Introduction to Poetry
Poetry Link Resources
The word poetry is derived from the Greek poiesis, meaning a "making" or"creating". It is a form of art in which language is used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities with or without its ostensible meaning. Poetry may be used either as an independent art by itself or in conjunction with other arts, as in poetic drama, hymns or lyrics. Earlier definitions of poetry focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on features such as repetition and rhyme, and emphasized the aesthetics which distinguish poetry from prose. From the mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more loosely defined as a fundamental creative act using language.
Poetry often uses particular forms and conventions to expand the literal meaning of the words, or to evoke emotional or sensual responses. Devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. Poetry's use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other stylistic elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly, metaphor and simile create a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between individual verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm.
Some forms of poetry are specific to particular cultures and genres, responding to the characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. While readers accustomed to identifying poetry with Dante, Goethe, Mickiewicz and Rumi may think of it as being written in rhyming lines and regular meter, there are traditions, such as those of Du Fu and Beowulf, that use other approaches to achieve rhythm and euphony. In today's globalize world, poets often borrow styles, techniques and forms from diverse cultures and languages.
Poetry as an art form may predate literacy. Many ancient works, from the Vedas to the Odyssey, appear to have been composed in poetic form to aid memorization and oral transmission, in prehistoric and ancient societies. Poetry appears among the earliest records of most literate cultures, with poetic fragments found on early monoliths, rune stones and stelae.
The oldest surviving poem is the Epic of Gilgamesh, from the 3rd millennium BC in Sumer (in Mesopotamia, now Iraq), which was written in cuneiform script on clay tablets and, later, papyrus. Other ancient epic poetry includes the Greek epics, Iliad and Odyssey, and the Indian epics, Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
The efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in "poetics" — the study of the aesthetics of poetry. Some ancient societies, such as the Chinese through the Shi Jing, one of the Five Classics of Confucianism, developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance. More recently, thinkers have struggled to find a definition that could encompass formal differences as great as those between Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Matsuo Basho's Oku no Hosomichi, as well as differences in context spanning Tanakh religious poetry, love poetry, and rap.
Context can be critical to poetics and to the development of poetic genres and forms. Poetry that records historic events in epics, such as Gilgamesh or Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, will necessarily be lengthy and narrative, while poetry used for liturgical purposes (hymns, psalms, suras and hadiths) is likely to have an inspirational tone, whereas elegy and tragedy are meant to evoke deep emotional responses. Other contexts include Gregorian chants, formal or diplomatic speech, political rhetoric and invective, light-hearted nursery and nonsense rhymes, and even medical texts.
Classical Approach to Poetry
Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Notably, the existing fragments of Aristotle's Poetics describe three genres of poetry — the epic, the comic, and the tragic — and develop rules to distinguish the highest-quality poetry in each genre, based on the underlying purposes of the genre. Later aestheticians identified three major genres: epic poetry, lyric poetry and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry. Aristotle's work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, as well as in Europe during the Renaissance. Later poets and aestheticians often distinguished poetry from, and defined it in opposition to, prose, which was generally understood as writing with a proclivity to logical explication and a linear narrative structure.
Modern Approach to Poetry
Some 20th century literary theorists, relying less on the opposition of prose and poetry, focused on the poet as simply one who creates using language, and poetry as what the poet creates. The underlying concept of the poet as creator is not uncommon, and some modernist poets essentially do not distinguish between the creation of a poem with words, and creative acts in other media such as carpentry. Yet other modernists challenge the very attempt to define poetry as misguided, as when Archibald MacLeish concludes his paradoxical poem, "Ars Poetica," with the lines: "A poem should not mean / but be."
Disputes over the definition of poetry, and over poetry's distinction from other genres of literature, have been inextricably intertwined with the debate over the role of poetic form. The rejection of traditional forms and structures for poetry that began in the first half of the twentieth century, coincided with a questioning of the purpose and meaning of traditional definitions of poetry and of distinctions between poetry and prose, particularly given examples of poetic prose and prosaic "poetry". Numerous modernist poets have written in non-traditional forms or in what traditionally would have been considered prose, although their writing was generally infused with poetic diction and often with rhythm and tone established by non-metrical means. While there was a substantial formalist reaction within the modernist schools to the breakdown of structure, this reaction focused as much on the development of new formal structures and syntheses as on the revival of older forms and structures.
More recently, postmodernism has fully embraced MacLeish's concept and come to regard boundaries between prose and poetry, and also among genres of poetry, as having meaning only as cultural artifacts. Postmodernism goes beyond modernism's emphasis on the creative role of the poet, to emphasize the role of the reader of a text, and to highlight the complex cultural web within which a poem is read. Today, throughout the world, poetry often incorporates poetic form and diction from other cultures and from the past, further confounding attempts at definition and classification that were once sensible within a tradition such as the Western canon.
Basic Elements of Poetry
Prosody is the study of the meter, rhythm, and intonation of a poem. Meter is the definitive pattern established for a verse (such as iambic pentameter), while rhythm is the actual sound that results from a line of poetry. Prosody also may be used more specifically to refer to the scanning of poetic lines to show meter.
Rhythm: The methods for creating poetic rhythm vary across languages and between poetic traditions. Languages are often described as having timing set primarily by accents, syllables, or moras, depending on how rhythm is established, though a language can be influenced by multiple approaches. For example:
- Japanese is a mora-timed language.
- Latin, Catalan, French and Spanish are syllable-timed languages.
- English, Russian and, generally, German are stress-timed languages.
- Chinese, Vietnamese, Lithuanian, and most Sub-Saharan languages are Tonal languages
Meter: In the Western poetic tradition, meters are customarily grouped according to a characteristic metrical foot and the number of feet per line. Some examples of metric system are:
- iambic pentameter. It contains five feet per line, in which the predominant kind of foot is the "iamb. It system originated in ancient Greek poetry, and was used by poets such as Pindar and Sappho, and by the great tragedians of Athens.
- Dactylic hexameter. It has six feet per line, of which the dominant kind of foot is the dactyl. Dactylic hexameter was the traditional meter of Greek epic poetry, the earliest extant examples of which are the works of Homer and Hesiod.
Meter is often scanned based on the arrangement of "poetic feet" into lines. In English, each foot usually includes one syllable with a stress and one or two without a stress. In other languages, it may be a combination of the number of syllables and the length of the vowel that determines how the foot is parsed, where one syllable with a long vowel may be treated as the equivalent of two syllables with short vowels. The generally accepted names for some of the most commonly used kinds of feet include
- spondee — two stressed syllables together
- iamb — unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable
- trochee — one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable
- dactyl — one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables
- anapest — two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable
- pyrrhic - two unstressed syllables together (rare, usually used to end dactylic hexameter)\
The number of metrical feet in a line are described in Greek terminology as follows:
- dimeter — two feet
- trimeter — three feet
- tetrameter — four feet
- pentameter — five feet
- hexameter — six feet
- heptameter — seven feet
- octameter — eight feet
Rhyme, Alliteration, Assonance: Rhyme, alliteration, assonance and consonance are ways of creating repetitive patterns of sound. They may be used as an independent structural element in a poem, to reinforce rhythmic patterns, or as an ornamental element.
- Rhyme consists of identical (hard-rhyme) or similar (soft-rhyme) sounds placed at the ends of lines or at predictable locations within lines (internal rhyme). Languages vary in the richness of their rhyming structures.
- Alliteration is the repetition of initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words or syllables. We find alliteration in many familiar phrases and expressions such as "down in the dumps."
- Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in non-rhyming words as in, "some ship in distress that cannot ever live." It is used in modern English-language poetry, and in Old French, Spanish and Celtic languages.
Rhyming Schemes: In many languages poets use rhyme in set patterns as a structural element for specific poet forms, such as ballads, sonnets and rhyming couplets. However, the use of structural rhyme is not universal. Much modern poetry avoids traditional rhyme schemes. Classical Greek and Latin poetry did not use rhyme. Rhyme entered European poetry in the High Middle Ages, in part under the influence of the Arabic language in Al Andalus (modern Spain). Arabic language poets used rhyme extensively. Some rhyming schemes have become associated with a specific language, culture or period, while other rhyming schemes have achieved use across languages, cultures or time periods. Some forms of poetry carry a consistent and well-defined rhyming scheme, such as the chant royal or the rubaiyat, while other poetic forms have variable rhyme schemes.
Poetic form refers to various sets of "rules" followed by poems of certain types. The rules may describe such aspects as the rhythm or meter (poetry) of the poem, its rhyme scheme, or its use of alliteration. This category contains articles discussing such concepts. Poetic form is very much more flexible nowadays than ever before. Many modern poets eschew recognizable structures or forms, and write in 'free verse'. But poetry remains distinguished from prose by its form and some regard for basic formal structures of poetry will be found in even the best free verse, however much it may appear to have been ignored. Similarly, in the best poetry written in the classical style there will be departures from strict form for emphasis or effect. Among the major structural elements often used in poetry are the line, the stanza or verse paragraph, and larger combinations of stanzas or lines such as cantos. The broader visual presentation of words and calligraphy can also be utilized. Some well known poetic forms in different languages are described below:
- Sonnets: Among the most common form of poetry through the ages is the sonnet, which, by the thirteenth century, was a poem of fourteen lines following a set rhyme scheme and logical structure. The conventions associated with the sonnet have changed during its history, and so there are several different sonnet forms.
- Jintishi: The jintishi is a Chinese poetic form based on a series of set tonal patterns using the four tones of the classical Chinese language in each couplet: the level, rising, falling and entering tones. The basic form of the jintishi has eight lines in four couplets, with parallelism between the lines in the second and third couplets. The couplets with parallel lines contain contrasting content but an identical grammatical relationship between words. Jintishi often have a rich poetic diction, full of allusion, and can have a wide range of subject, including history and politics. One of the masters of the form was Du Fu, who wrote during the Tang Dynasty (8th century). There are several variations on the basic form of the jintishi.
- Sestina: The sestina has six stanzas, each comprising six unrhymed lines, in which the words at the end of the first stanza’s lines reappear in a rolling pattern in the other stanzas. The poem then ends with a three-line stanza in which the words again appear, two on each line.
- Villanelle: The Villanelle is a nineteen-line poem made up of five triplets with a closing quatrain; the poem is characterized by having two refrains, initially used in the first and third lines of the first stanza, and then alternately used at the close of each subsequent stanza until the final quatrain, which is concluded by the two refrains. The remaining lines of the poem have an a-b alternating rhyme. The villanelle has been used regularly in the English language since the late nineteenth century by such poets as Dylan Thomas, W.H. Auden, and Elizabeth Bishop. It is a form that has gained increased use at a time when the use of received forms of poetry has generally been declining.
- Pantoum: The pantoum is a rare form of poetry similar to a villanelle. It is composed of a series of quatrains; the second and fourth lines of each stanza are repeated as the first and third lines of the next.
- Tanka: The Tanka is a form of Japanese poetry, generally not possessing rhyme, with five lines structured in a 5-7-5 7-7 patterns. The 5-7-5 phrase (the "upper phrase") and the 7-7 phrase (the "lower phrase") generally show a shift in tone and subject matter. Tanka was originally the shorter form of Japanese formal poetry, and was used more heavily to explore personal rather than public themes. It thus had a more informal poetic diction. By the 13th century, Tanka had become the dominant form of Japanese poetry, and it is still widely written today.
- Ode: The ode generally has three parts: a strophe, an antistrophe, and an epode. Odes have a formal poetic diction, and generally deal with a serious subject. They are often intended to be recited or sung by two choruses (or individuals), with the first reciting the strophe, the second the antistrophe, and both together the epode. Over time, differing forms for odes have developed with considerable variations in form and structure, but generally showing the original influence of the Pindaric or Horatian ode. One non-Western form which resembles the ode is the qasida in Persian poetry.
- Ghazal: The ghazal is a form of poetry common in Arabic, Persian and Urdu poetry. In classic form, the ghazal has from five to fifteen rhyming couplets that share a refrain at the end of the second line (which need be of only a few syllables). Each line has an identical meter, and there is a set pattern of rhymes in the first couplet and among the refrains. Each couplet forms a complete thought and stands alone, and the overall ghazal often reflects on a theme of unattainable love or divinity. The last couplet generally includes the signature of the author. As with other forms with a long history in many languages, many variations have been developed, including forms with a quasi-musical poetic diction in Urdu.
- Other Poetic forms: Other poetic forms include:
- Acrostic, in which the first letters of the lines, when read downward, form a word, phrase, or sentence.
- Cinquain, a poem that has five lines with two, four, six, eight, and two syllables, respectively.
- Concrete, a poem that uses typeface, word arrangement, spacing, special characters, and color to dramatize the words’ meaning by the way they look.
- Free verse, poetry that is based on the irregular rhythmic cadence or the recurrence, with variations, of phrases, images, and syntactical patterns rather than the conventional use of meter.
Lines and stanzas
Poetry is often separated into lines on a page. These lines may be based on the number of metrical feet, or may emphasize a rhyming pattern at the ends of lines. Lines may serve other functions, particularly where the poem is not written in a formal metrical pattern. Lines can separate, compare or contrast thoughts expressed in different units, or can highlight a change in tone. Lines of poems are often organized into stanzas, which are denominated by the number of lines included. Thus a collection of two lines is a couplet (or distich), three lines a triplet (or tercet), four lines a quatrain, five lines a quintain (or cinquain), six lines a sestet, and eight lines an octet. These lines may or may not relate to each other by rhyme or rhythm. For example, a couplet may be two lines with identical meters which rhyme or two lines held together by a common meter alone. Stanzas often have related couplets or triplets within them. Other poems may be organized into verse paragraphs, in which regular rhymes with established rhythms are not used, but the poetic tone is instead established by a collection of rhythms, alliterations, and rhymes established in paragraph form. Many medieval poems were written in verse paragraphs, even where regular rhymes and rhythms were used.
Poetic diction describes the manner in which language is used and refers not only to the sound but also to the underlying meaning and its interaction with sound and form. Many languages and poetic forms have very specific poetic dictions, to the point where separate grammars and dialects are used specifically for poetry. Poetic diction can include rhetorical devices such as simile and metaphor, as well as tones of voice, such as irony. Aristotle wrote in the Poetics that "the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor". Since the rise of Modernism, some poets have opted for a poetic diction that de-emphasizes rhetorical devices, attempting the direct presentation of things and experiences and the exploration of tone. On the other hand, Surrealists have pushed rhetorical devices to their limits, making frequent use of catachresis. Allegorical stories are central to the poetic diction of many cultures, and were prominent in the west during classical times, the late Middle Ages and Renaisance. Rather than being fully allegorical, a poem may contain symbols or allusion that deepens the meaning or impact of its words without constructing a full allegory. Another strong element of poetic diction can be the use of vivid imagery for effect. The juxtaposition of unexpected or impossible images is, for example, a particularly strong element in surrealist poetry and haiku. Vivid images are often endowed with symbolism as well. Many poetic dictions will use repetitive phrases for effect, either a short phrase or a longer refrain. Such repetition can add a somber tone to a poem, as in many odes, or can be laced with irony as the contexts of the words change. For example, in Anthony's famous eulogy to in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Anthony's repetition of the words, "for Brutus is an honorable man," moves from a sincere tone to one that exudes irony.
Poetry is often thought of in terms of different genres and sub genres. A poetic genre is generally a tradition or classification of poetry based on the subject matter, style, or other broader literary characteristics. Some commentators view genres as natural forms of literature. Others view the study of genres as the study of how different works relate and refer to other works. Described below are some common genres, but the classification of genres, the description of their characteristics, and even the reasons for undertaking a classification into genres can take many forms.
- Narrative Poetry: Narrative poetry is a genre of poetry that tells a story. Broadly it subsumes epic poetry, but the term "narrative poetry" is often reserved for smaller works, generally with more direct appeal than the epic to human interest. Narrative poetry may be the oldest genre of poetry. Many scholars of Homer have concluded that his Iliad and Odyssey were composed from compilations of shorter narrative poems that related individual episodes and were more suitable for an evening's entertainment. Much narrative poetry, such as Scots and English ballads, and Baltic and Slavic heroic poems, is performance poetry with roots in a preliterate oral tradition. Notable narrative poets have included Ovid, Dante, Chaucer, William Langland, Luís de Camões, Shakespeare, Alexander Pope, Robert Burns, Adam Mickiewicz, Alexander Pushkin, Edgar Allan Poe and Alfred Tennyson.
- Epic poetry: Epic poetryis a genre of poetry, and a major form of narrative literature. It recounts, in a continuous narrative, the life and works of a heroic or mythological person or group of persons. Western epic poems include Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Vergil's Aeneid, the Nibelungenlied and Luís de Camões' Os Lusíadas. Eastern examples are the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Mahabharata, Valmiki's Ramayana, Ferdowsi's Shahnama, and the Epic of King Gesar. The composition of epic poetry, and of long poems generally, became uncommon in the west after the early 20th century, while the meaning of the term "epic" evolved to refer also to prose writings, films and similar works that are characterized by great length, multiple settings, large numbers of characters, or long span of time involved.
- Dramatic poetry: Dramatic poetry is drama written in verse to be spoken or sung, and appears in varying and sometimes related forms in many cultures. In the latter half of the 20th century, verse drama fell almost completely out of favor with English-language dramatists. The best-known practitioners of this genre include Aeschylus, Kalidas, Sophocles, Gil Vicente, Jan Kochanowski and Shakespeare.
- Satirical Poetry: Poetry can be a powerful vehicle for satire. The punch of an insult delivered in verse can be many times more powerful and memorable than the same when spoken or written in prose. The Greeks and Romans had a strong tradition of satirical poetry, often written for political purposes. The same is true of the English satirical tradition. Outside England, Ignacy Krasicki and Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage, commonly known as Bocage, are among the greatest satirical poets.
- Lyric poetry: Lyric poetry is a genre that, unlike epic poetry and dramatic poetry, does not attempt to tell a story but instead is of a more personal nature. Rather than depicting characters and actions, it portrays the poet's own feelings, states of mind, and perceptions. While the genre's name, derived from "lyre," implies that it is intended to be sung, much lyric poetry is meant purely for reading. Though lyric poetry has long celebrated love, many courtly-love poets also wrote lyric poems about war and peace, nature and nostalgia, grief and loss. Notable among these are the 15th century French lyric poets, Christine de Pizan and Charles, Duke of Orléans. Spiritual and religious themes were addressed by such medieval lyric poets as St. John of the Cross and Teresa of Ávila. The tradition of lyric poetry based on spiritual experience was continued by later poets such as John Donne, Gerard Manley Hopkins and T.S. Eliot. Although the most popular form for western lyric poetry to take may be the 14-line sonnet, as practiced by Petrarch and Shakespeare, lyric poetry shows a bewildering variety of forms, including increasingly, in the 20th century, unrhymed ones.
- Verse Fable: The fable is an ancient and near-ubiquitous literary genre, often, though not invariably, set in verse form. It is a brief, succinct story that features anthropomorphized animals, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature that illustrate or imply a moral teaching. Verse fables have used a variety of meter and rhyme patterns. The Indian and Buddhist Jataka tales and the Panchatantra are some good examples of ancient verse fables. Notable verse fabulists have included Aesop (mid-6th century BCE), Vishnu Sarma (ca. 200 BCE), Phaedrus (15 BCE–50 CE), Marie de France (12th century), Biernat of Lublin (1465?–after 1529), Jean de La Fontaine (1621–95), Ignacy Krasicki (1735–1801), Ivan Krylov (1769–1844) and Ambrose Bierce (1842–1914).
- Prose poetry: Prose poetry is a hybrid genre that demonstrates attributes of both prose and poetry. It may be indistinguishable from the micro-story or short short fiction. Most critics argue that it qualifies as poetry because of its conciseness, use of metaphor, and special attention to language. While some examples of earlier prose strike modern readers as poetic, prose poetry is commonly regarded as having originated in 19th-century France, where its practitioners included Aloysius Bertrand, Charles Baudelaire, Arthur Rimbaud and Stéphane Mallarmé. The genre has subsequently found notable exemplars in French (Francis Ponge); Portuguese (Fernando Pessoa, Mário Cesariny, Mário De Sá-Carneiro, Eugénio de Andrade, Al Berto, Alexandre O'Neill, José Saramago, António Lobo Antunes); English (Oscar Wilde, T.S. Eliot, Gertrude Stein, Sherwood Anderson, Allen Ginsberg, Seamus Heaney, Russell Edson, Charles Simic, Robert Bly, James Wright); Spanish (Octavio Paz, Ángel Crespo); Polish (Boleslaw Prus); Russian; and Japanese.


Brainstorming is a group creativity technique designed to generate a large number of ideas for the solution of a problem. The method was first popularized in the late 1930s by Alex Faickney Osborn in a book called Applied Imagination, in which he proposed that groups could double their creative output with brainstorming. The technique typically involves gathering a group of up to 10 people, including some invited guests from other fields, posing a question, and asking them to respond with as many answers as possible. Their responses are recorded, and later sorted and evaluated. The theory is that members of the group will be stimulated by each others’ ideas to come up with new suggestions. Of the multiple ideas, one or more will be a good solution for the problem.
Recent studies have show that because of such problems as distraction, social loafing, evaluation apprehension, and production blocking, brainstorming groups are little more effective than other types of groups, and they are actually less effective than individuals working independently. Numerous attempts have been made to improve brainstorming or use more effective variations of the basic technique. Modern methods such as the use of email to collect and distribute participants’ ideas, or computer applications that allow group members to log in and record their own contributions, may overcome these obstacles and increase the effectiveness of brainstorming. Although traditional brainstorming does not increase the productivity of groups, it provides other benefits, such as boosting morale, enhancing work enjoyment, and improving team work.
There are four basic rules in brainstorming. These are intended to reduce social inhibitions among groups members, stimulate idea generation, and increase overall creativity of the group.
- Focus on quantity: Following the maxim, quantity breeds quality, participants are urged to generate as many ideas as they can during a brainstorming session. The assumption is that the greater the number of ideas generated, the greater the chance of producing a radical and effective solution to the problem being discussed.
- Withhold criticism: During brainstorming, criticism of ideas generated should be put 'on hold.' Instead, participants should focus on extending or adding to ideas, reserving criticism for a later 'critical stage' of the process. When judgment is suspended, participants will feel free to generate unusual ideas.
- Welcome unusual ideas: In order to follow the first rule and generate as many ideas as possible, unusual ideas are welcomed. Participants are encouraged to look from new perspectives and suspend assumptions. These new ways of thinking may provide better solutions.
- Combine and improve ideas: Good ideas may be combined to form a single, even better good idea, as suggested by the slogan "1+1=3." Brainstorming is believed to stimulate the building of ideas by a process of association.
Set the problem
Before a brainstorming session, it is critical to define the problem to be discussed. The problem must be clear, not too big, and captured in a specific question such as, "What service for mobile phones is not available now, but needed?" If the problem is too big, the facilitator should break it into smaller components, each with its own question. Some problems are multi-dimensional and non-quantified, for example, "What are the aspects involved in being a successful entrepreneur?" Finding solutions for this kind of problem can be done with morphological analysis (problem-solving).
Create a background memo
The background memo is the invitation and informational letter for the participants, containing the session name, problem, time, date, and place. The problem is described in the form of a question, and some example ideas are given. The ideas are solutions to the problem, and can be used when the session slows down or goes off-track. The memo is sent to the participants well in advance, so that they can think about the problem beforehand.
The facilitator composes the brainstorming panel, consisting of the participants and an idea collector. A group of 10 or fewer members is generally more productive. Many variations are possible but the following composition is suggested.
- Several core members of the project who have proved themselves.
- Several guests from outside the project, with affinity to the problem.
- One idea collector who records the suggested ideas.
Create a list of lead questions
During the brainstorm session the level of creativity may decrease. At this moment, the facilitator should stimulate creativity by suggesting a lead question to answer, such as Can we combine these ideas? or How about looking from another perspective? It is best to prepare a list of such leads before the session begins.
The facilitator leads the brainstorming session and ensures that ground rules are followed. The steps in a typical session are:
- A warm-up session, to expose novice participants to the criticism-free environment. A simple problem is brainstormed, for example What should be the CEO retirement present? or What can be improved in Microsoft Windows?.
- The facilitator presents the problem and gives a further explanation if needed.
- The facilitator asks the brainstorming group for their ideas.
- If no ideas are forthcoming, the facilitator suggests a lead to encourage creativity.
- All participants present their ideas, and the idea collector records them.
- To ensure clarity, participants may elaborate on their ideas.
- When time is up, the facilitator organizes the ideas based on the topic goal and encourages discussion.
- Ideas are categorized.
- The whole list is reviewed to ensure that everyone understands the ideas.
- Duplicate ideas and obviously infeasible solutions are removed.
- The facilitator thanks all participants and gives each a token of appreciation.
- Participants who have ideas but were unable to present them are encouraged to write down the ideas and present them later.
- The idea collector numbers the ideas as they are presented, so that the facilitator can use the number to encourage an idea generation goal, for example: We have 44 ideas now, let’s get it to 50!.
- The idea collector should read back each idea as it has been recorded, to confirm that it expresses the meaning intended by the originator.
- When participants are expressing several ideas at once, the one with the most associated idea should have priority. This encourages elaboration on previous ideas.
- Managers and other superiors may be discouraged from attending a brainstorming session, as their presence may inhibit and reduce the effect of the four basic rules, especially the generation of unusual ideas.
Brainstorming involves more than just the generation ideas for others to evaluate and select. Usually the group itself will, in its final stage, evaluate the ideas and select one as the solution to the problem proposed to the group. If the group itself is to carry out the solution:
- The solution should not require resources or skills the members of the group do not have or cannot acquire.
- If it is necessary to acquire additional resources or skills in order to implement the solution, they should be incorporated as the first part of the solution.
- The solution must include a way to measure progress and success.
- The steps to carry out the solution must be clear to all, and amenable to being assigned to the members so that each will have an important role.
- There must be a common decision making process to enable a coordinated effort to proceed, and to reassign tasks as the project unfolds.
- There should be evaluations at milestones to decide whether the group is on track toward a final solution.
- There should be incentives to participation so that participants maintain their efforts.
Nominal group technique
The nominal group technique is a type of brainstorming that encourages all participants to have an equal say in the process. It is also used to generate a ranked list of ideas.
Participants are asked to write their ideas anonymously. The moderator then collects the ideas and each is voted on by the group. The vote can be as simple as a show of hands in favor of a given idea. This process is called distillation.
After distillation, the top-ranked ideas may be sent back to the group or to subgroups for further brainstorming. For example, one group may work on the color required in a product. Another group may work on the size, and so forth. Each group will come back to the whole group for ranking the listed ideas. Sometimes ideas that were previously dropped may be brought forward again once the group has re-evaluated the ideas.
It is important that the facilitator be trained in this process before attempting to facilitate this technique. The group should be primed and encouraged to embrace the process. Like all team efforts, it may take a few practice sessions to train the team in the method before tackling the important ideas.
Group passing technique
Each person in a circular group writes down one idea, and then passes the piece of paper to the next person in a clockwise direction, who adds some thoughts. This continues until everybody gets his or her original piece of paper back. By this time, it is likely that the group will have extensively elaborated on each idea.
The group may also create an "Idea Book" and post a distribution list or routing slip to the front of the book. On the first page is a description of the problem. The first person to receive the book lists his or her ideas and then routes the book to the next person on the distribution list. The second person can log new ideas or add to the ideas of the previous person. This continues until the distribution list is exhausted. A follow-up "read out" meeting is then held to discuss the ideas logged in the book. This technique takes longer, but it allows individuals time to think deeply about the problem.
Team idea mapping method
This method of brainstorming works by the method of association. It may improve collaboration and increase the quantity of ideas, and is designed so that all attendees participate and no ideas are rejected.
The process begins with a well-defined topic. Each participant brainstorms individually, then all the ideas are merged onto one large visual idea map. During this consolidation phase, participants may discover a common understanding of the issues as they share the meanings behind their ideas. During this sharing, new ideas may arise by the association, and they are added to the map as well. Once all the ideas are captured, the group can prioritize and take action.
Electronic brainstorming is a computerized version of the manual brainstorming technique. It can be done via email and may be browser based, or use peer-to-peer software.
The facilitator sends the question out to group members, and they contribute independently by sending their ideas back to the facilitator. The facilitator then compiles a list of ideas and sends it back to the group for further feedback. Electronic brainstorming eliminates many of the problems of standard brainstorming, such as production blocking and evaluation apprehension. An additional advantage of this method is that all ideas can be archived electronically in their original form, and then retrieved later for further thought and discussion. Electronic brainstorming also enables much larger groups to brainstorm on a topic than would normally be productive in a traditional brainstorming session.
Other brainstorming techniques are web-based, and allow contributors to post their comments anonymously through the use of avatars. This technique also allows users to log on over an extended time period, typically one or two weeks, to allow participants some "soak time" before posting their ideas and feedback. This technique has been used particularly in the field of new product development, but can be applied in any number of areas where collecting and evaluating ideas would be useful. Extensive research conducted by Olivier Toubia of Columbia University indicates that the use of incentives is very effective within the context of brainstorming.
Directed brainstorming is a variation of electronic brainstorming (described above) that can be done manually or with computers. Directed brainstorming works when the solution space (the criteria for evaluating a good idea) is known prior to the session and can be used to intentionally constrain the ideation process.
In directed brainstorming, each participant is given one sheet of paper (or electronic form) and told the brainstorming question. They are asked to produce one response and stop, then all of the papers (or forms) are randomly swapped among the participants. The participants are asked to look at the idea they received and to create a new idea that improves on that idea based on the initial criteria. The forms are then swapped again and respondents are asked to improve upon the ideas, and the process is repeated for three or more rounds.
In the laboratory, directed brainstorming has been found to almost triple the productivity of groups over electronic brainstorming.
“6-3-5 Brainwriting” (also known as the 6-3-5 Method, or Method 635) is a group creativity technique used in marketing, advertising, design, writing and product development originally developed by Professor Bernd Rohrbach in 1968.
The aim of 6-3-5 Brainwriting is to generate 108 new ideas in half an hour. The technique involves 6 participants who sit in a group and are supervised by a moderator. Each participant thinks up 3 ideas every 5 minutes. Participants are encouraged to draw on others' ideas for inspiration, thus stimulating the creative process. After 6 rounds in 30 minutes the group has thought up a total of 108 ideas.
"Individual Brainstorming" is the use of brainstorming on an individual basis. It typically includes such techniques as free writing, free speaking, word association, and the use of a "spider web," or “bubble maps” to organize ideas visually. Individual brainstorming is a useful method in creative writing and has been shown to be superior to traditional group brainstorming.
Defining the problem itself and identifying the best questions to ask can be the focus of a brainstorming session. This has been called questorming. Another topic for brainstorming can be to find the best evaluation methods for a problem.
Effectiveness of brainstorming
Although brainstorming has become a popular group technique, researchers have not found evidence of its effectiveness for enhancing either quantity or quality of ideas generated. When placed in a group setting, colleagues or co-workers may be inhibited from speaking out by fear of criticism (evaluation apprehension), or because they believe that their ideas are not important or that others will make up for their lack of participation (social loafing). A brainstorming session is most effective if the participants are deeply motivated and believe that they have something important to contribute.
“Production blocking,” the tendency for one individual to block or inhibit other people during a group discussion, is a common problem in brainstorming groups. If six people are in a group and one person is talking at length about his or her idea, then the other five people are "blocked" and less able to provide their own creative input. They may not have time to think of an idea, or they may be distracted or forget about their idea before they have an opportunity to share it. Production blocking becomes more of a problem as the size of the group increases.
Studies have shown that brainstorming groups are little more effective than other types of groups, and they are actually less effective than individuals working independently. Newer versions of brainstorming, in which individuals write down their ideas and submit them for other members of the group to review, or the use of email and computer applications that allow individuals to think creatively over longer periods of time, overcome barriers like production blocking and social inhibitions. These forms may be more effective in tapping the creativity of individual members of a group and arriving at substantial solutions. How well these newer methods work, and whether or not they should be classified as brainstorming, are subjects for further research.
Although traditional brainstorming does not increase the productivity of groups, it may provide other benefits, such as boosting morale, enhancing work enjoyment, and improving team work. Members of the group may become more creative when they are removed from their customary work environment. One of the most valuable benefits is exposure to the views of invited guests from outside the project, who may be able to provide new insights and perspectives from their professional or personal experience.
- ↑ A.F. Osborn, 1963, Applied imagination: Principles and procedures of creative problem solving (Third Revised Edition). (New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons).
- ↑ Olivier Toubia, 2006, "Idea Generation, Creativity, and Incentives," Marketing Science.
- ↑ E. Santanen, R. O. Briggs, and G-J. de Vreede, 2004, “Causal Relationships in Creative Problem Solving: Comparing Facilitation Interventions for Ideation.” Journal of Management Information Systems. 20(4): 167-198.
- ↑ Rohrbach, Bernd: "Kreativ nach Regeln – Methode 635, eine neue Technik zum Lösen von Problemen." Creative by rules - Method 635, a new technique for solving problems first published in the German sales magazine "Absatzwirtschaft," Volume 12, (1969): 73-75 and Volume 19, October 1, 1969.
- ↑ A. Furnham and Yazdanpanahi, T., 1995, “Personality differences and group versus individual brainstorming.” Personality and Individual Differences, 19: 73-80.
- ↑ Questorming: An Outline of the Method, Jon Roland, 1985. Retrieved February 12, 2009.
- ↑ B. A. Nijstad, W. Stroebe, H. F. M Lodewijkx, 2003, “Production blocking and idea generation: Does blocking interfere with cognitive processes?” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39: 531-548.
- ↑ M. Diehl and W. Stroebe, 1991, “Productivity loss in idea-generating groups: tracking down the blocking effect.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61: 392-403.
- ↑ B. Mullen, C. Johnson and E. Salas, 1991, “Productivity loss in brainstorming groups: a meta-analytic integration.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 12: 3-23.
- ↑ In the Encyclopedia of Creativity, Tudor Rickards, in his entry on brainstorming, summarizes its controversies and indicates the dangers of conflating productivity in group work with quantity of ideas. T. Rickards, 1999, Brainstorming, M. Runco and S. Pritzker, Eds, Encyclopedia of Creativity, (San Diego: Academic Press Vol 1), 219-228.
- Correll, Linda Conway. Brainstorming Reinvented: A Corporate Communications Guide to Ideation. New Delhi: Response Books. 2004. ISBN 9780761932703
- Diehl, M. and W. Stroebe. "Productivity Loss in Idea-Generating Groups: Tracking Down the Blocking Effect." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 61 (1991): 392-403.
- Furnham, A. and T. Yazdanpanahi, "Personality differences and group versus individual brainstorming." Personality and Individual Differences. 19 (1995): 73-80.
- Mullen, B., C. Johnson and E. Salas. "Productivity loss in brainstorming groups: a meta-analytic integration." Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 12 (1991): 3-23.
- Nijstad, B. A., W. Stroebe, H. F. M. Lodewijkx. "Production Blocking and Idea Generation: Does Blocking Interfere With Cognitive Processes?" Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 39 (2003): 531-548.
- Osborn, Alex F. Applied Imagination: Principles and Procedures of Creative Problem-Solving. Buffalo, NY: Creative Education Foundation. 1993. ISBN 9780930222734. *Portfolio brainstorming brainstorm, brainstorming, inspiration for your idea. [Korea]: CA Press. 2008. ISBN 9788977483309
- Rawlinson, J. G. Creative Thinking and Brainstorming. New York: Wiley. 1981. ISBN 9780470270912
- Rickards, T. "Brainstorming," Mark A. Runco, and Steven R. Pritzker. Encyclopedia of creativity. Vol 1 219-228. San Diego, Calif: Academic Press. 1999. ISBN 9780122270758
- Roland, Jon. "Questorming: An Outline of the Method", 1985. Retrieved February 12, 2009.
- Santanen, E., R. O. Briggs, and G-J de Vreede. “Causal Relationships in Creative Problem Solving: Comparing Facilitation Interventions for Ideation.” Journal of Management Information Systems. 20(4) (2004): 167-198.
- Toubia, Olivier. "Idea Generation, Creativity, and Incentives," Marketing Science (2006)
- Warmke, Clare and Lisa Buchanan. Idea revolution: guidelines and prompts for brainstorming alone, in groups or with clients. Cincinnati, Ohio: HOW Design Books. 2003. ISBN 9781581803327
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Communication Patterns and Assumptions
of Differing Cultural Groups in the United States
(Adapted from Elliott, C. E. (2010). Cross-Cultural Communication
Styles, pre-publication Masters thesis)
African American Communication Patterns
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1999), African
Americans comprise 13 percent of the U.S. population.
Animation/emotion: Communication seen as authentic is generally
passionate and animated. Communication that is presented in a neutral or
objective way is seen as less credible, and the motives of the speaker may be
questioned. The assumption is that if you believe something, you will advocate
for it. Truth is established through argument and debate. "Conversational style
is provocative and challenging, and the intensity is focused on the validity of
the ideas being discussed" (Kochman 1981 pp. 30-31). Effective teachers of
African American students are often found "Ö.displaying emotion to garner
student respect" (Delpit, 1995, p. 142). African Americans tend to perceive
greater emotional intensity when rating the expressions of others (Matsumoto,
Directness/indirectness: Generally directly facing and talking with the
person with whom you have an issue or problem is preferred. Someone who wonít
face you directly shows his or her claim or problem to be invalid; the
assumption is that anyone with a legitimate problem would come to the other
person directly. A lack of response to a general accusation or allegation
by someone is viewed as an indication of innocence. The internal attitude of an
innocent person is "I know they arenít talking about me, so I donít have to
respond."(Kochman 1981 p.90). Responding to a general accusation shows that the
"mark hit home." A direct accusation will usually bring a direct denial and a
request to confront the person making the allegation.
In terms of romance, men and often women will usually state directly whether
they are interested in a potential relationship. Ignoring or acting subtly
disinterested is not interpreted as a sign of disinterest from a woman; it may
be seen as a rude or arrogant response (Kochman 1981).
Teachers are often expected to show they care by "Öcontrolling the class;
exhibiting personal power; establishing meaningful personal relationships;Ö.
pushing students to achieve the (class) standard; and holding the attention of
the students by incorporating African-American interactional styles in their
teaching" (Delpit, 1995, p. 142).
Eye contact: Tends to be quite direct and prolonged when speaking, less
so when listening. This is the opposite of the dominant-culture pattern in which
the speaker tends to look away from the listener and the listener looks directly
at the speaker. The overall amount of eye contact is not different from
dominant-culture patterns; it is when the eye contact occurs that differs
(Johnson, 1971, p. 17).
Gestures: Frequent and sometimes large gestures are normative. The
expressiveness of the communication is what is valued, and if the gestures
increase expressiveness they are seen as enhancing communication. (V. Valdez,
September 1998, personal communication).
Identity orientation: Traditionally, African Americans have a more
collateral orientation than European Americans (Nichols 1986, management
training session). Self is viewed and decisions are made within the context of
the group and by assessing how the action will affect others in the collateral
Turn taking and pause time: Turns are taken when the speaker is moved to
speak; urgency, status, and the ability to command attention from others
determines speaking order. The right to continue speaking is granted by others
depending on how well the speakerís idea is being accepted (Kochman 1981 pp.
34). Responses from others are usually made at the end of each of the
speakerís points, and this is not felt to be an interruption of the speaker
(Kochman 1981 pp.26-27). Turn taking in dyads is also regulated by non-verbal
cues that differ markedly from those of the dominant culture. These include:
hand gestures, postural shifts which mirror the conversational partner,
intonation drop, tempo slowing, and lessening of intensity. The change in gaze
direction employed in the dominant culture is often not used (LaFrance &
Mayo, 1975, pp. 7-8).
Pause time is often brief; people in groups may interrupt or speak on the
ends of otherís sentences.
Space: Research on use of space among African Americans is mixed. Some
studies indicate that, in race-matched pairs, black children will stand closer
to each other during conversation than white children do. Other research has
shown that African American adults employ a greater public distance from each
other (LaFrance & Mayo, 1978, pp. 79-80).
Time: Linear time is not internalized to the extent it is in the dominant
society. Being a more relationship-oriented culture, African Americans tend to
be more relaxed in this regard--"The right time is when we get there." Anger
from others at being late is often met with puzzlementó"Iím here now, letís get
started" is a common response to this kind of situation (Nichols 1986).
Touch: Among friends, African Americans employ more physical touch than
European Americans do (LaFrance & Mayo, 1978, pp. 80-81) and less than that
usually seen among people of Latin or Arab cultures. African Americans tend to
touch children more often and for greater lengths of time than do
European-Americans (Coles, 1971).
Vocal patterns: Black English contains a wide range of both volume and
pitch within its acceptable pattern. The voice can range from a very quiet, deep
sound to very loud and high-pitched, and all may be considered appropriate.
Expressiveness and compatibility with the speaking situation is what determines
whether the pitch and tone are "correct" (Olquin, 1995). There is not a fixed,
relatively narrow range, as is the case in some other cultures.
Native American Communication Patterns
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1999), 2.2
million persons were classified as American Indians or Alaska Natives in 1994.
(Approximately 1.5% of the U.S. population).
Animation/emotion: The preferred communication style is
restrained, "Öin order to not impose oneís energy or emotion on others"
(Elliott, 1992). Often Indians will speak dispassionately about something very
meaningful and important to them.
Directness/indirectness: Indirectness is usually preferable (Locust,
1988). This gives others the chance to refuse a request without directly saying
no, or to evade a question that is felt to be too personal or simply a subject
the listener does not want to discuss (Darnell, 1988, p. 5). Elders with high
status may sometimes be very direct with those younger than themselves. An
untrue allegation or accusation will often simply result in no response from an
Indian person; to reply is seen as lowering oneself to the level of ignorance or
over-emotionality of the other person. It also involves entering the negative
energy space of the accuser (Locust, 1988, p. 122) and may be interpreted by
other Indians as a sign of guilt, an indicator that the accusation is true.
Silence on the part of Indian people is often interpreted by Anglos as
indirectness, although the actual meaning may be quite different (Basso, 1970,
Eye contact: Direct prolonged eye contact is seen as invasive. Itís
avoidance is practiced to "protect the personal autonomy of the interactors"
(Darnell, 1988, p. 6). Eye contact is usually fleeting, and the gaze of listener
and speaker will often remain around the forehead, mouth, ear or throat area.
Direct gaze to an elder or very respected person is seen as especially rude,
unless one is in a formal listening/storytelling situation, in which case
"Ölisteners may look at (the speaker) more directly Ö without violating his or
her personal space by eye contact" ( Darnell, 1988, p. 15).
Gestures: A relatively restrained use of gestures in normal conversation
is typical. Storytellers or elders may often use gestures, which are
larger and more frequent than those found in usual conversations.
Identity orientation: Traditional American Indians have a lineal
orientationótheir identity is spread vertically over time. Ancestors, the
present collateral group or tribe, and the potential people who are not yet born
are all part of a personís felt identity and will be considered when making
important decisions (Samovar, Porter, and Jain, 1981).
Turn taking and pause time: In formal group speaking
situations, turns are usually taken by everyone present, and no one else
speaks until the previous speaker is completely through and a few moments of
silence have ensued (Darnell, 1988, p. 5). Speaking too quickly after the
previous speaker may be seen to indicate that the next speaker, talking so
quickly after the first, is a rash person who does not think things through
before he or she speaks, or is showing disrespect for the importance of the
other person or of what they had to say. Interrupting another speaker is
unbearable rudeness, and may lead to severe social consequences if the person
interrupted is an elder. When interacting with members of other cultures in
which appropriate pause times are shorter, Indians may have to be rude (by their
own standards) in order to participate in the conversation at all (Basso, 1988,
p. 12). This is a stressful experience for the person, who feels forced to
violate their own standards and self-concept in order to be heard.
Space: Often a side-by-side arrangement is more comfortable than a
face-to-face orientation, especially in two-person conversations. If interacting
with non-Indians or people whom they do not know well, Native Americans often
prefer a slightly larger interaction distance--more than armís length--for
Psychological space can be maintained by silence. This may be employed if
the listener is asked a question he or she feels is invasive or regards as
something that should not be addressed with the other person, because the other
does not have the standing of an intimate friend or relative. Sometimes the
subject is simply seen as inappropriate.
Time: For Native people raised in a traditional environment, "clock" time
is not internalized to the same degree as it is in the dominant culture. The
"right time" for something is when everything and everyone comes together; then
the appropriate activity will ensue. Time is felt to be more a matter of season,
general time of day, or when the person is internally ready for a particular
activity. "Every living thing has its own inherent (time) system and you must
deal with each plant or animal in terms of its own time" (Hall, 1976, p. 71).
The imposition of "clock time" by members of other cultures may be interpreted
as arrogant, uncaring, or oppressive behavior. Related to this is the tendency
of Indian parents not to worry if their child is "not developing on time"
according to othersí cultural or psychological standards.
Touch: Touch is usually reserved for friends or intimates; however, many
Indians have adopted the European American custom of handshaking, at least
outside of traditional settings. The Indian handshake is very light and
fleeting, to avoid imposing energy on the other person or receiving energy one
does not want.
Vocal patterns: A relatively narrow, quiet range of pitch, tone, and
volume is viewed as the proper adult communication pattern, especially when
non-Indians or elders are present. Talking quickly, loudly, and very animatedly
may be viewed with some disapproval.
Anglo or European American Communication Patterns
European Americans (ERís) comprise around % of the U.S. population.
Animation/Emotion: Emotionally expressive communication is not a
preferred mode in public communication situations. In fact, European Americans
worry that intensely emotional interactions may lead to a loss of self-control,
and therefore should be avoided. (Kochman, 1981). What people know is not
necessarily expressed in behavior. There is a strong preference to preserve the
appearance of cordiality and friendliness, even when strong differences of
opinion are present. European Americans prefer to speak about beliefs, opinions,
intentions and commitments. The prescribed value of "equality" in U.S. culture
commonly leads to a presumption of sameness: people assume that if they
feel or think a certain way about a situation, others would feel or think much
as they do, if placed in the same or a similar situation (Samovar, Porter, &
Directness/indirectness: European Americans tend to speak very directly
about certain things. Their general form of communication tends to rely
heavily on logic and technical information rather than allusion, metaphor, or
other more creative or emotional styles of persuasion. "Good" communication is
believed to be linear: the speaker should move through their "points" in a
straight, logical line, with an explicitly stated conclusion (Kaplan, 1967;
Stewart & Bennett, 1991, p.156).
Eye Contact: The European American convention for eye contact is for the
speaker to make intermittent brief contact with the listener, and for the
listener to gaze fairly steadily at the speaker. Children are specifically
taught to look at the speaker (Kochman, 1981), and will be reprimanded if they
do not. Direct eye contact is believed to be a sign of honesty and sincerity
(Stewart & Bennett, 1991, p. 99; Johnson, 1971, p. 17; Althen, 1988,
Gestures: European Americans tend to use a "medium" range of gestures in
usual conversationónot so large or frequent as Arabs or Southern Italians but
not as restrained as the English or Japanese (Althen, 1988, pp.141- 142).
Identity orientation: European Americans have an individualism
orientation. They view the "self" as located within the individual person, who
is seen as having a separate but equal place among other individuals. Self is
viewed, and mature identity is believed to be formed, primarily as an autonomous
individual. Children are raised to become self-sufficient; ideally, neither they
nor their parents expect them to live with older generations of the family after
about the age of twenty. A young person who lives with parents after this age
may be regarded questionably by themselves and others (Condon, 19; Althen, 1988,
Turn taking and pause time: Ideally, turn taking is signaled by the
speaker looking directly at the listener and ceasing to speak. Pause time is
very brief; often people speak on the end of the first speakerís last sentence
Space: The usual distance for social conversation is 2-3 feet--about
armís length. Standing closer than this will usually be perceived as intimacy or
invasiveness, depending on the relationship of those involved.
Time: In European American culture, time is thought of as linear and
monochronic ó that is, one thing or one person at a time should be given full
attention. Time is conceptualized as having a past, present, and future, and is
often thought of as a real object "which should be saved and not wasted"
(Samovar, Porter, & Jain, 1981, pp. 113-114). It is not seen as a human-made
abstraction. People often speak of losing, wasting, or finding time. Many
European Americans feel pressured by the passage of time, and consequently tend
to behave in an "efficient" and task-oriented way. If a person has an
appointment with you at 3:00, most European Americans would begin to be
affronted if the person is not there by a few minutes after 3:00, and would want
an explanation of why they are not. This behavior can be interpreted by members
of other cultures as coldnessóU.S. Americans may be seen as having little
interest in personal relationships and trust building, valuing only efficiency
Touch: Most European Americans tend to "employ very little touching in
public" (Samovar, Porter, & Jain, p. 175) that is, beyond the expected
greeting ritual of the handshake. Lack of touching may be related to cultural
values of objectivity, efficiency, and autonomy. European Americans have been
described by members of other cultures as touch-avoidant. Compared to the amount
of touch that occurs in Latin American, Southern European and Arab cultures,
this is certainly true.
Vocal patterns: Tend to be in a mid-range of pitch and on the low end of
vocal variation. "Adult," mature communication in public is believed to be
objective, rational, and relatively non-emotional. Someone who is expressing
himself or herself in a very passionate way may be suspected of irrationality
Thought patterns and Rhetorical style: Directness in stating the point,
purpose, or conclusion of a communication is the preferred style (Kaplan, 1967).
Kaplan describes the English language style graphically as an arrow:
This style of communication may be viewed by other cultural groups, with
quite different styles, as abrupt or inappropriate. It is in strong contrast to
the Asian style, portrayed by Kaplan as a spiral. It is also quite different
from the Romance style (including Hispanic), which is portrayed as an arrow with
sharp turns in the shaft.
Asian American Communication Patterns
"Asian" is a very broad term, encompassing people from southern India to
Indonesia to northern Mongolia. The statements below apply most clearly to
people from northern Asian countries such as Japan or China, although they may
apply in varying degree to Asian people (or their descendants) from other
nations. "Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders are persons of Asian or Pacific
Islander ancestry" and represent "more than 50 ethnic groups and speak more than
800 languages or dialects. Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders are the
fastest-growing segment of the U.S. population, nearly tripling in size from 3.5
million in 1980 to almost 9.6 million in 1998." (CDC, 1999). People designated
as "Asian" comprise approximately % of the U.S. population.
Animation/emotion: The control of emotional display is highly valued. An
overt display of strong emotion could result in a loss of face for both the
speaker and the listener.
Eye contact: Japan and China are overtly hierarchical societies in which
it is always important to know oneís status relative to the person one is
speaking with, so the proper forms of language and nonverbal communication can
be used. Direct eye contact lasting longer than a second or two is avoided,
especially with those superior to oneself in the hierarchy or with elders. To
behave otherwise would be disrespectful.
Gestures: Gestures are usually kept close to the body and are quite
restrained. They are used less frequently than is normal among English or
Identity orientation: Japan is usually characterized as a group-oriented
collateral society, similar to Latin American or Arab cultures. This means a
personís identity and status are intimately tied to the identity and status of
their family, and this persists throughout the individualís life span. Decisions
are often made in relation to obligations to family, and secondarily to oneís
own desires. In Japan this sense of "family obligation" and a tie to the sense
of personal identity may be extended to the company one works for. China is seen
as a lineal culture, also group oriented, but with a greater sense of personal
identity being tied to ancestors and to forthcoming generations than is
experienced by most modern Japanese-Americans.
Pacing and pause time: Normally the pause employed is somewhat longer
than that of European Americans, and a little shorter than the pause typical of
Time: Traditionally, time is seen as cyclical and ever-returning. Asian
cultures are masters of waiting till "the time is right." They excel in
long-term planning and the initiation and maintenance of long-term
Touch: In public settings, touch is often so rare as to be virtually
non-existent. In one study which measured from, to whom, and where on the body
touch was allowed, "Japanese college students received less touch from mothers
and other family members than U.S. Americans received from casual acquaintances"
(Barnlund 1975 p. 154).
Vocal patterns: A relatively quiet and low-key vocal pattern is the
ideal. The overt expression of emotion is considered unseemly and childish (Tada
1975). Northern Asians, especially Japanese, tend to express emotion by
"intuitive, nonverbal communication of the sort that develops among family
members living under one roof" (Kunihiro 1976, p. 53). Indirect allusion and
metaphor are often used to express deep emotion. "The value of suppression and
restraint has deep historical roots for the Japanese." (Ramsey 1985, p. 310).
Thought patterns and Rhetorical style: Directness in stating the point,
purpose, or conclusion of a communication is not considered appropriate (Kaplan,
R. 1967). Kaplan describes the Asian style graphically as a spiral:
This style of communication may be viewed by other cultural groups as evasive
or obscure. It is in strong contrast to the European American style, portrayed
by Kaplan as a straight arrow.
Hispanic American Communication Patterns
"There are approximately 30 million Americans living in the United States who
are of Latin American or other Spanish descent, comprising 11.1% of the total
population." (CDC, 1999). As of 1994, "64 percent were Mexican Americans, 11
percent were Puerto Ricans, 13 percent were from Central and South America or
the Caribbean, 5 percent were Cuban Americans, and 7 percent were classified as
íOtherí Hispanics." (Department of Health and Human Services/Public Health
Terms used to refer to this group of people can be controversial (Andrews,
1999). Some use the expression "Spanish people" to denote all people who speak
Spanish, but the expression should not apply to anyone other than individuals
who are natives of Spain. Many use the term "Hispanics," to denote all who speak
Spanish, but, again, this term does not literally apply to any people who do not
claim a lineage or cultural heritage related to Spain.
"Latino" is used to refer to people with a lineage or cultural heritage
related to Latin America, but should not be used to refer to the millions of
Native Americans in the region. Many use the term "Mexican" to refer to persons
with a lineage or cultural heritage related to Mexico, but it should only be
used to refer to the nationality of inhabitants of Mexico. U.S. citizens from
Mexico often object to being referred to as "Mexicans", as do members of
indigenous groups in Mexico.
"Mexican-American" is another term sometimes used to refer to U.S. citizens
with a lineage or cultural heritage related to Mexico, but, again, many object
to this use. The argument against "Mexican-American" is that other
nationalities, such as Germans, are not referred to as "German-Americans."
The term "Chicano" has been used recently as a distinct way to refer to U.S.
citizens of Mexican heritage, but it was originally used as a derogatory term
and is sometimes considered unsavory among more "assimilated" Mexican-Americans.
It often has a connotation of political awareness and activism.
Another group of persons from Mexico do not refer to themselves as
"Americans" at all. They consider themselves to be in an occupied country
because only 150 years ago large numbers of Mexicans became "American" citizens
overnight, when the United States won 50 percent of what was Mexico as the
spoils of war in the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo. In fact, the treaty
specifically recognized the rights of such people to retain the property deeded
to them by Mexican or Spanish colonial authorities and to receive education in
Spanish. (The treaty has obviously not been honored.)
A group that also does not refer to themselves as "Mexican-Americans" are
those who are in the United States because of economic conditions and plan to
return permanently to Mexico as soon as it is economically feasible. Although
they may have U.S. citizenship, their ties are primarily with family and friends
In short, if persons have cultural roots in Mexico, more should be learned
before referring to them with any single term. If persons have a cultural
heritage from Latin America, "Latino" is an appropriate term. Otherwise,
"Hispanic" is the most widely used nomenclature at this time.
Animation/Emotion: In public ethnically mixed settings or with
unfamiliar persons, Latinos or Hispanics tend to be somewhat low-key. They may
often state their points quite directly, but in a relatively quiet and
respectful manner. In settings with only Hispanics present, a high level of
emotional expression is acceptable. (Olquin, 1995).
Eye Contact: Direct eye contact is often viewed as disrespectful. When a
person from a Latin culture is being spoken to, they may look away or down as a
sign of respect to the person speaking, especially if that person is
significantly older than the listener or is in a position of authority over them
(LaFrance & Mayo, 1976).
Gestures: People from Latin cultures tend to use a medium to high level
of gestures. This is consonant with a cultural pattern that considers a higher
level of emotionality in expression to be the norm (Kaplan, 1967; Albert &
Identity orientation: Latino cultures in general have a collateral
orientation. This means the personís identity is intimately tied to the identity
and status of their family throughout the individualís life span. Decisions are
often made in relation to obligations to family, and secondarily to oneís own
desires (Condon & Yousef, 1975).
Pacing & pause time: If the personís first language is Spanish, pause
time tends to be relatively short. Among indigenous groups, the pause time will
be considerably longer, perhaps approaching that of Native people from what is
now the continental United States (Bennett, 1996).
Space: Latinoís interpersonal distance tends to be somewhat less than
that of European Americans (ERís). The typical 2-3 foot "armís length" spacing
preferred by European Americans is experienced by many Hispanics as cold,
unfriendly, or a way for the ER to show superiority. Since both peopleís
expectations for "normal" social distances are often unconscious, one can
witness the phenomena of the ER being backed across the room by a Hispanic
person, as each tries to conduct the conversation in a way that feels right for
them. This may be amusing to witness but is very uncomfortable for both
participants (Bennett, 1996).
Time: Latinos tend to operate in a polychronic fashionóthat is, many
activities may be going on at once, and priority is given to the immediate needs
of people, especially those involved in oneís collateral network. Time is a
fluid and malleable concept (Condon, 1997).
Touch: Latin cultures tend to use touch more than cultures originating in
Northern Europe, the U.S., or Canada. Levels of touch between members of the
same sex occur far more often in public settings in predominately Hispanic
cultures than they do in European American culture, and do not carry the sexual
connotation such behavior often has in the U.S (Condon, 1997).
Vocal patterns: The normal range of voice pitch for Spanish speakers is
narrower than it is for native English speakers; often pitch and volume that are
part of "normal" conversation in English are only present in Spanish in the
"angry" range of conversation. Consequently the Spanish speaker may experience
the European American as arrogant or intimidating. The English speaker may
experience the Hispanic as shy, lacking self-confidence, or think the
Spanish-speaker is mumbling when they are only speaking in the range that is
"normal" for them (Olquin, 1995).
Volume: In business conversation, a quiet and somewhat formal way of
speaking is appropriate for the Spanish speaker. The Hispanic can experience the
European American as "yelling at me" or showing irritation when the English
speaker operates at their normal volume (Olquin, 1995).
Thought patterns and Rhetorical style: Directness in stating the point,
purpose, or conclusion of a communication is not the preferred style (Kaplan,
1967). Kaplan describes the pattern of a Romance language as an arrow that makes
sharp turns before getting to its destination. The journey is part of the valued
This style of communication may be viewed by European Americans as
disorganized or intellectually weak, since it violates the direct linear
cause-and-effect norms of English speakers.
Summary of Normative Communication Styles and Values
Executive Summary and List of Chapters
Candia Elliott, Diversity Training Associates
R. Jerry Adams, Ph.D., Evaluation and Development Institute
Suganya Sockalingam, Ph.D., Office of Multicultural Health, Department of Human Resources, Oregon
September 1, 2010
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The state offers much topographical diversity. The rich agricultural valley of the Tennessee River occupies the extreme northern part of the state. In northeastern Alabama the broken terrain of the southwestern fringe of the Appalachian Mountains begins and continues in a southwesterly progression across the northern half of the state. Below that the band of prairie lowland known as the Black Belt has rich soils that once cradled a rural cotton-producing way of life central to the state’s development. Farther south stretch piney woods and then coastal plains until one reaches the moss-draped live oaks of Mobile and the white beaches of the gulf.
The landscape of Alabama has been the scene of many of the major crises in the settlement of the continent and in the development of the country. It was a battleground for European powers vying for the lands of the New World, for the fights between the European settlers and the indigenous communities, for the struggles between North and South during the American Civil War, for the civil rights movement, and for other forces of economic and social change that have extensively altered many aspects of the Deep South in the years since the mid-20th century. Although Alabama continues to reside in the lower segment nationally in many significant social and economic rankings, there has been improvement in some areas, particularly in ethnic relations, including the integration of schools and the election of African Americans to political offices. Nevertheless, Alabamians and outsiders alike tend to agree that the state retains a distinctive way of life, rooted in the traditions of the Old South. Area
Although the average elevation of Alabama is about 500 feet (150 metres) above sea level, this represents a gradation from the high point of 2,407 feet (734 metres), atop Cheaha Mountain in the northeast, down across the Black Belt to the flat, low southern Gulf Coast counties. Within this gradation, several relief regions may be distinguished.
The southern extremities of the Appalachians cover nearly half the state. In the far north the Cumberland Plateau region, segmented by upper branches of the Cumberland, Kentucky, and Tennessee river systems, thrusts southward from Tennessee. Elevations rise to 1,800 feet (550 metres) in the more rugged eastern portions. The Great Appalachian Valley forms another marked division to the east. A small triangular portion of the Piedmont Plateau juts across from Georgia at an elevation averaging 1,000 feet (300 metres).
The character of the state changes markedly as the rugged, forest-clad hills and ridges of the Appalachian extremities give way to the lower country of the coastal plain. The plain has a number of subdivisions: in the north lie the rolling Fall Line Hills, while farther south the pine and hardwood belts add irregularity to the flat landscapes. Arcing into the heart of the lowlands of Alabama, the Black Belt has been distinctive because of its association with the cotton production that long dominated its rich soils—though little cotton is grown there now. The 53 miles (85 km) of coastline have occasional swamps and bayous, backed by timber growth on sandy soils and fronted by stretches of white sand beaches.
The Cumberland Plateau region drains to the northwest through the Tennessee River and the often deep valleys of its tributaries, with much water retained in large scenic lakes formed in the 1930s by the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). The rest of the state is drained southward through broad valleys. The Coosa and the Tallapoosa rivers join north of Montgomery to form the Alabama River, which meanders southwestward until it connects with the Tombigbee River, which drains the state’s western portion. Their waters are discharged into Mobile Bay through the Mobile and Tensaw rivers.
There are four main soil zones found in Alabama. In the far north the Tennessee valley contains dark loams and red clays that add vivid dashes of colour to the landscape when exposed. Farther south lie the varied soils of a mineral belt, and these are succeeded by the rich limestone and marl soils of the Black Belt. The soils along the coast of Alabama consist of sandy loams and deep porous sands.
The Alabama climate is temperate, with an average annual temperature of about 64 °F (18 °C), mellowed by altitude to some 60 °F (16 °C) in the northern counties and reaching 67 °F (19 °C) in the southern counties, although summer heat is often alleviated somewhat by the winds blowing in from the Gulf of Mexico. Occasionally the temperature may rise to 100 °F (38 °C) in the summer, whereas frosts occur with more frequency; snow may sometimes fall in the northern counties. The average summer temperature is 79 °F (26 °C); the winter average is 48 °F (9 °C).
Precipitation is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year, with an annual average of 56 inches (1,420 mm) and a concentration on the coast. Droughts are infrequent. These favourable conditions have given the state a long growing season, ranging from about 200 days in the north to some 300 days in the south.
Alabama is subject to severe weather, especially during the warmer months. In late summer and early fall, southern areas can be hit by strong tropical storms, including hurricanes as they sweep northward from the Gulf; Hurricanes Camille (1969) and Katrina (2005) were especially devastating to coastal areas. The northern half of the state lies in the southern range of the country that is most affected by tornadoes. Occasionally, large-scale outbreaks of multiple tornadoes have turned particularly deadly and destructive in the region, as they did in April 1974 and in April 2011.
The warm climate of Alabama has nurtured a rich plant cover, including more than 100 tree varieties. Most of the thick forests are in the north and northeast. Pine trees predominate, and live oaks are also found statewide, adding character to the streets of the older towns and cities. Sweet gum and black walnut are also common, while the colourful red cedar is most abundant in the Tennessee valley and the Black Belt, with stately black cypress clustering around rivers and ponds. There are many varieties of shrubs and grasses, and bamboo, large canes, and mistletoe are widespread. Muscadine and scuppernong grapes and blackberries also flourish. Beardlike Spanish moss grows in the coastal woodlands.
Birdlife too is rich. Bluebirds, cardinals, blue jays, mockingbirds, doves, woodpeckers, owls, hawks, yellow-shafted flickers (called yellowhammers in Alabama), and an occasional eagle are found here. Other wildlife includes rabbits, squirrels, opossums, foxes, bobcats, raccoons, muskrats, deer, and even a few bears. Coyotes and armadillos have spread into Alabama from the west. Snakes include poisonous rattlesnakes, water moccasins, copperheads, and coral snakes, as well as some nonpoisonous types, such as black snakes. Alligators still exist in some of the swamps and bayous of the coastal regions, notably in the Mobile River delta.
The great majority of the state’s population is of European ancestry (white), descended primarily from 19th-century settlers who came from adjoining regions to the east and north. Alabamians of African descent (black) comprise about one-fourth of the population and largely trace their ancestry in the state to the days of slavery. Other ethnic minorities, as well as foreign-born residents, make up only a small proportion of Alabama’s population. Religious affiliations in the state are overwhelmingly Christian and predominantly Protestant, with large groups of Baptists and Methodists.
By the late 20th century the state’s population had shifted from an overwhelmingly rural character to a primarily urban and suburban one. The population of much of the old cotton region of the Black Belt has been declining for many decades, relocating its residents to more-urban settings. Although the growth of cities has slowed, the suburban areas around Mobile, Montgomery, Birmingham, and Huntsville have been gaining population rapidly.
Birmingham remains the major metropolitan area of the state, with an increasingly service-oriented economy. Mobile, the state’s port city and second largest metropolitan area, has been expanding at a moderate pace since experiencing a major growth spurt in the 1970s. Since the 1960s, Huntsville has been expanding as a result of its national defense installations and ever-enlarging high-technology industries. Growth of state government has contributed to Montgomery’s increase in population.
Among the 50 states, Alabama is relatively poor, and median family income has remained well below the national average. Rural poverty skews the state average downward, however, concealing more-promising trends and the stronger economic base that exists in the urban areas. Much of this has been based on manufacturing’s steady contribution to the state economy, but an important development has been the continued growth of the service sector.
The Alabamian rural economy challenges the traditional view of a dependency on cotton. Although cotton has continued to be of local importance, it suffered a heavy blow with the onset of the boll weevil blight in 1915, and acreage has continued to decline. Mechanization and consolidation increased the average farm size after the 1930s. The diversification of agricultural production then brought a great increase in the acreage devoted to forestry, and cotton fields were given over to pasture for dairy and beef cattle. Poultry has become a major farm product in the state. The principal crops are cotton, peanuts (groundnuts), soybeans, and corn (maize). Farm income has continued to rise, and the average value of a farm has multiplied many times since the mid-20th century. Farm and farm-related employment, however, have declined steadily over the same period, as has agriculture’s share of the state’s economy.
Industrial development in Alabama is historically rooted in the iron and steel industry of Birmingham, the development of which was facilitated by accessible deposits of iron ore, coal, and limestone. Other minerals include the state’s well-known white marble, now distributed primarily in crushed form for use in various applications, including paper pigment. Petroleum production in commercial quantities dates from the mid-1940s; there are a number of wells in the coastal regions. Natural gas production is also significant in coastal areas.
The bulk of Alabama’s electric power is generated by thermal plants, the great majority of which are coal-fired. Nuclear-generating stations contribute about one-fourth of the total. Hydroelectricity from multiple facilities, including several operated by the TVA, supplies a small but still significant fraction of the state’s overall power.
World War II defense industries gave an impetus to the industrial economy of the state in the mid-20th century. Although production of iron and steel has continued to have some importance in Alabama’s economy, the manufacture of food products, textiles and apparel, wood products and paper, chemicals, and plastics has reduced the reliance on primary metals. The George C. Marshall Space Flight Center at Huntsville, notable for producing the Saturn booster rockets that propelled the Apollo and Skylab spacecraft of the 1960s and early ’70s, has been a major contributor to the state’s economy. That and other high-value industries have contributed to Huntsville’s overall prosperity and have helped establish the city as an important nexus of technology.
The number of non-U.S. companies operating industries in Alabama greatly multiplied beginning in the late 20th century. In the 1990s Alabama attracted its first automobile manufacturing plants, one near Tuscaloosa and the other near Talladega, both of which were built by foreign corporations. Others followed in the early 2000s.
Birmingham has emerged as a financial and commercial centre, especially as the home of major state banks, regional utilities, national insurance companies, and international construction concerns. In its shift toward a service base, the city reflects the overall trend of Alabama’s economy, where some three-fourths of nonagricultural jobs statewide are in the service sector.
Alabama has generally low taxes on property and comparatively high taxes on consumption and spends a significant percentage of its total revenue on education, health and hospitals, welfare, and highways. Various programs in those areas, as well as in agriculture, conservation, urban development, and public works, are also supported by federal funds. Several institutions in Alabama are maintained by the federal government, including the Air University in Montgomery, the Marshall Space Flight Center and the Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, several veterans’ hospitals, and a part of the TVA operations.
Together, the six major rivers of Alabama provide about 1,300 miles (2,100 km) of navigable waterways. Mobile Bay has been deepened by a ship channel, and Mobile has developed into one of the country’s top seaports. The Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway, a 234-mile (377-km) canal that opened in 1985, links two of the state’s main river systems. Although railroad transportation, as elsewhere in the United States, has suffered a relative decline in Alabama, bus, truck, and airline traffic have increased in the state. Interstate highways link Alabama’s major population centres and connect the state to the national highway system.
Alabama is governed by a bicameral legislature and a governor and cabinet. The legislature consists of the Senate, with 35 members, and the House of Representatives, with 105 members, who meet annually in regular sessions; members of both chambers are elected for four-year terms. The constitution is a complex document dating from 1901, with hundreds of subsequent amendments. The chief administrative officers of the state, ranging from the governor to the state Board of Education, are also all elected for four-year terms. The state Supreme Court of nine elected members is the highest judicial body.
At the county level the chief elected officials in Alabama are the county commissioners, judges of probate, tax assessors and collectors, and boards of education. In the municipalities there is no uniform system of government; the mayor-council form is most common, but some cities have a commission, and some employ a city manager.
Alabama’s penal system has been stretched well beyond capacity. Although the rate of imprisonment for violent crimes peaked in the early 1990s before beginning a steady decline, more citizens have been incarcerated for drug-related offenses. Alabama typically ranks among the top states for the highest murder rate per capita. The state built new prisons in the 1980s and ’90s and for a time reinstituted a system of convicts working on state roads; the program was abandoned near the end of the 20th century.
The Democratic Party of Alabama has long held political control of the state government, although there has been an increased Republican showing. In 1986 the state elected its first Republican governor since Reconstruction, and beginning in the 1990s, Republicans, usually from suburban areas, won places in the state legislature, on judicial benches, and in local government bodies. Even though the Democrats have continued to control the state legislature, most white Democratic representatives are fairly conservative in political orientation. At the national level, Republicans generally comprise the majority of the Alabama delegation, and Republican presidential candidates have won the state in most elections since 1964. African Americans holding public office had become well-established by the 1970s, with Birmingham electing its first African American mayor in 1979. Several political organizations have also helped increase African American participation in the political process.
In rural areas and within minority communities, educational and economic opportunities are fewer, and health and medical resources and services are less available. Some rural areas of the state continue to be plagued with high rates of infant mortality. Welfare payments in Alabama rank low by national standards. Penal institutions include several prisons and camps for youthful offenders.
Elementary and secondary education in Alabama improved substantially in the latter half of the 20th century, though public schools in the state have continued to suffer from weak local funding resulting from the state’s low property taxes. Teachers’ salaries have been rising, but still rank among the lowest in the country. Rural schools receive less support than those in urban and metropolitan areas.
Alabama has state-supported four-year colleges, private colleges and universities, a large network of junior colleges and trade schools, and, increasingly, online degree-granting institutions. The University of Alabama system comprises the state’s original college at Tuscaloosa and newer campuses in Huntsville and Birmingham, the latter being home to a nationally renowned medical centre. Auburn University and Alabama A & M (Agricultural and Mechanical) University, the state’s two land-grant institutions, provide the headquarters for agricultural extension work. Many African American college students are enrolled in historically black institutions, the best-known of which is Tuskegee University (founded in 1881), which was the home of its founder, Booker T. Washington, and of the renowned agricultural chemist George Washington Carver.
Higher education in Alabama suffers from duplication of effort caused by the overabundance of institutions, which dilutes resources. This duplication was the product of both a dual system for racial separation that persisted into the 1960s and a tendency to build schools as political favours.
Alabama is rich in rural cultural traditions. Storytelling in particular has attracted the attention of folklore specialists, and quilt making is also a highly developed art. Sacred music, in the form of gospel ensembles and shape-note, or “fa-so-la,” singing, remains a vital part of Alabama’s cultural life. The experiences of rural life have contributed important elements to various genres of American popular music, including ragtime, jazz, and country music. W.C. Handy, noted for blending blues and ragtime into a new popular style in the early 20th century, and Hank Williams, a mid-20th-century pioneer of country music, are among Alabama’s most musically influential progeny. During the 1960s and ’70s, numerous hit records were made in studios in the Muscle Shoals region (a section of the Tennessee River in the northwest corner of the state).
Several Alabama writers have won attention through their focus on local themes. Johnson J. Hooper, John Gorman Barr, and Joseph G. Baldwin were popular local-colour writers in the 19th century. Booker T. Washington and Helen Keller wrote powerful and popular autobiographies in the early 20th century. The novelist William March made a distinguished literary contribution in his stories and novels in the 1930s and ’40s, particularly Company K and The Looking Glass. T.S. Stribling, in a trilogy of realistic novels in the 1930s; Harper Lee, in To Kill a Mockingbird (1960); and Mary Ward Brown, in Tongues of Flame (1986), explored social conditions, especially racial issues, in critically acclaimed works.
Major art museums are found in Huntsville, Montgomery, Mobile, and Birmingham, the latter containing an especially notable collection of American art. The George Washington Carver Museum at Tuskegee University has unique material on African American history. The Sloss Furnace Museum focuses on Birmingham’s industrial history, and the Birmingham Civil Rights Institute documents the city’s struggle with racial conflicts in the 20th century. The U.S. Space and Rocket Center in Huntsville chronicles the development of space travel, and the EarlyWorks Museum Complex exhibits Huntsville’s early history.
Special library collections include those on medical history at the University of Alabama Medical Center in Birmingham, the Booker T. Washington Collection of black history material at Tuskegee University, and the Alabama and Southern history material at the Alabama Department of Archives and History in Montgomery, founded in 1901 as the first such department established in the United States.
Several historic places in Alabama are supervised by the state, including the Mound State Monument in Hale county, an important site of the prehistoric Mississippian culture; and Fort Morgan, a Confederate fortress standing at the entrance to Mobile Bay. Alabama boasts many surviving examples of 19th-century residential architecture, perhaps most notably Gaineswood Mansion in Demopolis. The U.S. National Park Service maintains two national historic sites of significance to black history: Tuskegee Institute (1974) and Tuskegee Airmen (1998).
Distinctive festivals are celebrated in various places. Mobile’s Mardi Gras (in February) is a major event, as are its springtime Azalea Trail garden tours and the annual America’s Junior Miss pageant. Birmingham explores culture from across the globe in its annual International Festival. The town of Opp hosts a yearly Rattlesnake Rodeo that draws large participation. Most Alabama towns and cities sponsor historical pilgrimages in April to celebrate architectural survivals. The Alabama Shakespeare Festival in Montgomery offers professional productions of classic and modern plays.
The state maintains many parks and several large public lakes. Waterskiing, boating, and stock-car racing rank among the most popular recreational activities among Alabamians. The Talladega Superspeedway attracts hundreds of thousands of auto-racing enthusiasts each year. College gridiron football, especially the teams fielded by Auburn University and the University of Alabama (the latter of which has captured or shared several national championships), elicits avid devotion from a large proportion of the state’s residents.
Daily newspapers are published in all of Alabama’s major cities. The Birmingham News, the Birmingham Post-Herald, the Montgomery Advertiser, and the Mobile Register are among the state’s leading newspapers, though none is distinctive for more than local or state reporting. Alabama is served by an extensive system of radio and television stations. Most commercial stations are now owned by out-of-state corporations. The state has a strong network of public television stations, a reflection of Alabama having established the country’s first state-owned educational television network in 1955.