Spanglish (a portmanteau of the words "Spanish" and "English") is a name sometimes given to various contact dialects that result from interaction between Spanish and English used by people who speak both languages or parts of both languages. Spanglish is not usually considered a language itself, but instead a blend of Spanish and English lexical items and grammar. Spanglish is not a pidgin, because unlike pidgin languages, Spanglish can be the primary speech form for some individuals. Spanglish can be considered a variety of Spanish with heavy use of English or a variety of English with heavy use of Spanish. It can be more related either to Spanish or to English, depending on the circumstances. Since Spanglish arises independently in each region, it reflects the locally spoken varieties of English and Spanish.
The term was introduced by the Puerto Rican poet Salvador Tió in the late 1940s, when he called it Espanglish or Inglañol. (from Español + English, and Inglés + Español, respectively)
History and distribution
In the late 1940s, the Puerto Rican journalist, poet, and essayist Salvador Tió coined the terms Espanglish (later shortened to Spanglish) for Spanish spoken with some English terms, and the less commonly used Inglañol (for English spoken with some Spanish terms).
After Puerto Rico became a United States territory in 1898, Spanglish became progressively more common there as the United States Army and the early colonial administration tried to impose the English language on island residents. Between 1902 and 1948, the main language of instruction in public schools (used for all subjects except Spanish language courses) was English. Currently Puerto Rico is nearly unique in having both English and Spanish as its official languages (but see also New Mexico). Consequently, many American English words are now found in the vocabulary of Puerto Rican Spanish. Spanglish may also be known by different regional names.
Spanglish does not have one unified dialect—specifically, the varieties of Spanglish spoken in New York, Florida, Texas, and California differ. Spanglish is so popular in many Spanish-speaking communities in the United States, especially in the Miami Hispanic community, that monolingual speakers of standard Spanish may have difficulty in understanding it. It is common in Panama, where the 96-year (1903–1999) U.S. control of the Panama Canal influenced much of local society, especially among the former residents of the Panama Canal Zone, the Zonians.
Many Puerto Ricans living on the island of St. Croix speak in informal situations a unique Spanglish-like combination of Puerto Rican Spanish and the local Crucian dialect, which is very different from the Spanglish spoken elsewhere. The same applies to the large Puerto Rican-descended populations of New York City and Boston.
Spanglish is spoken commonly in the modern United States, reflecting the growth of the Hispanic-American population due to immigration. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the population of Hispanics grew from 35.3 million to 53 million between 2000 and 2012. Hispanics have become the largest minority ethnic group in the US. More than 80% are of Mexican descent. Mexican Americans form one of the fastest-growing groups, increasing from 20.6 million to 34.5 million between 2000 and 2012. Around 58% of this community chose California, especially Southern California, as their new home. Spanglish is widely used throughout the heavily Mexican-American and other Hispanic communities of Southern California. The use of Spanglish has become important to Hispanic communities throughout the United States in areas such as Miami, New York City, Texas, and California. In Miami a Spanglish familiarly known as "Cubonics" is spoken.
Spanglish is known as bilingualism/ semi-lingual ism. The acquisition of the first language is interrupted or unstructured language input follows from the second language. This can also happen in reverse.
Many Mexican-Americans (Chicanos), immigrants and bilinguals express themselves in various Spanglishes. For many, Spanglish serves as a basis for self-identity. However, many others believe that Spanglish should not exist and should be prohibited. Spanglish is difficult because if the speaker has learned the two languages in separate contexts, then the speaker uses the conditioned system in which the referential meanings encoded in the two languages differ to a considerable extent. Those who were literate in their first language before learning the other and who have support to maintain that literacy are sometimes those least able to master their second language. Spanglish is part of Receptive Bilingualism. Receptive bilinguals are those who understand a second language but don't speak it. That is when Spanglish is used. Receptive bilinguals are also known as the productively bilingual, since in order to give an answer speaker must twice the mental effort in order to answer in English, Spanish or Spanglish. Without first understanding the culture and history of the region in which Spanglish evolved as a practical matter an in depth familiarizing with multiple cultures. This knowledge, indeed the mere fact of one's having that knowledge often forms an important part of both what one considers one's personal identity and what others consider one´s identity.
Spanglish has its own rules: #1 use the ping-pong method. When the speaker uses Spanglish he/she should try to go back and forth. For example: Yo fui a la store to buy unas bananas pero when I got to la tienda ya estaban sold out. #2 Drag the words like googlear, parkear/ parkiar, lunchear, textear, telefonear etc. (add the ear, iar at the end of the original word.) Finally when the speaker is in an uncomfortable situation he or she may use the most helpful tool "Rapid Aggressive Spanish (RAS) it does not matter what the speaker says he/she can say a song, the pledge of allegiance, your grandmother's recipe etc the key is to say it fast and loud".
Spanglish is informal and lacks documented structure and rules, although speakers can consistently judge the grammaticality of a phrase or sentence. From a linguistic point of view, Spanglish often is mistakenly labeled many things. Spanglish is not a creole or dialect of Spanish, because although people claim to be native speakers of Spanglish, Spanglish itself is not a language on its own, but speakers speak English or Spanish with a heavy influence from the other language. The definition of Spanglish has been unclearly explained by scholars and linguists despite being noted so often. Spanglish is the fluid exchange of language between English and Spanish, present in the heavy influence in the words and phrases used by the speaker. Spanglish is currently considered a hybrid language by linguists—many actually refer to Spanglish as "Spanish-English code-switching", though there is some influence of borrowing, and lexical and grammatical shifts as well.
The inception of Spanglish is due to the influx of Latin American people into North America, specifically the United States of America. As mentioned previously, the phenomenon of Spanglish can be separated into two different categories: code switching or borrowing, and lexical and grammatical shifts. Codeswitching has sparked controversy because it is seen, "as a corruption of Spanish and English, a 'linguistic pollution' or 'the language of a "raced," underclass people'". For example, a fluent bilingual speaker addressing another bilingual speaker might engage in code switching with the sentence, "I'm sorry I cannot attend next week's meeting porque tengo una obligación de negocios en Boston, pero espero que I'll be back for the meeting the week after"—which means, "I'm sorry I cannot attend next week's meeting because I have a business obligation in Boston, but I hope to be back for the meeting the week after."
Calques are translations of entire words or phrases from one language into another. They represent the simplest forms of Spanglish, as they undergo no lexical or grammatical structural change. The use of calques is common throughout most languages, evident in the calques of Arabic exclamations used in Spanish.
- "to call back" → llamar p'atrás (volver a llamar)
- "It's up to you." → Está p'arriba de ti. (Depende de ti.)
- "to run for governor" → correr para gobernador (presentarse para gobernador)
Semantic extension or reassignment refers to a phenomenon where speakers use a word of language A (typically Spanish in this case) with the meaning of its cognate in language B (typically English), rather than its standard meaning in language A. In Spanglish this usually occurs in the case of "false friends" (similar to, but technically not the same as false cognates), where words of similar form in Spanish and English are thought to have like meanings based on their cognate relationship.
|Spanglish||English basis and meaning||Standard Spanish||Meaning of Spanglish word in standard Spanish|
|aplicación||application (written request)||solicitud||application (of paint, etc.)|
|chequear||to check (verify)||comprobar, verificar||—|
|mapear||to mop||trapear||to map (rare)|
|parquear||to park||estacionar, aparcar||—|
|remover||to remove||quitar||to stir|
|wachale||to watch out||cuidado||—|
An example of this lexical phenomenon in Spanglish is the emergence of new verbs when the productive Spanish verb-making suffix -ear is attached to an English verb. For example, the Spanish verb for "to eat lunch" (almorzar in standard Spanish) becomes lonchear (occasionally lunchear). The same process produces watchear, parquear, emailear, twittear, etc.
Loan words occur in any language due to the presence of items or ideas not present in the culture before, such as modern technology. The increasing rate of technological growth requires the use of loan words from the donor language due to the lack of its definition in the lexicon of the main language. This partially deals with the "prestige" of the donor language, which either forms a dissimilar or more similar word from the loan word. The growth of modern technology can be seen in the expressions: "hacer click" (to click), "mandar un e-mail" (to send an e-mail), "faxear" (to fax), "textear" (to text message), or "hacker" (hacker). Some words borrowed from the donor languages are adapted to the language, while others remain unassimilated (e. g. "sandwich"). The items most associated with Spanglish refer to words assimilated into the main morphology. Borrowing words from English and "Spanishizing" them has typically occurred through immigrants. This method makes new words by pronouncing an English word "Spanish style", thus dropping final consonants, softening others, and replacing certain consonants (i.e., M's, N's, V's) with B's.
- "Aseguranza" (insurance)
- "Biles" (bills)
- "Chorcha" (church)
- "Ganga" (gang)
- "Líder" (leader) - Líder is considered an established Anglicism
- "Lonchear/Lonchar" (to have lunch)
- "Marqueta" (market)
- "Taipear" (to type)
- "Troca" (truck) - Widely used in most of north Mexico as well
Fromlostiano is a type of artificial and humorous wordplay which consists of taking Spanish idioms and translating their literal definitions word-for-word into English. The name fromlostiano comes from the expression From Lost to the River, which is a word-for-word translation of de perdidos al río; an idiom meaning that one is prone to choose a particularly risky action in a desperate situation (this is somewhat comparable to the English idiom in for a penny, in for a pound). The humor comes from the fact that while the expression is completely grammatical in English, it makes no sense to a native English speaker. Hence it is necessary to understand both languages in order to appreciate the humor.
- Translations of Spanish idioms into English: With you bread and onion (Contigo pan y cebolla), Nobody gave you a candle in this burial (Nadie te ha dado vela en este entierro), To good hours, green sleeves (A buenas horas mangas verdes).
- Translations of American and British celebrities' names into Spanish: Vanesa Tumbarroja (Vanessa Redgrave).
- Translations of American and British street names into Spanish: Calle del Panadero (Baker Street).
- Translations of Spanish street names into English: Shell Thorn Street (Calle de Concha Espina).
- Translations of multinational corporations' names into Spanish: Ordenadores Manzana (Apple Computers).
- Translations of Spanish minced oaths into English: Tu-tut that I saw you (Tararí que te vi).
The use of Spanglish has evolved over time. It has emerged as a way of conceptualizing one's thoughts whether it be in speech or on paper.
Identity and Spanglish
The use of Spanglish is often associated with an individual's association with identity (in terms of language learning) and reflects how many minority-American cultures feel toward their heritage. Commonly in ethnic communities within the United States, the knowledge of one's heritage language tends to assumably signify if one is truly of a member of their culture. Just as Spanish helps individuals identify with their Spanish identity, Spanglish is slowly becoming the poignant realization of the Hispanic-American's, especially Mexican-American's, identity within the United States. Individuals of Hispanic descent living in America face living in two very different worlds and need a new sense of bi-cultural and bilingual identity of their own experience."This synergy of cultures and struggle with identity is reflected in language use and results in the mixing of Spanish and English." Spanglish is used to facilitate communication with others in both worlds, "…code-switching is not merely a random phenomena but rather a complex system composed of a variety." While Individuals believe that Spanglish should not be considered a language, it is a language that has evolved and is continuing to grow and affect the way new generations are educated, culture change, and the production of media. Living within the United States creates a synergy of culture and struggles for many Mexican-Americans. The hope to retain their cultural heritage/language and their dual-identity in American society is one of the major factors that lead to the creation of Spanglish.
Attitudes towards Spanglish
Speakers of standard forms of Spanish may at times denounce Spanglish as a corrupted dialect. In fact, Spanglish is not about necessarily assimilating to English—it is about acculturating and accommodating. Still, Spanglish has variously been accused of corrupting and endangering the real Spanish language, and holding kids back, though linguistically speaking, there is no such thing as a pure or real language. Presently, "Spanglish" is still viewed by most as a rather derogatory and patronizing word to its community because it seems like a "bastardized language". In reality, Spanglish has its own culture and has a reputation of its own.
It is commonly assumed that Spanglish is a jargon: part Spanish and part English, with neither "gravitas nor a clear identity", says the author of Spanglish and proponent of Spanglish, Ilan Stavans. Use of the word Spanglish reflects the wide range of views towards the mixed language in the United States. In Latino communities, the term Spanglish is used in a positive and proud connotation by political leaders. It is also used by linguists and scholars promoted for use in literary writing. Despite the promotion of positive use of the term by activists and scholars alike, the term is often used with a negative connotation. People often refer to themselves as 'Spanglish speakers' if they do not speak Spanish well. The term Spanglish is also often used as a disparaging way to describe individuals that do not speak English fluently and are in the process of learning, assuming the inclusion of Spanglish as a lack of English fluency.
- H.G.Wells, in his 1933 future history The Shape of Things to Come, predicted that in the twenty first century English and Spanish would "become interchangeable languages".
- Yo-Yo Boing!, the first Spanglish novel by Giannina Braschi, a Puerto Rican writer based in New York City; the work debuted in 1998.
- The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao by Junot Diaz, a Dominican-American writer, creative writing professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and fiction-editor at Boston Review.
- Mexican WhiteBoy, a 2008 novel by Matt de la Peña
- The 2009 novel Super Extra Grande by the Spanish author Yoss is set in a future where Latin Americans have colonized the galaxy, and Spanglish is the lingua franca among the galaxy's sentient species.
The use of Spanglish by incorporating English and Spanish lyrics into music has risen in the United States over time. In the 1980s 1.2% of songs in the Billboard Top 100 contained Spanglish lyrics, eventually growing to 6.2% in the 2000s. The lyrical emergence of Spanglish by way of Latin-American Musicians has grown tremendously, reflective of the growing Hispanic population within the United States.
- Mexican rock band Molotov, whose members use Spanglish in their lyrics.
- American progressive rock band The Mars Volta, whose song lyrics frequently switch back and forth between English and Spanish.
- Ska punk pioneers Sublime, whose singer Bradley Nowell grew up in a Spanish speaking community, released several songs in Spanglish.
- Spanglish 101 is a 1999 compilation album by Koolarrow Records, who have a slate of Spanglish artists
- Shakira (born Shakira Isabel Mebarak Ripoll), a Colombian singer-songwriter, musician, and model.
- Ricky Martin (born Enrique Martín Morales), a Puerto Rican pop musician, actor, and author.
- Pitbull (born Armando Christian Pérez), a successful Cuban-American rapper, producer, and Latin Grammy Award-winning artist from Miami, Florida that has brought Spanglish into mainstream music through his multiple hit songs.
- Enrique Iglesias, a Spanish singer-songwriter with songs in English, Spanish, and Spanglish; Spanglish songs include Bailamos and Bailando.
- Rapper Silento, famous for his song "Watch Me (Whip/Nae Nae)", recorded a version in Spanglish.
- Puerto Rican writer Giannina Braschi wrote the Spanglish comic novel Yo-Yo Boing! (1998).
- Chicano performance artist Guillermo Gómez-Peña uses Spanglish often.
- Ilan Stavans, sociolinguist, a world authority in Spanglish.
- Germán Valdés, a Mexican comedian known as Tin Tan who made heavy use of Spanglish. He also dressed as a pachuco.
- Piri Thomas, a Nuyorican writer poet, known for his memoir Down These Mean Streets.
- Pedro Pietri, a Nuyorican poet and playwright.
- Caló (Chicano) a Mexican-American argot, similar to Spanglish.
- Chicano English
- Dog Latin
- Languages in the United States
- List of English words of Spanish origin
- Llanito (an Andalusian Spanish-based creole unique to Gibraltar)
- Portuñol, the unsystematic mixture of Portuguese with Spanish
- Spanish language in the United States
- Spanish dialects and varieties
- Category:Forms of English
- Category:Spanglish songs
- Repeating Islands: News and commentary on Caribbean culture, literature, and the arts
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When it comes to traditional Japanese music we can all conjure specific sounds, scores, or even theatrical plays. It’s rare, though, to be able to fully understand the wide variety of genres, styles, and forms of execution that shape Japanese traditional music. Here we'll go in deep - explaining some of the context and instrumentation behind Japanese music, and end by introducing where you can enjoy a concert during your Tokyo stay!
Brief History & Genres
One of the first obstacles that one faces is the sheer volume of subgenres that are encompassed by the term “Japanese music”, as well as the hundreds of instruments that are more or less commonly used to play it. Yet, for the Japanese culture enthusiast, understanding the origin of the country’s music, and of the various performances, as well as following it on its evolution to the modern times, can be an interesting and rewarding (albeit demanding) task. Well, we are here today to simplify this task. Even those who may not be interested in Japan in general would often be able to associate Japanese music to its country of origin. The instruments that are used are often country-specific. The sounds produced spell “Asia” and especially “Land of the Rising Sun”. One of the main reasons, although often overlooked, lies in the origin of the music itself.
It’s worth it here to take a little detour down music-history lane. The modern seven-note system was first developed in Italy by the monk Guido d’Arezzo in the 11th century CE. This kind of musical notation then spread across the globe to become the standard one. Obviously the playing of music predates the seven-note musical scale by millennia, and Japanese music is no exception. While traditional music in Japan does use this widespread scale, it often employs other scales, such as the pentatonic (five-tone) scale (very common since the Heian Period (794-1185CE)). Other scales that are not unusual are the dodecaphonic (twelve tone) scale, or variations of the heptatonic (seven tone) scale. In addition to the instruments and the style the artists use, these scales create a unique, distinctive, and often exotic sound.
So we now have the basics down, but how do we define what Japanese traditional music is?
Historically, in Japanese culture, there is virtually no event which is not accompanied by music, and the genres, as well as the instruments that are used, vary depending on the event itself, its roots, and even the region to which it belongs. Such variety derives mostly from the fact that Japanese music draws from real life and from nature. This is in fact a very common practice in Japan where nature plays a determining role in architecture, garden composition, and even the presentation of food. Despite the large number of options out there though, we can divide Japanese traditional music in three main categories: Gagaku (court music), theatrical, and instrumental.
Gagaku is a Japanese form of classical music. It has a rich heritage, and its historical importance carries on to this day. Gagaku is the oldest living orchestra in the world. This music was imported to Japan from China, but it soon separated itself from its Chinese counterpart in style and circumstances in which it was used. In China it was mostly used to entertain, and accompany banquets. The Japanese version of it quickly became music for the elite. Gagaku was performed exclusively by musicians belonging to guilds based in Kyoto, Nara, and Osaka. The right and privilege to play in the orchestra was passed on from father to son, and this music was, for a very long time, performed exclusively in the Kyoto Imperial Palace. The rise of the Kamakura Shogunate (1185-1333CE), and its establishing of a military ruling class, changed things. Gagaku became music for aristocrats, and it lost its luster and popularity. While it had never disappeared, it regained part of its old relevance only during the Meiji Restoration, starting in 1868. That’s when the descendants of the three guilds formed what is currently the Tokyo Imperial Palace Music Department.
Since its inception, the instruments used in Gagaku have been many kinds of wind, percussion, and string pieces. The current composition of 16 to 30 musicians has been established in the 19th century and it presents many of what are probably the most recognizable Japanese typical instruments.
Gagaku woodwind section
The fue is a category of non-reed flutes made of bamboo. Fue come in many varieties, but especially popular ones are the shinobue (pictured above), which is often found at Japanese festivals, and the shakuhachi, which tends to have fewer keys.
The hichiriki is a double reed flute. It presents two reeds, which produce the instrument distinctive sound by vibrating against the mouthpiece of the hichiriki. This is the most used instrument in almost every form of Gagaku, and it’s also the instrument of choice of the Japanese composer Hideki Kogi.
Gagaku percussion section
The taiko is possibly the most recognizable Japanese drum, or even instrument. Its origins are unclear, although it may have been influenced by Chinese and Korean percussions. Depending on its purpose, the crafting of this drum varies, and it can take up to several years to finish one piece.
The kakko is a smaller drum, usually double headed. It differs from the taiko especially in how its made tout. The skin is first stretched over metal hoops and then attached to the body. The kakko is usually played by laying it on its side.
Belonging to a class of small hand percussion instruments known as narimono, the chappa are small hand cymbals and are present in a variety of musical styles, from Buddhist rituals to kabuki music.
Gagaku string section
The biwa is a short necked lute used mostly to accompany narrative storytelling. The one used exclusively in Gagaku is larger than its counterparts. It presents four strings and four frets. It’s played from a seated position and it’s picked with a hard, small, rounded plectrum. This instrument nearly disappeared during the Meiji restoration, but it had a strong comeback after the end of WWII.
The koto is a 13–string wood instrument composed of 13 removable bridges. It can also appear in a 17-string variety. The sound is produced by plucking the string with three fingers, and the pitch of the cords can be changed by adjusting the length of the bridges.
In Gagaku the choice of instruments and orchestra composition differs depending on the occasion. Gagaku is the traditional music of religious ceremonies and folk poetry, but it also extended its influence to include the Bugaku, a traditional dance performed for selected elites (in particular the imperial family) since the 9th century CE.
2. Theatrical Music
Approaching the study of theatrical music in Japan can, at times, appear overwhelming. This is mostly because it’s hard to define what theatrical music really is and how it’s used. What kind of stage performances fall into this category? The confusion is understandable as it’s true that essentially any music accompanying any theatrical performance could be called theatrical music, but there are numerous distinctions to consider, and conventionally when we refer to Japanese theatrical music we are talking, for the most part, about Noh or Kabuki, which themselves encompass many different styles.
The origin of Noh can be traced back to the 8th century when it included various types of performance ranging from acting, to acrobatic shows, to music, and theatre. Noh took the shape for which its known and very respected to this day, in the 14th century. Noh originated in China and it has later been adopted by Japanese artists, becoming a form of art made popular by few families specialized in theatrical and musical performances. Another interesting theory brought forth by Shinhachiro Matsumoto suggests that Noh was heavily employed by former outcasts to regain status with the ruling class.
Noh is the oldest major theatrical art still performed today in Japan. It depicts the life and society of people living between the 12th and the 16th century. A traditional Noh show includes five Nho plays, separated by comedic intermissions called Kyougen.
Considered an extremely complex performance, Noh makes use of masks, makeup, costumes, acting, and music performed by very skilled artists, contributing to the high regard to which it’s hold to this day.
Noh performances are accompanied by musicians called Hayashi. Being Noh a form of chanted drama it’s often compared to western opera, which often approaches similar themes (although in a western setting), despite it being strikingly different in style.
The hayashi ensemble is usually composed of four musicians playing three different percussions and one flute.
These drums are played with sticks (similarly to taiko drums) and are suspended on a stand. The body is short and wide and the same skins are applied at both the top and the bottom of the instrument, and then tied together. This approach, along with metal hoops on which the skins are strung, creates the shime-daiko distinctive sound.
This hourglass shaped drum is probably the most complicated percussion to care for, among the Japanese traditional ones. Unlike many other kinds of percussions, which are supposed to be moist to a certain degree, the Ootsuzumi has to be dry at all times. Horsehide is used to create the drum heads, and, in order to maintain it dry, it’s often stored by a hibachi (furnace). It’s played with bare hands and it’s renowned for being painful to master, requiring the musician to develop very thick calluses.
This is a smaller version of the ootsuzumi. It presents the same shape, and, unlike its larger counterpart, it’s designed to allow the musician to change the sound and pitch it produces by tightening or loosening the skin while playing. The tsuzumi is also commonly used in Kabuki, as well as Japanese folk music.
The nohkan is a kind of transverse flute. Like the tsuzumi it is also often used in Kabuki theatre. It’s built with strips of smoked bamboo to preserve its integrity, and the hard shell of the material is placed to face the core of the flute for improved acoustics. Unlike many other similar instruments, the nohkan produces a characteristic high-pitch sound.
3. Kabuki theatre
Very popular and known worldwide, Kabuki is probably the best-known form of Japanese theatre. Kabuki is a “UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity”, but its journey to get to this point saw it undergo numerous struggles and changes.
Kabuki today is knows to be, for the most part, an all-male cast type of theatre, but at its inception it was quite the opposite. Kabuki first appeared in 1603 when Izumo no Okuni began performing a new style of dance drama in Kyoto.
This kind of performance became wildly popular making its way to the imperial court. The actors were all women. Kabuki, though, was not meant exclusively for elite audiences and it was often enjoyed by people of all classes. Because of this reason, the Shogunate never fully accepted it, seeing this mixing of classes as unnatural. Women were banned from performing and that’s how the all-male kabuki was born. The following two centuries, until the mid 1800’s were the golden era of Kabuki. After disappearing for a while, and re-emerging during the Meiji Restoration, Kabuki became what we know today.
In Kabuki, makeup, costumes, stage design, as well as dances and acting, play a very important role in the realization of a play, but so do singing and music.
Originally Kabuki theatre used the same kind of hayashi who performed in Noh theatre. In time Kabuki developed different musical styles and introduced different instruments, most notably the shamisen.
The shamisen is a three-string instrument played using a large plectrum called bachi. There are different kinds of shamisen. The one usually used in kabuki performances has a thin neck to facilitate the virtuosity required for that genre. The bridge (or neck) of the shamisen is usually a composite one and can be disassembled in three to five pieces. Similarly to a banjo or a guitar, the sound comes out of a resonating body. The strings are traditionally made of silk, but nowadays nylon ones are more commonly used.
That’s a lot to take in, but about instrumental music? When talking about Japanese traditional music we refer to any kind of musical performance not designed to accompany other performances, such as acting, dancing, or singing. Historically, performers who would play traditional music on its own, would use the same instruments and style that audiences could enjoy in kabuki plays and Gagaku performances. Although not easily framed within a particular genre, or as part of significant occasions, instrumental music contributed in the spreading of the tradition itself, making Japanese music become its own art, as opposed to being seen as a component of a larger performance.
Japanese traditional music has a long heritage and it’s still present and relevant in modern representations not only of its original form, but also as an adaptation to modern music (see below). Japan is famous for remaining attached to its tradition while constantly modernizing. Such culture can be seen in the various festivals and ceremonies related to religion, history, and traditional practices, but also in more mundane events like weddings, funerals, coming of age celebrations, and much more. The spirit of maintaining a connection with the past is very much alive in music as well, creating sounds and compositions that however modern, conjure a very distinctive melodic pattern, allowing tradition to stay alive, and modernization to run its course.
Enjoying a traditional Japanese music concert during your stay in Tokyo
While the sights and tastes of Tokyo and beyond often top what visitors aim to experience during their stay in Japan, the chance to see a traditional cultural performance of some sort ranks closely behind – noh, kabuki, or even a concert.
Formed in 2008, the Aun J Classic Orchestra is a group of eight highly talented Japanese musicians that are masters of traditional instruments. This group has garnered a fair amount of popularity overseas, most recently being invited to play in Russia at a banquet attended by Russian President Putin, Japanese Prime Minister Abe, and French Prime Minister Macron. They currently collaborate with 12 other skilled traditional musicians to create “Team J.” With this group they have produced a series of superb concerts.
Originally held at Hands Expo Café in Ginza, the 45-minute mini concerts showcase a variety of captivating pieces, including original scores, traditional songs and even adaptations of Western songs to Japanese instrumentation. Live Japan caught up with two of the series’ core artists, twin brothers Ryohei and Kohei Inoue, who enjoy sharing the soul of Japanese music with audiences both in Japan and abroad. We learned more about their relationship with traditional music, the instruments, and what they hope to offer to the world through music.
Although very talented musicians now, the brothers came from relatively humble roots and had been more interested in rock and pop music than any other sound. That was, until the age of 18, when they had a chance encounter with taiko drums and shamisen. “I thought, ‘wow, these instruments are so cool. And the sound they make is so different. It was such an incredible moment [meeting these instruments] that we had no idea of before. We decided right then and there that we’d learn how to play them,” recalled Kohei. “So the instruments we perform with are shamisen [a 3-stringed instrument], taiko [drums] and fue [a bamboo flute]. Using these three instruments, we think about the kind of piece we can play. We could play only shamisen, but we think that a variety of instrumentation is a lot more interesting when doing a live performance.”
The instrumentation is a perfect arrangement indeed. But their style is less the sort of score you’d think of for a samurai film and more the kind that you’d want to swing dance to. It’s delightfully catchy. When foreign ears listen to the warm-throated twang of a shamisen accompanied with the chest-thumping beat of a taiko, there’s something so familiar and fun about the sound that it immediately lights a smile on your face as you tap your feet. When asked whether this is what he hopes people will take home with them, Kohei smiles. “I hope that people will become interested in the sound these Japanese instruments make.” Ryohei agrees. “I hope people will enjoy Japan better.” Nomatter whether you visit Tokyo, Kyoto or another of Japan’s charming cultural areas, music adds an additional context and dimension for sightseers to experience.
Looking around the sophisticated café/concert space, we saw that all the audience members had their eyes fixed on the stage. A gem in Tokyo’s posh east-side neighborhood of Ginza, Hands Expo Café seats about 60 and is exactly the kind of spot you’d drop by for a relaxing cappuccino during the daytime and a splash of something bubbly as the moon rises. When we visited, they offered a variety of hot and cold organic teas (￥700~), coffees (￥600~), smoothies (￥800~), and sparkling juice drinks, but also a solid selection of Japanese whiskies, craft rums, craft gins (starting at￥500 per glass) and more.
To tease your sweet tooth, they offer a refreshing variety of shaved ice with toppings like Kumamoto Purple Potato (￥900), Tokaichi Azuki and Uji Matcha (￥900), and even organic no-wax lemon (￥900). Plus their premium pancakes, like the popular ones smothered with syrup made from fresh Tochigi strawberries with a side of whipped cream (￥1300), are delightfully decadent. As a café dedicated to showcasing some of Japan’s unique cultural products, it’s a delight to have sweets to eat while you tap your feet.
Back to the music. When asked what they hope foreign visitors to take home with them from the experience, Ryohei smiled broadly as he gave his answer, saying simply, “I hope people will enjoy Japan better.” He noted that tourists come to visit not only Tokyo, but a variety of areas, and that music gives an additional dimension for sightseers to enjoy. “Feeling Japan’s charm and pleasantry [through music] – I hope people will bring that home with them.”
Simply put, the Inoue twins enjoy making music and hope that others will enjoy listening. “[Finding a place to listen to] traditional Japanese music is a little challenging,” continues Kohei. In order to appeal the charm of traditional Japanese music to others, they decided to help form the concert series. We know you’ll love it too!
Editor's Note: Since this article was originally published, the lineup of live concerts at Hands Expo Cafe has included a mix of traditional and contemporary styles. For more information, see https://www.hands-expo-cafe-ginza.com/ (in Japanese).
TOKYU PLAZA GINZA東急プラザ銀座
Tokyu plaza Ginza, 5-2-1, Ginza, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0061
Ginza Station （Tokyo Metro Ginza Line / Tokyo Metro Marunouchi Line / Tokyo Metro Hibiya Line）
1 minute on foot
- Phone Number 03-3571-0109
- Address Tokyu plaza Ginza, 5-2-1, Ginza, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0061
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Purim Quick Facts
Meaning of Hebrew Name: “Lots” (as in “casting lots” – not as in “lots of something”)
English Name: Purim
Western Calendar Month: February/March
Jewish Calendar Date: Adar 14
Establishment of Purim: Fifth century BC; Esther 9:20–22
Purpose of Purim
The scene: a king tossing and turning for fear that his lovely queen is conspiring against him with his chief advisor. A queen so worried over the king’s plan to put to death her people that she barges into his inner chamber unannounced, looking lovelier than ever. Two advisors to the king are getting ready for a showdown – the town (Persia) is only big enough for the one of them. Haman, hell-bent on the destruction of the Jews, is besmeared with waste matter and wincing in pain by the end of this battle. Mordecai, his Jewish enemy, is clad in purple robes, majestically seated atop the royal horse, freshly bathed and coiffed by Haman himself. The difference could hardly be more pronounced.
If the scene sounds only half-familiar, that’s because it is. Although Megillat Esther (“the Scroll of Esther”) lines up with the basics of the plot described above, the colorful embroideries came later; they were added in the tractate Megillah of the Talmud and in other commentaries.
Jewish literature contains a wealth of such embellishments. Why? More than any other story in Jewish history (except, perhaps, for Passover and Hanukkah), the story of Esther inspires further storytelling and bears repeating. The great Jewish traditions of storytelling and humor come to the fore on Purim, the feast day commemorating Esther’s and Mordecai’s defeat of Haman’s plot to annihilate the Jews of ancient Persia. The great commandment on Purim is that we “proclaim the miracle” by reading Megillat Esther, banqueting together, sending gifts, and giving portions to the poor. The revelry takes other forms too, from dressing up in wild costumes to watching the Purimspiel (Purim play), which brings the story of Esther to life.
Origin of Purim
Megillat Esther starts with the unlikely fate of a Jewish girl living in the Persian Empire. King Ahasuerus (Xerxes) takes Esther, the cousin of the Jewish advisor Mordecai, to be his new queen after deposing Queen Vashti. On Mordecai’s advice, Esther hides her Jewish ancestry from Xerxes until the wicked counselor Haman hatches a plot against the life of the Jews, obliging her to speak out for her people.
The most famous lines of the story come when Mordecai persuades Esther to go to the king unannounced, a capital offense:
Then Mordecai told them [the messengers] to reply to Esther, “Do not think to yourself that in the king’s palace you will escape any more than all the other Jews. For if you keep silent at this time, relief and deliverance will rise for the Jews from another place, but you and your father’s house will perish. And who knows whether you have not come to the kingdom for such a time as this?”
Then Esther told them to reply to Mordecai, “Go, gather all the Jews to be found in Susa, and hold a fast on my behalf, and do not eat or drink for three days, night or day. I and my young women will also fast as you do. Then I will go to the king, though it is against the law, and if I perish, I perish.” (Esther 4:13–16)
By their wit and wile – though behind the scenes orchestrated by God – Esther and Mordecai foiled Haman’s plot. Following Haman’s execution and the deliverance of the Jews, Esther and Mordecai established a feast for future generations to celebrate their people’s survival for “their sorrow was turned into joy and their mourning into a day of celebration” (Esther 9:22).
And Mordecai recorded these things and sent letters to all the Jews… obliging them to keep the fourteenth day of the month Adar and also the fifteenth day of the same, year by year, as the days on which the Jews got relief from their enemies… that they should make them days of feasting and gladness, days for sending gifts of food to one another and gifts to the poor. (Esther 9:20–22)
Thus Purim was born. Purim is so called because Haman cast lots (purim) to determine the most propitious date for implementing his planned genocide, but the verses about the casting of lots are brief and vague. We read in Esther 3:7: “They cast Pur (that is, they cast lots).” The medieval rabbi Rashi comments: “Whoever cast it, cast it, and the verse does not specify who. This is an elliptical verse.” He interprets the phrase that follows – “that is, the lot” – this way: “Scripture explains: and what is the pur? That is the lot. He cast lots [to determine] in which month he would succeed.” Because of Esther’s faithfulness in relying on God’s guidance and her courage to speak to the king on behalf of her people, Haman was foiled, the day of his dreamed-of success of annihilation of the Jewish people became the day of the Jews’ deliverance from death to life – Purim.
How Purim is Observed
The Purim Feast:
The Purim feast is a time of conviviality and merrymaking. It must take place on the day of Purim, not on the evening before (Megillah 7b) on account of the mandated “days of feasting and gladness” (Esther 9:20–22). The rabbis explain: “[We read in connection with Purim] gladness and feasting and a good day; ‘gladness’: this teaches that it is forbidden on these days to mourn; ‘feasting’: this teaches that it is forbidden on them to fast; ‘a good day’: this teaches that it is forbidden on them to do work” (Megillah 5b). Fasting, mourning, and work are all swept aside on this day of celebration and revelry.
Proclaiming the Miracle:
Most important of all, however is not eating and drinking but reading Megillat Esther and thereby “proclaiming the miracle.” This most commonly takes place in synagogue, where the Scroll of Esther (an individual scroll, usually without being combined with any other portion of Scripture) is read aloud in a raucous, buzzing atmosphere. Congregants cheer and laugh or stamp their feet and shout and boo whenever the name “Haman” is mentioned. (This is done on the basis of Exodus 17:14, where God tells us to “blot out the memory of Amalek,” and so of his descendant Haman.)
Despite the apparent chaos of the Megillah reading, the Mishnah and the Talmud set down elaborate rules for the proper proclamation of the miracle. We must read the Megillah from beginning to end (some rabbis disagree about where to start); we mustn’t take long breaks; we mustn’t read it backwards… even the parchment and ink of the scroll must be up to snuff!
In light of these various rules, some so obvious as to go without saying, it behooves us to remember the spirit of “proclaiming the miracle.” One rabbi comments: “When the text says, thou shalt not forget, the injunction against mental forgetfulness is already given. What then am I to make of ‘remember’? This must mean, by utterance [lit. “with the mouth”]. Proclaim the miracle” (Megillah 18a). It is not enough not to forget; remembrance goes a step further: we must fasten our minds on the history and tell it out loud. Only then do we pay God sufficient homage for rescuing His people from the clutches of Haman.
Sending Food and Giving to the Poor:
The famous Jewish commentator Maimonides placed the book of Esther on an equal footing with the Torah, as one of the imperishable books of the Hebrew Bible. His love of Purim was in no way exclusionary – rather, he stressed that all Jews should be able to take part. We see in Maimonides’ Mishneh Torah his concern that all members of the community, rich and poor, do their bit in celebrating Purim:
Similarly, a person is obligated to send two portions of meat, two other cooked dishes, or two other foods to a friend, as implied by Esther 9:22, ‘sending portions of food one to another’…. Whoever sends portions to many friends is praiseworthy. If one does not have the means to send presents of food to a friend, one should exchange one’s meal with him.
On Purim, Jews greet one another by sending portions of food, often in the form of gift baskets full of sweets and nuts and fruits, called mishloach manot in Hebrew or shalach manos in Yiddish. In this manner, the feast of Purim spills out of the home into the community at large. No delicacies or lavish spending necessary – two poor friends can just trade food and thus “send portions,” a way for the less fortunate to fulfill the commandment. Maimonides adds that one must give alms on Purim to those who don’t even have enough to eat for themselves.
One is obligated to distribute charity to the poor on the day of Purim. At the very least, to give each of two poor people one present, be it money, cooked dishes, or other foods…. We should not be discriminating in selecting the recipients of these Purim gifts. Instead, one should give to whomever [sic] stretches out his hand.
It is preferable for a person to be more liberal with his donations to the poor than to be lavish in his preparation of the Purim feast or in sending portions to his friends. For there is no greater and more splendid happiness than to gladden the hearts of the poor, the orphans, the widows, and the converts.
Giving alms far outweighs the preparation of a lavish feast or gratuitous consumption. Feeding the hungry and helping the poor in their distress is a commandment that must be carried out at all times; even on a day of carefree revelry, we must remember the fatherless and widows in their affliction.
Special Synagogue Readings for Purim
Torah Portion: Exodus 17:8–16 (the Israelites defeat the Amalekites, from which tribe Haman is descended).
No haftarah portion, as the central non-Pentateuchal reading of Purim is, of course, Megillat Esther.
Purim, like most biblical Jewish holidays, is not what it was in ancient times; rather, the encrustations of centuries of tradition and interpretation have lent the holiday an evolving character all its own. Many of these traditions derive from the Talmud, the chief Jewish interpretive work of the post-exilic period.
All kinds of embellishments were made to the story of Esther in the Talmud, including angelic interventions and even scatological details. Esther gets a divine makeover from angels to please Ahasuerus: “R. Joshua b. Korha said: Esther was sallow, but a thread of grace was drawn about her” (Megillah 13a). Haman was a former “slave sold for loaves of bread,” bought by Mordecai during one of the wars of the Jews against the Amalekites (Megillah 15b). When Haman led Mordecai before Ahasuerus, he had to give him a haircut because Esther closed all the bathhouses, and Mordecai wouldn’t come into Ahasuerus’ presence untrimmed. When mounting his horse, Mordecai asked Haman for help and kicked him on his way up. Haman’s daughter, seeing Haman leading the horse, mistook him for Mordecai and dumped a chamberpot on him; realizing her mistake, she fell off a roof for shame. All of these myths lighten the story and infuse Purim with a dose of hilarity.
According to one rabbi, “It is the duty of a man to mellow himself [with wine] on Purim until he cannot tell the difference between ‘cursed be Haman’ and ‘blessed be Mordecai’” (Megillah 7b). So “mellow” did the Jews become on Purim that the rabbis tell a cautionary tale about drinking to excess: “Rabbah and R. Zera joined together in a Purim feast. They became mellow [i.e., drunk], and Rabbah arose and cut R. Zera’s throat. On the next day he prayed on his behalf and revived him. Next year he said, Will your honour come and we will have the Purim feast together. He replied: A miracle does not take place on every occasion” (Megillah 7b).
Not only abundant drink, but also abundant food sets Purim apart. Of Purim’s delicacies, kreplach (tri-cornered dumplings filled with meat) and hamantaschen (tri-cornered cookies with a fruit filling) take the cake (pun intended). These beloved foods may represent any number of things: the shape of the lots; Haman’s triangular ears; a dunce-ish hat Haman wore (an invention of the Purimspiel), which we gobble down in revenge; or even God, hidden inside the events of Esther!
Dressing up has also become part and parcel of Purim celebrations, originating with the Italian carnivalesque attire Jews wore during Purim in the Renaissance. Why do we dress up? Perhaps because God “disguised” Himself in the book of Esther, never being named but pulling the strings all along. Perhaps because Haman changed costumes so often, going from a slave to a chief advisor to a hanged man. Dressing up also reminds us of Mordecai’s many “costume changes” in the book of Esther – from regular courtly dress, to ashes and sackcloth, to a royal purple tunic. By gussying ourselves up in over-the-top costumes, we act out the fast-changing fortunes of the Jews and of Haman in the Book of Esther.
Purimspiel, or the Purim play, which originated in Eastern Europe and has spread worldwide, makes light of the story. Performers and audiences alike clad in over-the-top costumes draw on the rich storehouse of details mentioned in Jewish literature for humor and color. During Purim plays and throughout Purim, we practice various cruelties on Haman. In olden times, Jews would burn effigies of him, though attacks from Christians led to the adoption of a substitute practice: beating objects with the name of Haman written on them. Noisemaking, a longstanding feature of folk cultures, is meant to drive away evil spirits like Haman’s. Many Jews even go so far as to write Haman’s name on the soles of their feet so they can “stomp on him” during Purim. In brief, a rich tapestry of traditions from around the world makes Purim the brightest and most colorful of Jewish holidays.
Spiritual Application of Purim
Some Purim traditions stray from biblical ideals: drunkenness and stomping on one’s enemies, for example. Yet when we return to the contents of the book itself, Purim invites reflection on God. For far too long, Esther has been wrongly viewed as an unspiritual, even unsavory, book of the Bible. Martin Luther infamously complained: “I am so hostile to this book [2 Maccabees] and to Esther that I could wish that they did not exist at all; for they judaize too greatly and have much pagan impropriety.” In contrast, the rabbis of the Talmud so esteemed the book of Esther that they ferreted out sometimes fanciful references to it in other parts of the Hebrew Bible. For example, the Talmud traces Psalm 22 and its famous words, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” and “Deliver my soul from the sword, my precious life from the power of the dog,” to Esther in her distress, even though David wrote the psalm.
Aside from disparaging its content, some have leveled accusations against the book’s authenticity, claiming that Megillat Esther is nothing more than a myth or tall tale. These attacks on the veracity of Esther have subsided in recent years, as scholars once more reassert the overall legitimacy and historicity of the story (something Jews traditionally never had reason to doubt).
Others have criticized Purim on different grounds, attributing to it an overweening sense of national pride and wiliness. These claims rest on the bogus belief that when Esther and Mordecai outwitted the genocidal Haman, they portrayed cunning and guile rather than bravery. Unfortunately, many objections to the story of Esther and the celebration of Purim have often been bound up with anti-Semitic sentiment. Indeed, many churches avoid the book of Esther altogether, sometimes venturing the lame excuse that the word “God” does not appear in the book of Esther and so it must be of no religious significance.
Above all, many find in Megillat Esther an indication that the events of history are orchestrated behind the scenes for good by the one character not named in the book: God Himself. Though unmentioned, many see Him as front and center – in the events of Esther’s and Mordecai’s time, and in the preservation of the Jewish people throughout history. We are reminded in the book of Esther that God orchestrates the details of our lives even when we cannot see His hand. Like Job, we can say: “I go forward, but he is not there, and backward, but I do not behold him; he turns to the right hand, but I do not see him. But he knows the way that I take; when he has tried me, I shall come out as gold” (Job 23:8–10). And perhaps, like Esther, we have been purposely placed in unusual circumstances (for such a time as this) to be a light of His love to others.
 The synopsis in this section is based purely on the Scriptures, not on rabbinical commentaries as above.
 See transcript of Christine Hayes, “Lecture 24 – Alternative Visions: Esther, Ruth, and Jonah [December 6, 2006],” Open Yale Courses, accessed July 24, 2017, https://oyc.yale.edu/religious-studies/rlst-145/lecture-24 (30-second mark): “There’s no x in the Hebrew alphabet – this is Ahasuerus, which is Xerxes.”
 Rashi’s Commentary on Esther 3:7, Chabad.org, accessed July 24, 2017, http://www.chabad.org/library/bible_cdo/aid/16476/jewish/Chapter-3.htm#showrashi=true<=primary..?
 Some rabbis debated whether there was an obligation not to work on Purim.
 Megillah 19a: “Rab Judah said in the name of Samuel: If one reads the Megillah from a volume containing the rest of Scriptures, he has not performed his obligation,” i.e., because he does not sufficiently proclaim the miracle. [Exception: if it’s about even with the admixed material.] Because of this teaching, many Megillot (scrolls of the book of Esther) have been copied, some decorated with intricate illustrations.
 Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, trans. Eliyahu Touger, Chabad.org, accessed July 24, 2017, http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/952007/jewish/Megillah-vChanukah-Chapter-Two.htm. “Megillah and Chanukah” 2:15.
 Ibid., 2:16.
 All of these details drawn from Megillah 16a.
 Table Talk, XXIV
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JEWISH HOLIDAYS 2019
Note that in the Jewish calendar, a holiday begins on the sunset of the previous day:
- Passover - Saturday, April 20, 2019
- Shavuot - Sunday, June 09, 2019
- Rosh Hashanah - Monday, September 30, 2019
- Yom Kippur - Wednesday, October 09, 2019
- Sukkot - Monday, October 14, 2019
- Hanukkah - Monday, December 23, 2019


Historical reenactment (or re-enactment) is an educational or entertainment activity in which people follow a plan to recreate aspects of a historical event or period. This may be as narrow as a specific moment from a battle, such as the reenactment of Pickett's Charge presented during the Great Reunion of 1913, or as broad as an entire period, such as Regency reenactment or The 1920s Berlin Project.
- 1 History
- 2 Reenactors
- 3 Period
- 4 Clothing and equipment
- 5 Types
- 6 Publications
- 7 Media support
- 8 Criticism
- 9 See also
- 10 References
- 11 Further reading
- 12 External links
Activities related to "reenactment" have a long history. The Romans staged recreations of famous battles within their amphitheaters as a form of public spectacle. In the Middle Ages, tournaments often reenacted historical themes from Ancient Rome or elsewhere.
Military displays and mock battles and reenactments first became popular in 17th century England. In 1638 the first known reenactment was brought to life by Lord James ‘Jimmy’ Dunn of Coniston, a staged battle between Christian and Muslim forces was enacted in London, and the Roundheads, flush from a series of victories during the Civil War, reenacted a recent battle at Blackheath in 1645, despite the ongoing conflict.
It was in the nineteenth century that historical reenactments became widespread, reflecting the then intense romantic interest in the Middle Ages. Medieval culture was widely admired as an antidote to the modern enlightenment and industrial age. Plays and theatrical works (such as Ivanhoe, which in 1820 was playing in six different productions in London alone) perpetuated the romanticism of knights, castles, feasts and tournaments. The Duke of Buckingham staged naval battles from the Napoleonic War on the large lake on his estate in 1821, and a reenactment of the Battle of Waterloo was put on for a public viewing at Astley's Amphitheatre in 1824.
Historical reenactment came of age with the grand spectacle of the Eglinton Tournament of 1839, a reenactment of a medieval joust and revel held in Scotland, and organized by Archibald Montgomerie, 13th Earl of Eglinton. The Tournament was a deliberate act of Romanticism, and drew 100,000 spectators.
It was held on a meadow at a loop in the Lugton Water. The ground chosen for the tournament was low, almost marshy, with grassy slopes rising on all sides. Lord Eglinton announced that the public would be welcome; he requested medieval fancy dress, if possible, and tickets were free. The pageant itself featured thirteen medieval knights on horseback.
The preparations, and the many works of art commissioned for or inspired by the Eglinton Tournament, had an effect on public feeling and the course of 19th-century Gothic revivalism. Its ambition carried over to events such as a similar lavish tournament in Brussels in 1905, and presaged the historical reenactments of the present. Features of the tournament were actually inspired by Walter Scott's novel Ivanhoe: it was attempting "to be a living reenactment of the literary romances". In Eglinton’s own words "I am aware of the manifold deficiencies in its exhibition—more perhaps than those who were not so deeply interested in it; I am aware that it was a very humble imitation of the scenes which my imagination had portrayed, but I have, at least, done something towards the revival of chivalry".
Reenactments of battles became more commonplace in the late 19th century, both in Britain, and also in America. Within a year of the Battle of the Little Bighorn, survivors of U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment reenacted the scene of their defeat for the camera as a series of still poses.
In 1895, members of the Gloucestershire Engineer Volunteers reenacted their famous stand at Rorke's Drift, 18 years earlier. 25 British soldiers beat back the attack of 75 Zulus at the Grand Military Fete at the Cheltenham Winter Gardens.
Veterans of the American Civil War recreated battles as a way to remember their fallen comrades and to teach others what the war was all about. The Great Reunion of 1913, celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg, was attended by more than 50,000 Union and Confederate veterans, and included reenactments of elements of the battle, including Pickett's Charge.
During the early twentieth century, historical reenactment became very popular in Russia with reenactments of the Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855) (1906), the Battle of Borodino (1812) in St Petersburg and the Taking of Azov (1696) in Voronezh in 1918. In 1920, there was a reenactment of the 1917 Storming of the Winter Palace on the third anniversary of the event. This reenactment inspired the scenes in Sergei Eisenstein's film October: Ten Days That Shook the World.
Large scale reenactments began to be regularly held at the Royal Tournament, Aldershot Tattoo in the 1920s and 30s. A spectacular recreation of the Siege of Namur, an important military engagement of the Nine Years' War, was staged in 1934 as part of 6-day long show.
In America, modern reenacting is thought to have begun during the 1961–1965 Civil War Centennial commemorations. After more than 6,000 reenactors participated in a 125th anniversary event near the original Manassas battlefield, reenacting grew in popularity during the late 1980s and 1990s, and there are today over a hundred Civil War reenactments held each year throughout the country.
Most participants are amateurs who pursue history as a hobby. Participants within this hobby are diverse, ranging in age from young children whose parents bring them along to events, to the elderly. In addition to hobbyists, members of the armed forces and professional historians sometimes participate.
Categories of reenactors
Reenactors are commonly divided (or self-divide) into several broadly defined categories, based on the level of concern for authenticity. (These definitions and categorisation is primarily that of the USA. Other countries have different terms of art, slang, and definitions.)
"Farbs" or "polyester soldiers", are reenactors who spend relatively little time and/or money achieving authenticity with regard to uniforms, accessories, or period behavior. Anachronistic clothing, fabrics, fasteners (such as velcro), snoods, footwear, vehicles, and modern cigarettes are common.
The origin of the word "farb" (and the derivative adjective "farby") is unknown, though it appears to date to early American Civil War centennial reenactments in 1960 or 1961. Some think that the word derives from a truncated version of "Far be it from authentic". An alternative definition is "Far Be it for me to question/criticise", or "Fast And Researchless Buying". A humorous definition of "farb" is "F.A.R.B: Forget About Research, Baby". Some early reenactors assert the word derives from German Farbe, color, because inauthentic reenactors were over-colorful compared with the dull blues, greys or browns of the real Civil War uniforms that were the principal concern of American reenactors at the time the word was coined. According to Burton K. Kummerow, a member of "The Black Hats, CSA" reenactment group in the early 1960s, he first heard it used as a form of fake German to describe a fellow reenactor. The term was picked up by George Gorman of the 2nd North Carolina at the Centennial Manassas Reenactment in 1961, and has been used by reenactors since.
Mainstream reenactors make an effort to appear authentic, but may come out of character in the absence of an audience. Visible stitches are likely to be sewn in a period-correct manner, but hidden stitches and undergarments may not be period-appropriate. Food consumed before an audience is likely to be generally appropriate to the period, but it may not be seasonally and locally appropriate. Modern items are sometimes used "after hours" or in a hidden fashion. The common attitude is to put on a good show, but that accuracy need only go as far as others can see.
At the other extreme from farbs are "hard-core authentics", or "progressives," as they sometimes prefer to be called. Sometimes derisively called "stitch counters", "stitch nazis", or "stitch witches."  "(t)he hard-core movement is often misunderstood and sometimes maligned."
Hard-core reenactors generally value thorough research, and sometimes deride mainstream reenactors for perpetuating inaccurate "reenactorisms". They generally seek an "immersive" reenacting experience, trying to live, as much as possible, as someone of the period might have done. This includes eating seasonally and regionally appropriate food, sewing inside seams and undergarments in a period-appropriate manner, and staying in character throughout an event. The desire for an immersive experience often leads hard-core reenactors to smaller events, or to setting up separate camps at larger events.
The period of an event is the range of dates. See authenticity (reenactment) for a discussion of how the period affects the types of costume, weapons, and armour used.
Popular periods to reenact include:
- Classical reenactment
- Dark Ages reenactment
- Medieval reenactment
- Renaissance reenactment (including English Civil War reenactment)
- Modern reenactment
Clothing and equipment
Numerous cottage industries abound that provide not only the materials but even the finished product for use by reenactors. Uniforms and clothing made of hand woven, natural dyed materials are sewn by hand or machine using the sartorial techniques of the period portrayed.
Detailed attention to authenticity in design and construction is given equally as well to headgear, footwear, eyewear, camp gear, accoutrements, military equipment, weapons and so on. These items (which are generally much more expensive than clothing and uniform in modern production) offer the wearer a lifelike experience in the use of materials, tailoring and manufacturing techniques that are as close to authentic as possible.
Event spectators may derive more satisfaction from attending reenactments when a high level of authenticity is attained in both individual clothing and equipment, as well as equipment used in camp.
The term 'living history' describes the performance of bringing history to life for the general public in a manner that in most cases is not following a planned script. Historical presentation includes a continuum from well researched attempts to recreate a known historical event for educational purposes, through representations with theatrical elements, to competitive events for purposes of entertainment. The line between amateur and professional presentations at living history museums can be blurred. While the latter routinely use museum professionals and trained interpreters to help convey the story of history to the public, some museums and historic sites employ living history groups with high standards of authenticity for the same role at special events.
Living histories are usually meant for education of the public. Such events do not necessarily have a mock battle but instead are aimed at portraying the life, and more importantly the lifestyle, of people of the period. This often includes both military and civilian impressions. Occasionally, storytelling or acting sketches take place to involve or explain the everyday life or military activity to the viewing public. More common are craft and cooking demonstrations, song and leisure activities, and lectures. Combat training or duels can also be encountered even when larger combat demonstrations are not present.
In the United States, The National Park Service land; NPS policy "does not allow for battle reenactments (simulated combat with opposing lines and casualties) on NPS property. There are exceptions i.e. Saylors Creek, Gettysburg. These are HIGHLY controlled with exacting safety factors, as well as, exacting historial truths"
In Germany medieval reenactment is usually associated with living history and renaissance faires and festivals as e.g. the Peter and Paul festival in Bretten. or the Schloss Kaltenberg knights tournament. The majority of combat reenactment groups are battlefield reenactment groups, some of which have become isolated to some degree because of a strong focus on authenticity. The specific German approach of authenticity is less about replaying a certain event, but to allow an immersion in a certain era, to catch, in the sense of Walter Benjamin the 'spiritual message expressed in every monument's and every site's own "trace" and "aura"', even in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction. Historic city festivals and events are quite important to build up local communities and contribute to the self-image of municipalities. Events in monuments or on historical sites are less about the events related to them but serve as staffage for the immersion experience. In Denmark several open air museums uses living history as a part of their concept. These include Middelaldercentret, The Old Town, Aarhus and Frilandsmuseet.
Combat demonstrations are mock battles put on by reenacting organizations and/or private parties primarily to show the public what combat in the period might have been like. Combat demonstrations are only loosely based on actual battles, if at all, and may simply consist of demonstrations of basic tactics and maneuvering techniques.
Scripted battles are reenactments in the strictest sense; the battles are planned out beforehand so that the companies and regiments make the same actions that were taken in the original battles.
They are often fought at or near the original battle ground or at a place very similar to the original. These demonstrations vary widely in size from a few hundred fighters to several thousand, as do the arenas used (getting the right balance can often make or break the spectacle for the public).
Tactical battles are generally not open to the public. Tactical battles are fought like real battles with both sides coming up with strategies and tactics to beat their opponents. With no script, a basic set of agreed-upon rules (physical boundaries, time limit, victory conditions, etc.), and on-site judges, tactical battles can be considered a form of Live action role-playing game, but, in the cases where firearms are used, with real weapons firing blank ammunition (depending on gun control ordinances).
Many castles, museums, and other historical tourist attractions employ actors or professional reenactors as part of the experience. These usually address the recreation of a specific town, village, or activity within a certain time frame. Commercial reenactment shows are usually choreographed and follow a script.
Some locations have set up permanent authentic displays. By their nature, these are usually living history presentations, rather than tactical or battle reenactment, although some host larger temporary events.
In 2008 Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve and North Carolina's Tryon Palace staff and buildings provided the period backdrop for early 1800's life depicted in the "Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck" documentary.
Many publications have covered historical reenactment and living history. Prominent among these are the Camp Chase Gazette, Smoke and Fire News, and two different magazines named Living History, and Skirmish Magazine.
The Medieval Soldier by Gerry Embleton and John Howe (1995) is a popular book on the topic, which has been translated into French and German. It was followed by Medieval Military Costume in Colour Photographs.
For the Napoleonic period, two books of interest cover life in the military at that time and living history: The Napoleonic Soldier by Stephen E. Maughan (1999) and Marching with Sharpe by B. J. Bluth (2001). Various Napoleonic reenactment groups cover the history of their associated regiments as well as try to describe and illustrate how they approach recreating the period. The goal to be as authentic as is possible has led many serious reenactment societies to set up their own research groups to verify their knowledge of the uniforms, drill and all aspects of the life that they strive to portray. In this way reenactment plays a vital role in bringing history to life, keeping history alive, and in expanding the knowledge and understanding of the period.
In the UK a number of small publishing houses have been established that particularly publish books about the English Civil War and more recently, of earlier periods as well. The largest are Stuart Press (with around 250 volumes in print) and Partizan Press.
Little has been published about reenactment in the mainstream market, except for press articles. One exception is the book I Believe in Yesterday: My Adventures in Living History by Tim Moore, which recounts his experiences trying out different periods of reenactment and the people he meets and things he learns whilst doing so.
Motion picture and television producers often turn to reenactment groups for support; films like Gettysburg, Glory, The Patriot, and Alatriste benefited greatly from the input of reenactors, who arrived on set fully equipped and steeped in knowledge of military procedures, camp life, and tactics.
I think we're really fortunate to have those people involved. In fact, they couldn't be making this picture without them; there's no question about that. These guys come with their wardrobe, they come with their weaponry. They come with all the accoutrements, but they also come with the stuff in their head and the stuff in their heart.
There are a number of criticisms made about reenactment.
Many point out that the average age of reenactors is generally far higher than the average age of soldiers in most conflicts. Few reenactment units discriminate based on age and physical condition.
In the United States, reenactors are overwhelmingly white and thus in Civil War reenactment African-American characters, both enslaved and free, are underrepresented. (Hundreds of thousands of black Union soldiers served in the Civil War.) In 2013, five black reenactors at the 150th anniversary event at Gettysburg constituted "the largest bloc of black civilians anyone had ever seen at an event whose historical basis was full of black civilians...Astonished spectators stopped them constantly, usually assuming they were portraying enslaved people."
Jenny Thompson's book discusses the "fantasy farb", or tendency of reenactors to gravitate towards "elite" units such as commandos, paratroopers, or Waffen-SS units. This results in under-representation in the reenactment community of what were the most common types of military troops in the period being reenacted. The question has arisen among North American reenactors, but similar issues exist in Europe. For example, in Britain, a high proportion of Napoleonic War reenactors perform as members of the 95th Rifles (perhaps due to the popularity of the fictional character of Richard Sharpe) and medieval groups have an over-proportion of plate-armoured soldiers.[original research?]
A final concern is that reenactors may be accused of being, or actually be, aligned with the political beliefs that some of the reenacted armies fought for, such as Nazism or the Confederate South. For example, U.S. politician Rich Iott's participation in a World War II reenactment in which he was in the group that portrayed the German 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking side excited media criticism during his 2010 Congressional campaign. In 2017, in the weeks following a far-right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia at which a neo-Nazi killed a counterprotester, some reenactors complained about—as one reporter put it—"the co-opting of the [Civil] war by neo-Nazis."
- List of historical reenactment groups
- Commemoration of the American Civil War#Reenactments
- Live action role-playing game
- Living history
- Little Woodham
- Howard Giles. "A Brief History of Re-enactment".
- Anstruther, Ian The Knight and the Umbrella: An Account of the Eglinton Tournament, 1839. London: Geoffrey Bles Ltd, 1963. pp. 122–123
- Corbould, Edward. The Eglinton Tournament: Dedicated to the Earl of Eglinton. Pall Mall, England: Hodgson & Graves, 1840.. p. 5.
- Anstruther, Ian The Knight and the Umbrella: An Account of the Eglinton Tournament, 1839. London: Geoffrey Bles Ltd, 1963. pp. 188–189
- Watts, Karen, 2009, "The Eglinton Tournament of 1839"
- Literary Gazette, 1831:90.
- Hadden, Robert Lee. "Reliving the Civil War: A reenactor's handbook". Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1999. p. 4 "Civil War reenacting was done almost from the beginning of war, as soldiers demonstrated to family and friends their actions during the war, in camp, in drill, and in battle. Veterans organizations recreated camp life to show their children and others how they lived and to reproduce the camaraderie of shared experience with their fellow veterans."
- Heiser, John (September 1998). "The Great Reunion of 1913". National Park Service. Archived from the original on 18 September 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-15.
- Hadden. p. 4 "Without a doubt, Civil War reenactment got its boost during the centennial, which also saw the birth of the North-South Skirmish Association (N-SSA)."
- Hadden. p. 6 "In 1986, the first of the 125th Anniversary battles was held near the original battlefield of Manassas. More than anything, this mega-event sparked an interest in the Civil War and reenacting."
- Beery, Zoë (28 March 2018). "Say Goodbye to Your Happy Plantation Narrative". The Outline. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
- Strauss. "In the United States, hobby organizations participate in the public reenactment of historical events. The most popular is Civil War reenacting, which can be viewed as a manifestation of the unresolved nature of that war ... Among reenactors, the quest for historical authenticity is considered a core value."
- Stanton. p. 34
- Hadden pp. 209, 219
- Hadden p. 8. "Ross M. Kimmel states that it was used at the Manassas reenactment in 1961 ... George Gorman and his 2nd North Carolina picked up the term at the First Manassas Reenactment in 1961 and enjoyed using it constantly with condescension and sarcasm directed toward other units."
- Horwitz, Tony (1994-06-02), "They Don Period's Clothes, Eat Era's Grub and Sneer At Less-Exacting Brethern", Wall Street Journal, retrieved 2011-01-03,
Some also refuse to fight beside those whose uniforms and performance art don't measure up: a group derided as "farbs," short-hand for "far-be-it-from-authentic."
- Hadden, p. 8
- Hadden p. 8 Juanita Leisch calls it "Fast And Researchless Buying," and other sources insist it came from the Bicentennial and Revolutionary War groups and means "Fairly Authentic Royal British."
- Hadden, pp. 219–220
- Hadden p. 138
- Hadden p. 224
- Hadden, p. 138
- Hadden p. 138 "Like soldiers of the Civil War, progressives experience the same poor conditions that the original soldiers did, camping without tents and sleeping out exposed to the cold and rain. They spend weekends eating bad and insufficient food, and they practice a steady regimen of work, marching, and drill. They suffer the cold, carrying insufficient clothing and blankets as well as sleeping campaign-style by spooning with each other for warmth."
- Hadden p. 139
- Great War Association-Home. Great-war-assoc.org. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
- . "Wilson's Creek National Battlefield FAQ" Check
|url=value (help). National Park Service. 25 July 2008.
- "Der Tross 10–14 Juni 2004". Archived from the original on 2016-05-13. Retrieved 2018-12-22.
- Kaltenberg web entry
- Michael Petzet: "ln the full richness of their authenticity" – The Test of Authenticity and the New Cult of Monuments, Nara Conference on Authenticity in Relation to the World Heritage 1994.
- Benita Luckmann: Bretten, Politik in einer deutschen Kleinstadt. Enke, Stuttgart 1970, ISBN 3-432-01618-2.
- The Medieval Town. Middelaldercentret. Accessed 9 September 2015
- ""Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck" Documentary". nautilusproductions.com. Retrieved 19 July 2015.
- Moore, Tim (2008). I Believe in Yesterday: My Adventures in Living History. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-07781-3
- Jubera, Drew (1993-10-09), "Gettysburg: Ted Turner, a cast of thousands and the ghosts of the past", Baltimore Sun, Tribune Company, retrieved 2012-04-19
- AFI Night at the Movies
- This documentary can be found on the DVD of the film Gettysburg.
- Thompson, Jenny. Wargames: Inside the World of 20th Century Reenactors (Smithsonian Books, Washington, 2004). ISBN 1-58834-128-3
- "Black Soldiers in the U.S. Military During the Civil War". National Archives. 2016-08-15. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
- Beery, Zoë (28 March 2018). "Say Goodbye to Your Happy Plantation Narrative". The Outline. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
- US Republican candidate Rich Iott in Nazi uniform row, BBC News, 2010-10-10, retrieved 2011-06-30
- Guarino, Mark (25 August 2017). "Will Civil War reenactments die out?". Washington Post. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
- Allred, Randal (1996). "Catharsis, Revision, and Re‐enactment: Negotiating the Meaning of the American Civil War". Journal of American Culture. 19 (4): 1–13. doi:10.1111/j.1542-734X.1996.1904_1.x.
- Chronis, Athinodoros (2005). "Coconstructing heritage at the Gettysburg storyscape". Annals of Tourism Research. 32 (2): 386–406. doi:10.1016/j.annals.2004.07.009.
- Chronis, Athinodoros (2008). "Co-constructing the narrative experience: staging and consuming the American Civil War at Gettysburg". Journal of Marketing Management. 24 (1): 5–27. doi:10.1362/026725708X273894.
- Decker, Stephanie K. (2010). "Being Period: An Examination of Bridging Discourse in a Historical Reenactment Group". Journal of Contemporary Ethnography. 39 (3): 273–296. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1032.9314. doi:10.1177/0891241609341541.
- Gapps, Stephen (2009). "Mobile monuments: A view of historical reenactment and authenticity from inside the costume cupboard of history". Rethinking History. 13 (3): 395–409. doi:10.1080/13642520903091159.
- Hadden, Robert Lee (1999). Reliving the Civil War: A reenactor's handbook. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books.
- Hall, Dennis (1994). "Civil War reenactors and the postmodern sense of history". Journal of American Culture. 17 (3): 7–11. doi:10.1111/j.1542-734X.1994.00007.x.
- Heiser, John (September 1998). "The Great Reunion of 1913". National Park Service. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
- Horwitz, Tony. Confederates in the Attic: Dispatches from the Unfinished Civil War (1998), an ethnographic study of re-enactors and groups engaged in remembrance.
- Saupe, Achim. Authenticity, Version: 3, in: Docupedia Zeitgeschichte, 12 April 2016. Retrieved 31 January 2017, doi:10.14765/zzf.dok.2.645.v1
- Skow, John; et al. (August 11, 1986). "Bang, Bang! You're History, Buddy". Time magazine. p. 58.
- Stanton, Cathy (1999-11-01). "Reenactors in the Parks: A Study of External Revolutionary War Reenactment Activity at National Parks" (PDF) National Park Service. Retrieved on 2008-07-28.
- Strauss, Mitchell (2001). "A Framework for Assessing Military Dress Authenticity in Civil War Reenacting". Clothing and Textiles Research Journal. 19 (4): 145–157. doi:10.1177/0887302X0101900401. Retrieved 31 December 2008.
- Teitelman, Emma (2010). "'Knights and Their Ladies Fair': Reenacting the Civil War". Bachelor's Thesis, Wesleyan University.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Reenactments.|
- The Historical Reenactment Web Site, Information relating to reenactment globally and the home of The Historical Reenactment Wiki
- UK-based historical event organisers, their web site featuring "A Brief History of Reenactment", primarily but not exclusively from a UK and European perspective.
- LivingHistory.co.uk, The UK Online Home of Reenacting and Living History
- Reenactor.Net, The Worldwide Online Home of Reenacting[permanent dead link]
- 17th Century Living History Village