Crystal L Hoyt
email: choyt@richmond.edu

Jim Blascovich

Leadership Effi cacy and Women Leaders' Responses to Stereotype Activation

Keywords: gender, leadership, reactance, self-effi cacy, small groups, stereotypes

The role of leadership effi cacy in women's reactance responses to stereotype-based leadership role expectations was examined in two laboratory studies. Participants, selected on the basis of leadership effi cacy scores, served as leaders of ostensible three-person groups. Half were primed with the gender leadership stereotype. An immersive virtual environment designed for this research served as the leadership setting. Results indicated that the effects of stereotype activation on women leaders were moderated by leadership effi cacy such that high effi cacy leaders exhibited more positive, reactance responses (increased perceived performance, increased rated performance, greater domain identifi cation, and higher well-being) than low effi cacy leaders. Additionally, perceived performance mediated the domain identifi cation and well-being effects of stereotype activation on high and low effi cacy leaders.

Organizational leaders make important and far-reaching decisions that impact many aspects of society. In the US relatively few of these powerful positions are held by women who, despite increased representation in organizations, remain underrepresented in the upper echelons of American business and government. For example, women represent only 23.8% of Chief Executive Offi cers of all organizations in the United States (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2006), and the numbers are even more bleak when we look to Fortune 500 companies where women hold a mere 7.9% of the highest titles and there are only 11 women CEOs (2.2%;Catalyst, 2002;[START_REF] Joyce | Fortune 500 gains female CEO in new PepsiCo chief[END_REF]. [START_REF] Eagly | Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders[END_REF] recently proposed an explanation for the dearth of women in top leadership roles. According to their role congruity theory, the descriptive and prescriptive aspects of the female gender stereotype are incongruent with the leadership role, and that incongruity leads to prejudice against women leaders. In addition to leading to prejudice against women leaders, the gender leader stereotype may also directly affect women in leadership positions. The goal of this research is to understand how this stereotype infl uences women in the leadership role.

Gender stereotypes and the leadership role

Stereotypic beliefs about gender differences are pervasive, well documented, and highly resistant to change [START_REF] Dodge | Requisite management characteristics revisited: Two decades later[END_REF][START_REF] Heilman | Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women's ascent up the organizational ladder[END_REF]. Gender stereotypes encompass stereotypic beliefs about the attributes of women and men that prescribe how men and women should, or ought to, be 1 [START_REF] Burgess | Who women are, who women should be: Descriptive and prescriptive gender stereotyping in sex discrimination[END_REF][START_REF] Glick | Sexism and other 'isms': Independence, status, and the ambivalent content of stereotypes[END_REF]. Descriptive stereotypical attributes of men include 'agentic' characteristics emphasizing confi dence, control, and assertiveness whereas stereotypical attributes of women include 'communal' characteristics highlighting a concern for others [START_REF] Broverman | Sex-role stereotypes: A current reappraisal[END_REF][START_REF] Eagly | Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation[END_REF][START_REF] Eagly | Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: A current appraisal[END_REF][START_REF] Heilman | Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women's ascent up the organizational ladder[END_REF]. Although women and men are viewed as differing on other traits [START_REF] Deaux | Components of gender stereotypes[END_REF], 1984;[START_REF] Eckes | Explorations in gender cognition: Content and structure of female and male subtypes[END_REF], the agentic and communal stereotypical attributes directly relate to the leadership domain. Substantial empirical research supports the prescriptive nature of gender stereotypes [START_REF] Glick | The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism[END_REF][START_REF] Williams | Sex and psyche: Gender and self viewed cross-culturally[END_REF][START_REF] Wood | Conformity to sex-typed norms, affects, and the self-concept[END_REF]. Accordingly, not only should individuals conform to their stereotypic description, but they should also avoid behaviors that are incompatible with the stereotype [START_REF] Heilman | Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women's ascent up the organizational ladder[END_REF].

Role congruity theory maintains that the agentic qualities deemed necessary in the leadership role are incompatible with the predominantly communal qualities associated with women [START_REF] Eagly | Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders[END_REF]. This gender leader stereotype (aka think-manager-think-male stereotype) is well validated [START_REF] Sczesny | A closer look beneath the surface: Various facets of the think-managerthink-male stereotype[END_REF]. Top management positions and executive level jobs are almost always thought to require an achievement-oriented aggressiveness and an emotional toughness that is antithetical to the female gender stereotype. Substantial empirical evidence indicates that stereotypically male qualities are thought necessary for successful leaders, and good leaders are described predominantly by masculine attributes [START_REF] Arkkelin | The 'good manager': Sex-typed, androgynous, or likable?[END_REF][START_REF] Martell | Sex stereotyping in the executive suite: 'Much ado about something[END_REF][START_REF] Powell | The 'good manager': Masculine or androgynous?[END_REF], 1984, 1989;[START_REF] Rosenwasser | Gender role and political offi ce: Effects of perceived masculinity/femininity of candidate and political offi ce[END_REF][START_REF] Schein | The relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics[END_REF][START_REF] Schein | A global look at psychological barriers to women's progress in management[END_REF].

Biases in the perception and evaluation of female leaders

Individuals have incongruent expectations for female leaders: those based on gender stereotypes and those based on leadership roles. The perceived incongruity between the female gender role and the leadership role leads to prejudice that can account for the numerous fi ndings that indicate less favorable attitudes toward female than male leaders, greater difficulty for women to attain top leadership roles, and greater diffi culty for these women to be viewed as effective in these roles [START_REF] Eagly | Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders[END_REF]. For example, Heilman and colleagues have shown that while women managers are seen as more similar to successful managers than women in general, they are rated as more different from successful managers than are male managers [START_REF] Heilman | Sex stereotypes: Do they infl uence perceptions of managers[END_REF][START_REF] Heilman | Has anything changed? Current characterizations of men, women and managers[END_REF]. Researchers have also demonstrated that women are presumed to be less competent leaders than men and less worthy of the leadership position across a variety of contexts [START_REF] Boldry | Gender stereotypes and the evaluation of men and women in military training[END_REF][START_REF] Carli | Gender, hierarchy, and leadership: An introduction[END_REF][START_REF] Heilman | Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women's ascent up the organizational ladder[END_REF][START_REF] Ridgeway | Gender, status, and leadership[END_REF][START_REF] Schein | A global look at psychological barriers to women's progress in management[END_REF]. Additionally, research has revealed that in order to be infl uential leaders, women need to combine communal qualities (e.g. warmth and friendliness) with agentic qualities (e.g. competence and directiveness; [START_REF] Carli | Gender and social infl uence[END_REF][START_REF] Eagly | Gender and the evaluation of leaders: A meta-analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Rudman | Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women[END_REF]. While empirical research clearly establishes the impact of stereotypes on the perception and evaluation of women leaders, the literature is less clear on the impact of these stereotypes on women leaders themselves; the goal of the current research is to examine this impact.

The impact of stereotype activation on the target

Responses to stereotypes vary from deleterious threat responses to more benign reactance responses. Initial research into the impact of stereotypes on targets generally demonstrated the pernicious effects of stereotype threat, defi ned as the apprehension that individuals feel when they are at risk of confi rming a negative stereotype about their group [START_REF] Aronson | Stereotype threat and the academic underperformance of minorities and women[END_REF]. Stereotype threat undermines individuals' assessments of their abilities and results in decreased performance; it has been shown to play an important role in the underperformance of minorities [START_REF] Aronson | Stereotype threat and the academic underperformance of minorities and women[END_REF][START_REF] Steele | Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans[END_REF]. Stereotype vulnerability effects have been demonstrated in the leadership domain. [START_REF] Davies | Clearing the air: Identity safety moderates the effects of stereotype threat on women's leadership aspirations[END_REF] found that exposure to stereotypic commercials undermines women's leadership aspirations; however, presenting women with an identity safe environment eliminates this vulnerability. Additionally, [START_REF] Bergeron | Disabling the able: Stereotype threat and women's work performance[END_REF] found that men outperformed women on a managerial task but only when it was a masculine sex role-typed task; this effect disappeared on a feminine sex roletyped task.

As is clear from the responses of women in identity safe environments [START_REF] Davies | Clearing the air: Identity safety moderates the effects of stereotype threat on women's leadership aspirations[END_REF] and feminine sex-typed tasks [START_REF] Bergeron | Disabling the able: Stereotype threat and women's work performance[END_REF], stereotypes are not always met with vulnerability responses. Indeed, research has shown that when gender stereotypes are primed explicitly women sometimes respond by engaging in stereotype countering behaviors; that is, they demonstrate stereotype reactance [START_REF] Kray | Battle of the sexes: Gender stereotype confi rmation and reactance in negotiations[END_REF]). [START_REF] Brehm | A theory of psychological reactance[END_REF] psychological reactance theory contends that people respond to perceived threats to their freedom (such as stereotyped expectations of inferiority) by attempting to reassert their freedom (engaging in counterstereotypical behavior). For example, Kray and colleagues (2001) showed that women blatantly presented with the gender and bargaining stereotype outperform men at the bargaining table. Additionally, Kray and colleagues found that participants need to possess suffi cient power in order to react against the stereotype [START_REF] Kray | Stereotype reactance at the bargaining table: The effect of stereotype activation and power on claiming and creating value[END_REF].

This distinction between stereotype vulnerability and stereotype reactance is similar to the distinction between stereotype assimilation and contrast [START_REF] Stoddard | Stereotype threat, assimilation, and contrast effects, and subtlety of priming, or: 'You say "Bitch" like it's a bad thing[END_REF]. Assimilation effects refer to performance defi cits resulting from stereotype threat. Contrast effects refer to increases in performance by individuals primed with negative stereotypes regarding their group. Stoddard and colleagues examined the moderating role of the subtlety of the stereotype prime on women's desire to take on a leadership role. Specifi cally, they found that subtle stereotype activation evoked assimilation such that women were less likely to desire a leadership position, whereas blatant stereotype activation resulted in a heightened desire to assume a leadership position.

The role of effi cacy in the impact of stereotype activation

Self-efficacy, a key construct derived from Bandura's social-cognitive theory (1986), is defi ned as 'belief in one's capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments' (Bandura, 1997, p. 3). Empirical studies yield consistent fi ndings revealing that self-effi cacy infl uences thought patterns, stress reactions, and coping; what people choose to do; their persistence in the face of diffi culty; how much effort they put forth; and performance [START_REF] Bandura | Self-effi cacy mechanism in human agency[END_REF][START_REF] Bandura | Social foundations of thought and action[END_REF][START_REF] Bandura | Self-evaluative and self-effi cacy mechanisms governing the motivational effects of goal systems[END_REF][START_REF] Bandura | Effect of perceived controllability and performance standards on self-regulation of complex decision-making[END_REF][START_REF] Barling | Self-effi cacy beliefs and sales performance[END_REF][START_REF] Campbell | The effects of mathematics task performance on math selfeffi cacy and task interest[END_REF][START_REF] Hill | Role of effi cacy expectations in predicting the decision to use advanced technologies[END_REF][START_REF] Lent | Comparison of three theoretically derived variables in predicting career and academic behavior: Self-effi cacy, interest congruence, and consequence thinking[END_REF][START_REF] Taylor | Type A behavior and faculty research productivity: What are the mechanisms?[END_REF].

Self-effi cacy as a moderator of stereotype activation effects

Self-efficacy has been shown to moderate responses to work-related stressors and is associated with the ways in which individuals cope with stressors [START_REF] Jex | Effi cacy beliefs as a moderator of the impact of work-related stressors: A multilevel study[END_REF][START_REF] Stumpf | Self-effi cacy expectations and coping with career-related events[END_REF]. Individuals high in self-efficacy adopt a more problem-focused coping strategy; those lower in self-efficacy assume a more emotion-focused approach. These approaches are not equally effi cient; problem-focused coping is associated with more adaptive responses than emotion-focused coping [START_REF] Lazarus | Stress, coping, and adaptation[END_REF]. Construing stereotype activation as a potential stressor, reactions to stereotype activation seem likely to be moderated by levels of self-effi cacy.

Recent research supports the prediction that self-effi cacy moderates responses to stereotype activation. Solo status, or being the lone woman in a group of men, is a suffi cient situational cue to induce stereotype activation for women [START_REF] Inzlicht | A threatening intellectual environment: Why females are susceptible to experiencing problem-solving defi cits in the presence of males[END_REF][START_REF] Sekaquaptewa | Solo status, stereotype threat, and performance expectancies: Their effects on women's performance[END_REF]. [START_REF] White | Confi dence as a moderator of the effect of solo status on performance in a workgroup[END_REF] examined the impact of task-specifi c effi cacy on the effect of solo status on math performance. They found that women's effi cacy moderated their performance on a math test when they were the solo female group member. Specifi cally, highly confi dent women performed better in the stereotype activating solo condition than less confi dent women. In the current research, selfeffi cacy for leadership is predicted to moderate women's responses to stereotype activation in the leadership domain such that those with high levels of effi cacy will demonstrate reactance responses.

Hypotheses

In the current research, stereotypes were primed in a blatant manner, and self-effi cacy was examined as a potential moderator of stereotype reactance effects. 2 We hypothesized that leadership effi cacy would interact with stereotype activation on the following responses: perceived and rated performance, domain identifi cation, and psychological well-being.

Perceived and rated performance

In situations, such as leadership situations, that often lack clear and instantaneous measures of effectiveness, individuals' perceptions of how well they performed become a very important source of immediate feedback to the self. Perceptions of successful performance can convince people that they have what it takes to succeed in a domain which can in turn result in perseverance, resilience in the face of adversity, higher accomplishments, and success at new activities [START_REF] Bandura | Self-effi cacy: The exercise of control[END_REF]. Consequently, we hypothesized that leadership effi cacy would interact with stereotype activation such that high effi cacy leaders would report higher levels of perceived performance when the stereotype was primed than when neutral material was primed. Additionally, based on the stereotype reactance literature we predicted that ratings of performance would show that stereotype activation increases the performance of high efficacy leaders compared to the control condition.

Domain identifi cation

Stereotype threat theory proposes that one way individuals may cope with the threat is by disidentifying with the stereotype-relevant domain. That is, individuals' self-perceptions and self-concept become independent of performance in that domain. Such disidentifi cation can diminish achievement in the domain [START_REF] Steele | Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans[END_REF]. For example, stigmatized individuals (e.g. African-Americans) are more prone than their non-stigmatized counterparts to disidentify with academics, academic performance situations being a domain in which stereotype threat often occurs [START_REF] Major | Coping with negative stereotypes about intellectual performance: The role of psychological disengagement[END_REF]. Consequently, we hypothesized that leadership effi cacy would interact with stereotype activation such that high effi cacy leaders would show reactance by reporting more identifi cation with leadership in the stereotype activation compared to the control condition.

Psychological well-being

Previous research has shown that negative stereotypes can adversely affect the psychological well-being of the targets [START_REF] Swim | Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Special Issue: Stigma: An insider's perspective[END_REF]. Psychological well-being includes, but is not limited to, reported levels of self-esteem and depressed affect. Consequently, we hypothesized that leadership effi cacy would interact with stereotype activation such that high effi cacy leaders would report greater levels of well-being in the stereotype activation compared to the control condition.

Mediational hypotheses

Based on self-perception theory and self-esteem theory, self-perception was hypothesized to mediate the proposed interaction effects on domain identifi cation and psychological well-being. First, according to Bem's self-perception theory (1967), individuals infer their own traits and attitudes by observing their own behavior. Thus, we hypothesized that individuals' perceptions of their leadership performance would infl uence their inference about how strongly they view themselves as leadership-oriented persons; that is, how much they identify with the domain of leadership. Second, we hypothesized perceptions of performance on the stereotype domain relevant task would directly infl uence individuals' well-being. That is, perceiving that one performed well on the leadership task and thus disconfi rmed the negative stereotype would lead to increased psychological well-being (see Figure 1 for hypothesized mediational relationships.)

Overview of present research

Procedural overview

These hypotheses were addressed in two experimental studies. Each of these studies employed a paradigm designed to test the hypotheses in a controlled, small group, leadership situation. Given that the primary goal of these studies was to demonstrate the differential effects of stereotype activation on high and low effi cacy leaders, participant selection was based on leadership effi cacy. Participants took part in a group task as the 'randomly assigned' leader of a three-person group. Half of the participants were primed with the gender leader stereotype before taking the leadership role in an employee hiring decision task.

Immersive virtual environment technology

Historically, experimental investigations into leadership and other facets of group life have employed impactful manipulations to induce participants to experience certain affects, cognitions, and/or motivations. Common simulation techniques include the use of vignettes, role-playing, confederates, and verbal instructions. Recent technological advances have provided researchers with a tool to facilitate compelling manipulations: immersive virtual environment technology (IVET). We defi ne a virtual environment as one providing synthetic sensory information that leads to perceptions of environments and their contents as if they are not synthetic [START_REF] Blascovich | Immersive virtual environment technology as a methodological tool for social psychology[END_REF].

Although relatively new, IVET technology has been noted for many of the methodological advantages it provides (see [START_REF] Blascovich | Immersive virtual environment technology as a methodological tool for social psychology[END_REF] for a detailed description). First, it provides superb control over the confederates' (followers') demographic characteristics, such as sex and ethnicity, and behaviors, assuring exact replications of confederates' behaviors across participants. Additionally, IVET diminishes the need for live research confederates, thus increasing efficiency in conducting experiments. In terms of operation, our IVET system consisted of three subsystems: a) a body location and head tracker, b) a graphics rendering computer, and c) an audiovisual head-mounted display (HMD). Translation and orientation information regarding the user's body and head is sensed and recorded by the trackers, which in turn inform the rendering computer, which then generates and projects visual and auditory stimuli to the user's HMD 3 (see Figure 2).

These experiments were conducted in a laboratory that contained three rooms in which three people, each located in a separate room, can interact together within a virtual conference room consisting of three people sitting around a table. The leadership task took place within this immersive virtual conference room with, what the leaders were led to believe were, two other research participants, Chris (male) and Michelle (female). Participants were led to believe that the two other participants would don their HMDs in the two other laboratory rooms and that they would all be networked together into one virtual conference. In the virtual room the participant/leader sat across the conference table from the two ostensible group members who were programmed to generate random nonverbal body movements, including eye blinks, head movements, and small facial expressions (see Figure 2).

Study 1

This study tested the hypotheses that leadership effi cacy would interact with stereotype activation on perceived leadership performance, rated leadership per formance, and leadership domain identification and that the latter moderation effect would be mediated by perceived performance.

Method

Participants and design Fifty-four female undergraduate students enrolled in Introductory Psychology at a major research university served as participants and were given either credit toward the Introductory Psychology course research participation requirement or US $10 for their participation. Of the 54, one refused to perform the leadership task, leaving 53 participants in the fi nal sample. The experiment employed a 2 (Leadership Effi cacy: High or Low) × 2 (Stereotype Activation: Primed or Not) between-subjects quasi-experimental design.

Participant selection: Self-efficacy for leadership (SEL) Participants were selected on the basis of SEL scores obtained during a prescreening session at the beginning of the term. [START_REF] Murphy | The contribution of leadership experience and self-effi cacy to group performance under evaluation apprehension[END_REF] developed the SEL to measure individuals' self-effi cacy regarding their general leadership abilities. The SEL has been well-validated in predicting leadership, group, and organizational outcomes [START_REF] Chemers | Dispositional affect and leadership effectiveness: A comparison of self-esteem, optimism and effi cacy[END_REF][START_REF] Murphy | Leader self-regulation: The role of self-effi cacy and multiple intelligences[END_REF][START_REF] Murphy | The contribution of leadership self-effi cacy to performance under stress: An extension of cognitive resources theory[END_REF][START_REF] Watson | Collective effi cacy: A multi-level analysis[END_REF]. Participants rated their leadership abilities on eight 5-point Likert-type scales from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Example statements include 'I am confi dent of my ability to infl uence a work group that I lead,' and 'I know what it takes to keep a work group running smoothly' (α = .93). Those scoring in the upper and lower quartiles of the distribution of prescreening scores were eligible for participation in this study.

Experimental over view Participants were randomly assigned to receive the stereotype or the neutral prime. All participants ostensibly participated in a group task as the randomly assigned leader of the three-person group. Participants were run individually. Upon arrival, participants were greeted by one of two male experimenters. They were told that they were randomly selected to be the group leader and were asked to arrive earlier than the other two group members. After this general introduction to the experiment, the stereotype activation manipulation (see below) was introduced. The participants (i.e. leaders) then received instructions regarding the group task and were given seven minutes to prepare for an audio-recorded three-minute meeting with the other two 'participants'. The participants were then immersed in a virtual world for a three-minute meeting, supposedly with the other participants. 4 Following this, the participants completed the perceived performance and domain identifi cation questionnaires, while the other group members were ostensibly completing the task. Participants were then thoroughly debriefed, thanked, and given course credit or payment.

Stereotype activation manipulation

To prime the gender leader stereotype, participants were given a folder to peruse while waiting for the experimenter to return. For the stereotype activation condition, the folder contained media images of male leaders and information regarding the gender gap in top leadership roles; for example, participants were told that 'in nearly all major corporations, the military and political offi ces, men outnumber women in top leadership roles, and there seems to be a steady gap in men and women in top leadership roles. Though women represent 46% of the U.S. workforce, they hold only about 6% of executive titles like CEO, chairwoman, and executive vice president. And only four women hold CEO positions at Fortune 500 companies'. 5 In the control condition, the folder contained images of and information regarding the virtual reality lab. To augment the stereotype activation manipulation, participants in the experimental condition were also told by the experimenter that the research was aimed at better understanding gender differences in leadership abilities; those in the control condition were simply told that the research was designed to better understand leadership abilities.

Leadership task scenario Participants occupied the role of President of the Human Resources division of James Frick Inc., whose charge was to lead (i.e. chair) a selection committee hiring a new junior associate. Specifi cally, they were assisted by two Vice-Chairs; that is, the other two 'participants'. Leaders were given a memo from the CEO of James Frick Inc. explaining the need for the new associate in detail and were given two applicant information packets. They were informed that the two Vice-Chairs would be given the same memo and packets of applicant information after the meeting. The participants' responsibility was to examine the materials and prepare for a three-minute meeting with the Vice-Chairs. Their job was to explain the task to the followers and advise them on how they thought the followers should go about accomplishing the task. More generally, they were asked to infl uence and motivate them to make the best hiring decision possible. Within an immersive virtual conference room, the leaders held a three-minute meeting with the two Vice-Chairs; this meeting allowed for only one-way communication from the leader to the followers. This task was fashioned after the increasingly common virtual workplace.

Measures

Participants responded to all measures on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from -3 (strongly disagree) to 3 (strongly agree).

Perceived performance Leaders were asked to rate their own performance on two items. The following items were created to assess the participants' perceived performance: 'I performed well on the leadership task I just completed', and 'I am confi dent that I performed well' (α = .87).

Rated performance All audiotapes were independently coded by two trained raters blind to leadership effi cacy and stereotype activation condition. The rated performance scale consisted of fi ve items: vigor (how energetic, active, and lively they were), anxiety (nervousness; reverse coded), task explanation (how well they explained the problem), vision (how well they articulated a clear vision for the company), and authority (how knowledgeable, direct, and down to business they were). Performance assessments were made on a 9-point scale. Interrater reliability was computed using a Pearson's r (r = .89, p < .001).

Domain identifi cation Domain identifi cation

was operationalized as the extent to which the participants identifi ed with being, and saw themselves as, a leader. Fashioned after [START_REF] Steele | Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans[END_REF] academic identifi cation measures, the following items were created to assess leadership identifi cation: 'Leadership is important to me', 'I am a leadership-oriented person', 'It is important for me to be selected group leader', 'I am a good leader', and 'Leadership skills will be important to my career' (α = .88).

Manipulation check To assess the effi cacy of the stereotype activation manipulation, participants were asked to rate the following statement: 'In leadership roles, people f my gender often face biased evaluations'.

Study 2

Due, in part, to the small sample size for Study 1 (n = 53), we conducted Study 2 as a replication as well as an extension of Study 1. The methods for both studies are presented and, for simplification, the data from both studies are analyzed together. Study 2 was extended to test well-being responses. Thus, effi cacy was expected to interact with stereotype activation on perceptions and ratings of leadership performance, identifi cation with the domain of leadership, and wellbeing responses. Additionally, this study tested the prediction that the interaction between leadership effi cacy and stereotype activation on domain identifi cation and well-being would be mediated by perceived performance.

Method

Participants and design Seventy-fi ve female undergraduate students attending a major research university participated in this study. Participants were given either credit toward the Introductory Psychology course research participation requirement or US $10 for their participation. Of the original 75 participants, 3 were dropped from analyses for either not understanding the experimental instructions or not fl uently speaking English. Thus, there were 72 participants in the fi nal sample. The design of Study 2 was identical to that of Study 1 and participants were selected in the same manner.

Procedures

The procedures for Study 2 were basically the same as in Study 1 with two minor changes. First, both experimenters in Study 1 were male; four female and one male experimenter were employed in the current study. Additionally, the experimental instruction set was standardized such that most instructions were given to the participants via an audio-recording rather than via the experimenter. The remainder of the methodology remained identical to Study 1; the stereotype activation manipulation, the immersive virtual environment, and the task were the same across studies.

Measures Again, participants responded to all measures on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from -3 (strongly disagree) to 3 (strongly agree).

Perceived performance, rated performance, domain identifi cation, and manipulation check The perceived performance and domain identifi cation measures remained identical to those in Study 1 (α = .93 and α = .90, respectively). Also, the performance rating procedures were identical (r = .80, p < .001) and the same manipulation check item was used.

Self-esteem Self-esteem was assessed with a 6-item measure adapted from [START_REF] Heatherton | Development and validation of a scale for measuring state selfesteem[END_REF] state self-esteem measure (α = .85). Three items assessed performance self-esteem: 'I feel frustrated or rattled by my performance', 'I feel that I am having trouble understanding things', and 'I feel like I am not doing well'. The remaining three items assessed social self-esteem: 'I feel displeased with myself', 'I am worried about looking foolish', and 'I feel concerned about the impression I am making'. Both performance and social self-esteem resulted in similar outcomes, so, for simplicity, we have combined the measures into a general self-esteem measure.

Depressed affect

The depressed affect scale consisted of six items adapted from the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List (MAACL) [START_REF] Lubin | Bibilography for the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List[END_REF]. Participants indicated their agreement to the following items: 'I feel discouraged', 'I feel distressed', 'I feel pessimistic about the future', 'I feel sad', 'I feel mortifi ed', and 'I feel hopeless' (α = .85).

Results

The manipulation check and the fi rst set of moderation hypotheses were tested with the data from both studies. To test the hypotheses dependent variables were analyzed with a series of 2 (Leadership Efficacy) × 2 (Stereotype Activation) × 2 (Study) between-subjects analyses of variance. Study was included as a factor in the analyses to ensure equivalence in the data from the two studies.

Manipulation check As expected, participants in both studies who received the stereotype activation manipulation were more likely to report that people of their gender face biased evaluations (M = 1.26, SD = 1.20) than those who did not receive the stereotype manipulation (M = 0.57; SD = 1.58) (F(1, 117) = 8.04, p < .01, η 2 = .06). The factor of study did not have a main effect nor did it interact with condition or leadership efficacy on the manipulation check. There was no main effect for leadership effi cacy (p > .35) and there was no interaction between leadership efficacy and stereotype activation (p > .45).

Moderation hypotheses: Perceived performance, rated performance, and domain identifi cation

Perceived performance The Cronbach's alpha of the perceived performance scale for the combined data was .91. These analyses revealed that the factor of study did not have a main effect nor did it interact with the two independent variables on perceived performance. Additionally, there was no main effect for stereotype activation on perceived performance (p > .60). There was a main effect of effi cacy such that high effi cacy women perceived they performed better (M = 0.78, SD = 1.42) than low effi cacy women (M = -.64, SD = 1.41) (F(1, 117) = 28.52, p < .001, η 2 = .20). Additionally, there was a signifi cant interaction (F(1, 117) = 9.08, p < .01, η 2 = .07; see Figure 3) such that high effi cacy women primed with the stereotype reported Rated performance Unfortunately, a few of the tapes were inaudible, leaving 109 data points for these analyses. Interrater reliability for the combined data was r = .83, p < .001. The factor of study did not have a main effect nor did it interact with the two independent variables on rated performance. Additionally, there was no main effect for stereotype activation on rated performance (p > .15). There was a main effect of effi cacy such that high effi cacy women were rated as performing better (M = 5.51, SD = 1.63) than low effi cacy women (M = 4.48, SD = 1.85) (F(1, 101) = 9.68, p < .05, η 2 = .09). Additionally, there was a marginally signifi cant interaction (F(1, 101) = 2.90, p = .09, η 2 = .03; see Figure 3) such that high effi cacy women primed with the stereotype had higher levels of rated performance (M = 6.05, SE = 0.35) compared to those primed with the neutral material (M = 5.02, SE = 0.35) (simple F(1, 101) = 4.28, p < .05, η 2 = .04).

Domain identifi cation The Cronbach's alpha of the domain identifi cation scale for the combined data was .89. The study factor did not have a main effect on domain identifi cation, but it did interact with effi cacy on domain identifi cation (F(1, 117) = 7.94, p < .01). The interaction was such that high effi cacy leaders had higher domain higher levels of perceived performance (M = 1.17, SE = 0.25) compared to those primed with the neutral material (M = 0.29, SE = 0.27) (simple F(1, 117) = 5.74, p < .05, η 2 = .05). Additionally, low effi cacy women primed with the stereotype reported marginally lower levels of perceived per formance (M = -0.94, SE = 0.24) than those primed with the neutral material (M = -0.30, SE = 0.25; simple F(1, 117) = 3.42, p < .07, η 2 = .03). identifi cation in Study 2 than Study 1, and low effi cacy leaders had lower identifi cation in Study 2 than Study 1; in other words, the main effect of effi cacy on domain identifi cation was stronger in Study 2. The main effect of stereotype activation on domain identifi cation was not signifi cant (p > .50). There was a signifi cant main effect of effi cacy (F(1, 117) = 105.32, p < .001, η 2 = .47), with high effi cacy women identifying more with the domain of leadership (M = 1.72, SD = 0.88) than low effi cacy women (M = -.15, SD = 1.07). Also, there was a signifi cant interaction between leadership effi cacy and stereotype activation on domain identifi cation (F(1, 117) = 5.91, p < .05, η 2 = .05) (see Figure 3); high effi cacy women primed with the stereotype reported higher levels of domain identifi cation (M = 1.93, SE = 0.17) than those primed with the neutral material (M = 1.41, SE = 0.18; simple F(1, 117) = 4.28, p < .05, η 2 = .04). Low effi cacy leaders primed with the stereotype reported similar levels of domain identification (M = -.27, SE = 0.16) to those in the control condition (M = 0.05, SE = 0.17) (simple F(1, 117) = 1.82, p = .18).

Moderation hypotheses: Self-esteem and depressed affect Data to test these hypotheses were only collected in Study 2. To test the hypotheses we analyzed the dependent variables with a series of 2 (Leadership Effi cacy) × 2 (Stereotype Activation) between-subjects analyses of variance.

Self-esteem

The main effect of stereotype activation on self-esteem was not signifi cant (p > .15). There was a signifi cant main effect of effi cacy (F(1, 67) = 16.12, p < .001, η 2 = .19), with high effi cacy women reporting higher self-esteem (M = 0.79, SD = 1.35) than low effi cacy women (M = -0.36, SD = 1.11). There was a signifi cant interaction between leadership effi cacy and stereotype activation (F(1, 67) = 5.10, p < .03, η 2 = .07; see Figure 4) such that high effi cacy women primed with the stereotype reported higher levels of (M = 1.30, SE = 0.28) than those primed with the neutral material (M = 0.25, SE = 0.29; simple F(1, 67) = 6.85, p < .02, η 2 = .09). Low effi cacy leaders primed with the stereotype did not report signifi cantly different levels of self-esteem (M = -0.47, SE = 0.28) compared to those in the control condition (M = -0.25, SE = 0.28), simple F(1, 67) = .32, ns).

Depressed affect

The main effect for stereotype activation on depressed affect was not signifi cant (p > .80). There was a signifi cant main effect for effi cacy (F(1, 66) = 17.04, p < .001, η 2 = .21), such that high effi cacy women reported less depressed affect (M = -2.52, SD = 1.17) than low effi cacy women (M = -1.11, SD = 1.69). As predicted, there was a significant interaction between leadership effi cacy and stereotype activation on the leaders' self-reported depressed affect (F(1, 66) = 4.48, p < .04, η 2 = .06 ) (see Figure 4). Testing the simple effects of stereotype activation revealed no signifi cant effect of stereotype activation on self-reported depressed affect for either high effi cacy (simple F(1, 66) = 1.80, p > .15) or low effi cacy (simple F(1, 66) = 2.74, p > .10) women. However, testing the simple effects of leadership effi cacy indicated that although in the control condition high and low efficacy women report similar levels of depressed affect (simple F(1, 66) = 2.02, p > .15), when primed with the stereotype high effi cacy women reported signifi cantly lower levels of depressed affect (M = -2.85, SD = .35) than low effi cacy leaders (M = -0.71, SD = 0.34) (simple F(1, 66) = 19.49, p < .001, η 2 = .23).

Mediation hypotheses

Domain identifi cation Data from both studies were used in this analysis. Regression techniques were used to test whether the hypothesized significant interaction between stereotype activation and leadership effi cacy on domain identifi cation was mediated by perceived performance [START_REF] Baron | The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic and statistical considerations[END_REF]. To test this mediated moderation, the interaction term was computed and domain identifi cation was regressed on the main effects and the interaction of stereotype activation and leadership effi cacy to determine the total percentage of variance explained by the interaction. As expected from the analysis of variance results above, the interaction coeffi cient was signifi cant (β = .15, p < .05). To meet the second criterion for mediation, the mediator must be signifi cantly predicted by the interaction between leadership effi cacy and stereotype activation. Stereotype activation and leadership effi cacy had signifi cant interactive effects on perceived performance (β = .23, p < .01).

To test the remaining criteria for mediation, a hierarchical regression analysis was performed. Predicting domain identification, the main effects for leadership effi cacy and stereotype activation were entered on Step 1, the mediator, perceived performance, was entered on Step 2, and fi nally, the interaction term was entered in the third step. The next criterion was to show that the mediator variable was signifi cantly related to the dependent variable. Consistent with this criterion, in Step 2 perceived performance signifi cantly predicted domain identifi cation (β = .32, p < .001). The fi nal criterion for mediation is that the original interaction term should be substantially reduced or eliminated when the mediator is entered into the analysis. Indeed, in Step 3 the interaction term was no longer significant (β = .08, p > .15) and perceived performance signifi cantly predicted domain identifi cation (β = .30 p = .001; refer to Table 1 and see Figure 3). 6 Additionally, using the raw regression coefficients and the standard errors from the analyses above, the Goodman (I) version of the Sobel test statistic was calculated to test whether the effect of the interaction between leadership effi cacy and stereotype activation on domain identification via perceived performance is significantly different from zero (Baron & Kenney, 1986;[START_REF] Sobel | Asymptotic intervals for indirect effects in structural equations models[END_REF] The Sobel test statistic was signifi cant (Z = 2.37, p < .02), indicating that perceptions of performance seem to carry the interactive influence of leader effi cacy and stereotype activation on domain identifi cation.

Self-esteem Next, the hypothesis that the interaction between stereotype activation and leadership effi cacy on self-esteem would be mediated by perceived performance was tested (refer to Table 1); self-esteem data were collected only in Study 2. As expected, the interaction coeffi cient significantly predicted self-esteem (β = .24, p < .05) and perceived performance (β = .21, p < .05). Using a similar hierarchical regression analysis as above, perceived performance signifi cantly predicted self-esteem in Step 2 (β = .57, p < .001). When the interaction term was entered into the equation with perceived performance it no longer signifi cantly predicted self-esteem (β = .12, p > .15), however, perceived performance still signifi cantly predicted selfesteem (β = .54, p < .001).

Finally, to test whether the effect was different from zero we calculated the Goodman (I) version of the Sobel test statistic which revealed a marginal level of signifi cance (Z = 1.89, p < .06). Taken together, these mediational analyses indicate that perceived performance mediates the interaction between stereotype activation and leadership efficacy on self-esteem (see Figure 5).

Depressed affect Finally, using data from Study 2, the hypothesis that the interaction between stereotype activation and leadership effi cacy on depressed affect would be mediated by perceived performance was tested (see Table 1). First, as expected, the interaction coeffi cient between self-effi cacy and stereotype activation signifi cantly predicted depressed affect (β = .23, p < .05). Using hierarchical regression, perceived performance signifi cantly predicted depressed affect in Step 2, after the main effects were entered into the equation (β = -.54, p < .001). When the interaction term was entered in Step 3 it no longer signifi cantly predicted depressed affect (β = .11, p > .20) and perceived performance still signifi cantly predicted depressed affect (β = -.51, p < .001). Finally, the Goodman (I) Sobel test statistic was marginally signifi cant (Z = 1.84, p < .07). Thus, perceived performance also appears to be a successful mediator of the interaction between leadership effi cacy and stereotype activation on depressed affect (see Figure 5).

General discussion

Substantial evidence highlights the incongruity between the female gender stereotype and the leadership role [START_REF] Eagly | Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders[END_REF]. This research examined how this incongruity affects female leaders. More specifi cally, this research tested the moderating role of leadership effi cacy on women leaders' responses to the negative stereotype regarding female leaders. In this research, it was predicted that when blatantly presented with the gender leader stereotype high effi cacy leaders would exhibit reactance to the stereotype; these hypotheses were strongly supported across the two studies.

Leadership tasks often lack clear, immediate markers of success. On such tasks, the leaders' immediate subjective sense of how well they performed becomes quite important. The hypothesis that stereotype activation would serve to increase high effi cacy leaders' perceived performance was supported. In addition, high effi cacy leaders were rated as performing better in the stereotype activation condition compared to the control condition. Domain identifi cation was another outcome examined in these studies. The seminal work on stereotype threat proposed that one approach individuals may take to cope with the threat is to protectively disidentify with the domain [START_REF] Steele | Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans[END_REF]. Our reactance prediction that high effi cacy women would evince heightened identifi cation with the domain was supported.

Finally, previous research highlights the deleterious effects that negative stereotypes can have on the psychological well-being of the targets of the stereotypes [START_REF] Swim | Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Special Issue: Stigma: An insider's perspective[END_REF]. The present research tested the hypothesis that high effi cacy targets would show an increase in well-being in the face of stereotype activation. This hypothesis was tested and supported in Study 2 and both self-esteem and depressed affect were taken as indices of psychological wellbeing. It appears that stereotype activation has a positive effect on the self-esteem and depressed affect of high effi cacy leaders.

A second objective of this research was to explore one possible mechanism accounting for changes in domain identification and psychological well-being resulting from stereotype activation: self-perception. That is, the present studies tested the hypotheses that the interaction between leadership effi cacy and stereotype activation on leadership domain identification and psychological well-being would be mediated by the leader's perception of her performance on the leadership task. As hypothesized, regression analyses indicated that the effect of stereotype activation on high and low effi cacy leaders' domain identifi cation was mediated by the leaders' perceived performance. Moreover, perceived performance also appears to be a mechanism through which the leaders' self-reported well-being is infl uenced. These hypotheses were tested on both measures of well-being in Study 2 and were supported.

It is important to note that reverse causal effects for the mediation results cannot completely be ruled out in the present research. That is, it may be the case that domain identifi cation and wellbeing 'cause' perceived performance. However, this alternative interpretation is less plausible when considering the theoretical work on selfperception theory, which describes the importance of self-perception on inferences regarding one's traits and attitudes [START_REF] Bem | Self-perception: An alternative interpretation of cognitive dissonance phenomena[END_REF], and the work on the sources of self-esteem which demonstrates the important impact of perceived personal competence and living up to one's personal standards of merit on self-esteem [START_REF] Bandura | Self-effi cacy: The exercise of control[END_REF]. Our causal interpretation is also consistent with the theoretical and empirical work showing that attributing successful performance outcomes to internal causes, such as ability or effort, raises self-esteem (Hoyt, Aguilar, Kaiser, Blascovich, & Lee, in press;[START_REF] Weiner | An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion[END_REF]. Additionally, empirical research testing alternative causal models between actual and perceived performance and selfesteem also supports our causal interpretation [START_REF] Bohrnstedt | Explaining the relations among children's actual and perceived performances and selfesteem: A comparison of several causal models[END_REF]. In sum, perceived performance appears to play an important mediating role in the domain identifi cation and well-being effects of stereotype activation on women leaders; however, due to the correlational nature of this research a better understanding of the causal relationships between perceived performance, domain identifi cation, and wellbeing merits further investigation.

Implications

Theoretical This research expands our understanding of the effects of stereotypes beyond the academic domain to the domain of leadership. While investigations into the role stereotype activation plays within domains other than academia, such as decision task performance (Leyens, Désert, Croset, Darcis, 2000), has begun, understanding the effects of stereotype activation across domains is in its infancy. In addition, these experiments examined rated performance as well as self-concept outcomes deemed important in these situations: perceived performance, domain identifi cation, and psychological well-being. Thus, the results from the present research highlight the important role that stereotype activation plays in infl uencing theoretically relevant self-concept variables.

Next, a comprehensive understanding of the nature of stereotype activation should include an insight into important moderator variables. Previous research has documented both situational and individual difference moderators of stereotype threat. For example, task diffi culty and frustration, test diagnosticity, and stereotype relevance are situational factors that moderate reactions to stereotype threat, whereas domain identifi cation, stigma consciousness, and identifi cation with the group to which the negative stereotype applies are individual difference moderators [START_REF] Aronson | When White men can't do math: Necessary and suffi cient factors in stereotype threat[END_REF][START_REF] Blascovich | African Americans and high blood pressure: The role of stereotype threat[END_REF][START_REF] Pinel | Stigma consciousness: The psychological legacy of social stereotypes[END_REF][START_REF] Schmader | Gender identifi cation moderates stereotype threat effects on women's math performance[END_REF][START_REF] Spencer | Suppression of doubts, anxiety, and stereotypes as a mediator of the effect of stereotype threat on women's math performance[END_REF][START_REF] Steele | Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans[END_REF]. The current research demonstrates another important individual difference variable that moderates reactions to stereotype activation: self-effi cacy.

While this work has provided a deeper understanding about domain generalizability, outcomes, and moderators of stereotype activation effects, an equally important theoretical advancement of this work includes understanding that, at times, stereotype activation can have a positive effect on performance. Until recently, research has primarily shown stereotype activation to either have no effect or to be damaging to the targets of that stereotype. The present research supports recent research by underscoring the counterintuitive notion that stereotype activation can actually elicit positive responses from targets of the stereotypes [START_REF] Kray | Stereotype reactance at the bargaining table: The effect of stereotype activation and power on claiming and creating value[END_REF]. Finally, this work highlights the role of perceived performance in infl uencing the leaders' identifi cation with the leadership domain and their psychological well-being. Perceptions of one's performance seem to be an important source of immediate feedback that appears to play a role in domain identification and psychological well-being.

Applied value

This line of research not only provides important contributions to social psychological theory, but it also contributes to a practical understanding of the unique challenges that women face in the realm of leadership. This research points to the resilience of women who are highly confi dent in their leadership abilities and are able to rise to the occasion in the face of negative stereotypes. When confronted with the stereotype these women perceive they perform better, are rated as performing better, become more identifi ed with the domain of leadership, and have greater psychological well-being.

While we cannot ascertain causality with the approach taken in this research, these fi ndings reveal that effi cacy clearly moderates reactions to stereotype activation. Thus, in a more applied vein, knowing the important moderating role of effi cacy helps to identify those who may be more or less adversely affected by stereotype activation. Consequently, interventions designed to foster more positive responses to stereotype activation can be focused on those most likely to benefi t: those with low self-effi cacy. Recent research has suggested that making group achievements salient (focusing on successful women mathematicians) helps alleviate women's mathematical stereotype threat [START_REF] Mcintyre | Alleviating women's mathematics stereotype threat through salience of group achievements[END_REF]. Thus, presenting low effi cacy women with examples of successful women leaders may be effective in encouraging more positive responses to stereotype activation in the leadership domain.

Finally, this research examined leadership within an immersive virtual environment. Given the expansion of the virtual workplace, these fi ndings are directly relevant to current organizational trends. Additionally, the success of this research paradigm lends credibility to the use of IVET in the study of leadership. Indeed, IVET is a promising tool for the study of leadership by researchers as well as organizations.

Limitations and future directions

It is important to point out that the current fi ndings are somewhat inconsistent with fi ndings from the stereotype threat literature. In most of the stereotype threat research, the participants selected for the studies are those highly identifi ed with the academic domain under study. Indeed, studies designed to test the role of domain identifi cation in the stereotype threat paradigm generally reveal that stereotype threat effects occur only for those who are highly identifi ed with the domain [START_REF] Aronson | When White men can't do math: Necessary and suffi cient factors in stereotype threat[END_REF]. The results of the present research indicate that stereotype activation had positive effects on those who have high effi cacy in their leadership abilities. Because self-effi cacy and domain identifi cation are related constructs, the results from the present research and the stereotype threat literature are somewhat at odds.

There are a few factors that may help explain the contradictory fi ndings; these factors should be further investigated. First and foremost, stereotypes were activated blatantly in this research. The relative explicit vs. implicit manner in which the stereotype is primed has been shown to play an important role in responses to these stereotypes [START_REF] Kray | Battle of the sexes: Gender stereotype confi rmation and reactance in negotiations[END_REF]. For example, recent research revealed that women primed with implicit gender stereotypes showed less of a preference for a leadership role compared to those not primed with the stereotype [START_REF] Davies | Consuming images: How television commercials that elicit stereotype threat can restrain women academically and professionally[END_REF]. [START_REF] Stoddard | Stereotype threat, assimilation, and contrast effects, and subtlety of priming, or: 'You say "Bitch" like it's a bad thing[END_REF] also found that subtle stereotypes evoked assimilation patterns such that women were less likely to desire a leadership role; however, they also found that blatant stereotypes resulted in women demonstrating an increased desire to assume a leadership position. Thus, previous research indicates that subtle stereotype activation has a particularly pernicious effect on the targets of the stereotypes. The impact of more subtle stereotype activation on high and low effi cacy leaders is an important empirical question that merits further investigation.

Other differences between this research and stereotype threat research involve the differing domains, tasks, and outcome measures. First, the stereotype relevant domain often examined in the stereotype threat literature is an academic domain. The academic and leadership domains differ on a number of factors including the extent to which there are objective measures of success. It may be that the effects of stereotype activation are different in the domain of leadership than the domain of academia, or on tasks that either lack or have objective performance markers. Indeed the leadership task may not have engendered the level of frustration often encountered in academic tasks, and task frustration has been implicated as a key component of the stereotype threat process [START_REF] Steele | Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans[END_REF]. Additionally, the outcomes examined in this research differ from the classic stereotype threat outcomes. That is, the stereotype threat literature often examines objective performance on an academic exam whereas the outcomes examined here were subjective performance ratings and self-concept outcomes associated with task performance. Stereotypes may not affect these varying responses in the same manner. A full examination of the parameters of the effect will likely elucidate the apparent contradiction in fi ndings.

Determining the causal role of effi cacy Future research should attempt to determine the causal role of leadership efficacy in the observed effects. According to [START_REF] Bandura | Self-effi cacy: The exercise of control[END_REF], there are four sources of effi cacy information: enactive mastery, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological and affective states. Future research should take a well-rounded approach to manipulating effi cacy by focusing on these principal sources. Perhaps a promising approach to understanding the causal role of effi cacy in the observed effects would be to develop a comprehensive effi cacy-training program, including methods from each of the four sources of effi cacy information. Examining and comparing responses to stereotype activation of low effi cacy women who have and have not had the training may provide us with insight into the causal role of effi cacy in reactions to stereotype activation. Additionally, the role of effi cacy in reactions to stereotype activation in other domains should be evaluated.

Conclusions

The incongruity between the leadership role and the female gender role has important implications for women leaders. The current research highlights the role of leadership effi cacy in responses to negative stereotypes in the domain of leadership. As demonstrated here, stereotype activation can actually be associated with benefi cial responses-but only for women who have high self-effi cacy for leadership. Currently, most research is focused on examining the debilitating effects that negative stereotypes have on the targets of these stereotypes. Hopefully this work will open up an avenue of investigation into the more benefi cial responses to these stereotypes. A better understanding of high effi cacy leaders' responses to stereotype activation may provide us with tools to counter the more detrimental responses of those lacking effi cacy.

Notes

1. Researchers have adopted varying labels for the distinction between the descriptive and prescriptive aspects of gender stereotypes. [START_REF] Eagly | Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders[END_REF] use role terminology, referring to the descriptive and injunctive aspects of gender roles, whereas others use stereotype terminology, referring to descriptive stereotypes, or gender stereotypes, and prescriptive stereotypes [START_REF] Burgess | Who women are, who women should be: Descriptive and prescriptive gender stereotyping in sex discrimination[END_REF]. This paper makes no distinction between the terms and uses them interchangeably. 2. In this manuscript, priming the stereotype refers to the general operationalization of stereotype activation. 3. Technology specifi cations: The head mounted display was a Virtual Research V8 HMD (a stereoscopic display with dual 680 horizontal by 480 vertical resolution LCD panels that refresh at 72 Hz). The optics of this display presented a visual stimulus subtending approximately 50 degrees horizontally by 38 degrees vertically. Perspectively correct stereoscopic images were rendered by a 450 MHz Pentium III dual processor computer with an Evans & Sutherland Tornado 3000 dual pipe graphics card, and these images were updated at an average frame rate of 36 Hz. The simulated viewpoint was continually updated by the participants' head movements. The orientation of the participant's head was tracked by a three-axis orientation sensing system (Intersense IS300, update rate of 150 Hz). The system latency, or the amount of delay between a participant's head motion and the resulting concomitant update in the HMD's visual display, was 65 ms maximum. 4. During debriefi ng only four participants indicated suspicion that there were no other participants. Across both studies, analyses with and without suspicious participants yield similar results. 5. These statistics were accurate at the time the experiment was conducted. 6. Importantly, reverse causal effects cannot completely be ruled out. That is, oftentimes in mediational analyses if the mediator and the outcome variable are interchanged, the outcome seems to 'cause' the mediator [START_REF] Kenny | Data analysis in social psychology[END_REF]. Accordingly, in the present research interchanging perceived performance with the outcome variables yielded signifi cant mediational effects. However, the plausibility of reverse causation is weakened by the experimental design in which the mediator was measured temporally prior to the outcome variables. The analyses in this manuscript focus on the causal paths based on a priori theoretical predictions.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Perceived performance as a hypothesized mediator of the interactive effects of stereotype activation and leadership effi cacy on domain identifi cation, self-esteem, and depressed affect.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. The leader's view of the two followers during the meeting in the immersive virtual environment and the immersive virtual display system.

Figure 3

 3 Figure 3 Continued

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. The impact of leadership effi cacy and stereotype activation on perceived leadership performance, rated leadership performance, and domain identifi cation.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. The impact of leadership effi cacy and stereotype activation on self-esteem and depressed affect (Study 2).

  *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5. Perceived performance as a mediator of the interactive effects of leadership effi cacy and stereotype activation on domain identifi cation, self-esteem (Study 2), and depressed affect (Study 2).

Table 1 .

 1 Summary of hierarchical regression analyses testing perceived performance as a mediator of the interaction between leadership effi cacy and stereotype activation on domain identifi cation (studies 1 and 2 combined), self-esteem, and depressed affect (Study 2 only)

		Mediator:
	With no mediator	Perceived performance

a Block includes leadership effi cacy and stereotype activation. * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported in part by NSF ITR Award #0205740 to the second author. We acknowledge and thank Lauren Aguilar, Donovan Bean, Missy Clayton, Michelle Dennis, Sarah Estrada, Lauren Gase, Sarah Haskell, Diana Hill, Annie Lamson, Kevin Lee, Elizabeth LeMoine, Cari Nicholson, and Peter Westphalen for their superb contributions to this research.