est destinée au dépôt

This multidisciplinary text draws together key historical and contemporary readings to introduce readers to ongoing debates surrounding the roles and place of animals in society.

Highlighting the shifting nature of human-animal divisions, it challenges readers to rethink contemporary animal practices and encourages them to be alert to the differences, continuities and interconnections between people and animals. The book's six themed sections examine the philosophical and ethical underpinnings of human-animal relations, as well as animals' roles as pets, food, spectacle, symbols and scientific objects, in a predominately Western context. An examination of 'Animals as Philosophical and Ethical Subjects' provides a strong foundation for the collection and encourages readers to consider how the categorization of animals impacts on both the opportunities of people and their ethical obligations to animals. Contributions drawn from Aristotle, Singer, Regan and Nussbaum, among others, introduce contrasting perspectives on the question of animal rights and provide a challenging introduction to later sections.

Kalof and Fitzgerald discuss their choice of pieces that 'have had a major influence in how the Western world thinks about animals'. While they certainly achieve this goal, the inclusion of contemporary non-Western perspectives in the book's introductory section (and in addition to Levi-Strauss' contribution later in the book) would complement the text and further challenge readers' conceptions of human-nature and human-animal divisions in Western society by highlighting alternative ways of seeing and engaging with animals.

The editors' selection of often contrasting pieces sparks debate within the text. With its succinct introductions, which contextualize chapters historically and within the broader field of human-animal studies, this text provides a comprehensive introduction to key debates in a format that is accessible to undergraduate students. This book is written by a design historian but its themes -house-and-home, consumption and material culture -and its approach are entirely relevant to current cultural geography. Margaret Ponsonby develops a design historical focus on objects to give serious attention to

Macquarie University

  Emma Power. Book review: The animals reader: the essential classic and contemporary writings. By L.Kalof and A. Fitzgerald. Oxford: Berg. 2007.

  : English domestic interiors, 1750-1850. By Margaret Ponsonby. Aldershot: Ashgate. 2007. x ϩ 221 pp. £55.00 hardback. ISBN: 9780754652359.

The animals reader: the essential classic and contemporary writings. By

		cultural geographies 2008 15: 519-526
	Book reviews
		L. Kalof and
	A. Fitzgerald. Oxford: Berg. 2007. xvi ϩ 386 pp. £15.99 paperback. ISBN: 9781845204709.
	© 2008 SAGE Publications	10.1177/1474474008094826

xvi + 386 pp. £15.99 paperback. ISBN: 9781845204709. cultural geographies, 2008, 15 (4), pp.519-519. 10.1177/1474474008094826. hal-00572054


E Espı

A Salmero

A Fontecha

Y Garcı ´a-Alonso

A I Real

NEW ULTRATHERMIC FILMS FOR GREENHOUSE COVERS

Keywords: agricultural film, greenhouse, tunnel, blown film, LDPE, EVA copolymer, EBA copolymer, infrared, mineral filler, optical properties

Thermic greenhouse covers are plastic films that block infrared (7-14 mm) radiation to reduce the risk of frost when the greenhouse is not heated and to reduce the energy consumption when a heating system is used. The standard mineral fillers (calcined kaolin), which have been normally used to increase the IR opacity of LDPE and other greenhouse films, accelerate the photodegradation of the film as well as moderately increase the haze and diminish the light transmission. In this work, we present a new family of mineral fillers that do not accelerate photodegradation, do not lower the light transmission, and give low or high haze, depending on what is required. With these mineral fillers, the optical properties can be optimized and the IR effectiveness can be reached, thus giving a new generation of ultrathermic films (UT). Using them as greenhouse covers, heat energy savings between 5% and 10% can be achieved.

INTRODUCTION

I T IS KNOWN that growing vegetables under tunnels or greenhouses covered with the so-called thermic films [plastic films opaque to infrared (IR) radiation, specially between 7 and 14 mm] have a greater vegetative development, earlier harvests of greater quality and more abundance [START_REF] Dı ´az | Los filmes pla ´sticos en la produccio ´n agrı ´cola[END_REF][START_REF] Bot | Physics of Greenhouse Climate[END_REF][START_REF] Deltour | Covering Materials for Greenhouses[END_REF][START_REF] Feuilloley | Determination of Thermal Transparency of Plastic Material for Covering Greenhouses[END_REF][START_REF] Garzoli | An Analysis of the Nocturnal Heat Loss from a Single Skin Plastic Greenhouse[END_REF]. These advantages are greater as the plastic cover is more opaque in the mentioned interval of infrared radiation and, at the same time, more transparent to the visible part of the solar spectrum -the light used for the photosynthesis process. Other additional advantages of these films are the reduction of risk of frosts when the greenhouse is not heated, or an important reduction of the energy consumption when a system of heating is used; both improvements are due to the lower heat losses by radiation.

Most of the films or plastic sheets transparent to the visible light are, to a certain extent, opaque to the IR radiation considered. However, LDPE films, the most used material for this application, are very transparent to these wavelengths. In order to palliate this disadvantage, the industry has developed compounds that prevent, at least partially, the losses of heat from the interior of the greenhouse to the sky. The low price of the raw material, its good processability (films of up to 20 m wide can be obtained), its high mechanical resistance, its facility of UV stabilization and its low creep are some of the reasons why this material is widely used for agricultural shelters.

Two solutions are adopted to improve the IR opacity of LDPE films:

. The use of fillers or additives, preferably of mineral type: silica, synthetic or natural silicates (talc, mica, kaolin), carbonates (of calcium or calcium-magnesium), sulphates (of calcium or barium), hydroxycarbonates (hydrotalcite), hydroxysulphates (alunite), hydroxides (of aluminum or magnesium), etc. [START_REF] Tapia | Procedimiento de obtencio ´n de composiciones poliolefı ´nicas[END_REF][START_REF] Tapia | Polymeric Covering Materials for Growing Plants or Crops[END_REF][START_REF] Tapia | Method for Protecting Plants using Polymeric Films Containing Anhydrous Borax[END_REF]. . The use, by blending or coextrusion, of copolymers of ethylene and vinyl acetate (EVA) or butyl acrylate (EBA). These copolymers show IR absorption bands in the above said wavelength range.

Both solutions have their advantages and disadvantages. The EVA and EBA copolymers moderately increase the thermicity, the transmission of visible light, diminish the haze, and increase the compatibility of organic additives; but they increase the accumulation of dust and the blocking of films; additionally, they can harm some mechanical properties, especially creep, when they are used in hot climates. The use of suitable thermal fillers increases the thermicity more effectively, increases the haze, slightly reduces the light transmission, and does not diminish the initial mechanical properties; but they can have an important negative effect on the photodegradation of the films. Historically, the industry has used both solutions well, individually or combined, depending on the conditions of use (radiation, temperatures, necessity of turbidity and light transmission, etc.). Thus, it is possible to find in the market some compounds based on LDPE, EVA copolymers (up to 18% of VA) and EBA copolymers (up to 8% of BA), with mineral filler contents between 0% and 10% in weight. The copolymers with higher VA content are used for the intermediate layers of multilayer films. In areas of Mediterranean climate (low cloudiness, high irradiation, short rain), films of LDPE have been used historically due to their best mechanical properties at high temperatures, and their lower dust accumulation -also, since light transmission is not a limiting factor, films with higher haze are preferred. In more humid climates (high cloudiness, low radiation, frequent rains), the clearest film is preferred since the limiting factor is light transmission and haze of the films is not necessary, since the natural light is diffused due to cloudiness. Additionally, dust accumulation is not a problem since it is washed off by the rain.

The mineral fillers used nowadays have some important limitations: they accelerate the photodegradation of the film, moderately increase the haze and diminish the light transmission, or they are really expensive. In this work we present a new family of mineral fillers that do not accelerate photodegradation, do not lower the light transmission and give low or high haze, depending on what is required; and they thus show a positive cost-performance balance.

EXPERIMENTAL Materials and Blown-film Preparation

The polymeric materials used in this work were LDPE (Alcudia PE-033, Repsol-YPF), and EVA copolymers (Alcudia PA-500, 4% VA and Alcudia PA-570, 14% VA). The MFI of all of them was 0.3 g/10 min.

The compounds were prepared in a twin-screw extruder, Werner & Pfleiderer ZSK-25.

The films for the optical and IR properties study were produced using a lab-scale Covex mono-layer extrusion blown-film line. All the films were made using the same processing conditions: 1.2 mm die gap, output of 12 kg/h, film thickness of 200 mm, frost-line height around 25 cm, blow-up ratio (BUR) of 2.33 : 1 and a drawn-down ratio (DDR) of 2.5 : 1.

The films for the field trial were produced using a Covex three-layer co-extrusion blown-film line. All the films were made using the same processing conditions: 1.2 mm die gap, output of 80 kg/h, film thickness of 200 mm, frost-line height around 70 cm, BUR of 2.5 : 1 and a DDR of 2.5 : 1.

Optical Properties

Light transmittance and haze were measured using a hazemeter, Gardner Haze-Plus, according to EN 2155-5 and EN-2155-9 standards, respectively.

Infrared Spectroscopy

The infrared spectrum of the film was analyzed using a Nicolet 5700 spectrophotometer. The IR average transmittance in the range 7-14 mm was calculated according to EN 13206 standard.

Field Tests

The plastic film tests were carried out in test greenhouses built at the IMAG institute site in Wageningen, The Netherlands, during the winter of 2001-2002. The size of the greenhouses was 5 m width, 4 m length, and 1.5 m height. The greenhouses consisted of three roundarched hoops in longitudinal direction with standard hoop spacing of 2 m and a door in each gable, which was closed during the experiments. The gable walls were insulated on the inner side with bubble-film coated with aluminum on the inner side of the greenhouse. By reflecting the heat radiation in the gables a longer greenhouse tunnel could be simulated.

The greenhouses were equipped with a heating system consisting of white metallic electrical heating pipes filled with oil. These 12 heating pipes with a length of 4 m were installed per tunnel, each having a heating capacity of 500 W. This resulted in a total of 6 kW heating capacity being installed per tunnel to provide 300 W/m 2 ground area.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Over the years, the mineral fillers used to increase the thermicity of LDPE, EVA, and EBA films have been evolving. The first patents and the first commercial films, in the 1970s, mainly used silica, silicates, and hydrated alumina [START_REF] Tapia | Procedimiento de obtencio ´n de composiciones poliolefı ´nicas[END_REF]. With time, the extrusion temperatures used by the processors were increasing, and aluminum hydroxide was abandoned, since it decomposes around 180 C. During the 1990s the most used fillers were silicates, especially calcined kaolin. Calcined kaolin has some important limitations: it accelerates the photodegradation of the film, moderately increases the haze, and diminishes the light transmission. There are better commercial fillers such as hydrotalcite that do not degrade or affect the optical properties of the film, but they are much more expensive.

In this article we present a recently developed family of mineral fillers that are not degrading, do not lower the light transmission, give low or high haze -depending on what is required, and show a cost-performance balance that is better than hydrotalcite. They are based on mixtures of a borate that is stable in the processing conditions and a compound selected from the group made up of silica, silicates, carbonates, and sulfates [START_REF] Espı | Polymeric Thermal Films for use in Agriculture, European Patent 1095964 B1[END_REF]. The particle size distribution of the filler and its refractive index is managed in order to obtain the desired haze.

In Figures 123the optical properties (global light transmission and haze) and IR effectiveness of LDPE monolayer films containing different amounts of these new optically-optimized mineral fillers are compared with standard films containing kaolin.

Since the amount of filler content -due to its effect on light transmission and photodegradation of film -is not a limiting factor with this new generation of ultrathermic films (UT), higher IR effectiveness levels (>95%) can be achieved while haze can be around 20% (clear ultrathermic films, CUT) or higher than 80% (hazy ultrathermic films, HUT).

An experimental CUT film was tested at the IMAG Institute in Wageningen (The Netherlands) with excellent results. The experimental film was a three-layer film containing a mineral filler with a refractive New Ultrathermic Films for Greenhouse Covers index very similar to that of the polymer matrix, in order to not alter the optical properties. It was compared to a three-layer film (EVA 4% VA/ EVA 14% VA/EVA 4% VA) without mineral fillers. Optical properties of both films, as well as their thermicity, are shown in Table 1.

The films were installed in two identical walk-in tunnels (Figure 4) equipped with electrical heating and special measurement equipment such as pyrometer, air temperature and humidity sensors, and thermocouples to measure substrate and film temperatures. Measurements of all these variables were done with and without heating, with and without water condensation on the film, with clear and clouded sky, and with low and high wind velocity. With these measurements, the overall heat losses (the k-value) of the two greenhouses were calculated for each situation and the values were used to simulate the energy consumption of a greenhouse during a complete agricultural season.

During one year and even over several growing seasons climatic conditions vary considerably; the effect of those variations can be taken into account with computer simulations. In this case, the software KASPRO, developed by the IMAG Institute (Wageningen-UR, The Netherlands), was used to calculate the energy consumption for different crops and different climates. It was calculated that a tomato crop under the CUT film uses 8.3% less energy than under the reference film. The effect of condensation on the covering material was considered in the calculation model. Calculations for different crops under both films are shown in Figure 5. Taking into account the price of the gas used for heating, the use of UT films is clearly economically advantageous. The same experiment was repeated during winter 2003-2004 with CUT and the reference films, as well as with their anti-drip versions.

In greenhouses without heating, such as those used in Mediterranean climates, the main advantage of UT films is that they maintain the warmth of the plant and the soil or substrate better during the night. For these climates with a high percentage of clear days (direct light) the use of very hazy films is recommended. The new mineral fillers permit obtaining HUT with haze values up to 90%, light transmission over 90%, and IR effectiveness up to 97%.

CONCLUSIONS

A new family of mineral fillers has been developed to improve the blocking of infrared radiation in plastic films for use as greenhouse covers. It is based on a mixture of a borate and a compound of silica, silicates, carbonates, and sulfates. These mineral fillers are not degrading, do not lower the light transmission of the films and can give low or high haze, depending on what is required.

A heated greenhouse covered with these new films needed less energy (8% for a tomato crop in The Netherlands) than a normal thermic film.

BIOGRAPHIES Enrique Espı Énrique

Espı ´received a BSc and MSc in Macromolecular Chemistry from the Universidad del Paı ´s Vasco, Spain, before obtaining a PhD in Chemistry from the same University. Since 1992 he has been with Repsol YPF, a Spanish petrochemical company, in different R&D projects with polyolefins, specially for agricultural applications.

Armando Salmero ´n

Armando Salmero ´n received a BSc and MSc in Organic Chemistry from the Universidad Auto ´noma de Madrid, Spain, before obtaining a PhD in Chemistry from the same University and then a Masters degree in Polymer Science and Technology from CSIC, Madrid, Spain. He joined Repsol YPF in 1993 and has been working in different R&D projects with polyolefins, specially for agricultural applications.

Antonio Fontecha

Antonio Fontecha received a Diploma in Industrial Engineering from the Universidad Polite ´cnica de Madrid, Spain before obtaining a BSc in Chemistry from the Universidad Nacional de Educacio ´n a Distancia, Spain and then a Masters degree in Financial Systems from the INESE, Madrid, Spain. He joined Repsol YPF in 1979 (then Empresa Nacional Calvo Sotelo) and has been working in different R&D projects.

Yolanda Garcı ´a

Yolanda Garcı ´a received a BSc and MSc in Chemistry from the University of Salamanca, Spain before obtaining a Masters degree in Polymer Science and Technology from the CSIC, Madrid, Spain. She joined Repsol YPF in 1999 and has been working in different R&D projects.

Ana Isabel Real

Ana Isabel Real received a Diploma in Chemical Analysis and Quality Control from the IES Virgen de la Paloma, Madrid, Spain. She has been with Repsol YPF since 2001 and works in different R&D projects.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Light transmission of films with different mineral fillers.

Figure 2 .Figure 3 .

 23 Figure 2. Haze of films with different mineral fillers.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Experimental greenhouses.

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5. Energy costs -clear ultrathermic film vs reference film for different crops.

Table 1 .

 1 Optical properties and IR effectiveness of the films tested in The Netherlands.

		Light transmission	Haze (%)	IR effectiveness
		(%) EN 2155-5	EN 2155-9	(%) EN 13206
	Clear ultrathermic film	93	19	95
	Reference film	92	17	82

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The experimental work and calculations of S. Hemming, G.P.A. Bot, H.F. de Zwart, F. Kempkes, and D. Waaijenberg from Agrotechnology & Food Innovations (ex-IMAG), Wageningen-UR are greatfully acknowledged.


James Dean Brown
email: brownj@hawaii.edu

Resources on quantitative=statistical research for applied linguists

The purpose of this review article is to survey and evaluate existing books on quantitative=statistical research in applied linguistics. The article begins by explaining the types of texts that will not be reviewed, then it briefly describes nine books that address how to do quantitative=statistical applied linguistics research. The review then compares (in prose and tables) the general characteristics of these nine books, and their coverage of conceptual and statistical topics. Examining all nine books together provides answers to three questions: What is the range of conceptual=statistical topics in applied linguistics? What are the most important conceptual=statistical topics in applied linguistics? And, how has the coverage of topics changed over the years?

I Introduction

Since joining the language teaching profession in the 1970s, one of the issues that I have consistently worried about is the poor quality of much of the quantitative=statistical research that I read in the journals of our field. The situation was so bad during the 1980s that two of my colleagues set about to put together a collection of exemplary quantitative=statistical studies from the various sources in applied linguistics, and they abandoned the project because they were unable to find enough good quality studies to even come close to filling a volume. Indeed, I myself am not entirely innocent of producing poor quality research: when I look at my own first published research report (Brown, 1980), I shudder at the sheer statistical naivety and ignorance it displays (for a discussion of why I shudder, see Brown, 2002, or in press).

As a result of worrying about the quality of research in our field, one of my professional goals has always been to help improve that quality by teaching my graduate students to the best of my abilities and by mentoring their research insofar as possible. In that vein, the purpose of this article is to review all available books on the topic of doing quantitative=statistical research in applied linguistics with a view to helping teachers and researchers in the field who want to learn more about quantitative=statistical research to do so.

Because research means different things to different people (Brown, 1992a;2004a), I begin by explaining that I will not be reviewing books on the following sorts of research:

. linguistic analysis in the classical sense, e.g., [START_REF] Wray | Projects in linguistics. a practical guide to researching language[END_REF] . discourse=conversational analysis, e.g., [START_REF] Johnstone | Qualitative methods in sociolinguistics[END_REF][START_REF] Ten Have | Doing conversational analysis: a practical guide[END_REF][START_REF] Titscher | Methods of text and discourse analysis: in search of meaning[END_REF][START_REF] Wood | Doing discourse analysis: methods for studying action in talk and text[END_REF][START_REF] Wodak | Methods of critical discourse analysis[END_REF]; . classroom=action research, e.g., Allwright and Bailey, 1991;[START_REF] Freeman | Doing teacher research: from inquiry to understanding[END_REF][START_REF] Wallace | Action research for language teachers[END_REF][START_REF] Burns | Collaborative action research for English language teachers[END_REF] or . qualitative research, e.g., [START_REF] Johnstone | Qualitative methods in sociolinguistics[END_REF][START_REF] Richards | Qualitative inquiry in TESOL[END_REF] Nor will I review books that are:

. introductory overviews of the different types of research done in applied linguistics, e.g., [START_REF] Johnson | Approaches to research in second language learning[END_REF][START_REF] Nunan | Research methods in language learning[END_REF][START_REF] Mcdonough | Research methods for English language teachers[END_REF] . overviews of classroom research, e.g., [START_REF] Chaudron | Second language classrooms: research on teaching and learning[END_REF] . overviews of second language acquisition research, e.g., [START_REF] Larsen-Freeman | An introduction to second language acquisition research[END_REF] or . discussions of how to do research in specific areas, e.g., Faerch and Kasper, 1987, on introspection;[START_REF] Kasper | Research Methods in Interlanguage Pragmatics[END_REF], for pragmatics; [START_REF] Gass | Second language learning data analysis[END_REF], on L2 learning data; or [START_REF] Rost | Teaching and researching listening[END_REF], for listening; [START_REF] Grabe | Teaching and researching reading[END_REF], for reading.

Nor will I be reviewing:

. edited collections of articles about research, e.g., [START_REF] Seliger | Classroom oriented research in second language acquisition[END_REF]Tarone et al., 1994;Bailey and Nunan, 1997;[START_REF] Griffee | Classroom teachers and classroom research[END_REF][START_REF] Hornberger | Research methods in language and education[END_REF] . books focusing on language testing, e.g., Bachman, 1990;Brown, 1996Brown, , 2004b; . books on quantifying data, e.g., [START_REF] Scholfield | Quantifying language: a researcher's guide to gathering language data and reducing it to figures[END_REF] or . books designed to help language professionals understand the quantitative studies they read, e.g., Brown, 1988;[START_REF] Porte | Appraising research in second language learning: a practical approach to critical analysis of quantitative research[END_REF] Although I am excluding these 12 categories of books from my review, the very categories I have sorted them into may provide some insight into the different strains of research-related books that have been published over the years. What I will be reviewing are nine books that focus entirely, or in large part, on explaining how to do applied linguistics quantita-tive=statistical research. Several of these books À published between 1978 and 2002 À are now fairly old and=or are out of print. However, I include all of them here for four reasons:

. The field of applied linguistics quantitative=statistical research has not changed fundamentally over those 24 years. . Most of these books are still around on the shelves of language teaching professionals or in the libraries available to them. . Examining all of these books together will provide an overview of the sorts of quantitative research concepts and statistics that have been dealt with in our field; and . Examining all of these books will allow me to develop some perspective on how our field's approaches to quantitative= statistical research have evolved over the years.

General books on quantitative=statistical research can easily be traced back to the nineteenth century in forms recognizable today (for excellent and readable overviews of the history of this sort of research, see [START_REF] Stigler | Statistics on the table[END_REF][START_REF] Salzburg | The lady tasting tea: how statistics revolutionized science in the twentieth century[END_REF]. Books written on introductory statistics for education and psychology (and many other fields) appeared throughout the twentieth century and into the present century. Such introductory books alone must number in the hundreds, if not thousands, not to mention books that focus on specific types of statistics (measurement, regression, analysis of variance, factor analysis, etc.). Fortunately for the purposes of this article, books in English on doing language quantitative=statistical research began to appear relatively recently (1978) and are only nine in number. Chronologically, the nine books reviewed here are: Anshen (1978); [START_REF] Hatch | Research design and statistics for applied linguistics[END_REF]; [START_REF] Butler | Statistics in linguistics[END_REF]; [START_REF] Woods | Statistics in language studies[END_REF]; [START_REF] Seliger | Second language research methods[END_REF]; [START_REF] Hatch | The research manual: design and statistics for applied linguistics[END_REF]; [START_REF] Rietveld | Statistical techniques for the study of language and language behaiour[END_REF]; Brown (2001); as well as [START_REF] Brown | Doing applied linguistics research[END_REF].

II Comparing the nine books

I begin reviewing the nine books by comparing them in terms of their general characteristics, conceptual topics, and statistical topics.

1 Comparing general characteristics [START_REF] Rietveld | Statistical techniques for the study of language and language behaiour[END_REF]Brown, 2001[START_REF] Brown | Doing applied linguistics research[END_REF] Chapter summaries

X X X X Application exercises X X X X X X X X
Answer key themselves how the statistic works in terms of the steps involved in calculating it, whereas short-cut formulas, while easier to calculate, obfuscate those operations. Clearly, seven of the books use conceptual formulas, while one uses short-cut formulas and one has no formulas at all. I should add that all of these books could probably be used for self-study though those with the most examples and most application exercises (with answer keys) would probably best serve that purpose. [START_REF] Butler | Statistics in linguistics[END_REF], [START_REF] Woods | Statistics in language studies[END_REF], [START_REF] Hatch | The research manual: design and statistics for applied linguistics[END_REF] and [START_REF] Brown | Doing applied linguistics research[END_REF] would probably work best for self-study with the last two providing both the most examples and the most exercises. All in all, if some collection of these characteristics is particularly important to a reader, Table 1 should help that reader pick one book over the others.

Comparing conceptual topics

Table 2 compares the nine books in terms of the conceptual topics they cover. A total of 29 conceptual topics are listed here. Each of these topics is included in two or more of the books reviewed here. Adding the numerous topics dealt with in only one book (but not the others) would have made this table unwieldy to the point of being useless. Notice in Table 2 that four topics À Types of scales, Significance testing, Graphical display of data and Correlation À are included in eight out of the nine texts.1 Also popular are topics like Hypotheses, One-tailed=two-tailed, Probability, Random sampling and Computer analysis, all of which are found in seven out of the nine books. And so forth, until we see that three topics are included in only three of the books: Qualitative vs. quantitative research, Importance of reviewing the literature and Parameters= statistics. The table makes it clear just how many of the topics are found in each of these quantitative=statistical research books, and which books include which topics.

Looking at Table 2 from the perspective of the numbers of conceptual topics found in each book, it is clear that Hatch and

Frequencies X X X X X X X X 8 Mean X X X X X X X X Interquartile range= quartile deviation X X X 3 Correlational Pearson r X X X X X X X X 8 Spearman rho X X X X X X X 7 Factor analysis=PCA X X X X X X 6 Multiple regression X X X X X 5 Simple regression X X X X 4 Correction for attenuation X X X 3 Phi coefficient X X X 3 Rotation X X X 3 Kendall W X X 2 Point-biserial X X 2 Regression=ANOVA relationship X X 2 Group Comparisons t-test X X X X X X X 7 One-way ANOVA X X X X X X 6
Lazaraton (1991) and [START_REF] Hatch | Research design and statistics for applied linguistics[END_REF] have the greatest coverage of these conceptual topics with 26 and 25, respectively. [START_REF] Butler | Statistics in linguistics[END_REF], Brown (2001) and [START_REF] Brown | Doing applied linguistics research[END_REF] each include 20, while [START_REF] Woods | Statistics in language studies[END_REF], [START_REF] Seliger | Second language research methods[END_REF] and Anshen (1978) include 18, 15 and11, respectively, and[START_REF] Rietveld | Statistical techniques for the study of language and language behaiour[END_REF][START_REF] Rietveld | Statistical techniques for the study of language and language behaiour[END_REF] contains the fewest of these shared topics with only four. 2It is important to note that such a table may be somewhat misleading in that it does not represent the differences in the relative depth of treatment in the various books. For example, according to Table 2, the topic of What is research? is covered in six of the nine books, but they do so to varying degrees: Brown (2001) has two pages on the topic, while [START_REF] Hatch | The research manual: design and statistics for applied linguistics[END_REF] offer five pages, [START_REF] Woods | Statistics in language studies[END_REF] provide seven pages, Hatch and Farhady have 11 pages, [START_REF] Brown | Doing applied linguistics research[END_REF] offer 16 pages, and [START_REF] Seliger | Second language research methods[END_REF] have 17 pages on this topic.

Comparing statistical topics

Table 3 compares the nine books in terms of the statistical topics they cover. A total of 45 statistical topics are listed in the table. Note again that these are all topics that are included in least two books. Many additional topics could have been added to this list, but they are only found in one book. Some topics like Frequencies, Means, Medians, Modes, Standard deviations, Pearson r, Spearman rho, t-tests, as well as One-way and Multi-way chi-squared analysis are included in at least seven out of the nine texts. Fourteen of the topics are found in four, five or six books, and the rest are found in only two or three of the books. Table 3 indicates just how many statistical topics there are in each of these books, and which books include which topics. Clearly, [START_REF] Hatch | The research manual: design and statistics for applied linguistics[END_REF] has the most statistical topics with a total of 44. [START_REF] Hatch | Research design and statistics for applied linguistics[END_REF], [START_REF] Woods | Statistics in language studies[END_REF], [START_REF] Butler | Statistics in linguistics[END_REF] and [START_REF] Rietveld | Statistical techniques for the study of language and language behaiour[END_REF] follow next with 29, 28, 25 and 20 topics, respectively. In addition, Brown (2001), Seliger andShohamy (1989), Anshen (1978) and [START_REF] Brown | Doing applied linguistics research[END_REF] have the fewest statistical topics with 16, 15, 12 and 10, respectively.

Again, note that such a table may be somewhat misleading in that it cannot represent the differences in the relative depth of treatment from book to book. For instance, while six books are listed in Table 3 as discussing factor analysis=PCA, [START_REF] Seliger | Second language research methods[END_REF], Brown (2001) and [START_REF] Woods | Statistics in language studies[END_REF] each devote 4À5 pages to that topic, [START_REF] Hatch | Research design and statistics for applied linguistics[END_REF] and [START_REF] Hatch | The research manual: design and statistics for applied linguistics[END_REF] dedicate nine to 10 pages to it, and Rietveld and van Hout (1993) offer a whopping 44 page explanation.

III An overview of each of the books

In this section, I briefly review each of the books in chronological order with a view to pointing readers to each book's most salient features.

1 Anshen, 1978Anshen (1978) is chronologically the first of the books reviewed here. As indicated in Tables 2 and3, Anshen's Statistics for linguists deals with a small number of conceptual topics with 11 and statistical topics with 12. The book is divided into nine chapters providing chapter-length treatments of the following topics: why statistics are important for linguistics, creating numbers, averages, the significance of significance, correlations, picking the sample, the linguist and the machine, variable rules, and do it yourself. Notice that Anshen is the only book reviewed here to include variable rules and that, as indicated in the previous sentence, this book offers chapter-length coverage of that topic. The book contains very few examples drawn from the literature and those it does contain only appear as a direct part of the statistical explanations. While the explanations of the various topics are brief, they are simple and clear as far as they go. In short, readers who are in search of a linguistic focus with a few simple straightforward conceptual and statistical topics or who are interested in exploring the use of variable rules should be happy with this book. [START_REF] Hatch | Research design and statistics for applied linguistics[END_REF], the second book chronologically, clearly broke new ground in that it was the first book aimed directly at applied linguistics researchers as indicated by its title Research design and statistics for applied linguistics, and moreover, it provides very broad coverage. As indicated in Tables 2 and3, this book has good coverage with 25 conceptual topics and 29 statistical ones. This book is divided into 18 relatively short chapters that provide chapter-length treatments of the following topics: what is research, what is a variable, constructing research designs, research report format, sorting and displaying data, describing data, standardized scores, probability and hypothesis testing, distribution of means, comparing two means, one-way analysis of variance, factorial analysis of variance, chi-square, implicational scaling, correlational analysis, simple regression, reliability and validity, and factor analysis. Hatch and Farhady offer the only information on implicational scaling and they do so at chapter length. This book provides numerous examples drawn from the literature as part of the explanations of concepts and statistics, and as part of applications and computer examples. However, the computer examples are drawn from an out-of-date mainframecomputer era replete with 'job control cards' and 'data control cards'. The explanations of concepts and statistical procedures are clear and straightforward. Readers interested in an applied linguistics focus, good coverage of conceptual and statistical topics, as well as clear explanations should find this book appealing.

3 [START_REF] Butler | Statistics in linguistics[END_REF] The [START_REF] Butler | Statistics in linguistics[END_REF] book is entitled Statistics in linguistics. As shown in Tables 2 and3, this book contains a moderate number of conceptual topics with 20, and a relatively large number of statistical topics with a total of 25. It is divided into 12 chapters that provide chapter-length treatments of the following topics: fundamental statistical concepts, frequency distributions, measures of central tendency and variability, normal distribution, sample statistics and population parameters, project design and hypothesis testing, parametric tests of significance, some useful nonparametric tests, chi-squared, the F distribution, correlation, as well as statistics and computers=calculators. Unfortunately, only a few examples are provided from the literature. Readers in search of a linguistic focus with reasonably good coverage of concepts and statistics, as well as straightforward explanations of those topics should be pleased with this text.

Woods et al., 1986

The [START_REF] Woods | Statistics in language studies[END_REF] book is entitled Statistics in language studies. This book includes a moderate number of conceptual topics with 18 and a relatively large number of statistical topics with a total of 28. This book contains 15 chapters offering chapter-length treatments of the following topics: why do linguists need statistics, tables and graphs, summary measures, statistical inference, probability, modelling statistical populations, estimating from samples, testing hypotheses about population values, testing the fit of models to data, measuring the degree of interdependence between two variables, testing for differences between two populations, analysis of variance, linear regression, searching for groups and clusters, and principal components=factor analyses. [START_REF] Woods | Statistics in language studies[END_REF] is the only book reviewed here that discusses cluster analysis, which it does at chapter length. The book draws some examples from the literature. Readers interested in an applied linguistics focus, good coverage of concepts and statistics and clear explanations of those topics should be content with this volume.

Seliger and Shohamy, 1989

Seliger and Shohamy (1989) is entitled Second language research methods. This book focuses largely on the issues involved in applied linguistics research design including both qualitative and quantitative types of research. [START_REF] Seliger | Second language research methods[END_REF] offer a relatively small number of conceptual and statistical topics with 15 of each. The book's 10 chapters offer chapter-length treatments of the following topics: what is research, a paradigm for second language research, the preparatory stages, contextualization of research, components of research, qualitative and descriptive research design, experimental research design, data collection procedures, analysing data, and putting it all together. [START_REF] Seliger | Second language research methods[END_REF] is the only book to discuss discriminant function analysis, and it offers an unusually detailed (17 pages) on the topic of What is research? The book draws a fair number of examples from the literature. Readers interested in an applied linguistics focus and good coverage of the conceptual nuts and bolts of doing research including both qualitative and quantitative research (without much information about actually doing statistics) should be happy with this volume.

Hatch and Lazaraton, 1991

The [START_REF] Hatch | The research manual: design and statistics for applied linguistics[END_REF] book is entitled The research manual: design and statistics in applied linguistics. Looking at Table 2 from the perspective of the numbers of conceptual topics in each book, it is clear that [START_REF] Hatch | The research manual: design and statistics for applied linguistics[END_REF] is the leader with 26 conceptual topics and 44 statistical topics. Of the books reviewed here, this one is the longest and undoubtedly provides the best overall coverage of conceptual and statistical topics. This book is divided into 18 chapters on the following topics: defining the research question, describing variables, constructing research designs, writing research proposals and reports, coding and displaying frequency data, describing interval and ordinal values, locating scores and finding scales in a distribution, probability and hypothesis testing, comparing two groups (between groups), comparing two groups (repeated measures), comparisons among three or more groups, repeated measures comparisons of three or more groups, comparisons of means in factorial designs, relationships in nominal data, correlation, regression, other statistical tests used in applied linguistics, and assumptions of statistical tests. [START_REF] Hatch | The research manual: design and statistics for applied linguistics[END_REF] is the only book to explain Cramer's V, Kendall tau, Tetrachoric correlation, path analysis, as well as the KruskalÀWallis, Nemenyi's, Fisher's exact and McNemar's tests. This book also is the only book to provide (in appendix) a tree showing the relationships among all of the most prominent types of analyses. This would prove particularly useful to anyone who has a research question or two and is trying to figure out what sorts of analyses to use (another resource that might prove useful for this purpose is Brown, 1992b). To its credit, this book offers an abundance of examples from the literature as part of both the explanations and application exercises. Readers interested in an applied linguistics focus, excellent coverage of both conceptual and statistical topics, and clear explanations with lots of examples drawn from the literature should be ecstatic about this volume, especially if they are also interested in self-study.

Rietveld and van Hout, 1993

The [START_REF] Rietveld | Statistical techniques for the study of language and language behaiour[END_REF] book entitled Statistical techniques for the study of language and language behaviour is more advanced than the other books reviewed here. It assumes that readers already have the sorts of knowledge provided by the other eight texts. This book includes the smallest number of shared conceptual topics (4)3 and a moderately high number of statistical topics (20). Rietveld and van Hout provides fairly extensive intermediate-level treatments of a number of other topics. The chapter headings are as follows: statistics and the study of language behaviour, analysis of variance, multiple regression, more ANOVA and MR (assumptions and alternatives), reliability and agreement among raters, introductory matrix algebra, factor analysis, analysis of frequencies, and logistic regression. [START_REF] Rietveld | Statistical techniques for the study of language and language behaiour[END_REF] is the only book to provide any explanation of matrix algebra, which it does at chapter-length. This book also offers the best explanation of factor analysis=PCA of any of the books reviewed here and is the only book to include linearizing transformations, bootstrapping, logistic regression and a number of other advanced topics. In the process, this book draws some examples from the literature. All in all, readers who have already read one of the other books reviewed here and are interested in moving to the next level may find this book worthwhile. Brown (2001) has a somewhat more specialized focus in that it focuses on survey research as indicated by its title Using surveys in language programs. Brown (2001) contains a moderate number of conceptual topics with 20 and a relatively small number of statistical topics with a total of 16. This book offers complete chapters on the following six topics: planning a survey project, designing a survey instrument, gathering and compiling survey data, analysing survey data quantitatively, analysing survey data qualitatively and reporting on a survey project. This is the only book to discuss multi-traitÀmultimethod analysis. In addition, this book offers a fairly large number of examples: one overall example that appears in all the chapters and other different examples that appear in and illustrate the specific concepts in the various chapters. However, all of the explanations of statistics appear in one very long, and perhaps too-dense, chapter. Readers interested in doing quantitative and=or qualitative survey research in applied linguistics should be happy with this book4 although they might find it necessary to supplement the information about statistical concepts with another book. 9 [START_REF] Brown | Doing applied linguistics research[END_REF] The [START_REF] Brown | Doing applied linguistics research[END_REF] book is entitled Doing second language research. This book includes a moderate number of conceptual topics with 20 and the fewest statistical topics of all the books with only 10. The topics discussed at chapter-length in its eight chapters are as follows: the nature of research, then the qualitative topics of case study research, introspective research and classroom research, as well as the quantitative topics of descriptive statistics research, correlational research and quasi-experimental research, along with a summary chapter that brings all the types of research together under the umbrella of course evaluation. This book draws extensively on examples from the literature and has the most exercises of all the books reviewed here; in fact, it is structured around the exercises. Readers interested in both qualitative and quantitative forms of analysis framed in a variety of different research traditions with numerous exercises and many examples drawn from the literature should be pleased with this book, especially if they are also interested in self-study.

IV What can we learn from examining all of these books together? There are at least three questions that can be answered using the information contained in this review article: What is the range of conceptual=statistical topics in applied linguistics? What are the most important conceptual=statistical topics in applied linguistics? And, how has the coverage of topics changed over the years?

1 What is the range of conceptual=statistical topics in applied linguistics?

If the books reviewed here are any indication, the range of topics in quantitative=statistical analyses in the field of applied linguistics is wide indeed. A total of 29 conceptual topics and 45 statistical topics were included in at least two books, for a total of 74 topics; at least one and a half times that number of topics appeared in only one of the books. My guess is that over 100 topics could easily be included in a single comprehensive book, which indicates three things:

. Quantitative=statistical research has become complex and relatively sophisticated (at least compared to when I started out in the 1970s); . Given the length of the book that involves the most topics [START_REF] Hatch | The research manual: design and statistics for applied linguistics[END_REF], a truly comprehensive book on quantitative=statistical research for applied linguists would be enormously long; and . Readers may find it necessary to use more than one of these books to obtain fully comprehensive coverage.

2 What are the most important conceptual=statistical topics in applied linguistics?

Another way to look at the information provided in this review article is to consider which of the conceptual and statistical topics are the most important. For instance, the first 20 conceptual topics listed in Table 2 are included in more than half (five or more) of the nine books. That is a fair vote of confidence from these authors that these are the 20 most important conceptual topics. That in turn implies that these 20 topics are perhaps the essential conceptual topics for quantitative=statistical researchers in applied linguistics, or at very least are the conceptual topics that should be learned first.

In terms of statistical topics, a majority of the authors appear to agree that all of the descriptive statistics (except the interquartile range=quartile deviation) are important to include. For the correlational category of statistics, Pearson r, Spearman rho, factor analysis=PCA, and multiple regression appear to head the list for a majority of the authors, while t-test, one-way ANOVA and factorial ANOVA do so in the group comparisons category. In addition, one-way and multi-way chi-squared analyses head the list in the non-parametric category, and reliability does so in the other statistical procedures category. I should add that I think that the 20 topics that authors have chosen most often to address in these books are probably among the most important ones. However, the topics that individual researchers may need for their own research can differ quite widely. The information provided in Tables 1 to 3 should help readers find one book or some combination of books that will best meet their individual needs.

3 How has the coverage of topics changed over the years?

With the exception of [START_REF] Seliger | Second language research methods[END_REF], the books published between 1978 and 1991 use similar, fairly traditional approaches in a general trend toward providing ever-increasing amounts of coverage in terms of both conceptual and statistical concepts. Even [START_REF] Seliger | Second language research methods[END_REF], though it does not provide much guidance on the statistical topics, can be said to provide increased depth on conceptual topics and an increase in breadth in the information provided on other types of research as well. Of these books, [START_REF] Hatch | The research manual: design and statistics for applied linguistics[END_REF] may be the watershed book in the sense that its coverage was so broad and ambitious that other authors, myself included, chose not to compete head-to-head with it, but rather to use different and more specific approaches to the issues involved, including more advanced statistical topics [START_REF] Rietveld | Statistical techniques for the study of language and language behaiour[END_REF], quantitative and qualitative survey research (Brown, 2001) and a very hands-on exercise-driven approach to both quantitative and qualitative research types [START_REF] Brown | Doing applied linguistics research[END_REF]. I do not know for certain what will come next in this ever-developing area of applied linguistics quantitative=statistical research methodology, but I have some ideas, and I am sure other authors do as well. In the meantime, I hope this review article will help readers to sort through the existing nine books on doing quantitative=statistical research and to find one or more that will be maximally useful to them.

Table 1

 1

	shows a comparison of the nine books in terms of the gen-
	eral characteristics wherein they differ. Since all of the books have
	Tables of Contents and References, that is not shown in the table;
	nor does the table show the fact that none of the books reviewed
	here provides a useful comparison of the various computer statisti-
	cal packages that are available to applied linguists. However, the
	table does show that eight out of the nine books have Indexes,
	Application exercises and Statistical tables. Note that the number
	of statistical tables supplied in the various books differs consider-
	ably from three to 10; note also that only five of the eight books
	that supply applications exercises also supply an answer key for
	those exercises. Rarer qualities include the following: only four of
	the books offer chapter summaries, three have suggestions for
	further reading, two each have glossaries of terminology, lists of
	statistical formulas, or lists of journals, and only one offers a
	glossary of symbols. Note also that two of the books are clearly
	aimed at linguists (though they could prove useful to applied
	linguists as well), while seven are directed at applied linguists. The
	last characteristic shown in Table 1 requires a little more
	explanation. The distinction between conceptual and short-cut
	formulas is that conceptual formulas are ones that clearly show in

Table 2

 2 Summary of conceptual topics

	Number
	Brown	and	Rodgers,	2002	X
	Brown,	2001			X
	Rietveld and	van Hout,	1993
	Hatch and	Lazaraton,	1991		X
	Seliger and	Shohamy,	1989		X
	Woods	et al.	1986		X
	Butler,	1985			X
	Hatch and	Farhady,	1982		X
	Anshen,	1978			X
	Conceptual	topics			Correlation

The reason Reitveld and van Hout (1993) does not cover so many of the topics is that it is a more advanced text wherein knowledge of these basic topics is assumed.

Graphical display of data X X X X X X X X 8 Types of scales X X X X X X X X 8 Computer analysis X X X X X X X 7 Hypotheses X X X X X X X 7 One-tailed=two-tailed X X X X X X X 7 Probability X X X X X X X 7 Random sampling X X X X X X X 7 Significance testing X X X X X X X 7 Data collection=coding X X X X X X 6 Normal distribution X X X X X X 6 Population X X X X X X 6 Stratified sampling X X X X X X 6 What is research? X X X X X X 6 Covariance X X X X X 5 Internal=external validity X X X X X 5 Repeated measures X X X X X 5 Reporting research X X X X X 5

MedianX X X X X X X X 8 Mode X X X X X X X X 8 Standard deviation X X X X X X X X 8 Range X X X X X X 6 Variance X X X X X X 6 Skewness X X X X X 5 Standardized scores X X X X X

Again, the fact that this book overlaps so little with the other books is probably due to its more advanced topics.

Again, the fact that this book overlaps so little with the other books is probably due to its more advanced topics.

Note that Do ¨myei (2003) also covers issues of survey questionnaire design and data handling, but is not reviewed here because it stops short of discussing statistical data analysis.

V References

Allwright, D. and Bailey, K.M. 1991: Focus on the language classroom: an introduction to classroom research for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Anshen, F. 1978: Statistics for linguists. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Bachman, L.F. 1990: Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bailey, K.M. and Nunan, D., editors, 1997: Voices from the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brown, J.D. 1980: Relative merits of four methods for scoring cloze tests. Modern Language Journal 64, 311À17. --1988: Understanding research in second language learning: a teacher's guide to statistics and research design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. --1992a: What is research? TESOL Matters 2, 10. --1992b: Statistics as a foreign language. Part 2: More things to look for in reading statistical language studies. TESOL Quarterly 26, 629À64. --1996: Testing in language programs. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. --2001: Using surveys in language programs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. --2002: Do cloze tests work? Or, is it just an illusion? Second Language Studies 21, 79À125. --2004a: Research methods for Applied Linguistics: Scope, characteristics, and standards. In Davies, A. and Elder, C., editors, The handbook of applied linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell, 476À500.

Research designs

A priori and post hoc comparisons