Until you are a verbal artist with your own style, there are a few strategies you can use to make your storytelling more enjoyable for your readers. The sentence strategies presented here are related to each other, however, that relationship is not necessarily sequential. So, we’ll dive in and explore the following and then put them together.
Before you can create a fictional sentence salad (i.e., a paragraph), you need to know your ingredients. In this case, the various purposes a sentence serves. Keeping it simple, we’ll review five purposes in no particular order.
A dialogue typically happens between two or more characters. However, the tempo and feel of story delivery can be improved at times by adding dialogue, even if the character is talking to himself.
There are three aspects of dialogue composition to consider when using this type of sentence in a story. The first two are more about the formula of dialogue sentences.
- How to convey who is talking
- When to convey who is talking
- What is the purpose on the dialogue
How to Convey Who is Talking
To “said” or not to “said.” As the storyteller, it’s easy for you to know who is speaking as you stack your dialogue sentences one on top of the other. However, a reader might lose track. I use two strategies to ensure the reader knows who is speaking. Below are two examples.
- “I told you to take out the trash an hour ago,” Milly said. “Get up and do it now.”
- “I told you to take out the trash an hour ago.” Milly inhaled deeply. “Get up and do it now.”
My preference is the second example for two reasons: movement and flow.
- Movement – The ability for me to add a form of movement to the interaction. A reader might infer, by combining her words and the timing of her deep breath, that Milly is angry but is trying to curb her reaction to being ignored.
- Flow – I feel that the use of “said” in the first example might jar the reader just a bit. At times, the reader will welcome this because it offers a breath or emphasis in the reading process. However, they will not like it if you have a long conservation and “said” shows up on every line.
When to Convey Who is Talking
The difference between who and when is subtle but important. As the storyteller, you have three options, two are preferred.
- In the middle – “The room is on the left,” Mike said. “I’ll see you there.”
- At the end – “The room is on the left. I’ll see you there,” Mike said.
- Not preferred
- At the start – Mike said, “The room is on the left. I’ll see you there.”
Read any best seller and you will not see them place the dialogue tag at the start. However, there are occasions when the natural flow of the storytelling lends itself to the occasional up-front dialogue tag placement.
- First person narrative – I’ve done everything my dad has asked of me, but when he said, “You have to finish your homework before you can have the car,” I realized I wasn’t going anywhere.
- Third person narrative – The wind whipped through the tunnel just when Mary said, “Get down!” Cathy missed the warning and was hit by flying debris.
What is the Purpose of the Dialogue
The two most frequent purpose of a dialogue is to request or deliver information. Vague, right? The key to requesting or delivering information is to not say it as if you are reading a well written email. Even if it means speaking in broken sentences, dialogue needs to sound real.
Before we consider a couple of examples, another purpose of dialogue is to replace the narrator of the story. The rule of “share, don’t tell” can be assisted by giving a character the role of narrator.
Example: Dialogue to Convey Description
The following are inspired by actual dialogues I have read. In this scenario, characters are replacing the narrator.
- Unnatural speech – “The library has four walls filled with books on shelves. The rug is worn and threadbare.”
- More natural speech – “Careful when you enter the library. The rug has seen better days. You’re liable to snag your boot and land on your face. And!” He rolled his eyes. “Heaven forbid you fall into the book shelves and disturb the master’s collection.”
In both instances, the reader knows the room has a threadbare rug, shelves, and books. Although the first example states that there are four walls with shelves, the second example implies that might be the case by referring to the room as a library.
If it is critical that the reader know that all four walls have shelves and books, you can allow another character to add it. Or, you can weave it in as the story progresses.
Example: Dialogue to Convey Action
- Unnatural speech – “Billy ran up the stairs and into the bathroom. When he slammed the door, the vibrations shook a painting from the wall.”
- More natural speech – “Billy’s in the bathroom. Is something wrong? If he’d slammed the door any harder, my new painting almost hit the floor.”
The second example doesn’t tell the reader that the bathroom is upstairs, but it does convey emotion: door slamming. People slam doors for different reasons. Neither example conveys which emotion, but the stage is set for further dialogue.
When a storyteller isn’t using dialogue, she’s using narrative, defined as “a spoken or written account of connected events; a story.” Reflection is one type of narrative but there are different types of reflections. For example, feelings and memories.
Reflection can be delivered as a paragraph or interjected into a dialogue.
- Paragraph – When Carman wore my mother’s hat, I wanted to scream. I wanted to rip it from her head. She is not my mother. How dare she?
- Dialogue interjection – “No, of course not.” I tried to smile as my blood boiled. “Of course! I don’t mind Carman wearing Mom’s hat.” The smile I forced was well practiced.
Two ways to convey that the character is not happy about Carman wearing her mother’s hat. Remember, Long inner monologues about feelings can slow a story. Short, related reflections between actions provide timely character insight and help carry the reader forward.
Sentences that draw conclusions are common after a dialogue or an action scene. There are different reasons for using this type of sentence.
- Summarize a series of events or lengthy dialogue.
- Example – Three parties, four crashes, a broken leg, and one arrest. Definitely a busy day.
- Example – All Lisa could remember after the party was that her two best friends were getting married and one was having a baby.
- Interpret a series of events, thus adding new information to carry a story forward.
- Example – If Cathy is broke, where did she get that ring? She was standing next to the jewelry rack yesterday. Oh my gosh. Did she steal it?
- Example – David went this way. I know it. There must be a secret door.
Action in a story narrative will keep the reader’s attention if done right. Imagine watching a movie where the characters are just standing there the entire time. Boring! There are degrees of action: macro and micro.
Macro actions typically include multiple characters and can convey a multitude of attitudes and feeling and skills.
- Blockbuster actions – For instance, a ground and air battle between super heroes and aliens in the heart of New York City.
- Aggressive or passion interactions between two or more characters – For instance, two characters surrounded by five bad guys and someone isn’t walking away.
Writing macro actions take some planning. A lot of macro action detail can be too much and slow the story. Which of the following is better?
- 51 Words – Cam lifted his sword to block the enemy’s strike. He spun around and sliced at the enemies left side but was blocked. He feigned left but went right, grabbing his dagger from his belt. He drove it up and into the enemy’s neck. The enemy died instantly, dropping to the ground.
- 29 Words – Cam blocked a strike from above and missed his attempt to the left. Feigning left, he spun right, pulling his dagger and driving it up into the enemy’s neck.
Now imagine a longer battle scene where each interaction was conveyed with 51 words or more. For actions that by nature, fast, the sentences should be brief and concise to convey a fast pace.
For actions that are slow by nature, for instance, sneaking around a haunted house, multiple action sentences can help build tension.
- 73 Words – The air was cool and damp. Light from the full moon, shining through the cobwebs covering the windows, only added to the feeling that eyes were watching Lucy from the dark corners of the living room. With each step, the decaying wooden floors creaked under her feet. Anyone in earshot would be able to find her. Something moved. A shadow? Lucy froze in place, her eyes wide and breath caught in her throat.
- 22 Words – Lucy crept into the living room with only moon light to guide her way. Something moved in the shadows and she froze.
Which action scene builds the most tension?
Micro actions tend to focus on one character and can convey inner thoughts or feelings not voiced. Micro action examples might include the following.
- Carol pinched her eyes closed.
- John’s lips formed a thin, straight line.
- She shifted her attention and met his gaze.
- He crossed the room to the window.
- She tapped her finger on the table.
Micro actions can break up dialogue and reflections. People don’t always speak without moving in some way, even if they are simply staring. Micro actions can add insight into the character in that scene.
However, not all micro actions will be interpreted the same way be your readers. If the action is intended to convey a specific meaning, you might need to add dialogue or reflection to steer the reader in the right direction.
Last but not least, the description. What does a character look like? What does the room look like? There was a time, when there were no photos or motion pictures, at time when readers delighted in detailed descriptions.
In today’s world, where information overload is a constant threat from media, work, society, and family, a reading escape needs to win out over other distractions. That means descriptions need to add value to the story, not weigh it down.
Follow two rules and you will be on your way.
- No data dumps.
- Subtle weaving.
No Data Dumps
A data dump, no matter how well crafted the sentences, is still be a data dump. A paragraph of description sentences, one after another, can bring story flow to a screeching halt.
Imagine being in the middle of a dining room fight scene that moves to the kitchen. Before the fight started, there’s a paragraph describing the table, chairs, windows, temperature, lighting and/or walls. Then, you get a run down on the kitchen cabinets, appliances, windows, and door before the fight continues.
That’s two paragraphs describing rooms all at once. Might be hard to believe someone would do this but it’s happened.
How are data dumps avoided?
- Write a detailed description of the character or room or whatever in a separate document.
- Identify the details that will move the story forward and those that won’t.
- Determine when the reader needs to know the important details.
- Write the scene without description details. For instance, She entered the room, where “room” will need a description at some point in the story.
- Weave in the important descriptions. See the next section for more details.
We saw earlier where a character weaved a description into the dialogue while also conveying action. In the following example, there is a lot of data being delivered but it’s not being dumped on the reader.
“Careful when you enter the library. The rug has seen better days. You’re liable to snag your boot and land on your face. And!” He rolled his eyes. “Heaven forbid you fall into the book shelves and disturb the master’s collection.”
If you don’t have a dialogue option and you need the character to see the room for the reader, you can try delivering with reflection or action sentences.
Reflection + Description
The last time I was in my grandfather’s library, I remember books. On every wall, stacks of them, all waiting to be read. The smell of old paper and glue burned my nose. He made me sit in the center of the room at the big stone table if I wanted to read. Two things made the experience bearable: the cushioned chairs and a desk lamp of my own.
Action + Description
Someone’s coming. I slip inside the library and freeze. It’s dark. Footsteps draw near. There has to be another way out. My foot catches on a wrinkle in the rug and I stumble. A thickly padded chair breaks my fall. I crawl until I reach a wall of shelves. I feel my way, my hands sliding over the spines of books. It takes two turns before I feel glass. A window. No, a door. I try the handle and slip into the night, safe.
If readers experience the same word repeatedly in a short span of sentences, they will feel it. The rhythm of your words will break. Below is an extreme example.
The door at the end of the hall reached to the ceiling. The door was made of wood and looked heavy. I knocked on the door and waited. When the door opened, I stepped inside.
The word “door” appears four times. Can the scene be written with one “door?”
The heavy wooden door at the end of the hall reached to the ceiling. I knocked and waited. When it opened, I stepped inside.
Simplistic? Yes. Easy mistake to make? Also, yes. In this example, the word “door” is removed to fix the issue. In other instances, synonyms can be used, as long as the synonym doesn’t change the meaning of what is being said. Or, words that relate can be used.
Emily slowly removes her hand from her mouth and holds it up. "I had him pinned against a tree." She turns her hand and her fingers curl around something only she can see. "He tried to kill me with a knife. He cut me open." She drops her hand into her other hand, squeezing to stop the trembling.
Can we remove a “hand” or two?
Emily slowly removes her hand from her mouth and holds it up. "I had him pinned against a tree." She turns her wrist and her fingers curl around something only she can see. "He tried to kill me with a knife. He cut me open." She pushes down on the table as her body trembles with rage.
Remember, if one or more of the actions chosen for the scene aren’t critical, you can choose a different action. In the above example, the trembling conveys emotion. In the first, she presses her hand into her other hand. In the second, she presses it to the table — where the hand is implied.
Another place where word repeats surface is sentence sequencing.
Now that we know the basics about our sentence salad ingredients, let’s look at how they get mixed up. There are three strategies for sentence sequences that will give your writing a boost.
- Mix sentence types
- Avoid first-word repeats
- Flip sentences around
Dialogue paragraphs are notorious for word repeats. By using two strategies, you can limit this issue. Consider the following example.
“Have you seen the gardener today? I’ll need you to ensure he does his job.” She crossed to the window. She was concerned that the roses might not get their regular feeding. She pulled a list of garden requirements and handed them to Ron.
To improve this sentence salad, start by mixing up the sentence types by weaving action and dialogue.
She crossed to the window. “Have you seen the gardener today?” She was concerned that the roses might not get their regular feeding. “I’ll need to ensure he does his job.” She pulled a list of garden requirements and handed them to Ron.
Next, avoid first-word repeats. Start by removing one of the “she” words.
Margie crossed to the window. “Have you seen the gardener today?” She was concerned that the roses might not get their regular feeding. “I’ll need you to ensure he does his job.” She pulled a list of garden requirements and handed them to Ron.
Last, flip a sentence around to soften the use of a second “she.”
Margie crossed to the window. “Have you seen the gardener today?” She was concerned that the roses might not get their regular feeding. “I’ll need you to ensure he does his job.” Pulling her list of garden requirements from her pocket, she handed them to Ron.
“She” is still used twice, however, the three narrative sentences start differently and the two “shes” are well separated. Does the flow of the final sentence sequencing example read better than the first?
Shuffling sentences in a paragraph is a micro effort to tossing a good sentence salad. However, you can still run into issues when you stack paragraphs. Use the above strategies to keep your paragraphs from creating issues.
Consider the following process when assembling your paragraphs into chapters.
- Reflection/description paragraph + Dialogue/Action paragraph + Conclusion paragraph.
- Make sure that each paragraph starts with a different word.
- Remember to apply sentence strategies within each paragraph.
To practice some of the above, start simple. Observe your surroundings. If you’re at home, use your imagination. Write down a bit of action you can see. For example, a guy walked down the street. Then add to it. Whatever you see, write it down. Then do the following.
- Use a copy so you have something to compare to.
- Label each sentence type.
- Identify nouns that could use an adjective or two. Or even a full-blown description.
- Add how an action made you feel or triggered a memory.
- Address word repeats by using synonyms, rewording, and/or removal.
- Shuffle the sentence type sequence and see if it feels better.
When you finish, read your first draft out loud. Then read your revision out loud. Did you stumble in the rhythm of the words? Does the second still need some edits? Don’t be afraid to throw something out and create new.
4 thoughts on “Sentence Salads in Fiction Writing”


Summary of Romanesque Architecture and Art
Capturing the aspirations of a new age, Romanesque art and architecture started a revolution in building, architectural decoration, and visual storytelling. Starting in the latter part of the 10th century through the 12th, Europe experienced relative political stability, economic growth, and more prosperity during this time and coupled with the increasing number of monastic centers as well as the rise of universities, a new environment for art and architecture that was not commissioned solely by emperors and nobles was born. With the use of rounded arches, massive walls, piers, and barrel and rib vaults, the Romanesque period saw a revival of large-scale architecture that was almost fortress-like in appearance in addition to a new interest in expressive human forms. With the Roman Church as the main patron, Romanesque metalwork, stonework, and illuminated manuscripts spread across Europe, from the Mediterranean to Scandinavia, creating an international style that was adapted to regional needs and influences.
19th-century art historians who coined the term Romanesque thought the weighty stone architecture and the stylized depiction of the human form did not live up to the standards of the classical ideas of humanism (manifested later and powerfully in Renaissance Humanism), but we now recognize that Romanesque art and architecture innovatively combined Classical influences, seen in the Roman ruins scattered throughout the European countryside and in Byzantine illuminated manuscripts and mosaics, with the decorative and more abstract styles of earlier Northern tribes to create the foundation of Western Christian architecture for centuries to come. While an immediate precursor to the Gothic style, the Romanesque would see revivals in the 17th and 19th centuries, as architects (masons) came to appreciate the clarity and formidable nature of the Romanesque façade when applied across a range of buildings, from department stores to university buildings.
Key Ideas & Accomplishments
- Along with the new political and economic security, the spread of the Roman Church and the codification of rituals and liturgy encouraged the faithful to undertake pilgrimages, traveling from church to church, honoring martyrs and relics at each stop. The economic boon of such travel to cities led to rapid architectural developments, in which cities vied for grander and grander churches. Lofty stone vaulting replaced wooden roofs, main church entrances became more monumental, and decorative architectural sculpture flourished on the façades of the churches.
- While many churches continued to use barrel vaulting, during the Romanesque period, architects developed the ribbed vault, which allowed vaults to be lighter and higher, thus allowing for more windows on the upper level of the structure. The ribbed vault would be more fully developed and utilized during the subsequent Gothic period, but important early examples in the 11th century set the precedent.
- During the Romanesque period, the use of visual iconography for didactic purposes became prevalent. As most people outside of the monastic orders were illiterate, complex religious scenes were used to guide and teach the faithful of Christian doctrine. Architects developed the use of the tympanum, the arched area above the doors of the church, to show scenes such as the Last Judgment to set the mood upon entering the church, and other biblical stories, saints, and prophets decorated interior and exterior doors, walls, and, capitals to shepherd the worshippers' prayers.
Artworks and Artists of Romanesque Architecture and Art
Church of Sainte-Foy
This pilgrimage church, the center of a thriving monastery, exemplifies the Romanesque style. Two symmetrical towers frame the west façade, their stone walls supported by protruding piers that heighten the vertical effect. A rounded arch with a triangular tablature frames the portal, where a large tympanum of the Last Judgment of Christ is placed, thus greeting the pilgrim with an admonition and warning. The grandeur of the portal is heightened by the two round, blind arches on either side and by the upper level arch with its oculus above two windows. The façade conveys a feeling of strength and solidity, its power heightened by the simplicity of decorative elements. It should be noted that this apparent simplicity is the consequence of time, as originally the tympanum scene was richly painted and would have created a vivid effect drawing the eye toward the entrance. The interior of the church was similarly painted, the capitals of the interior columns carved with various Biblical symbols and scenes from Saint Foy's life, creating both an otherworldly effect and fulfilling a didactic purpose.
Saint Foy, or Saint Faith, was a girl from Aquitaine who was martyred around 287-303, and the church held a gold and jeweled reliquary, containing her remains. The monks from the Abbey stole the reliquary from a nearby abbey to ensure their church's place on the pilgrimage route. Over time, other relics were added, including the arm of St. George the Dragon Slayer, and a gold "A" believed to have been created for Charlemagne. The construction of the church was undertaken around 1050 to accommodate the crowds, drawn by reports of various miracles. The church was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1998 for its importance on the pilgrim route and also as a noted example of early Romanesque architecture.
Stone, wood - Conques, France
A scene from the Bayeux Tapestry
This scene from the famous tapestry shows Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, carrying an oak club while riding on a black horse, as he rallies the Norman forces of Duke William, his half-brother, against the English at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. Careful attention is given to the tack of the horses, the details of the men's helmets and uniforms, while the overlay of plunging horses, their curving haunches and legs, creates a momentum that carries the narrative onward into the next scene. In the lower border, a horse is falling, while its rider, pierced with a long spear collapses on the right. At both corners, other fallen soldiers are partially visible, and convey the terrible effects of battle, while the charge to victory gallops on above them. As art critic Jonathan Jones noted, "The Bayeux tapestry is not just a fascinating document of a decisive battle in British history. It is one of the richest, strangest, most immediate and unexpectedly subtle depictions of war that was ever created."
The tapestry, about 230 feet long and 21 inches tall, is a sustained narrative of the historical events that, beginning in 1064 lead up to the battle, which ended in the Norman conquest of England and the rule of William the Conqueror, as he came to be known. The upper and lower borders, each 2-¾ inches wide, shown in this sample, continue throughout the tapestry, as does the use of a Latin inscription identifying each scene. The images in the borders change, echoing the narrative, as during the battle the pairs of fantastical animals in the lower border is replaced by the images seen here of fallen soldiers and horses. Similarly when the invasion fleet sets sail, the borders disappear altogether to create the effect of the vast horizon. The borders also include occasional depictions of fables, such as "The Wolf and a Crane" in which a wolf that has a bone caught in its throat is saved by a crane that extracts it with its long beak, which may be a subversive or admonitory comment upon the contemporary events.
Though called a tapestry, the work is actually embroidered, employing ten different colors of dyed crewel, or wool yarn and is believed to have been made by English women, whose needlework, known as Opus Anglicanum, or English work, was esteemed throughout Europe by the elite. The Bayeux Tapestry was a unique work of the Romanesque period, as it depicted a secular, historical event, but also did so in the medium that allowed for an extended narrative that shaped both the British and French sense of national identity. As art historian Simon Schama wrote, "It's a fantastic example of the making of history." The work, held in France, was influential later in the development of tapestry workshops in Belgium and Northern France around 1500 and the Gobelin Tapestry of the Baroque era.
Linen, crewel - Bayeux Museum, Bayeux, France
Duomo di Pisa
The entrance to Pisa Cathedral, made of light-colored local stone, has three symmetrically arranged portals, the center portal being the largest, with four blind arcades echoing their effect. The round arches above the portal and the arcades create a unifying effect, as do the columns that frame each entrance. The building is an example of what has been called Pisa Romanesque, as it synthesizes elements of Lombard Romanesque, Byzantine, and Islamic architecture. Lombard bands of colored stone frame the columns and arches and extend horizontally. Above the doors, paintings depicting the Virgin Mary draw upon Byzantine art, and at the top of the seven round arches, diamond and circular shapes in geometric patterns of colored stone echo Islamic motifs. The upper levels of the building are symmetrically arranged in bands of blind arcades and innovatively employ small columns that convey an effect of refinement.
The name of two architects, Buscheto, and Rainaldo, were inscribed in the church, though little is known of them, except for this project. Buscheto was the initial designer of the square that, along with the Cathedral, included the famous leaning Tower of Pisa, done in the same Romanesque style, visible here in the background, and the Baptistery. Following his death, Rainaldo expanded the cathedral in the 1100's, of whom his inscription read, "Rainaldo, the skilful workman and master builder, executed this wonderful, costly work, and did so with amazing skill and ingenuity."
Dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, the church was consecrated in 1118 by Pope Gelasius II. The church's construction was informed by the political and cultural era, as it was meant to rival St. Mark's Basilica then being reconstructed in Venice, a competing maritime city-state. The building was financed by the spoils of war, from Pisa's defeat of Muslim forces in Sicily, and it was built outside of the walls to show that the city had nothing to fear. The Pisa plaza became a symbol of the city itself, as shown by the famous Italian writer Gabriele D'Annunzio calling the square, "prato dei Miracoli," or "meadow of miracles" in 1910, so the plaza has been known since as the "Field of Miracles."
Masonry, marble - Pisa, Italy
The Temptation of Eve
This relief sculpture shows an almost life-sized nude Eve, presumably reclining toward Adam (now lost) as if whispering to him seductively, while her left hand reaches back to grasp an apple from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. The composition emphasizes sinuous line and serpentine form. The tree intersects vertically with her body, covering her pubic area, and the serpent in the foliage at the right echoes both the tree and the depiction of Eve herself. The work is famously the only large-scale nude of the medieval period, an era when Christian values discouraged the study of the naked human body.
With this depiction, Giselbertus pioneered the rendering of Adam and Eve in the nude, a treatment that became a tradition in Christian art, as their nakedness was connected to their fall into sin. Originally Eve was paired with a nude Adam reclining on her left, and both figures were placed on the lintel over the portal. Above the lintel, Giselbertus also created the tympanum that depicted the Last Judgment, with Christ enthroned presiding over the saved and the damned and with attendant angels and devils. The viewers, who were largely illiterate, would have understood the didactic visualization that connected the Temptation, by which sin entered the world, and the scene of ultimate redemption.
Giselbertus was trained by the master of Cluny around 1115 and was influenced by the cathedral reliefs that emphasized Christ's compassion. He worked at Autun from about 1125-1135, sculpting most of church's decorative elements. Unusually for the time, Giselbertus included in the tympanum, under Christ's feet, a Latin inscription reading, "Gislebertus made this." Most scholars have taken this for the sculptor's name, though some have suggested it may refer to the patron who commissioned the work.
His work was innovative for the feeling conveyed by his stylized human figures and influenced contemporaneous Romanesque, and later Gothic, sculptors. However, by the late 1700s, due to a rising conservatism in religious and artistic thought, his work was thought to be both too primitive and licentious. Eve disappeared in 1769 when it was used as building material for a local house, and his Last Judgment tympanum was completely filled with plaster, which by a stroke of luck saved it from destruction during the French Revolution. Both Eve and the tympanum were rediscovered and restored only in the 1830s when the Romantic movement revived an appreciation of medieval art.
Stone - Musée Rolin, Autun, France
This vivid fresco shows Christ the Pantocrator (ruler of the universe), framed by a mandorla, or body halo, bordered in red, gold, and blue. Sitting on a throne, he faces the viewer with an intense gaze, while holding a book that reads in Latin "I am the light of the world," as his uplifted right hand makes the traditional symbol of blessing and teaching. Alpha and Omega symbols float above his shoulders, while two angels flank him, their long curved forms echoing the lines of the mandorla and drawing the focus to his haloed head. The greater scale of his figure, reflecting a Byzantine influence, is meant to emphasize his importance. The four Evangelists, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, are depicted in a band of circles at his feet and turn to face him, gesturing.
The work's innovative sense of composition, with its curving bands of blue, gold, and carmine, emphasize the semi-circular apse and focus on Christ in the center. The use of varying shades of blue to depict him, along with highlights of white and carmine dots, create a sense of movement as if he were emerging toward the faithful. Below him a number of other sacred figures are partially visible, including the Virgin Mary left of center, as she holds a chalice containing Christ's blood, a pioneering representation of the Holy Grail and indication of the cult of Mary that was developing at the time.
Originally, the fresco covered the apse of the church of Sant Climent de Taüll in Vall de Boi in Catalonia. Consecrated in 1123, the basilica, with three naves and a Byzantine influenced seven-story bell tower, was known for its exceptional interior murals, all considered to be the work of the Master of Taüll, about whom little else is known. Over time, many of the murals were damaged but those remaining, including this one, were transferred to canvas for exhibition at the National Art Museum of Catalonia. This fresco influenced a number of 20th century Spanish artists, including Francis Picabia and Pablo Picasso, who kept a poster of it in his studio.
Fresco - Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
Moses Expounding the Law
This page from an illuminated manuscript shows two scenes in which Moses, depicted with a halo and horns, explains the law to the Israelites. In the upper scene, Moses stands, left of center, explaining the Ten Commandments, as he lifts his hand in a gesture of teaching and blessing toward the small group, seated on the ground and listening attentively. In the lower scene, he addresses a group of four men as he explains the dietary laws of the Jewish faith by pointing to a sheep which can be eaten and a pig which cannot. Two doves, representing the peace obtained from following God's law, face one another at the top of a tree on the right.
Overall, the work has a calm but vital stylistic flow, derived from the curving lines and the blue, red, green, and gold palette that is echoed in the patterned borders. Master Hugo pioneered this style, which came to be called "damp fold," as clothing was painted as if damp to create both a sense of movement and a more realistic human form.
Master Hugo was the first named artist in England, and he worked at Bury St. Edmund's Abbey, where he made this Bible for the Abbey around 1135. The Bible contains various paintings on full and half pages and decorative initials, which as art historian Thomas Arnold wrote, "have led to a general acknowledgement of Master Hugo as the gifted innovator of the main line of English Romanesque art." He is also credited with making the bronze doors of the Abbey church's western façade and two carved crucifixes, including the famous Cloisters Cross (c. 1150-1160).
Ink and tempera on vellum - Parker Library, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
The Shrine of the Magi
Nicholas of Verdun deliberately designed reliquary, believed to contain relics of the Magi who journeyed to the Nativity of Christ, to resemble the façade of a basilica. Christ in Majesty is depicted enthroned in the upper section, his right hand raised in blessing, his left holding the Gospel, as two apostles flank him. On the lower level, the Three Kings bearing gifts, kneel on the left, facing toward the Madonna and Child enthroned in the center. On the lower right, Christ's baptism is depicted.The figurative treatment is both realistic, as shown in the different poses of the Kings conveying movement, and refined, with its fine details and flowing draperies.
This three level reliquary, also known as The Shrine of the Three Kings, is a masterpiece of Mosan metalworking, with its silver and gold overlay, filigree, and enamel work. The apostles are depicted on the horizontal sides of the shrine, not visible here, and overall the work contains 74 figures in vermeil, or silver relief. Viewed from the side, the shrine resembles a basilica, with small pairs of lapis lazuli columns standing at the corners and between each of apostles.
Following the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa's gift of the relics to Rainald of Dassel, the Archbishop of Cologne, the archbishop commissioned the shrine from Nicholas of Verdun and his workshop around 1180. The relics were of such religious importance, and the shrine considered such a masterpiece, that in 1248 construction of a new Cologne Cathedral was undertaken to suitably house the reliquary. The shrine was placed in the crossing, marking the high point of the church. As art historian Dr. Rolf Lauer wrote, "The Shrine of the Magi is the largest, most artistically significant, and, in terms of its content, most ambitious reliquary of the Middle Ages."
Gold, silver, filigree, precious stones, wood - Cologne Cathedral, Cologne Germany
Beginnings of Romanesque Architecture and Art
Vikings and Insular Art
The many Viking invasions of Europe and the British Isles marked the era before the Romanesque period. Beginning in 790 with raids on Irish coastal monasteries, the raids became full-scale military excursions within a century as shown by the Sack of Paris in 845 and the Sack of Constantinople in 860. For the next two hundred years, the Vikings raided and sometimes conquered surrounding areas. With the conversion of the Vikings to Christianity, the era ended around 1066 when the Normans, themselves descended from Vikings, conquered England.
With the conversion to Christianity of the British Isles and Ireland, following from the mission of St. Augustine in 597, monasteries in Hibernia (present-day Ireland) and present-day Britain played a primary role in cultural continuity throughout Europe, developing the Insular, or Hiberno-Saxon, style that incorporated the curvilinear and interlocking ornamentation of Viking and Anglo-Saxon cultures with the painting and manuscript examples sent from the Roman church.
Stone crosses and portable artifacts such as metalwork and elaborate gospel manuscripts dominated the period. Masterpieces like the British Book of Durrow (c. 650) and the Irish Book of Kells (c. 800), created by monks, included extensive illustrations of Biblical passages, portraits of saints, and elaborately decorative carpet pages that preceded the beginning of each gospel. Insular art influenced both Romanesque manuscript illumination and the richly colored interiors and architectural decorative elements of Romanesque churches.
The Carolingian Renaissance
King of the Franks in 768 and King of the Lombards in 774, Charlemagne became Holy Roman Emperor in 800, effectively consolidating his rule of Europe. He strove to position his kingdom as a revival of the, now Christian, Roman Empire. Charlemagne was an active patron of the arts and launched a building campaign to emulate the artistic grandeur of Rome. Drawing from the Latin version of his name (Carolus), the era is known as the "Carolingian Renaissance." As art historian John Contreni wrote, his reign "saw the construction of 27 new cathedrals, 417 monasteries, and 100 royal residences." His palace complex in Aachen (c. 800) that included his Palatine Chapel modeled on the Byzantine St. Vitale (6th century) became a model for subsequent architecture.
While Carolingian architecture drew on earlier Roman and Byzantine styles, it also transformed church façades that would have consequential effects throughout the Middle Ages. Emphasizing the western entrance to the basilica, the westwork was a monumental addition to the church, with two towers and multiple stories, that served as a royal chapel and viewing room for the emperor when he visited.
Carolingian murals and illuminated manuscripts continued to look to earlier Roman models and depicted the human figure more realistically than the earlier Hiberno-Saxon illuminators. This (early) naturalism had a lasting influence on Romanesque and Gothic art.
In the early 900s, concern began to grow about the economic and political control that nobles and the emperor exercised over monasteries. With rising taxes imposed by nobles and the installation of relatives as abbots, the Cluny Abbey sought monastic reform, based upon the Rule of St. Benedict (c. 480-550), written by the 5th-century St. Benedict of Nursia, that emphasized peace, work, prayer, study, and the autonomy of religious communities.
In 910, William of Aquitaine donated his hunting lodge and surrounding lands to found Cluny Abbey and nominated Berno as its first Abbott. William stipulated the independence of the Abbey from all secular and local authority, including his own. As a result, the Abbey was answerable only to the authority of the Pope and quickly became the leader of the Benedictine order, establishing dozens of monasteries throughout France. As part of its emphasis on prayer and study, the Abbey also created a rich liturgy, in which art played an important role.
Between the 10th and the early 12th centuries, three churches were built at Cluny, each larger than the last, and influencing architectural design throughout Europe. Not much is known of Cluny I, but it was a small, barnlike structure. After a few decades, the monastery outgrew the small church, and Cluny II (c.955-981) was erected. Based on the old basilica model, Cluny II employed round arches and barrel vaults and used small upper level windows for illumination. Designed with a cruciform plan, the church emphasized the west façade with two towers, a larger crossing tower (where the transepts and nave intersected), a narthex (an enclosed entrance area), a choir between the altar and the nave of the church, and chapels at the east end. All of these elements became characteristic of Romanesque architecture. With the building of Cluny III, completed in 1130, the church became the largest in Europe, rivaling St. Peter's in Rome, and a model for similarly ambitious projects.
First Romanesque or Lombard Romanesque
In the 10th century, First, or Lombard, Romanesque was an early development in Lombardy region (now northern Italy), southern France, and reaching into Catalonia. Started by the Lombard Comacine Guild, or stonemasons, the style was distinctive for its solid stone construction, elaborate arching that advanced Roman models, bands of blind arches, or arches that had no openings, and vertical strips for exterior decorative effects. Particularly dominant in Catalonia, some of the best surviving examples are found in the Vall de Boí, a designated World Heritage Site in Catalonia.
Monastic Centers and Pilgrimages
During the Romanesque era, no longer under constant threat from Viking raids, monastic centers, which had provided cultural continuity and spiritual consolation through desperate times, became political, economic, religious, and artistic powerhouses that played a role in unifying Europe and in creating relative stability. Monastic centers that housed religious relics became stops on pilgrimage routes that extended for hundreds of miles throughout Europe to the very edge of Spain at Santiago de Compostela. Christians revered Santiago de Compostela as the burial site of Saint James, a disciple of Christ who brought Christianity to Spain, and thus deeply symbolic to Catholic Europe.
The faithful believed that by venerating relics, or remains of saints, in pilgrim churches they could obtain saintly intercession on their behalf for the forgiveness of their sins. Fierce competition for relics sometimes developed between churches and even resulted in the monks stealing relics from other churches, as was the case with the reliquary of St. Foy, in order to attract more pilgrims and, therefore, more money. As ever-larger crowds began to flock to sites, monastic centers expanded, providing lodging and food and farrier services to the pilgrims. As a result of this growth, various craft guilds were employed to meet the demand for Romanesque construction.
Romanesque Architecture and Art: Concepts, Styles, and Trends
Found throughout Europe and the British Isles, the Romanesque style took on regional variations, sometimes specific to a particular valley or town. The most noted sub styles were Mosan Art, Norman Romanesque, and Italian Romanesque.
Mosan Art, 1050-1232
Mosan art is named for the River Meuse valley in Belgium, where the style was centered around the town of Liege and the Benedictine monastery at Stavelot. Because of the region's location, it had many political and economic links to Aachen and was greatly influenced by the Carolingian Renaissance. The style became famous for its lavish and highly accomplished metalwork, employing gold and enameling in both the cloisonné technique, where metal is used to create raised partitions on the surface that are then filled with colored inlays, and the champlevé technique, where depressions are created in the surface and then filled. Noted metalworkers were Godefroid de Claire (de Huy), Nicholas of Verdun, and Hugo of Oignies. De Claire is credited with the creation of the Stavelot Triptych (1156-1158), both a portable altar and a reliquary containing fragments of True Cross, and Nicholas of Verdun's most noted work was his reliquary Shrine of the Magi (1180-1225). Mosan goldsmiths and metalworkers were employed throughout Europe by notable patrons and spread the style's influence.
Norman Romanesque (11th-12th centuries)
Norman Romanesque is primarily an English style named for the Normans who developed it after conquering England in 1066. Normandy, its name derived from the Latin Nortmanni, meaning "men of the north," became a Viking territory in 911, and the abstract decorative motifs of Norman architecture reflected the Viking love of such elements. Thomas Rickman in his An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture from the Conquest to the Reformation (1817) first used the term Norman Romanesque to refer to the style. Used for cathedrals and churches but also castles and keeps, Norman Romanesque was distinctive for its massive walls, its cylindrical and compound piers, and the Norman arch, employed to make grand archways. A wider and higher ceiling became possible, replacing the narrow limitations of the preceding barrel vault.
The style developed in Normandy, France, and England simultaneously, but in England it evolved into a distinctive sub-style that combined the austerity of the Norman style with a tendency toward decoration. A noted masterwork was Durham Cathedral (1093-1140) built under the leadership of William of St. Carilef. Though the cathedral was later redesigned in the Gothic style, some Norman elements, particularly the nave of the church, remain.
Italian Romanesque is characterized by a distinctive use of gallery façades, projecting porches, and campaniles, or bell towers. Regional variations occurred; for instance, the Northern Italian style had wide and severe looking stone façades, as seen in San Ambrogio in Milan (1140). However, the most important regional style was the Pisan style, sometimes called the Tuscan, or Central, style, favoring classical and refined decorative effects and using gallery facades and projected porches with horizontal bands of colored marble. Decorative elements included scenes of daily life, hunting scenes, and classical subjects, and bronze doors were frequently employed. The Piazza del Duomo, or Cathedral Square, in Pisa, which included the Baptistery (1153) the Cathedral (1063-1092) and the Campanile (1172) is the most famous example.
Later Developments - After Romanesque Architecture and Art
The Romanesque style continued to be employed through most of the 12th century, except in the area around Paris where the Gothic style began in 1120. Subsequently as the Gothic style spread, the Romanesque style was superseded and existent churches were often expanded and redesigned with new Gothic elements, retaining only a few traces of the earlier style. In more rural regions, however, the Romanesque style continued into the 13th century. Romanesque design was foundational to the Gothic which continued using a cruciform plan, a western façade with two towers, and carved tympanums above the portals. Similarly, Gothic art was informed by the same movement toward a more realistic treatment of the human form that can be seen in the Romanesque Mosan style. Romanesque tapestries, like the Bayeux Tapestry, influenced the formation of tapestry workshops throughout Europe in the Gothic period and beyond.
Romanesque Revival styles first developed in England with Inigo Jones' redesign of the White Tower (1637-1638). In the following century Norman Revival castles were built for estates throughout the British Isles, and in the early 1800s, Thomas Pesnon developed a revival style for churches. Romanesque manuscript illumination, with its jewel-like colors and stylized motifs, also influenced and informed the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and the Arts and Crafts movement in the middle and later 19th century.
In Germany Rundbogenstil, or round-arch style, became popular around 1830, and the style was influential in America, as seen in the Paul Robeson Theater, formerly the Fourth Universalist Church in Fort Greene, Brooklyn (1833-34) and the former Astor Library, now the Public Theatre (1849-1881), in Lower Manhattan.
In America the first work of Romanesque Revival architecture was Richard Upjohn's Maaronite Cathedral of Our Lady of Lebanon (1844-1846) in Brooklyn. The American architect James Renwick's design for the Smithsonian Institute (1847-1851) was a prominent example. The style became known as Richardsonian Romanesque, as Henry Hobson Richardson actively promoted the style and designed notable buildings including the Marshall Field Wholesale Store (1885-1887) in Chicago and Trinity Church (1872-1877) in Boston. Harvard University commissioned Richardson to design several campus buildings, including Sever Hall (1878-1880), considered one of his masterpieces and designated a National Historic Landmark. As a result the style was adopted by other American universities in the following decades.
Useful Resources on Romanesque Architecture and Art
- 3k viewsRomanesque Pilgrimage Churches: St. Foy, Conques, and Saint-Pierre, MoissacEast Tennessee State University
- 0 viewsIlluminated ManuscriptsOur PickBBC
- 0 viewsBBC Medieval Lives: Episode 2 - The MonkOur Pick
- 2.9M viewsMaking ManuscriptsGetty Museum
- 466k viewsThe Bayeux Tapestry - all of it, from start to finish
- 1.3M viewsThe Animated Bayeux TapestryOur PickPotion Pictures
- 29k viewsPisa CathedralWorldSiteGuides
- 5k viewsThe Church Program: Cluny AbbeyDWEnglish


No matter why we love to read, we wouldn’t be able to love it without reading comprehension skills. Reading comprehension unlocks the ability to enjoy new texts. Whether we read fiction or nonfiction, we employ reading comprehension skills every time we open a book.
For learners who struggle with reading comprehension, it can be difficult to understand the appeal of reading for pleasure. Due to this, struggling learners are less likely to practise reading at home. Without the ability to understand and enjoy books, learners do not read, so their reading comprehension skills do not improve – the gap widens.
These are just some of the reasons why reading comprehension skills should be taught explicitly to every learner. Not only does progress in reading comprehension improve attainment in English, but it removes barriers in every subject. Whether learners read a poetry collection or a biology textbook, the right reading comprehension strategies open doors to progress.
What is reading comprehension?
Reading comprehension is a fundamental skill learners must master to succeed in school. It allows learners to understand the texts they are reading, facilitating learning through literacy, while also having the potential to unlock a love of reading.
We know the impact that reading can have on a learners’ success. Cultivating a love for reading in your learners is a gift that will benefit them throughout their life, in education and beyond. To give learners that gift, you must start with improving reading comprehension – and to teach reading comprehension skills explicitly, you need useful strategies.
In this blog, we’ll be listing a number of research-driven strategies you can use to teach reading comprehension in your classroom.
Making connections with prior knowledge
In order to read successfully, learners need the ability to connect the text they’re currently reading with the knowledge they already have. This might be as simple as connecting the chapter you are reading now with the chapter before. However, the prior knowledge learners need to have in order to read a text might be cultural. For example:
Joshua was aching so badly from the morning’s work that he could hardly eat his gruel.
With the skill to be able to activate prior knowledge, we can infer (and we’ll come to this later) that Joshua works in a Victorian workhouse. From this, we can roughly guess his age and the time period of the text, all with one sentence – but it requires prior knowledge of Victorian workhouses and what life was like living there.
Keen and Zimmerman (1997) identified three main types of prior knowledge activation:
- Text to self
- Text to text
- Text to world
When it comes to text-to-self and text-to-text prior knowledge activation, this is something you can model to your class. While reading a text, vocalise the connections you are making; this shows the class your thought process. Through listening to you make connections with prior texts and knowledge that has already been taught, learners can increase their understanding of how to activate this prior knowledge for themselves. Over time, you will need to model this thought process less and less as learners gain metacognition – the ability to think about how they are thinking. With this skill, learners can begin to activate prior knowledge internally as they read a text, improving their reading comprehension.
On the other hand, when it comes to text-to-world prior knowledge activation (seen in the quote about Joshua above), this is a little more tricky. In a class of 20-30 learners, we can’t guarantee that each of them will have the same cultural knowledge. For some, the prior knowledge needed to access a text about a Victorian workhouse would already be present, but for some this text could be the first time they encounter this period in history.
To tackle this, encourage learners to note down questions they have about the text as they read. This will give you a clear insight as to whether learners are activating prior world knowledge when reading the text. To fill in some of the gaps, encourage learners to think of any prior knowledge they have that is similar to the text – for example, even if a learner does not know about the Victorian workhouses, they might know something about the Victorian era, which is a good springboard to build on their knowledge.
Remind learners that with every new text they read, they are building up a body of prior knowledge they can use to engage with texts in the future. This means the more they read, the easier it gets – this can be incredibly motivating for your learners to hear.
Understanding new vocabulary
Research suggests that learners need to understand over 85% of the words in a text to understand its meaning overall (Schmitt et al. 2011) (Stoeckel et al. 2020). Some believe this figure is closer to 98%! A limited vocabulary not only limits learners’ reading comprehension but also their enjoyment of the text.
Tier 2 vocabulary is the high-level language that isn’t commonly used in everyday conversation, and is essential for learners to succeed in school. These Tier 2 terms make up the language of the academic texts they read and the exams they sit. As these words are used mostly in written text, such as in textbooks and novels, learners who read less miss out on many encounters with new language. This makes accessing texts even more difficult in the future.
To break this cycle, you should provide every learner with explicit vocabulary instruction.
In 1996, Hazenberg and Hulstijn found that learners need 3000 words to understand 95% of ordinary texts, and be able to understand general ideas and themes from texts. While this isn’t enough language for complete proficiency, it’s sufficient to allow learners to access fundamental texts – building up this body of vocabulary requires explicit vocabulary instruction.
The tricky part when teaching vocabulary to your learners is that no two learners will have the same prior vocabulary knowledge. In one classroom, you may have some learners with an extensive arsenal of vocabulary, and some who rely mainly on Tier 1 language to communicate. Your method of teaching vocabulary should be differentiated for each learner – this is where Bedrock Vocabulary comes in.
Rather than having to assess each learners’ vocabulary ability individually and match your activities to their level, Bedrock uses a deep-learning algorithm to find each learners’ vocabulary level. Language that is too simple can seem boring, and language that is too complex forms a barrier to learning. Not only does Bedrock’s deep-learning algorithm save you time, but it allows learners to access the language best suited to their ability, keeping them motivated.
Other useful strategies for improving your learners’ vocabulary include upgrading their speech, high-quality teacher-student communication and scaffolded peer-to-peer conversation. Read more about these strategies in our blog on improving vocabulary.
Part of the enjoyment of reading is making predictions about what happens next. Luckily, making predictions is a great way to practise reading comprehension, as it combines skills of inference, critical literacy and activating prior knowledge all at once.
“To accurately make predictions students must understand not only what the author said, but what the author is implying.” (Bailey, 2020)
Predictions can be made before opening the book and while you are reading, and then can be reflected upon after you have finished reading the extract.
For example, when reading An Inspector Calls with your class, ask them to recall what happened in the chapter previously, and, using the chapter you have read together, predict what might happen in the next one. Not only does this increase reading comprehension skills, but it helps learners access the suspense, tension, and enjoyment in a novel, encouraging them to read for pleasure further down the line.
You don’t even have to open the book to make a prediction. One fun activity to kick off your reading comprehension work is to have learners look at the front and back page of the book. Examine the cover, read the blurb, think about the title, consider the spine. What do you think the book is about? What do you think will happen? What is the author trying to make you feel about the text before you’ve even opened the first page?
For example, take the book cover of the Golden Compass by Philip Pullman:
When we look at the ornate design of the cover and the enigmatic title, what is Pullman encouraging you to feel before you begin reading?
Simple questions such as “What do you think will happen next?” and “How do you think the story will end?” encourage learners to combine prior knowledge of the text with the inferences they have made so far. Practising combining these skills helps to improve reading comprehension overall.
Identifying the main idea and summarising
Summarising can be a fantastic tool for supporting reading comprehension.
The ability to summarise well can feel like a skill people take for granted, but it allows learners to not only identify the main themes in a text, but to communicate them using their own words. This provides them with the freedom and autonomy to interact with reading in a way that suits them, encouraging reading for pleasure and deepening reading comprehension skills.
As well as this, summaries from learners give teachers an insight into potential problem areas. When information is summarised, it’s easier to see where main ideas and key themes have been lost or misunderstood. This gives you an opportunity to support their knowledge, ensuring they are able to access the text.
Summarising is one of the simplest strategies you can employ when improving reading comprehension. After reading a text, ask learners to summarise what they have read in their own words. This could be a simple summary, or as a response to a previous prediction they make about the text.
When you’re done, ask learners to contribute their ideas to the class or to their peers. This gives other learners the opportunity to fill in gaps in the summary. By doing this as a class, you ensure that every learner comes away from the text with a clear understanding of its contents.
In addition to the reading comprehension benefits, having structured conversations like this as a class reinforce communication skills and independent learning, as every learner has their own voice and gets involved in the discussion.
Answering comprehension questions
This is a well-used strategy for measuring reading comprehension, but it shouldn’t be underestimated. Reading comprehension questions work for both the teacher and the learner.
For teachers, they give a clear insight into whether learners comprehend a text. The insights you receive aren’t as immediate as those you receive when reviewing summaries, but they are more in-depth, giving you a better view of where learners are misunderstanding a text.
For the learner, reading comprehension questions frame the important parts of a text that they should read carefully. In this way, comprehension questions scaffold where learners should be thinking deeply, helping to shape the way they read texts.
Reading comprehension questions alone are not enough to close gaps in reading comprehension, as they do not directly tackle the skills needed to read effectively. However, they do increase visibility for you as a teacher, while playing a role in helping to scaffold how learners should think about texts.
These questions don’t have to be set out in an exam paper. Introduce low-stakes comprehension questions while reading a text. Here are some examples of different types of questions you can ask to get learners thinking deeply about a text:
- What time of day do you think this story is taking place? What month or season? Why?
- Looking at the front cover, why do you think the author chose that illustration and that font?
- How do you think this character is feeling? Why do you think they feel this way?
- What is the setting of the story and how does it affect the plot?
- Can you summarise the story in just two sentences?
- Do you think the blurb describes the story well? How would you change it?
As you can see, the right reading comprehension questions bring together skills from all of the other strategies mentioned in this blog. By teaching all of these aspects of reading comprehension together, you form a consistent, cohesive strategy for improving learners’ reading.
Comparing and contrasting
Comparing and contrasting is the process of identifying whether two things are different or similar. Making a comparison between two things identifies that there is a link between them, whether that’s due to them being the same or opposite.
Not only does this encourage learners to think deeper about the text, but it encourages them to identify overall themes, moods and motifs, even when they are not stated explicitly. In this way, comparing and contrasting works together with inference to boost learners’ critical thinking skills – a key component of reading comprehension.
As well as this, texts that use comparisons within themselves provide great examples of language cues for learners. For example, when a text uses “similar to”, this signals that it is about to compare one thing to another. On the other hand, “on the other hand” signifies that the text is about to make a distinction between two things. Comparing and contrasting helps learners recognise when a text is supporting an argument or introducing a different perspective, reinforcing learners’ critical thinking skills and boosting reading comprehension.
Comparing and contrasting is another opportunity to link back to prior knowledge. By comparing one section to another, you encourage learners to consider how current texts compare to texts they have read previously. This calls upon that prior knowledge and reinforces it.
Questions such as, “How is this chapter different from the last chapter?” in English, or “Why do you think this letter contradicts the last letter?” in history encourage learners in every subject to compare and contrast the text with the knowledge they already have, strengthening their reading comprehension.
You could include comparison and contrast in verbal reading comprehension questions, asking questions such as:
- What’s changed between this chapter and the last chapter?
- How is the main character similar or different to his father?
- What is the text trying to do by putting the two different cities side by side?
- Why is it important that this happy moment occurs while it is raining?
These are great opportunities for comprehension practice and text-to-text comparisons.
Visualising and using graphic organisers
Graphic organisers are a great way to visualise ideas from a text. They allow learners to put new knowledge onto paper and organise it in a way that’s visible, deepening their knowledge and increasing their long-term retention.
Using graphic organisers is a great way to make the process of summarising clear to see. After encouraging your class to summarise key ideas from the text in their own words, hand out graphic organisers and ask learners to write down three main ideas. From there, learners can give examples of how these ideas are shown in the text, as well as keywords that support this.
We have made a template with this structure – feel free to share this template amongst your class and use it for deepening these reading comprehension techniques.
As well as this, graphic organisers can be used to activate prior knowledge and facilitate effective prediction. Before you start reading a text, ask learners to come up with predictions for the text using their prior knowledge.
During the reading process, encourage learners to write down any further predictions they have now they are informed by the text, or questions they have for the text after having read a section.
After you have finished reading, get learners to finish off their predictions and questions. Were they right? Did any of their questions get answered as the text progressed? Do they have any more questions now the text has finished?
This is another example of using visual tools to improve reading comprehension. A story map is a type of graphic organiser and works best when studying fiction texts.
Oftentimes, when planning a piece of creative writing, we plan out the plot, the characters, the dilemma and the solution to craft an engaging story. Creating a story map is similar to this, only backwards. Learners can work back from an already written text, turning it back into its story plan – or story map.
After reading a text, ask learners to list its main themes. Then you can go deeper, asking them to name characters and the dilemmas they face in the story. Encourage learners to identify problems and solutions, helping them build up an idea of the plot timeline. To go even further, combine this activity with your reading comprehension questions by asking them the impact of setting and time period.
Through this activity, learners consider how aspects of the piece fit together to create an effect beyond what is explicitly written on the page.
Story maps can also be applied to smaller sections of the text. For example, if you’re trying to encourage your learners to infer how characters are feeling in a certain chapter, you could design a map that links actions the characters are doing with emotions they may be feeling.
Story maps call upon explicit vocabulary instruction, prior knowledge and inference skills, as well as visualisation – together, these strategies reinforce strong reading comprehension.
Retelling works as a natural next step from summarising. Rather than just reducing the story to its main themes, learners use their own words to retell the events of the story to someone else. This utilises summarisation and story map strategies, as learners have to not only grasp the themes of the text but also the plot trajectory.
This strategy is effective as it provides visibility on where knowledge has been misunderstood, much like with summarisation. However, it also provides the opportunity for you to upgrade their narrative through high-quality teacher-learner conversation, deepening their vocabulary and reading comprehension knowledge.
At first, supporting your learners to retell the story might require some scaffolding. You might have to prompt with questions or fill in blanks. However, retelling the events of the story is an exercise that helps learners comprehend the trajectory of a story. Practising this increases their independence when reading and reduces their need for teacher support.
How Bedrock incorporates strategies for reading comprehension into our teaching
Books are one of the most important ways we gain information, especially in the classroom. English is the language of learning; strong reading comprehension skills unlock knowledge found in both fiction and non-fiction texts. By helping to improve reading comprehension skills, we improve learning through literacy. Our activities are crafted to support vocabulary, grammar and reading comprehension, supporting learners’ development in every subject across the curriculum.
Firstly, Bedrock’s vocabulary curriculum tackles the Tier 2 vocabulary instruction needed for strong reading comprehension. Struggling readers often cannot access the texts in the classroom, and therefore can’t practise their reading comprehension skills. That’s why we teach vocabulary through intelligent differentiation and accessible stories, not only boosting learners’ vocabulary but encouraging them to love reading.
Bedrock's vocabulary curriculum teaches new words through bespoke fiction and non-fiction texts, written in Tier 1 vocabulary. This ensures every learner has the chance to engage with the texts they read. Not only does this method of teaching provide high-quality, contextualised encounters with new vocabulary, but it also helps to cultivate a love of reading – this is a gift that will continue to boost learners’ progress throughout their lives.
As well as this, Bedrock’s grammar curriculum teaches the grammar skills learners need to navigate texts effectively. Grammar is taught through engaging video content and interactive learning activities, consolidating learners’ grammar knowledge. From proper nouns to sentence structure to semicolons, Bedrock provides learners with the tools they need to understand grammar in practice. This doesn’t just benefit their own writing but their reading also.
In Bedrock's core curriculum, vocabulary and grammar instruction work in tandem to give learners the tools they need to understand language, improving their literacy overall.
If you’re looking to improve reading comprehension in your school, reap the benefits of Bedrock’s core curriculum. Find out more about how Bedrock can improve reading comprehension at your school.


7 Fun Classroom Theme Ideas to Make Celebrating Diversity Fun
Teaching and celebrating diversity in the classroom is integral to providing an equitable education for all students. This detailed guide will discuss why teaching and celebrating diversity and culture in any daycare, preschool classroom, or early elementary school classroom are so important.
We will look at how teaching diversity and cultural awareness promotes understanding between different cultures, encourages open-mindedness, prepares students for a more diverse world, and provides a safe learning environment for all students.
Types of Diversity
Diversity is a fundamental concept to teach to young students. To teach diversity well, educators must understand the different forms of diversity that can be taught.
According to Merriam-Webster, diversity is “the condition of having or being composed of differing elements: especially: the inclusion of people of different races, cultures, etc. in a group or organization.”
Teaching diversity in early education is essential to helping children develop a strong sense of self-identity and respect for others. As an early childhood educator, you are responsible for providing an environment that allows children to explore and learn about similarities and differences between themselves and others.
However, diversity is not just about ethnicity/race, culture, disabilities, religion, sexual orientation or gender identity but also includes learning, cognitive, and intellectual diversity. Here’s a look at some key ways to foster an understanding of diversity in daycare, preschool, and early elementary school classrooms.
Learning diversity encompasses a variety of abilities and disabilities which can affect how someone learns. Therefore, it’s essential to recognize that some students may require extra support to learn effectively and progress with their studies.
For example, some students may require more time to process information, while others may need assistance with more practical tasks such as writing or organizing materials. Therefore, educators should strive to ensure that all learners have the resources they need to succeed in their educational pursuits.
Cognitive diversity refers to the way individuals think and process information differently from one another. Students with cognitive diversity have the potential to bring unique perspectives and insights into group discussions and activities, which can create an environment of creativity and innovation within the classroom setting. However, for these benefits to be realized, educators must look for ways to foster an understanding and appreciation for each student’s unique thinking styles and provide them with productive strategies for managing their differences.
Intellectual diversity involves recognizing that no two individuals possess the same knowledge base or intellectual capacities. Therefore, teachers must strive towards creating a classroom environment where everyone feels comfortable sharing their ideas regardless of their knowledge on a particular topic. Furthermore, educators should actively seek opportunities for students to acquire new knowledge through exposure to diverse sources such as books, media outlets, expert speakers, etc., which can improve comprehension skills overall.
Therefore, it is vital that educators understand how various forms of diversity impact their classrooms so they can better support their students’ learning journeys by providing them with resources tailored specifically towards their individual needs and interests.
By introducing topics that help learn about all forms of diversity into classroom lesson plans early on in a student’s educational career, teachers can establish a foundation for success later down the road, no matter what academic trajectory they choose to pursue afterwards.
Resources to get started
How to Teach Kids About Racism – Rebecca J. Jackson
Music, Education, and Diversity: Bridging Cultures and Communities – Patricia Shehan Campbell
Start Where You Are, But Don’t Stay There, Second Edition: Understanding Diversity, Opportunity Gaps, and Teaching in Today’s Classrooms – H. Richard Milner IV
And a whole list of books regarding racial inequities as well.
Why Including Diversity In the Classroom Is Important
Teaching and celebrating diversity helps children understand many different cultures, beliefs, customs, and traditions worldwide. It is similar to offering a child a variety of toys to play with; it broadens their perspective, encourages creativity, and helps them understand the world around them.
By teaching about these differences from an early age, children can start to develop an understanding of how people who may be different from them think and act. This teaches children to be more tolerant of those who may not share their same values, beliefs or abilities– something that will be especially important as they age and begin interacting with people from other cultures daily.
Through exposure to various perspectives, opinions, cultures, etc., young children will learn to form their own opinions instead of blindly following what the majority thinks or believes. This encourages critical thinking skills, which can benefit many aspects of life – now and later.
Providing A Safe Learning Environment For All Students
One of the most important reasons for teaching and celebrating diversity in the classroom is that it helps create a safe learning environment where all students feel respected regardless of identity or background. Introducing children to different ethnicities and cultures, they may not have been exposed to can build relationships with others outside their own family or community. This allows them to gain an appreciation for diversity which can help foster respect between everyone around them – creating a more welcoming atmosphere inside the classroom where everyone feels comfortable expressing themselves without fear of judgement or ridicule.
As such, diversity should be prioritized by educators when creating lesson plans. It provides numerous benefits that will help shape young minds into responsible citizens capable of easily navigating our increasingly globalized society.
Ways to Celebrate Diversity
As part of creating an inclusive and respectful learning environment, finding ways to celebrate diversity among students and teachers is imperative.
One of the best ways to foster this kind of respect and appreciation for differences is by celebrating diversity in a meaningful way. Here are some ideas on how teachers and educators can make sure that everyone in their classroom or school feels heard, seen and respected:
Promote Inclusiveness – By creating an environment where all students feel safe, accepted and appreciated, teachers can help foster an inclusive atmosphere in the classroom. This means encouraging open dialogue between all students in the classroom while proactively addressing any instances of prejudice or discrimination.
Celebrate Differences – Teachers should strive to create lessons that don’t just teach content but also demonstrate acceptance and admiration for diverse backgrounds and identities. They should also encourage their students to learn about different cultures and countries through activities such as show and tell, field trips or research projects.
Recognize Achievements – Even small accomplishments by children should be recognized publicly so that everyone in the classroom feels valued regardless of their background, abilities or identity. This could be done by creating certificates or awards for excellence in a particular area or demonstrating outstanding effort towards achieving specific goals.
Give Opportunities – Even when there are potential barriers, teachers should strive to provide equal opportunities for everyone in the classroom to participate fully in activities without feeling judged or excluded due to cultural or ability differences. Encouraging peer-to-peer tutoring amongst multilingual groups can also be beneficial as this allows students to utilize each other’s unique skills while developing communication skills simultaneously.
Celebrate Cultural Holidays – Learning about different cultures can also be fun. Teachers should take advantage of cultural holidays such as Christmas and Hannukah, Lunar New Year, Diwali or Eid al-Fitr by organizing celebrations in the classroom where traditional food and activities can be shared amongst classmates from different backgrounds. This could lead towards fruitful conversations on religious customs while providing meaningful learning experiences which transcend beyond textbooks alone.
7 Fun and Inclusive Classroom Theme Ideas to Celebrate Diversity
Now that you have all the background knowledge you need to start teaching diversity, we’ve put together a list of 7 classroom theme ideas. These classroom themes are great for young children and include classroom decor and teaching plans to help young minds learn about different forms of diversity in a simple, inclusive and fun way.
Around the World
Around the World is a great theme to introduce young children to different cultures and traditions. It can bring the world into the classroom and help students appreciate diversity while also learning about new places. Here are some ideas on how to get students involved:
You can teach students about various countries worldwide by providing them with books, maps, and globe models. Explain which countries are near each other as well as what languages are spoken in each nation. In addition, pictures or videos of various landscapes, people, or landmarks can pique student interest.
Have the students make traditional crafts from different countries as a second activity. Assign each student a country and have them research local customs and craft materials needed for their projects. For example, paper folding is popular in Japan, so they could create origami pieces; Indian culture has intricate beadwork, which could be reproduced with large beads and yarn; and Mexican culture emphasizes vibrant colors, so they could draw permanent marker designs on paper plates to make masks.
Students can also learn about world culture through music and playing songs from around the world in their lessons. Discuss traditional instruments and have students try to imitate their sounds using their own homemade instruments, like empty containers filled with rice or beans for shakers or use cardboard tubes for drumsticks.
You could even put on your chef’s hat and cook up some delicious dishes from various places around the world! Provide recipes for easy snacks like crepes from France that involve simple ingredients and steps that even younger kids can follow along with you in class. Or go outside for an educational picnic where each student brings food items from their assigned country.
Teaching young children about diversity through an Around the World theme is fun and educational. By engaging in activities such as book reading sessions, crafting projects, musical performances, and cooking classes, all paired with discussions about different cultures, kids will be able to gain an appreciation for our diverse planet sooner rather than later.
All About Me: Culture and Diversity: Kindergarten Social Studies: Who am I?
Children of The World – 36 Piece Jigsaw Floor Puzzle
What could be more diverse than the natural world? Nature is fascinating even for adults, and young children love to explore their surroundings or places they have never encountered. Introducing diversity through nature can help them grasp the concept more easily. By making connections between the natural world and their own lives, you can encourage children to experience, observe and appreciate the differences and similarities in our world.
When teaching young children about diversity, it is important to get them actively involved in the learning process. Start by introducing diverse examples they can relate to – like animals or plants found in nature. Then, by engaging with these living organisms, students can understand how different beings have unique qualities that make them stand out from the rest. For example, you might ask students to carefully observe a butterfly and explain its features – such as its colorful wings or slender antennae – that help distinguish it from other insects.
Furthermore, by introducing students to different countries or regions through books or videos, you can provide an opportunity for further exploration into natural diversity. Show them pictures of various landscapes worldwide and discuss why each place is unique and special. Ask questions such as “What are some differences between this landscape and a beach near your home?” or “What kinds of animals live in this area?” This will help them understand how geography affects culture and lifestyle.
You can also take your students on field trips outdoors so they can experience different habitats firsthand. For example, go on walks together around your local area so they can learn more about bird species native to your region or explore tide pools at nearby beaches. Through outdoor activities like these, children gain a better understanding of our planet’s incredible biodiversity and its importance to humanity as a whole.
Finally, engage your class in conversations about respect for all living things – no matter how small, or dissimilar they may appear – and open-mindedness towards those who may look or act differently than us. Please encourage your students to think critically about why the difference is something we should celebrate rather than fear. By doing so, you will equip these young learners with valuable life skills that will benefit them both now and into adulthood.
World Continent Cards Montessori Geography Folder
Wild Symphony – A book that uses music and storytelling to explain the differences between animals.
Nature Walks, Outdoor Education & Learning, PreK Kindergarten Science Activities
Language is a beautiful tool to teach young children about diversity. Through different tongues, accents, and expressions, children can gain an understanding of the world around them and how it is made up of many unique cultures. By teaching a language-based theme in early childhood education, children will gain an appreciation for the differences between people from diverse backgrounds and learn to embrace those differences with curiosity and respect.
One way to get students involved in learning about languages is by introducing them to international stories. Stories have the power to bridge gaps between cultures and provide insight into other parts of the world that may be unfamiliar or unknown to them. Incorporating stories from different countries or regions can help students become familiar with different cultures while also honing their reading skills. Additionally, books written in other languages can help children understand which words refer to particular objects or ideas when expressed in a new language.
Another effective way to introduce diversity through language learning in early childhood education is through music. Songs are fun for children and serve as learning tools, as they can help build phonemic awareness through rhythm and repetition. In addition, music from around the globe can be used in classroom activities, such as having students listen to songs from various countries and then engage in hands-on activities related to the lyrics, like creating art projects inspired by elements mentioned in the song’s verses.
Teachers should encourage bilingual and multilingual students to share their language with their class to help foster an understanding of diversity. Learning another language is a great way to engage students in studying different cultures and promote respect for diverse backgrounds.
Teachers can also use a sign language theme to introduce the concept of intellectual and cognitive diversity to preschool students by incorporating ASL into their classrooms. For example, they can teach basic signs such as those associated with feelings or greetings, provide stories about characters with diverse abilities, or invite an interpreter who speaks ASL to come in and present some of the basics of the language to the children.
These activities will help foster a sense of respect and appreciation among students while also introducing them to vocabulary terms associated with foreign languages, which encourage self-expression and communication skills that will benefit them throughout their lives, both personally and professionally, when interacting with people from all walks of life.
9 Pieces ASL Colour Posters Color Bulletin Board Set
Motivation Without Borders MWB Spanish Language Poster for Kids
World Flags-Bulletin Board-International Hello
There is no doubt that music is an incredible tool for educating children about diversity and acceptance. Not only does it have the ability to express ideas creatively, but it can also provide a fun and engaging way for young learners to explore different cultures. How many of you remember songs you learned in childhood that taught you something? I sure do! By introducing children to music from various parts of the world, they can begin to understand the universality of human experience and learn to appreciate different perspectives.
One way to use music as a tool for teaching diversity is through participation in cultural exchange activities. This could include attending special events featuring local musicians or inviting local musicians into the classroom. Students would be able to listen to new sounds live and gain an appreciation of global cultures while being immersed in them firsthand. Additionally, teachers could bring in visiting speakers such as musicians or experts on culture to provide an interactive educational experience that students can engage with and learn from.
Another excellent way for teachers to use music as an educational tool is by incorporating songs from around the world into classroom activities. This could be done through singing, dancing, or playing instruments together, which are great ways for kids to become familiar with unfamiliar tunes and rhythms from other cultures. Teachers can also introduce students to diverse musical genres, such as traditional folk music or contemporary pop songs from around the world, that demonstrate cultural differences in sound production and style.
Finally, educators should also consider hosting themed days to explore diversity through music. During these days, students would work together in groups (or individually) on projects related to learning more about various cultures’ music styles – both past and present – while creating their own compositions based on what they have learned. This type of activity encourages creativity and helps kids develop a sense of appreciation for different cultural perspectives while gaining valuable knowledge simultaneously.
Tam Tam Tambalay!: And Other Songs from Around the World
Music Lesson Plan | Diversity and Inclusion
Preschool Educational Musical Toys Set
Celebrating holidays from multiple cultures can be an exciting way to educate kids on different traditions while reinforcing their appreciation for other backgrounds. Teachers can create meaningful learning experiences through guided discussions and activities that inspire children to value cultural differences. Here are some ideas on how to get students involved in learning about diversity through a holiday theme.
One activity could involve creating multicultural ornaments for the classroom. Please encourage students to choose a country they would like to learn more about and research its traditional holiday decorations. Then, provide materials such as construction paper, glue, scissors, markers, glitter, and so on for them to create their own festive ornament. Additionally, you could use this task as an opportunity to explain why certain symbols or colors are associated with certain holidays or countries. It’s a great way for children to gain insight into different cultures!
Another idea is having students make cards for their peers celebrating various holidays; we all know how much kids love getting mail. You can provide them with pictures of different holiday cards from around the world and then task them with making one for each other. This allows them to practice writing skills too.
Alternatively, depending on the resources available at your school or facility, you could set up an international buffet where each student brings in food from their culture or family traditions. This encourages conversation in your classroom and makes your diverse student body feel more connected through shared foods. As they sample dishes from various backgrounds, they will begin experiencing new flavors while simultaneously developing new interpretations of their peers’ native customs. These types of interactions allow children to explore beyond what they already know and will help foster deeper understanding between cultures.
Let’s Celebrate!: Special Days Around the World (World of Celebrations)
Christmas Bulletin Board Borders
Under the Sea
Incorporating an Under the Sea theme into your classroom activities can be a great way to teach young children, typically between the ages of four and six, about diversity. Just like nature on land, exploring a variety of sea creatures and their habitats can encourage children to learn how each species is adapted to live in their environment. This can help them better understand how different life forms interact with one another in nature and how everyone has a place within their community.
To get students involved in learning about marine life and its diversity, you may introduce classroom activities that require researching information about different species found in the ocean. This can include identifying what makes each creature unique and how they work together to form a balanced ecosystem.
Consider having your students compare two or more species based on physical qualities such as size, coloration, movement capabilities, reproductive behavior and diet preferences. Through this exercise, they can appreciate biodiversity by recognizing that each species possesses characteristics that make them distinct from one another despite occupying similar habitats. Furthermore, dividing your class into small groups and assigning each group a specific species to investigate could be beneficial as it allows each child to become more engaged with one particular organism’s life cycle.
Another fun way to support student learning is to set up an aquarium in the classroom. Teachers can assign students specific tasks related to researching an animal they’d like to keep in the tank before purchasing it or buying appropriate plants and decorations for it. Having students set up and maintain an aquarium is a great way to observe firsthand how all organisms interact within an ecosystem while also providing hands-on reinforcement of the concepts they’ve previously learned.
You could also encourage your kids to draw aquatic lifeforms to decorate their classrooms. By creating a visually appealing classroom environment with meaningful decorations, teachers can further inspire their young learners’ creativity and foster positive interactions between peers.
45 Pieces Fish Cut-Outs Paper Colorful Classroom Decorations
Under The Sea Bulletin Board Set
Under the Sea Dramatic Play Center
Teachers have the important job of introducing preschool students to learning, intellectual and cognitive diversity concepts. Teachers can effectively do this by implementing a Learning theme into the classroom. Learning themes involve creating a stimulating, engaging, and inclusive environment for all students. This allows children to learn from each other and develop an understanding of different abilities and backgrounds. A theme-based approach to learning also helps foster collaboration between students and promotes self-reflection and critical thinking skills.
Teachers can introduce intellectual and cognitive diversity through stories or roleplaying activities. For example, a teacher could tell a story about two siblings with different interests or abilities, such as one sibling being better at math while the other excels in music. Through this type of story, children will see how everyone is unique in their own way and that we should celebrate our differences rather than see them as negatives or drawbacks.
Another way teachers can implement this concept into the curriculum is through art projects that focus on diversity in both style and content. This enables children to explore various cultures, disabilities, religions, ethnicities, and social statuses while expressing themselves creatively through art forms like drawing or painting.
By introducing a Learning theme into the classroom environment based on intellectual and cognitive diversity, teachers are providing preschoolers with an opportunity to experience new ideas in an exciting way while getting comfortable with celebrating individual differences among their classmates. In addition, this creates an atmosphere of respect for everyone’s opinion, which is key for student growth both academically and socially throughout their school career.
It’s OK to be Different: A Children’s Picture Book About Diversity and Kindness
Meeting Mimi: A Story About Different Abilities
Ways to Decorate and Illustrate Diversity
Decorating a classroom to illustrate diversity is an easy way for educators and teachers to support their students and create an inclusive environment. It helps develop a sense of belonging and allows students to learn self-expression while increasing their cultural awareness.
- Bulletin boards are one of the best ways to decorate a classroom to illustrate diversity. They can be used to feature positive messages that promote equality, acceptance, and respect for all individuals.
- Posters or artwork featuring symbols representing different cultures or countries can also be hung on bulletin boards to celebrate each student’s unique background.
- Display art gives an opportunity for kids to help with decoration by allowing them to make drawings or paintings that represent different forms of diversity, as well as discussing what diversity means with them in class.
- Bunting made out of fabric featuring traditional patterns or flags from around the world can also be hung on windows to honor various cultures.
- Glass doors and windows are a perfect space for educators and teachers to utilize to showcase diversity themes studied in the classroom because they are the focal points in the room, which is essential when setting a positive atmosphere.
- Students could also bring items from home that symbolize their culture, such as traditional clothing or musical instruments, which they could put on display in their learning space so everyone can appreciate them during classes.
You can check out our Preschool Classroom Theme Ideas Pinterest page for more ideas.
Diversity education should be an exciting part of any curriculum but particularly so for younger children who are just beginning their educational journey; introducing them early on to various ideas related to differences within society and the wider world helps create an understanding that we are all connected despite outward appearances or labels assigned by society at large.
In addition, incorporating multiple learning styles into lessons, along with interactive activities and visual aids, teach kids valuable lessons they carry throughout life while providing enjoyable and memorable experiences.
-This article was written by Rebecca Calbert.
Rebecca is a licensed architect with over 30 years of experience. She owns and operates an architectural firm, Calbert Design Group, and educates her clients through the commercial real estate development process with online content at SaveOnBuilding.com. Rebecca’s “purpose” is to educate small business owners and protect them from what they don’t know.