1: Ten years into the war, Achilles and Agamemnon quarrel over a slave girl, Achilles withdraws from the war in anger
- Book 2: Odysseus motivates the Greeks to keep fighting; Catalogue of Ships, Catalogue of Trojans and Allies
- Book 3: Paris (mythology) challenges Menelaus to single combat
- Book 4: The truce is broken and battle begins
- Book 5: Diomedes has an aristea and wounds Aphrodite and Ares
- Book 6: Glaucus and Diomedes greet during a truce
- Book 7: Hector battles Ajax
- Book 8: The gods withdraw from the battle
- Book 9: Agamemnon retreats: his overtures to Achilles are spurned
- Book 10: Diomedes and Odysseus go on a spy mission
- Book 11: Paris wounds Diomedes, and Achilles sends Patroclus on a mission
- Book 12: The Greeks retreat to their camp and are besieged by the Trojans
- Book 13: Poseidon motivates the Greeks
- Book 14: Hera helps Poseidon assist the Greeks
- Book 15: Zeus stops Poseidon from interfering
- Book 16: Patroclus borrows Achilles' armor, enters battle, kills Sarpedon and then is killed by Hector
- Book 17: The armies fight over the body and armor of Patroclus
- Book 18: Achilles learns of the death of Patroclus and receives a new suit of armor
- Book 19: Achilles reconciles with Agamemnon and enters battle
- Book 20: The gods join the battle; Achilles tries to kill Aeneas
- Book 21: Achilles fights with the river Scamander and encounters Hector in front of the Trojan gates
- Book 22: Achilles kills Hector and drags his body back to the Greek camp
- Book 23: Funeral games for Patroclus
- Book 24: Achilles lets Priam have Hector's body back, and he is burned on a pyre
The Odyssey (Greek: Οδύσσεια, Odússeia) is the second of the two great epic poems ascribed to Homer. The 11,300 line poem follows Odysseus, king of Ithaca, on his voyage home after a heroic turn in the Trojan War. It also tells the story of Odysseus' wife, Penelope, who struggles to remain faithful, and his son Telemachus, who sets out to find his father. In contrast to the Iliad, with its extended sequences of battle and violence, all three are ultimately successful by means of their cleverness, and the support of the goddess, Athena. This cleverness is most often manifested by Odysseus' use of disguise and, later, recognition. His disguises take forms both physical alteration and verbal deception.
The Odyssey consists of 24 books, beginning, as do many ancient epics, in medias res, or in the middle of the action, with prior events described through flashbacks or storytelling. The first four books, known as the Telemachiad, trace Telemachus' efforts to maintain control of the palace in the face of suitors to his mother's hand in marriage. Failing that, Athena encourages him to find his father. In book 5, Odysseus nears the end of his journey, a not entirely unwilling captive of the beautiful nymph, Calypso, with whom he's spent seven of his ten lost years. Released from her wiles by the intercession of his patroness, Athena, and her father Zeus, he departs. His raft is destroyed by his nemesis, Poseidon, who is angry because Odysseus blinded his son, the Cyclops, Polyphemus. When Odysseus washes up on Scheria, home to the Phaeacians, the naked stranger is treated with traditional Greek hospitality even before he reveals his name. Odysseus satisfies the Phaeacians' curiosity, recounting for them—and for us—all his adventures on his trip home since from Troy. This renowned, extended "flashback" leads him back to where he stands, his tale told. The shipbuilding Phaeacians finally loan him a ship to return to Ithaca, where, home at last, he regains his throne, reunites with his son, metes out justice to the suitors, and reunites with his faithful wife, Penelope.
- Book 1: The gods agree that Odysseus has been marooned too long and deserves to be returned home. Athena sets out to help him, and on the way visits Telemachus.
- Book 2: Penelope's suitors mock Telemachus. With Athena's help, he sets out for Pylos for news of his father.
- Book 3: Telemachus converses with the sage Nestor, who suggests that he seek out Menalaus, who was also stranded after the war.
- Book 4: Menelaus tells while he was stranded in Egypt he learned that Odysseus was marooned on the isle of Calypso.
- Book 5: At the command of Zeus, Calypso lets Odysseus go free; Poseidon creates a terrible storm to thwart him.
- Book 6: Odysseus washes ashore and is found by Nausicaa, princess of the Phaeacians.
- Book 7: The king invites Odysseus to a banquet at the palace, and promises to help him so long as his guests are suitably entertained.
- Book 8: During the banquet, Odysseus cannot hold back his sadness and begins to weep. The king implores him to tell the guests his name and where he comes from.
- Book 9: Odysseus introduces himself as a hero, and begins a long flashback beginning with he and his men's capture by the Cyclops.
- Book 10: Odysseus' men are attacked by giants after misguiding the ship. The survivors are captured by the sorceress Circe and turned into swine.
- Book 11: Odysseus frees his men and escapes; they visit the underworld, to seek the advice of the dead prophet Tiresias.
- Book 12: Odysseus' ship passes by the Sirens and the sea-monsters Scylla and Charybdis; the ship lands on the Island of Apollo, and Odysseus' men sacrifice the god's sacred cattle; Zeus kills all of them except Odysseus, who washes ashore on the isle of Calypso.
- Book 13: The king, in awe, orders a ship for Odysseus to be taken home at once; Athena, in disguise, guides him there.
- Book 14: Eumaeus, a kindly swineherd, is the first to meet Odysseus, although he does not recognize him.
- Book 15: Athena warns Telemachus of the suitors' ambush; meanwhile, Odysseus listens to Eumaeus tell the story of his life.
- Book 16: Evading the suitors' ambush, Telemachus is led by Athena to the farmstead of Eumaeus to reunite with his father.
- Book 17: Disguised as a beggar, Odysseus returns to his home and begs food from the suitors, who berate and abuse him.
- Book 18: Irus, a real beggar and lackey for the suitors, arrives and eggs Odysseus into a fistfight; Odysseus wins easily.
- Book 19: Odysseus has a long talk with Penelope but does not reveal his identity; Penelope has a maid of the house wash Odysseus feet, and she recognizes him by a scar on his leg; Odysseus implores her to be silent until he has finished his plot for revenge.
- Book 20: Odysseus asks Zeus for a sign and receives it; a wandering prophet visits the suitors and warns them of their imminent doom.
- Book 21: Penelope appears before the suitors and challenges them to string the bow of Odysseus; all of them fail, until the bow is passed to Odysseus.
- Book 22: Telemachus, Eumaeus, and another faithful herdsman join Odysseus fully armed, and together they slay the suitors with bow and arrow.
- Book 23: Odysseus purges the blood-drenched mansion with fire; the suitors' kinfolk learn what has happened.
- Book 24: Odysseus visits his father, King Laertes, working like a peasant at a vineyard; the suitors' kin gather around them and call for Odysseus to fight to the death; Laertes, Odysseus, and Telemachus meet the challenge, but before fighting can begin Athena stops everything and commands them all to live in peace.
Historicity of the Iliad and Odyssey
Another significant question regards the possible historical basis of the events that take place in Homer's poems. The commentaries on the Iliad and the Odyssey written in the Hellenistic period began exploring the textual inconsistencies of the poems. Modern classicists have continued the tradition.
The excavations of Heinrich Schliemann in the late nineteenth century began to convince scholars that there was a historical basis for the Trojan War. Research (pioneered by the aforementioned Parry and Lord) into oral epics in Serbo-Croatian and Turkic languages began to convince scholars that long poems could be preserved with consistency by oral cultures until someone bothered to write them down. The decipherment of Linear B in the 1950s by Michael Ventris and others, convinced scholars of a linguistic continuity between thirteenth century B.C.E. Mycenaean writings and the poems attributed to Homer.
It is probable, therefore, that the story of the Trojan War as reflected in the Homeric poems derives from a tradition of epic poetry founded on a war that actually took place. However, it is important not to underestimate the creative and transforming power of demands of poetry and the subsequent tradition: for instance, Achilles, the most important character of the Iliad, is associated with Thessaly. He has likely a poetic invention, added to a story in which the attackers of Troy were from the Peloponnese.
- ↑ Richard Hooker, "Bureaucrats and Barbarians: Minoans, Myceneans, and the Greek Dark Ages," , online textbook resource, Washington State Univ.. retrieved September 20, 2007
(texts in Homeric Greek)
- Demetrius Chalcondylas editio princeps, Florence, 1488
- the Aldine editions (1504 and 1517)
- Wolf (Halle, 1794-1795; Leipzig, 1804 1807)
- Spitzner (Gotha, 1832-1836)
- Bekker (Berlin, 1843; Bonn, 1858)
- La Roche (Odyssey, 1867-1868; Iliad, 1873-1876, both at Leipzig)
- Ludwich (Odyssey, Leipzig, 1889-1891; Iliad, 2 vols., 1901 and 1907)
- W. Leaf (Iliad, London, 1886-1888; 2nd ed. 1900-1902)
- Merry and Ridciell (Odyssey i.-xii., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1886)
- Monro (Odyssey xiii.-xxiv. with appendices, Oxford, 1901)
- Monro and Allen (Iliad), and Allen (Odyssey, 1908, Oxford).
- D.B. Monro and T.W. Allen 1917-1920, Homeri Opera (5 volumes: Iliad = 3rd edition, Odyssey = 2nd edition), Oxford. ISBN 0198145284, ISBN 0198145292, ISBN 0198145314, ISBN 0198145322, ISBN 0198145349
- H. van Thiel 1991, Homeri Odyssea, Hildesheim. ISBN 3487094584 1996, Homeri Ilias, Hildesheim. ISBN 3487094592
- M. L. West 1998-2000, Homeri Ilias (2 volumes), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3598714319, ISBN 3598714351
- P. von der Mühll 1993, Homeri Odyssea, Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3598714327
- Ilias in Wikisource
- Odyssee in Wikisource
- Alexander Pope (1688–1744)
- Samuel Butler (1835–1902)
- The Iliad, W.J. Black (1942) ASIN B0007HYRDM; AMS Press (1968) ASIN B0006C6IQ2 Free eBook at Project Gutenberg
- The Odyssey, W.J. Black (1944) ASIN B0007HYREQ ASIN B000BSH1OE; AMS Press (1968) ASIN B0006C6IPS; IndyPublish.com (2001) ISBN 1404322388 Free eBook at Project Gutenberg Retrieved September 16, 2008.
- Andrew Lang (1844–1912)
- Richmond Lattimore (1906–1984)
- Martin Hammond
- Robert Fitzgerald (1910–1985)
- W.H.D. Rouse, The Odyssey. Signet Classics (1999) ISBN 0451527364
- Robert Fagles (b. 1933)
- Stanley Lombardo
General works on Homer
- Fowler, Robert (ed.). 2004. The Cambridge Companion to Homer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521012465
- Morris, I. and B. Powell. 1997. A New Companion to Homer. Leiden. ISBN 9004099891
- Wace, A. J. B. and F. H. Stubbings. 1962. A Companion to Homer. London. ISBN 0333071131
Influential readings and interpretations
- Auerbach, E. 1953. Mimesis, Princeton (orig. publ. in German, 1946, Bern), chapter 1. ISBN 069111336X
- Edwards, M. W. 1987. Homer, Poet of the Iliad. Baltimore. ISBN 0801833299
- Fenik, B. 1974. Studies in the Odyssey, Wiesbaden ('Hermes' Einzelschriften 30).
- de Jong, I. J. F. 1987. Narrators and Focalizers, Amsterdam/Bristol. ISBN 1853996580
- Nagy, G. 1979. The Best of the Achaeans. Baltimore. ISBN 0801860156
- Jones, P. V. (ed.). 2003. Homer's Iliad. A Commentary on Three Translations. London. ISBN 1853996572
- Kirk, G. S. (gen. ed.) 1985-1993. The Iliad: A Commentary (6 volumes). Cambridge. ISBN 0521281717, ISBN 0521281725, ISBN 0521281733, ISBN 0521281741, ISBN 0521312086, ISBN 0521312094
- Latacz, J. (gen. ed.). 2002-, Homers Ilias. Gesamtkommentar. Auf der Grundlage der Ausgabe von Ameis-Hentze-Cauer (1868-1913) (2 volumes published so far, of an estimated 15), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3598743076, ISBN 3598743041
- Postlethwaite, N. (ed.) 2000, Homer's Iliad: A Commentary on the Translation of Richmond Lattimore. Exeter. ISBN 0859896846
- Willcock, M. W. (ed.). 1976, A Companion to the Iliad. Chicago. ISBN 0226898555
- Heubeck, A. (gen. ed.). 1990-1993, A Commentary on Homer's Odyssey (3 volumes; orig. publ. 1981-1987 in Italian). Oxford. ISBN 0198147473, ISBN 0198721447, ISBN 0198149530
- Jones, P. (ed.). 1988, Homer's Odyssey: A Commentary based on the English Translation of Richmond Lattimore. Bristol. ISBN 1853990388
- de Jong, I. J. F. (ed.). 2001. A Narratological Commentary on the Odyssey, Cambridge. ISBN 0521468442
Trends in Homeric scholarship
- A. Heubeck 1974, Die homerische Frage, Darmstadt. ISBN 3534038649
- R. Merkelbach 1969, Untersuchungen zur Odyssee (2nd edition), Munich. ISBN 3406032427
- D. Page 1955, The Homeric Odyssey, Oxford.
- U. von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff 1916, Die Ilias und Homer, Berlin.
- F.A. Wolf 1795, Prolegomena ad Homerum, Halle. Published in English translation 1988, Princeton. ISBN 0691102473
- M.E. Clark 1986, "Neoanalysis: a bibliographical review," Classical World 79.6: 379-94.
- J. Griffin 1977, "The epic cycle and the uniqueness of Homer," Journal of Hellenic Studies 97: 39-53.
- J.T. Kakridis 1949, Homeric Researches, London. ISBN 0824077571
- W. Kullmann 1960, Die Quellen der Ilias (Troischer Sagenkreis), Wiesbaden. ISBN 3515002359
Homer and oral tradition
- E. Bakker 1997, Poetry in Speech: Orality and Homeric Discourse, Ithaca NY. ISBN 0801432952
- J.M. Foley 1999, Homer's Traditional Art, University Park PA. ISBN 0271018704
- G.S. Kirk 1976, Homer and the Oral Tradition, Cambridge. ISBN 0521213096
- A.B. Lord 1960, The Singer of Tales, Cambridge MA. ISBN 0674002830
- M. Parry 1971, The Making of Homeric Verse, Oxford. ISBN 019520560X
Dating the Homeric poems
- R. Janko 1982, Homer, Hesiod and the Hymns, Cambridge. ISBN 0521238692
All links retrieved March 5, 2014.
- The Homer Pages. Collection of Homer-related links.
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THE EMERGENCE OF AFRO-TEJANO SOCIETY
DURING THE SPANISH COLONIAL
PERIOD IN TEXAS, 1528-1700
Dr. Douglas Richmond
University of Texas at Arlington
Before the first Africans arrived in Texas, one must consider the possibility that they appeared here before 1528. In many
American history classes, the discovery of the New World is limited to a few European voyages, particularly those of
Christopher Columbus. It is a relatively new endeavor to explore pre-Columbian expeditions from other parts of the world. At
times, prejudice has caused many to ignore Africa. Either the people were supposedly too backward to have come up with the
idea on their own, or they simply lacked the technological knowledge to navigate the seas. Thus many traditional historians
have assumed that there were simply no means within Africa to explore the Americas.
However, the research is far from complete as the diffusion of Africans to the New World still requires the work of more
scholars to be firmly established. This can be accomplished once the knowledge of possible African journeys to the New
World becomes more widespread. This trend will, hopefully, attract more future and current researchers to find more
evidence as well as provide additional interpretations.
There are several examples which demonstrate the fact that a transatlantic voyage may not have been a difficult task if one is
coming from Africa. The image that usually comes up in one's mind when thinking of Africans sailing are of little canoes
barely large enough for two people to fit in. This is contrasted with the supposedly enormous vessels that many people
imagine Columbus and his fleet utilized. First of all, it must be noted that Columbus' vessels themselves were actually about
the size of most African vessels, and could rarely hold more than 30 crewmen. When that is understood, one can easily notice
that the ships he used were relatively the same size as many of the African vessels.
Sailing and ship construction in the Sahara extends back to perhaps twenty thousand years, as indicated in wall paintings
found in caves. The images portray ancient ships with sails and masts that plied the Sahara when it was filled with water.
Commercial contacts between West Africa and Egypt may have stimulated the idea to trade with the Americans. West
Africans were also using compasses and astronomical calculations for desert travel. Surely these skills would have been used
for voyages into the Atlantic.
Both ancient and medieval African boats have been reconstructed and tested on the Atlantic sea routes to America and have
crossed successfully. In 1969, Thor Heyerdahl’s expeditions from Safi, on Morroco’s Atlanta coast, came within a few days
of reaching Barbados using the same papyrus boats as Africans. There is no question that Africans occupied the Island of
Bioko and the Canary Islands long before European penetration of the African coastal waters.
A Portuguese encounter with groups of African vessels in the Fifteenth Century demonstrates the development of African
seafaring abilities. The Portuguese explorer Alvise da Cadamosto described a group of about 17 large boats carrying a total of
150 men bearing down on them. Cadamosto and a group of his sailors had launched their on-board canoes to further explore
the Gambia River in Senegal. Their 1455 account states:
“They numbered seventeen of considerable size. Checking their course and lifting up their oars, their crew lay gazing…
We estimated on examination that there might be about one hundred and fifty at the most; they appeared very well built,
exceedingly black, and all clothed in white cotton shirts; some of them wore small white caps on their heads, very like the
German style, except that on each side they had a white wing with a feather in the middle of the cap, as though to
distinguish the fighting men.…”
This example indicates African vessels holding a large number of sailors as well as warriors within ships that were also capable
of carrying a sizeable amount of cargo. Several African tribes specialized in producing vessels that were needed in a high
volume trading area. Pre-colonial West African nations generally did not feel forced to import much from across the Sahara
because they had plenty of resources within their borders, such as gold, ivory, salt, slaves, and copper. Africans along the
Atlantic coast exploited a diversity of food plants and raised cattle as well as goats. Such wealth meant that risking dangerous
trans-Saharan journeys did not hold much interest for most West Africans. Thus the Arabs ultimately dominated that avenue
of commerce because their camels were better suited to do so on a regular basis. But these products eventually attracted the
Portuguese, who became the initial colonizers of West Africa, followed by other Europeans.
One must realize that a trans-Atlantic trek from the west coast of Africa probably would have presented no more of a hazard
or risk to voyagers than a trans-Saharan venture. And the most tempting aspect about the prospect was that there was hitherto
no competition there, which is why the Iberians took to the Atlantic. In about 1310, Abubakari II, legendary ruler of the Mali
Empire, would seize the opportunity. The only written record of his voyage to the Americas is taken from Al-Umari's
Masalik, his record of the sultan of Egypt Ibn Amir Hajib's conversation with Mansa Gongo Musa, Abubakari's successor:
"I asked the Sultan Musa," Ibn Amir Hajib said, "how it was that power came into his hands."
"We are," he told me, "from a house that transmits power by heritage. The ruler who preceded me would not believe that it
was impossible to discover the limits of the neighboring sea; he wanted to find out and persisted in his plan. He had two
hundred ships equipped and filled with men, and others in the same number filled them with gold, water, and supplied in
sufficient quantity to last for years. He told those who commanded them: "return only when you have reached the extremity
of the ocean, or when you have exhausted your food and water." They went away; their absence was long before any of
them returned. Finally, a sole ship reappeared. We asked the captain about their adventures.
"Prince," he replied, "we sailed for a long time, up to the moment when we encountered in mid-ocean something like a
river with a violent current. My ship was last. The others sailed on, and gradually as each one entered this place, they
disappeared and did not come back. We did not know what had happened to them. As for me, I returned to where I was and
did not enter that current. But the emperor did not want to believe him. He equipped two thousand vessels, a thousand for
himself and the men who accompanied him, and a thousand for water and supplies. He conferred power on me and left
with his companions on the ocean. This was the last time I saw him and the others, and remained absolute master of the
Large fleets were not uncommon for West African nations in the coastal region since they dealt extensively with river trading
in such commercial centers as Timbuktu, Dejenne, Gao, and Aoudaghast. Aside from the uncertainty of finding lands across
the Atlantic, there was only moderate hesitation in taking to the open seas. Columbus encountered locals in Santo Domingo
(present day Haiti) mentioning the arrival of blacks from Africa. Wind and ocean currents flowing toward the Americas would
have favored such an undertaking.
One scholar noted that:
“When we look at the map and note the distance between the Guinea Coast of Africa, which the Mandingos inhabited, and
the nearest point on the South American continent – Cape St. Rogue, Brazil -- there is considerably less distance than the
distance between Europe and North America and also less than the distance traversed by Columbus on his first voyage, there
appears little reason why venturesome Negro traders should not have crossed the Atlantic.”
Although the case for Africans crossing the Atlantic before Columbus is based largely upon conjecture, is there any evidence
of Africans in Texas before 1528? According to a Harvard University anthropologist writing in the 1930s, skulls that he
analyzed in the Pecos River Valley at San Miguel County which date back to pre-Hispanic years, resemble closely the crania
of Africans with a Hamitic background. The Pueblo Indian site where professor E.A. Hooten examined skeletal remains was
the largest village of its time and occupied longer than any other southwestern site. Hooten concluded that this finding
signified that "in the earlier strata of the American population, there was some degree of Negro or Negroid admixture…"
The diffusion theory for an early African voyage or migration is further suggested by the presence of Late Archaic period
Pecos River paintings that depict boats.
Africans could have migrated through Asia to the southwest because it is fairly well established that a significant migration of
Africans undoubtedly took place. Recent DNA testing indicates that humans evolved from Africa 200,000 years ago and then
spread to Europe and Asia. The DNA record seems to reinforce fossil evidence. Diffusion scholars maintain that the first
migrations of black Australoids to America took place 25,000 years ago followed by Asiatic blacks 15,000 years ago. Runoko
Rashidi asserts that Afro-Asiatics penetrated North America and founded the Clovis and Folsom fluted point tool industry in
New Mexico, which dates back 11,000 or 11,500 years ago. Another scholar claimed that Australoid skulls have been found
on the Texas Gulf Coast.
Aside from skulls and other bone fragments, what sort of African colonies may have existed in Texas before the arrival of the
Spaniards? The Washitaw (or Ouachita-Mu'urs) seemed to have clearly established themselves in the Mississippi Valley in an
area that once covered nearly a million square miles. Their name comes from the Washita River, which flows along northwest
Texas to the Red River. Part of this mound building culture included east Texas. Today the Washitaw area only covers about
70,000 acres. They now consider themselves related to the Xi peoples of West Africa. African pipes have been connected to
mound building remains in the Mississippi Valley, although the specific rationale for building the mounds remains a mystery.
Whether the Washitaw migrated from the north along with other mound builders as early as 3,000 B.C., or migrated from
Africa, there is no doubt that Mexican cultures influenced the Texas Washitaw. Mound building societies as far north as Ohio
utilized clay figurines strikingly similar to Meso-American Olmec art. The pottery at Point Pleasant, Ohio, site closely
resembles the Olmec cities of La Venta and Corral along the Gulf of Mexico. South of the Olmec culture, the great Mexican
city of Teotihuacan sent its merchants to Texas by 700 a.d. Early conclusions about mound builders indicated that their
temples in the Gulf Coast areas of the present United States had a pyramidal structure with theocratic governments similar to
the Olmecs and Teotihuacan.
Diffusion scholars and Washitaw activists assert that a biological connection between Olmecs and Washitaws nurtured an
African relationship. There is no doubt that Mexican ties existed to the southeast as well as the southwest before the arrival of
the Spaniards, but what can be made of contacts between the Olmecs and Africa? Of course, the best evidence for African
contributions to the development of Olmec culture are the massive African featured statues that have been found at various
sites beginning with the Tres Zapotes excavation in 1858. The broad lips on these figures, as well as their kinked, coiled, and
braided hair, seem to indicate an African influence. Moreover, the Gulf of Mexico is the end point of currents that sweep over
from Africa and have not changed for 3,000 years. In addition, a Polish professor found skulls and skeletons that he judged to
be African in terms of their origin.
Although the possibility of African voyages or migrations arriving in Texas before the Hispanic explorers remains tantalizing, it
is certain that Africans reached Texas after Spaniards brought them into central Mexico. Undoubtedly, the first African in
Texas was Esteban (or Estevanico), who set foot near present-day Galveston on November 6, 1528, when a storm washed
the ill-fated Pánfilo de Narváez expedition into the Gulf of Mexico. Born in Azamor, Morocco, Esteban served as the personal
servant of Andrés Dorantes de Carranza. Because of his skill in languages as well as an ability to communicate with his hands,
Esteban became the interpreter for what resulted in a small band led by the immortal Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca.
Esteban was probably a Malinke because the Spaniards imported Malinke slaves at that time. Esteban was also an experienced
sailor and "adept in natural sciences." This is because his homeland became Mali, which had the Niger, Gambia, and Senegal
Rivers empty into the Atlantic. Indigenous societies in Texas confirmed the arrival of Esteban near El Paso to a Spanish
expedition on its way to New Mexico in 1583.
Of course, the arrival of Africans into Texas is connected in Mexico, which included Texas as part of its domain. The first
Africans in Mexico arrived from Cuba in 1519 with Hernán Cortés and Pánfilo de Narváez. Cortes had six Africans in his
band which defeated the Aztec emperor Moctezuma II in 1528. Because Mexico's indigenous population declined rapidly due
to Spanish epidemics for which the Indians had no immunity, the Spaniards imported tens of thousands of African slaves into
Mexico. By the end of the sixteenth century, Mexico probably had more Africans than any other European colony in the New
World. Although the Catholic Church often defended the indigenous population, they rarely espoused the same fervor to
defend Africans. But the Spanish allowed Africans to obtain their freedom through purchase or by means of wills from
appreciative owners. Free blacks, however, had to pay special taxes and could not become priests, and Africans sank to the
bottom of the social order. Blatant discrimination in Central Mexico motivated many Africans to move to the north, where the
social structure was less strict and people of color could own land and enter most occupations.
Spanish colonization of Northern Mexico increased the activities of Africans in Texas. Esteban died in 1539 while attempting
to enter a Zuni pueblo as part of the Fray Marcos de Niza attempt to find the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola. Several African
retainers formed part of the Fray Marcos excursion. Esteban, however, marked a trail that the ambitious Francisco Coronado
would eventually utilize one year later during his significant expedition throughout the southwest that eventually reached
present day Kansas. Other Africans accompanied Coronado when he pushed into west Texas.
While Coronado advanced into west Texas, the remnants of Hernando de Soto's expedition reached east Texas. A wealthy
member of the nobility, as well as a veteran of campaigns in Cuba, de Soto began searching for the fabled city of Cibola on
May 18, 1539, when he sailed for Florida. Mainly searching for plunder, de Soto's column cut a bloody swath through the
southeast before suffering a devastating defeat near Mobile, Alabama. During the spring of 1542, de Soto became the first
European to encounter the Mississippi and moved into the mouth of the Red River. Finally, de Soto died of fever in May
1542. Luis de Moscoso succeeded de Soto as head of the campaign and crossed again into Texas. De Soto's expedition
contained an unspecified number of Africans, three of whom ran away and lived for a dozen years among Indians.
More Africans and mulattoes passed through El Paso when Juan de Oñate's group departed from Santa Barbara, Mexico, on
January 26, 1598. A strictly administered roll call of the colonists that intended to settle New Mexico included three African
female slaves, one mulatto slave, and several other mulatto servants. Oñate's personal assistant was also an African. They,
along with the other members of the expedition, celebrated the first Thanksgiving in the Americas when they feasted on fish
and fowl and cool water from the Rio Grande. They also celebrated mass and performed the first play on what is now Texas
The arrival of René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle at Matagorda Bay on New Year's Day, 1685, eventually involved
active participation by various Africans and mulattoes. La Salle was the greatest French explorer of his time. More than
twenty years before he wound up in Texas, he had explored the Great Lakes region and much of the upper Midwest. In 1682,
he led an expedition down the Mississippi River to its mouth and claimed its watershed for the king of France. Although many
scholars believe that La Salle simply missed his target by landing in Texas instead of the Mississippi delta, La Salle may have
schemed with Diego de Peñalosa to establish a French colony at the mouth of the Rio Grande in order to capture Spanish
mines in northern Mexico. While governor of New Mexico, Peñalosa sent out an alleged expedition to Texas on March 6,
1662, that lists no blacks or mulattoes. But Peñalosa declared that all the mulattoes in America were "so bitterly opposed to
Spanish rule ‘that they would welcome his proposed invasion by French filibusters to overthrow the Hispanic order in the
southwest. Peñalosa, who got into trouble with The Inquisition and became branded as a liar after he betrayed Spain, never
joined La Salle in Texas.
Meanwhile, La Salle's fortunes began to decline although he managed to establish Fort St. Louis at Garcitas Creek in present-
day Victoria County. But most of the colonists did not know how to survive in the brutal coastal bend wilderness. Some died
from rattlesnake bites, others were taken by smallpox and even more were killed by Indians. Within one year of his launch
date from France, La Salle had lost all but one of his four ships. When Spanish officials received news of the French
incursion, a frantic search to find La Salle's ill-fated expedition ensued. Before long, a mulatto slave from St. Augustine, who
had fled his master and joined a Dutch pirate ship, entered the scene. The mulatto claimed that the pirates cruised along the
Texas coast where they found La Salle's settlement. The mulatto and his fellow pirates stayed at Matagorda for six days until
Spanish forces captured him and took him back to St. Augustine where the mulatto issued his startling statements.
Another mulatto, Martincho, who received orders to enter Texas in order to reinforce Spanish forces searching for the La
Salle colony, never arrived. Martincho was appointed by Juan Bautista Escarza, commander of the Vizcaya presidio in
Coahuila, to command a force of ten soldiers that would depart from Saltillo to augment the Alonso de León expedition which
was searching for Fort St. Louis. But during a dispute about attending a christening event in Saltillo, the alcalde imprisoned
Martincho's men. To put it mildly, Martincho took issue with the alcalde's decision and attacked him with his sword, cutting
off an arm and battering his skull. The detained soldiers eventually obtained their release and made it to de León's camp on
April 30, 1689. But they arrived with Martincho, who was shot in the Saltillo plaza on March 21, 1689, on orders of the
The first African to set foot in the Nacogdoches area was a black bugler who accompanied Domingo de Terán to east Texas
in 1691. Convinced that French ambitions in Louisiana might lead to additional attempts to colonize Texas, the Spaniards
appointed de Terán as governor. De Terán immediately entered Texas with a mandate to establish a permanent colony. His
subsequent explorations became a nightmare amid freezing conditions. As the weather became bitterly cold, and his African
bugler became one of many who deserted the expedition, Terán spent a day searching for this young man before giving up.
A year later, the 1692 Diego de Vargas force included an Angolan as they passed through El Paso to reconquer New Mexico.
Under the leadership of Popé, a medicine man from San Juan, New Mexico, various Pueblo communities revolted on August
10, 1680, and forced the Spanish settlers to retreat into El Paso. Sebastian Rodríguez Brito, an African member of the
successful attempt to restore Hispanic rule over New Mexico, was one of the 40 Spanish soldiers that departed from El Paso
in August 1692.
What can be said of cultural and social landmarks that these Africans, although few in number, were able to set down?
Unquestionable evidence exists for the survival of African art, storytelling and music in Texas, as well as the rest of the New
World. Veracruz was the Mexican port of entry for virtually all Africans who came to Texas. From there they brought the son
musical tradition of Hispanic and African concepts molded together in Cuba. This developed into the son jaracho musical
genre, famous for its irreverent, secular and mocking attitude toward death. Fandangos appeared in Seventeenth Century
Mexico after its adoption from the African tradition of bailongo, an occasion to eat drink, and dance. Rhythmic footwork
became the foundation of these dances, done with unlimited verses. All these dances were accompanied by pounding on a
marimba, which is a percussion instrument of African origin, usually constructed from plywood or cedar planks. Each of these
dances soon spread into Texas.
Towns and eating habits in Texas also had African origins. Menudo actually derives from the Mondongo tradition of eating the
innards of animals, particularly cattle. Mondongo is a village in Zaire and the entrails that owners would not eat but gave to
slaves eventually became known as chitterlings in Texas. And the infamous Mexican verb chingar (screw) is a Bantu word
brought over by slaves from Angola.
As the Spanish colonial era progressed, Africans received better treatment in terms of lighter punishment, opportunities for
military service, intermarriage, and even the right to hold public office. Indeed, the Hispanic period featured land grants given
to blacks as well as Indians which the Texas Republic later nullified. Thus the earliest years of Spanish rule from 1528 to
1700 indicates that people of African origin made a modest but eventually substantial contribution to the development of
The diffusion model elaborated by Van Sertima remains as a very interesting thesis concerning the exploration of the Americas
by Africans. In recent years, the Alfred Crosby explanation that the American hemisphere became peopled by Asians crossing
over the Bering Sea has become increasingly challenged by other scholars. Although the diffusionist concept is still disputed by
traditional researchers for the lack of credible evidence, it seems to be gaining acceptance among newer scholars.
After the initial explorations and expeditions from 1528 to 1700, African society expanded and consolidated itself in Texas.
Subsequent Hispanic explorers encountered Africans at the mouth of the Rio Grande who had been shipwrecked during the
twilight of the Seventeenth Century. By 1755, Jose de Escandón had begun the settlement of the lower Rio Grande Valley
with the aid of eleven African slaves. Mulattoes became part of the group that actually founded San Antonio before the arrival
of the more celebrated Canary Islanders. The emergence of free blacks resulted from miscegenation between black male
slaves and free women of all ethnic backgrounds. During the colonial period, blacks, Indians, and mixed bloods met in
household settings which enabled them to marry.
One of the primary needs that Africans provided in Texas was military service. Many borderland garrisons experienced
difficulty in recruiting replacements. Spanish authorities did not hesitate to enlist mulattoes and blacks to garrison the Texas
presidios. Free blacks and mulattoes thus experienced greater social status which minimized the normal restrictions placed on
them. This, of course, resulted in a military tradition that increased during the Nineteenth Century in the form of the Buffalo
As the colonial era in Texas consolidated itself, blatant discrimination in central Mexico motivated many Africans to relocate to
Texas where the social structure was less strict and people of color could own land and enter most occupations. The Spanish
era of Texas featured land grants to blacks as well as Indians. Later the Republic of Texas nullified these awards as part of its
repressive legislation against blacks. Not surprising, only a few free Afro-Tejanos supported the Texas revolt in 1835 because
of the tolerance and increasingly enlightened tone of Hispanic rule.
The remnants of the early period of African influence upon Texas are barely visible. Most of them are intangibles such as
subtle influences upon music, food, and religion. Researchers will continue to find more data in the future. Scholars, however,
do not have the exclusive monopoly on the creation of new knowledge. In May 2008, a struggle to retain the remains of an
older Houston neighborhood resulted in the revelation of older brick streets constructed with a cross pattern traced back to
|Texas Black History Preservation Project
Documenting the Complete African American Experience in Texas -- "Know your history, know yourself"


LOCATION: Ethiopia; Kenya; Somalia
POPULATION: 28 million
LANGUAGE: Afaan Oromoo
RELIGION: Original Oromo religion (Waaqa); Islam; Christianity
1 • INTRODUCTION
Although Oromos have their own unique culture, history, language, and civilization, they are culturally related to Afars, Somalis, Sidamas, Agaws, Bilens, Bejas, Kunamas, and other groups. In the past, Oromos had an egalitarian social system known as gada. Their military organization made them one of the strongest ethnic groups in the Horn of Africa between the twelfth and nineteenth centuries. Gada was a form of constitutional government and also a social system. Political leaders were elected by the men of the community every eight years. Corrupt or dictatorial leaders would be removed from power through buqisu (recall) before the official end of their term. Oromo women had a parallel institution known as siqqee. This institution promoted gender equality in Oromo society.
Gada closely connected the social and political structures. Male Oromos were organized according to age and generation for both social and political activities. The gada government was based on democratic principles. The abba boku was an elected "chairman" who presided over the chaffee (assembly) and proclaimed the laws. The abba dula (defense minister) was a government leader who directed the army. A council known as shanee or salgee and retired gada officials also helped the abba boku to run the government.
All gada officials were elected for eight years. The main qualifications for election included bravery, knowledge, honesty, demonstrated ability, and courage. The gada government worked on local, regional, and central levels. The political philosophy of the gada system was embodied in three main principles: terms of eight years, balanced opposition between parties, and power sharing between higher and lower levels. These checks and balances were created to prevent misuse of power. The goverment's independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches also were a way of balancing power. Some elements of gada are still practiced in southern Oromia.
The gada system was the basis of Oromo culture and civilization. It helped Oromos maintain democratic political, economic, social, and religious institutions for many centuries. The gada political system and military organization enabled Oromos defend themselves against enemies who were competing with them for land, water, and power. Today, Oromos are engaged in a national liberation movement. Under the leadership of the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) they work to achieve self-determination. Most Oromos support this liberation organization and its army, the Oromo Liberation Army. There are many Oromo organizations in North America, Europe, and Africa that support the Oromo national movement. Oromos are struggling for the opportunity to rule themselves and reinvent an Oromian state that will reflect the gada system.
2 • LOCATION
Oromos call their nation and country Oromia. They have been living in the Horn of Africa for all of their known history. They are one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa, with a population estimated at 28 million people in the mid-1990s. Oromia is located mainly within Ethiopia and covers an area of about 232,000 square miles (600,000 square kilometers). The 3.5 million-year-old fossilized human skeleton known as "Lucy" (or "Chaltu" in Oromo) was found by archaeologists in Oromia. Present-day Oromos also live in Kenya and Somalia. In the late nineteenth century, Oromos were colonized and mainly joined with- Ethiopia. They lost their independent institutional and cultural development. Great Britain, France, and Italy supported the Ethiopian colonization of Oromos.
Oromia is considered the richest region of the Horn of Africa because of its agricultural and natural resources. It is considered by many to be the "breadbasket" of the Horn. Farm products, including barley, wheat, sorghum, xafi (a grain), maize, coffee, oil seeds, chat (a stimulant leaf), oranges, and cattle are raised in abundance in Oromia. Oromia is also rich in gold, silver, platinum, marble, uranium, nickel, natural gas, and other mineral resources. It has several large and small rivers used for agriculture and for producing hydroelectric power.
3 • LANGUAGE
The Oromo language is called Afaan Oromoo. Afaan Oromoo has more than thirty million speakers. Ethnic groups such as the Sidama, Berta, Adare, Annuak, Koma, Kulo, Kaficho, and Guraghe speak the Oromo language in addition to their own languages. Afaan Oromoo is the third most widely spoken language in Africa, after Arabic and Hausa. It is the second most widely spoken indigenous language in Africa south of the Sahara.
In spite of attempts by Ethiopian regimes to destroy the Afaan Oromoo language, it has continued to exist and flourish in rural areas. Until recently, Oromos were denied the right to develop their language, literature, and alphabet. For almost a century, it was a crime to write in this language. With the rise of the Oromo national movement, Oromo scholars adopted Latin script (the alphabet used for English and most other European languages) in the early 1970s. The OLF adopted this alphabet and began to teach reading and writing in Afaan Oromoo.
4 • FOLKLORE
Oromos believe that Waaqa Tokkicha (the one God) created the world, including them. They call this supreme being Waaqa Guuracha (the Black God). Most Oromos still believe that it was this God who created heaven and earth and other living and non-living things. Waaqa also created ayaana (spiritual connection), through which he connects himself to his creatures. The Oromo story of creation starts with the element of water, since it was the only element that existed before other elements.
Oromos believed that Waaqa created the sky and earth from water. He also created dry land out of water, and bakkalcha (a star) to provide light. With the rise of bakkalcha, ayaana (spiritual connection) emerged. With this star, sunlight also appeared. The movement of this sunlight created day and night. Using the light of bakkalcha, Waaqa created all other stars, animals, plants, and other creatures that live on the land, in air, and in water. When an Oromo dies, he or she will become spirit.
Some Oromos still believe in the existence of ancestors' spirits. They attempt to contact them through ceremonies. These ancestral spirits appear to relatives in the form of flying animals.
Original Oromo religion does not believe in hell and heaven. If a person commits a sin by disturbing the balance of nature or mis-treating others, the society imposes punishment while the person is alive.
Oromo heroes and heroines are the people who have done something important for the community. Thinkers who invented the gada system, raagas (prophets), and military leaders, for example, are considered heroes and heroines. Today, those who have contributed to the Oromo national movement are considered heroes and heroines.
5 • RELIGION
Oromos recognize the existence of a supreme being or Creator that they call Waaqa. They have three major religions: original Oromo religion (Waaqa), Islam, and Christianity.
The original religion sees the human, spiritual, and physical worlds as interconnected, with their existence and functions ruled by Waaqa. Through each person's ayaana (spiritual connection), Waaqa acts in the person's life. Three Oromo concepts explain the organization and connection of human, spiritual, and physical worlds: ayaana, uuma (nature), and saffu (the ethical and moral code).
Uuma includes everything created by Waaqa, including ayaana. Saffu is a moral and ethical code that Oromos use to tell bad from good and wrong from right. The Oromo religious institution, or qallu , is the center of the Oromo religion. Qallu leaders traditionally played important religious roles in Oromo society. The Ethiopian colonizers tried to ban the Oromo system of thought by eliminating Oromo cultural experts such as the raagas (Oromo prophets), the ayaantus (time reckoners), and oral historians.
Today, Islam and Christianity are the major religions in Oromo society. In some Oromo regions, Eastern Orthodox Christianity was introduced by the Ethiopian colonizers. In other areas, Oromos accepted Protestant Christianity in order to resist Orthodox Christianity. Some Oromos accepted Islam in order to resist Ethiopian control and Orthodox Christianity. Islam was imposed on other Oromos by Turkish and Egyptian colonizers. However, some Oromos have continued to practice their original religion. Both Christianity and Islam in Ethiopia have been greatly influenced by Oromo religion.
6 • MAJOR HOLIDAYS
The Oromo celebrate ceremonial rites of passage known as ireecha or buuta , as well as Islamic and Christian holidays. The Oromos have also begun celebrating an Oromo national day to remember their heroines and heroes who have sacrificed their lives trying to free their people from Ethiopian rule.
7 • RITES OF PASSAGE
Since children are seen as having great value, most Oromo families are large. The birth of a child is celebrated because each newborn child will some day become a worker. Marriage is celebrated since it is the time when boys and girls enter adulthood. Death is marked as an important event; it brings members of the community together to say goodbye.
Traditionally Oromos had five gada (grades) or parties. The names of these grades varied from place to place. In one area, these grades were dabalee (ages one to eight), rogge (ages eight to sixteen), follee (ages sixteen to twenty-four), qondaala (ages twenty-four to thirty-two), and dorri (ages thirty-two to forty). There were rites of passages when males passed from one gada to another. These rites of passages were called ireecha or buuta.
Between the ages of one and eight, Oromo male children did not participate in politics and had little responsibility. When they were between eight and sixteen years old, they were not yet allowed to take full responsibility and marry. Between ages sixteen and twenty-four, they took on the responsibilities of hard work. They learned about war tactics, politics, law and management, culture and history, and hunting big animals. When young men were between twenty-four and thirty-two years of age, they served as soldiers and prepared to take over the responsibilities of leadership, in peace and war. Men thirty-two to forty years old had important roles. They shared their knowledge with the qondaala group and carried out their leadership responsibilities.
Nowadays, those who can afford it send their children to school. These children complete their teenage years in school. Children and teenagers participate in agriculture and other activities needed for survival. Between the ages of sixteen and twenty-four, young Oromos marry and start the lifecycle of adulthood.
8 • RELATIONSHIPS
Oromos are friendly people, and they express their feelings openly. Oromos greet one another by shaking hands; they talk to one another warmly. Asahama? (How are you?) , Fayaadha? (Are you healthy?), and Matinkee atam? (Is your family well?) are common greeting phrases or questions. The other person answers, Ani fayaadha (I am fine), Matinkos nagadha (My family is o.k.), and Ati fayaadha? (What about you, are you fine?).
When Oromos visit other families, they are provided with something to drink or eat. It is expected that visitors will eat or drink what is offered. People can drop by and visit friends or relatives without letting them know ahead of time.
Dating is an important step for a boy and a girl. Usually a young boy begins by expressing his love for a girl whom he wants to date. When a girl agrees that she loves him, too, they start dating. Premarital sex is not accepted, but kissing and dancing are acceptable. Parents are not usually told about a dating relationship. Dating may or may not lead to marriage. Having girlfriends and boyfriends gains young people social status and respect from others.
9 • LIVING CONDITIONS
Since Oromos are colonial subjects, their natural resources are extracted mainly by wealthy and powerful Ethiopians and their supporters. Most Oromos are rural people who lack basic services such as electricity, clean water, adequate housing, reliable transportation, clinics, and hospitals. Electricity that is produced by Oromian rivers is used mainly by Amhara and Tigrayans.
Hunger is a problem among the Oromo and many attribute it to exploitation by the Ethiopian government. Since Oromos have been denied education by a successive series of Ethiopian regimes, the Oromo middle class is very small. The living conditions of this class, however, are better than those of most Oromos. Members of this class mainly live in cities and towns.
Because of the military conflict between the Oromo Liberation Front army and the Ethiopian government army, Oromo peasants are constantly threatened, murdered, or imprisoned by the government. The Ethiopian government takes their property, claiming that the Oromo are hiding guerrilla fighters. Because of poverty, war, lack of modern farming methods, lack of education, and exploitation, the living standard of the Oromo people is very low. They live in overcrowded dwellings, which often house large extended families.
Oromos use human labor and animals such as donkeys and horses for transportation in rural areas. They use cars, wagons, buses, and trucks for transportation in cities and towns.
10 • FAMILY LIFE
The basic unit of a household is the patrilineal (male-headed) extended family. Neighborhoods and communities are important social networks connected to the extended family. A man, as head of the family, has authority over his wife (or wives) and unmarried sons and daughters. The typical Oromo man has one wife. But because of religious conversion to Islam and other cultural influences, some Oromo men marry more than one wife (a practice known as polygyny). Divorce is discouraged in Oromo society. Oromo women have begun to resist polygyny.
Because of patriarchy and sexism, Oromo women are treated as inferior to men and have little power. Oromo women live under triple oppression: class, gender, and ethnic/racial oppression. Before colonization, Oromo women had an institution known as siqqee to help them oppose male domination and oppression. Although there are Oromo women fighters and military leaders in the liberation struggle, the status of Oromo women has not changed.
11 • CLOTHING
Some Oromo men wear woya (toga-like robes), and some women wear wandabiti (skirts). Others wear leather garments or animal skin robes, and some women wear qollo and sadetta (women's cloth made of cotton).
Modern garments from around the world are also worn. In cash-producing areas and cities, Oromos wear modern Western-style clothes. Oromos have clothes designated for special days. They call the clothes that they wear on holidays or other important days kitii and the clothes that they wear on working days lago.
12 • FOOD
The main foods of Oromos are animal products including foon (meat), anan (milk), badu (cheese), dhadha (butter), and cereals that are eaten as marqa (porridge) and bideena (bread). Oromos drink coffee, dhadhi (honey wine), and faarso (beer). Some Oromos chew chat (a stimulant leaf).
The special dish of Oromos is itoo (made with meat or chicken, spices, hot pepper, and other ingredients) and bideena bread (made from xafi or millet). Sometimes mariqa or qincee (made from barley) is eaten for breakfast. Ancootee (a food made from the roots of certain plants) is a special food in some parts of western Oromia.
All members of the family eat together. Members of the family sit on stools, eat off wooden platters or dishes, use wooden spoons for liquids, and use washed hands to pick up solid foods. The majority of Oromos eat twice a day, in the morning and at night. Muslim Oromos do not eat pork for religious reasons.
13 • EDUCATION
Literacy (the ability to read and write) is very low among Oromos, probably less than 5 percent of the group. Oromos depend mainly on family and community education to transmit knowledge to the younger generation. Older family and community members have a responsibility to teach children about Oromo culture, history, tradition, and values. When children go to colonial schools, the Oromo oral historians and cultural experts make sure that these children also learn about Oromo society.
Although their numbers are very limited, there are three kinds of schools in Oromia: missionary, madarasa (Islamic), and government schools. Islamic schools teach classes through the sixth grade, and the other schools go through grade twelve. Oromos do not have control over these schools. Oromo culture and values are constantly attacked in them. Despite all these problems, Oromo parents have very high expectations for education. If they can afford it, they do not hesitate to send their children to school.
14 • CULTURAL HERITAGE
Oromos respect their elders and value social responsibility, helping others, bravery, and hard work. Knowledge of history and culture is admired. Oromos can count their family trees through ten generations or more. These values are expressed in geerarsa or mirisa (singing), storytelling, poems, and proverbs. Geerarsa is used to praise good behavior and discourage inappropriate behavior.
Oromo cultural heritage is expressed through mirisa, weedu, and different cultural activities. There are different kinds of weedu, such as weedu fuudha (a marriage song), weedu lola (a war song), and weedu hoji (a work song). Oromo women have their own song, called helee, that they use to express their love for their country, children, and husbands. Young boys invite girls to marriage ceremonies by singing hurmiso. Men do dhichisa (a dance to celebrate the marriage ceremony) and women do shagayoo (singing and dancing) during marriage ceremonies. There are prayer songs called shubisu and deedisu.
15 • EMPLOYMENT
Oromos are mainly farmers and pastoralists (herders). Young educated Oromos move to cities to look for jobs. There are also a small number of merchants in Oromo society, as well as weavers, goldsmiths, potters, and woodworkers.
16 • SPORTS
Hunting and practicing military skills were important sports in Oromia before it was colonized. Oromo men used to hunt large animals as a test of manhood. They used hides, ivory, and horns in their arts and crafts. Hunting was seen as training for warfare for young Oromos. It helped them learn how to handle their weapons and prepare themselves for difficult conditions.
Popular sports among children and young adults in Oromo society include gugssa (horseback riding), qillee (field hockey), darboo (throwing spears), waldhaansso (wrestling), utaalu (jumping), and swimming. Oromo society has produced athletes who have competed and won in international sports events. In 1956, Wami Biratu, an Oromo soldier serving in the Ethiopian colonial army, was the first Oromo athlete to participate in the Olympic Games. He became a source of inspiration for other Oromo athletes. Ababa Biqila, another Oromo soldier, won the 1960 Rome Olympic Marathon and set a new world record, running barefoot. Another Oromo soldier, Mamo Wolde, became the 1968 Olympic Marathon champion. Other Oromo soldiers have succeeded in international competitions as well.
In 1988, Ababa Makonnen (Ababa Biqila's nephew) won the Tokyo Marathon, and Wadajo Bulti and Kabada Balcha came in second and third. Daraje Nadhi and Kalacha Mataferia won first and second place, respectively, in the World Cup marathon in 1989. In 1992, Daraartu Tullu (1969–), an Oromo woman, won the gold medal for her victory in the 10,000-meter race in the Barcelona Olympic Games. In 1996, another Oromo woman, Fatuma Roba, became a women's marathon gold medalist. She was the first from Africa to win this kind of race, and she was the fastest marathon runner in the world. The successes of these Oromo athletes demonstrate the rich cultural heritage of athletic ability in Oromo society. The victories of these athletes went to Ethiopia.
17 • RECREATION
Oromos gather and enjoy themselves during ceremonies such as weddings, holidays, and harvest festivals. At these events they eat, drink, sing, dance, and talk together. Jumping, running, swimming, wrestling, and other sports activities are recreation for boys and young adults. Oromo adults like to sit and chat during weekends, after work, and on holidays.
18 • CRAFTS AND HOBBIES
There are Oromos who specialize in making musical instruments such as the kirar (five-stringed bowl-lyre), masanqo (one-stringed fiddle), and drums. Iron tools such as swords, spears, hoes, axes, and knives have been important for farming, fighting, and hunting. There is a long tradition of woodworking in this society. Carpenters make such objects as platters, stools, spades, tables, plows, bows and arrows, wooden forks, and honey barrels.
Goldwork has been practiced in some parts of Oromia. Goldsmiths specialize in making earrings, necklaces, and other gold objects. There are Oromos who specialize in making other utensils from horn, pottery, and leather. Mugs, spoons, and containers for honey wine are made from horn. Basins, dishes, water jars, and vessels are made from pottery. Various kinds of bags to hold milk are made from leather.
19 • SOCIAL PROBLEMS
Oromo's human rights and civil rights have been violated by one Ethiopian government after another. Oromos do not have control over their lives, lands, other properties, or country. They do not have a voice in the government, and they are not allowed to support independent Oromo political organizations. Oromos have been threatened, murdered, or imprisoned for sympathizing with the Oromo national movement, especially the OLF (Oromo Liberation Front). Oromos are not treated according to the rule of law.
Today thousands of Oromos are kept in secret concentration camps and jails just for being Oromo. Some Oromo activists or suspected activists are killed by Ethiopian soldiers. Their bodies are thrown into the streets to terrorize the Oromo people and to prevent them from supporting the Oromo national movement. Human rights organizations such as Africa Watch, the Oromia Support Group, and Amnesty International have witnessed many contracts aimed at reducing human rights abuses.
20 • BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abebe, Daniel. Ethiopia in Pictures. Minneapoli, Minn.s: Lerner Publications Co., 1988.
Fradin, D. Ethiopia. Chicago: Children's Press, 1988.
Gerster, Georg. Churches in Stone: Early Christian Art in Ethiopia. New York: Phaidon, 1970.
Internet Africa Ltd. Ethiopia. [Online] Available http://www.africanet.com/africanet/country/ethiopia/ , 1998.
World Travel Guide, Ethiopia. [Online] Available http://www.wtgonline.com/country/et/gen.html , 1998.