AN ANALYSIS OF MISCONCEPTIONS IN SCIENCE TEXTBOOKS: EARTH SCIENCE IN ENGLAND AND WALES Running heading: Misconceptions in science textbooks: earth science

Keywords: earth science education, high school, misconception, secondary school, alternative conception earth science education, high school, misconception, secondary school, textbooks 12 pt Deleted: . These materials 12 pt, Bold 12 pt, Bold Deleted: , thus promulgating these ideas

Surveys of the earth science content of all secondary (high school) science textbooks and related publications used in England and Wales have revealed high levels of error/ misconception. The 29 science textbooks or textbook series surveyed (51 texts in all) showed poor coverage of National Curriculum earth science and contained a mean level of one earth science error/ misconception per page. Science syllabuses and examinations surveyed also showed errors/ misconceptions.

More than 500 instances of misconception were identified through the surveys. These were analysed for frequency, indicating that those areas of the earth science curriculum most prone to misconception are sedimentary processes/ rocks, earthquakes/ Earth's structure, and plate tectonics.

For the fifteen most frequent misconceptions, examples of quotes from the textbooks are given, together with the scientific consensus view, a discussion, and an example of a misconception of similar significance in another area of science.

The misconceptions identified in the surveys are compared with those described in the literature. This indicates that the misconceptions found in college students and pre-service/ practising science teachers are often also found in published materials, and therefore are likely to reinforce the misconceptions in teachers and their students. The analysis may also reflect the prevalence earth science misconceptions in the UK secondary (high school) science teaching population.

The analysis and discussion provides the opportunity for writers of secondary science materials to improve their work on earth science and to provide a platform for improved teaching and learning of earth science in the future.

EARTH SCIENCE IN ENGLAND AND WALES

'Earth science' in the National Curriculum for Science (NCS) in England and Wales covers content that is largely geology-related and so differs from the broader 'earth science' taught through some science curricula in other parts of the world. The 'earth science' in the NCS evolved through four mandatory versions prior to the survey reported below, as described in King (2001). The initial version (DES, 1989) contained 17 sections of content including two directly related to earth science, namely 'Human influences on the Earth' and 'Earth and atmosphere'. During subsequent revisions, the 'Human influences on the Earth' section was incorporated into biological sections, and developed a strong ecological flavour. Meanwhile, the 'atmosphere' section was largely removed and the 'earth' section, comprising largely geological material, was incorporated in the chemical section.

The textbook survey was carried out against the version of the National Science Curriculum based on this model, that was mandatory at the time (QCA, 1999). For 11-14 year olds (Key Stage 3, KS3) this involved: physical and chemical weathering; the formation of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks; a discussion of different energy sources; and a little on environmental protection. Meanwhile, 14-16 year olds (Key Stage 4, KS4) covered: fossils in the context of evolution; environmental issues; changes in the atmosphere and ocean over time and the carbon cycle; evidence for sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rock formation and their subsequent deformation; seismological evidence for the Earth's structure; plate tectonics; and the radioactive dating of rocks.

Since the textbook survey was carried out, the National Curriculum for Science has been revised yet again, the section for 14-16 year olds (KS4) in 2004 (DES, 2004) and the section for 11-14 year olds in 2007 (QCA website). In these revisions, the content of the curriculum is presented in a less detailed and prescriptive way, but the earth science has been separated out into a separate section again, separated from the biological, chemical and physics content.

In other countries across the globe, 'earth science' often includes much more on the atmosphere and oceans and on environmental change than is covered by the science curriculum in England and Wales (King, 2008a). In England and Wales, this material is usually covered in more detail in the geography curriculum.

Thus, the perspective on 'earth science' taken as the basis for this research is the geology-centred earth science studied in secondary (high) schools in England and Wales.

TEXTBOOKS, SYLLABUSES AND EXAMINATIONS IN ENGLAND AND WALES

A survey of all the science textbooks in print and being used in secondary (high) schools in England and Wales was carried out in the Spring of 2002. All the major publishers of science textbooks who exhibited at the Association for Science Education (ASE) Annual Meeting in January 2000, and all the relevant textbooks in print that they published, were covered by the survey. Each contributed between one and five textbooks or series. A total of 13 books or series for 11-14 year old pupils (KS3) was reviewed and 16 books or series for 14-16 year olds (KS4). The total number of individual books surveyed was 27 at KS3 and 24 at KS4, a grand total of 51 books. The full survey was described in a report (King et al, 2002) and in a subsequent publication (King et al, 2005) The 'errors/ oversimplifications' identified in the textbook survey were added to the similar list derived from a previous survey of syllabuses and examinations for 16 year olds (King et al, report 1998(King et al, report , publication 1999)). Since publication of the textbook report, other sources of earth science information written for 11 -16 year olds were examined and some publishers invited the authors of the reports to proof-read drafts of textbook material. During these exercises, more examples of 'error/ oversimplification' were identified and added to the list. The final list of 'error/ oversimplification' examples recorded through all these surveys numbered more than 500.

In the England and Wales, government control of the content of school science is restricted to publication of the National Curriculum for Science, such as the current example (QCA website), and oversight of the examination processes. This provides freedom for any publisher to produce textbooks or other teaching materials without government scrutiny. Meanwhile the examination processes are managed by commercial organisations called Awarding Bodies (or Exam Boards). The Awarding Bodies produce the syllabuses, which should cover the National Curriculum content, and a government body, the Qualifications and Assessment Authority, approves the syllabuses. The Awarding Bodies produce the examinations to assess each syllabus.

As a result of the freedom available to publishers and Awarding Bodies, a range of different publications and syllabuses (with associated examinations) has become available. However, there is little detailed scrutiny of content, particularly in areas less familiar to many teachers and writers, such as earth science. The result is the wide range of 'errors/ oversimplifications' in textbooks, syllabuses and examinations identified in the surveys.

The scale of this issue in the UK was highlighted recently by a piece on earth science submitted for inclusion on the website of a learned scientific institution. Proof reading found ten 'errors/ oversimplifications' in 328 words (King, 2008b), an average of one error in every 33 words.

The 'errors/ oversimplifications' from the textbook and syllabus/examination surveys have been collated to provide insight into the misunderstandings prevalent in the writers of these materials. These are likely to be indicative of the misconceptions held by many science teachers. The misconceptions are being promulgated through use of the textbooks, syllabuses and examinations that are prone to error.

SCIENCE TEXTBOOKS AND THEIR IMPORTANCE

A review carried out in the late 1990s amongst nearly 150 science teachers teaching earth science in England and Wales (King, 2001) showed that their own educational backgrounds in earth science was poor and that science textbooks were key sources of information for them. These included science textbooks written for 11-14 year olds (25% of responses), science texts written for 14-16 year olds (15%) and general science textbooks (29% of respondents). Science textbooks were much more widely used than earth science-specific materials (used by a mean of only 12% of respondents). The only more widely used source of support was their science colleagues (46% of respondents). This research indicating widespread use of textbooks in the UK is supported by a report of the government Council for Science and Technology (CST, 2000) which found that 89% of the 586 secondary (high) school teachers surveyed used science textbooks 'often' (whilst 39% used their colleagues 'often' as well).

Meanwhile [START_REF] Ball | Reform by the book: What is -or might be -the role of curriculum materials in teacher learning and instructional reform[END_REF], quoting [START_REF] Goodlad | Prospects for the future[END_REF], note that 'Commercially published curriculum materials dominate teaching practice in the United States', and continue, 'Unlike frameworks, objectives, assessments and other mechanisms that seek to guide curriculum, instructional materials are concrete and daily. They are the stuff of lessons and units, of what teachers and students do. That centrality affords curricular materials a uniquely intimate connection to teaching' (p6). [START_REF] Good | Science textbook analysis[END_REF] says, 'most science teachers seem to use science textbooks most of the time …' (p619) and Abraham et al. (1992) comment, 'In the experience of the researchers, many junior high school teachers are much too dependent on textbooks.' (p117). [START_REF] Wandershee | Research on alternative conceptions in science[END_REF] in reviewing the claim that 'Teachers often subscribe to the same alternative conceptions as their students', comment, 'In the defence of teachers, the persistence of their alternative conceptions may be an effect of poor college science textbook writing or poorly taught science courses' (p189). Clearly science textbooks have a very important influence on both science teachers and their pupils.

It was for this reason that the American Association for the Advancement of Science, as part of its Project 2061, undertook a review of science textbooks available to teachers in the USA. Their findings have been reported and discussed in a number of reports and publications. In one of these, Kesidou & Roseman, (2002) state that, 'Whereas curriculum materials (and in particular textbooks and their accompanying teacher's guides) are but one of the resources available to teachers, they have a major role in teaching and learning. Many teachers rely on them to provide some or all of their content and pedagogical knowledge, and this is specially so when the teacher is a novice or is teaching outside his or her area of expertise …' (p522). Stern & Roseman (2004) add, 'For better or for worse, the majority of schools are still relying on textbooks as the primary source of the classroom curriculum, and textbooks strongly influence student learning through their influence on teachers.' (p556).

The overall findings of the Project 2061 textbook evaluation team were that the textbooks evaluated were generally poor in a number of ways. For example, 'Programs [textbook teaching schemes] only rarely provided students with a sense of purpose for the units of study, took account of student beliefs that SURVEY METHODOLOGY THAT IDENTIFIED ERRORS AND OVERSIMPLIFICATIONS 'Errors/ oversimplifications' were first identified in a survey of the GCSE science examination syllabuses in use in England and Wales in 1996. General Certification in Secondary Education (GCSE) syllabuses and examinations are aimed at 16 year olds, which are taken by more than 80% of the school students in the two countries.

The survey was undertaken by five experienced earth science teachers and examiners and covered all 11 examinations available in 1996 in England and Wales at the time. The survey covered the syllabuses used and the science examinations set for each of the syllabuses in 1996. Each syllabus and set of examination papers was evaluated independently against a proforma by two members of the working group and their views were combined by a moderator to provide an overview. The findings were reported in King et al. (report 1998King et al. (report , publication 1999)). The survey identified poor coverage of the earth science components of the National Curriculum and no syllabuses that were error-free; 13 'errors/ oversimplifications' were recorded.

Meanwhile the examinations showed a preponderance of low level, recall-based questions and also contained errors. Three of the eleven sets of papers contained seven 'errors/ oversimplifications' between them. The draft survey report was sent to all the Awarding Bodies for comment. No feedback was received and so the final report was prepared and widely circulated.

It is noteworthy that a more recent survey of the six GCSE science syllabuses available in England and Wales in 2004 (King et al. 2004) found better National Curriculum coverage and a much reduced 'error/ oversimplification' level. The most recent 2007 survey of the five GCSE science syllabuses (now called specifications) currently used, found a poorer National Curriculum coverage but a further reduction in the level of 'error/ oversimplification' (King andHughes, report 2007, publication 2008). The reduction in the level of 'error/ oversimplification' over time may reflect publication and dissemination of the results of the previous surveys.

A survey of all the science textbooks in print and in use in schools in England and Wales was undertaken in 2002 to identify a base level of quality of earth science content against which future textbooks could be judged (King et al, report 2002(King et al, report , publication 2005). As indicated above, 13 books or series (programs) for 11-14 year old pupils and 16 books or series for 14-16 year olds were reviewed, involving 27 books for the 11-14 age range and 24 for 14-16 year olds, a total of 51 textbooks.

The survey was carried out by four experienced earth science educators. Initially a proforma similar to that used in the syllabus survey above was agreed, through which each book could be checked for National Curriculum coverage, and percentage of earth science content and any 'errors/ oversimplifications' included would be noted. The recorded 'errors/ oversimplifications' were not simply typing or grammatical errors, but were errors which showed that the author had an incorrect understanding of the process being described. The 'oversimplifications' involved simplifications that had introduced errors. All of the 'errors/ oversimplifications' recorded were re-written correctly at a similar language level and with a similar number of words, to illustrate to the publishers and authors that the material could have been presented correctly.

The proforma was initially applied by all the reviewers to the same textbook and, following discussion at the moderation meeting, the final form of the proforma and methodology was agreed. Each reviewer then reviewed their quota of textbooks and their results were moderated by the coordinator. The complete set of moderated comments was circulated to all involved for further comment and checking before the results were collated. The findings allowed the textbooks to be ranked in terms of National Curriculum coverage, amount of earth science included (percentage of pages of earth science relative to the number of pages of the book), numbers of 'errors/ oversimplifications' and amount of material additional to the National Curriculum content.

Finally, the full 100+ page draft report containing all the data was sent to all the publishers involved for their response, and the limited feedback received was incorporated, before publication and wide circulation of the final report. The report findings are summarised in Table 1.

Deleted: ; King, in press a

Deleted: Thirteen

Deleted: The phrase or sentence including each 'error/ oversimplification' was recorded in full and a correct rewording was provided -to show to the publisher in question that such 'errors/ oversimplifications' could be eliminated through carefully chosen wording using a similar level of English and a similar number of words. The report findings show that that more than half the National Curriculum earth science content was inadequately covered and that the mean level of 'error/ oversimplification' was one error per page of earth science. Of the 29 textbooks/ series evaluated (several textbooks in the same series were treated together), no textbook/series was completely error-free. The lowest error level was 0.1 error per page of earth science. Seventeen textbooks/series had 0-1 errors per page; nine textbooks/series had 1-2 errors per page and three textbooks/series had more than two errors per page, the worst having 2.5 errors per page (66 'errors/ oversimplifications' in 26 pages). Through the textbook survey, 453 instances of 'error/ oversimplification' in total were recorded.

F

During 2003, more instances of 'error/ oversimplification' in material published for use by science teachers were identified: 38 from proof-reading of pre-publication science textbook material and 20 from a BBC science revision website.

Together a total of 531 instances of 'error/ oversimplification' was identified from all these sources, and these form the basis of the analysis undertaken below.

EARTH SCIENCE 'ERROR/ OVERSIMPLIFICATION' DATA COLLECTED FROM THE SCIENCE-TEACHING MATERIALS

The 531 instances of 'error/ oversimplification' have been categorised and are shown graphically in Figure 1. Figure 1 indicates that the majority of 'errors/ oversimplifications' relate to rocks and rock-forming processes (40%), particularly to sedimentary rocks and processes (24%). A high percentage is found in the earthquake, Earth's structure and plate tectonic categories (29%), whilst in the data relating to economic geology, more than half (9% of the total) related to energy. Some 'errors/ oversimplifications' occurred in the data as multiple instances and these have been ranked in order to show those 'errors/ oversimplifications' that are most widespread amongst writers of published science materials. The 'top 15' examples of 'error/ oversimplification' found are ranked in Table 2, each instance comprising more than 1.3% of the data. The table lists:

• the earth science 'error/ oversimplification' as it might be found in a textbook;

• its prevalence in the data;

• examples of quotes containing 'errors/ oversimplifications' taken from the materials reviewed • the scientific consensus view, given as quotes from authoritative textbooks;

• discussion -providing guidance to those attempting to address the 'error/ oversimplification' in question; • an example of an 'error/ oversimplification' of similar significance in another science area -provided to give some indication to the non-specialist of the 'importance' of the 'error/ oversimplification' to the teaching of earth science.

F

ERRORS/OVERSIMPLIFICATIONS, MISCONCEPTIONS AND ALTERNATIVE CONCEPTIONS

The term 'errors/ oversimplifications' has been used above because of its usage in the two reports King et al. (1998) and King et al. (2002). The term was used independently of any usage of the terms in research literature, specifically for use with sources of information written for teachers and pupils (pupil textbooks, examination syllabuses, etc).

However there has been wide discussion in the literature around the best terminology to use for instances of error and misconception. For example [START_REF] Abimbola | The problem of terminology in the study of student conceptions in science[END_REF] cites the following usage, 'the kinds of knowledge that researchers consider as 'wrong' knowledge … [include the following examples] 'errorneous (sic) concepts' … ; 'misconceptions' … ; 'misunderstandings' … ; 'errorneous ideas' …; and 'mistakes' ... ' (p178).

He goes on to discuss use of the terms 'alternative frameworks' and 'alternative conceptions'. 'Alternative conceptions' is his preferred term, for, 'particular conceptions that are held strongly and persistently by students' (p180). [START_REF] Wandershee | Research on alternative conceptions in science[END_REF] in their discussion of the 'plethora of terms' used in this field, also decide that 'alternative conceptions' is the most appropriate term for the understandings that children have, whilst noting that 'Not all researchers, however, agree that the term misconception should be disregarded' (p179). Meanwhile [START_REF] Dove | Students alternative conceptions in earth science: a review of research and implications for teaching and learning[END_REF] reviews usage of some of the terms noted above, together with, 'children's science', 'preconceptions', 'untutored beliefs', 'intuitive notions', 'ideas' and 'errors' (p184) before also deciding to use the term 'alternative conceptions'.

Much of the discussion of terminology has centred on the ways in which children form ideas about science and the ways in which these ideas are retained, even if they differ from consensus views in science (or 'final form science' - [START_REF] Duschl | Restructuring science education[END_REF]) (Driver et al, 1985[START_REF] Driver | Making sense of secondary science research into children's ideas[END_REF]. These can rightly be called 'alternative conceptions' since they are conceptions of the science derived from the experiences of the pupils.

However, the instances observed in textbooks and other similar sources cannot be described as 'alternative conceptions' since, while they may have first developed as a child's evolving view of science, they may well have come from other sources as well, such as erroneous information written elsewhere, or older consensus views, now superseded. They may derive from the author's limited understanding, from poor attempts to simplify ideas for their pupil-readers, or by inadequate attempts to couch their writing to address the views of science that pupils are likely to have, the 'children's science' of Gilbert et al (1982, p623). Where they clearly differ from today's scientific consensus they can best be described as 'errors', however the ways in which they are written in textbooks and their widespread usage indicates that many of these errors are not simple mistakes, but are deep-seated and widely

Minerals, rocks and fossils

The concepts of rocks, minerals and fossils provide key building blocks of geological understanding. However, many pupils bring with them a range of misconceptions about them, as indicated by Happs (1982), 'The term 'rock' is largely used in a nonscientific way …' (p14) and [START_REF] Dove | Student identification of rock types[END_REF], 'the [assessment] activities provided … evidence to suggest that the term 'rock' is widely misunderstood among students' (p269). Concerning minerals, [START_REF] Blake | Helping young children to see what is relevant and why: supporting cognitive change in earth science using analogy[END_REF] noted that the term 'mineral' was a problematic concept for 9-11 year old children whilst Happs (1982) found no 11-18 year old students that were able to use the term 'mineral' in the scientific sense.' (p18).

Children's understanding of rocks has been studied since [START_REF] Piaget | The child's conception of the world[END_REF] reported that many young children thought that rocks were created by men or God whilst others thought they grew from seeds in the soil. Studies since have been summarised by Dove (1998, p185) as showing that pupils of all ages regarded rocks as, 'dull, heavy, large, dark material … [and] colour was also an important criterion'. Children also confuse rocks with minerals (Happs, 1985a;[START_REF] Oversby | Knowledge of earth science and the potential for its development[END_REF]. Meanwhile [START_REF] Ford | Sixth graders' conceptions of rocks in their local environment[END_REF] found that, unlike experienced earth scientists, most primary (elementary) children in his survey (87% in the group studied using a rock kit) looked for properties that provided no evidence of the mode of rock formation. [START_REF] Blake | Helping young children to see what is relevant and why: supporting cognitive change in earth science using analogy[END_REF] summarised his work and others as, 'Children's alternative conceptions for describing and classifying rocks centre on simple physical properties such as colour or shape and reveal only limited ideas about the origins of rocks.' (p1857). Meanwhile Happs (1985b) has shown that even when children do make the observations that would allow them to interpret how rocks were formed, they can often misinterpret these clues, and come to incorrect conclusions. Misconceptions about rocks are particularly problematical when children are asked to classify and identify rocks, so it is not surprising that when trainee (pre-service) teachers were asked to teach rock identification, they showed relatively high anxiety levels [START_REF] Westerback | Comparisons or preservice elementary teachers' anxiety about teaching students to identify minerals and rocks and students in geology courses' anxiety about identification of minerals and rocks[END_REF]. These studies reveal the need for systems to teach about rock characteristics and classification using intrinsic features that provide evidence of the rock-forming processes, such as that described by Hawley (2002). [START_REF] Oversby | Knowledge of earth science and the potential for its development[END_REF] in researching understanding of fossils, has shown that many pupils and pre-service teachers, when given descriptions of fossils and non-fossils, were unable to distinguish between them. He concluded that, 'A source of the confusion may be that pupils have been taught that a petrified body is an example of a fossil; this is then reinterpreted as a belief that only petrified bodies are fossils.'(p 94). This comment links with two similar examples found in the textbook survey.

The textbook survey showed marked similarities between the misconceptions concerning minerals, rocks and fossils found in textbooks and those described in the literature. Eleven examples of misconceived rock definitions were found in the textbook survey (including confusion between 'minerals' and 'rocks') together with confusion about the meaning of 'hardness' as applied to rocks. Confusion was also found in textbook-writers around processes of fossilisation, similar to those found by [START_REF] Oversby | Knowledge of earth science and the potential for its development[END_REF] for example, suggestions that there is only one method of fossilisation. Since textbook writers were once pupils and later were trainee teachers, these similarities are not surprising.

Sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic processes

Research into understanding of rock-forming processes has ranged from broad studies of a range of processes and their rock products to those that focus on specific processes. Dove, in her 1997 survey, investigated student ideas about weathering and erosion and uncovered a range of misconceptions. As [START_REF] Dove | Student ideas about weathering and erosion[END_REF][START_REF] Dove | Students alternative conceptions in earth science: a review of research and implications for teaching and learning[END_REF] describes, this is probably because the terms have altered in meaning over time and can still be interpreted in different ways by textbooks of today. Nevertheless, the definitions are clear in most authoritative texts used by earth scientists, as shown in Table 2.

Many of the misconceptions identified by Dove were also found in the textbook/ syllabus surveys, where confusion between the terms 'weathering' and 'erosion' (Table 2, Section A) provided the greatest incidence of misconception recorded. It is because processes of weathering and erosion generally act together that, if the processes are to be properly understood, they need to be distinguished so that the results of combining different processes in different ways can be interpreted. This fine point may be lost on a non-specialist teacher, which is why a comparable chemical example is added to Table 2 in an attempt to indicate to a non-specialist the scale of the issues involved.

The fact that freeze/ thaw weathering requires many cycles of freezing and thawing (Table 2, J) is not made clear in many science texts. This misconception can be compounded by the findings that many pupils expect water to shrink on freezing, rather than to expand [START_REF] Cosgrove | Children's conceptions of the changes of state of water[END_REF]. They recommend that teachers should demonstrate to pupils that water does expand on freezing, to underpin their correct understanding of the freeze/ thaw weathering process.

The evidence for processes of rock-formation, and the environments in which the rocks formed, is preserved in the rocks. Thus misunderstandings about rock-forming processes will be reflected in misunderstandings about the features preserved in rocks, and vise versa. Happs (1982) found a range of misunderstandings in children about the concepts of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks such that [START_REF] Driver | Making sense of secondary science research into children's ideas[END_REF] summarised his work as, 'Very few children … appreciated the relationship between sedimentary rocks and the sedimentary processes by which they are formed. … Most children …, when confronted with specimens of igneous rocks had no ideas on formation to offer ...' and, '… the word 'metamorphic' was associated by most children with metamorphosis in animals …' (p113).

Misunderstandings like these can be carried right through to adulthood as shown in Stofflett's (1993) work with pre-service primary (elementary) teachers, commenting that, 'The misconceptions exhibited in this study [about rocks and their formation] were, quite frankly, appalling.' (p230). Stofflett (1994) also showed that the, 'average teacher candidate understood only 18 percent of the concepts [relating to rockforming processes] presented.' (p495). [START_REF] Kusnick | Growing pebbles and conceptual prisms -understanding the sources of student misconceptions about rock formation[END_REF], in another survey of preservice primary teachers, showed that, 'Students hold a surprising number of misconceptions about how rocks form.' (p31), commenting that, 'a startling number of students described rocks as forming by processes that no geologist would recognise.' (p37) and concluding that, 'students need schooling experiences which build a basis for conceptual understanding …' (p38). [START_REF] Ford | The challenges of observing geologically: third graders' descriptions of rock and mineral properties[END_REF] one student responded, "It went through the rock cycle" much as laundry goes through a wash cycle -something that is done to a rock to change it.' (p375).

Meanwhile, Kali et al (2003) have shown that the type of thinking needed to understand the rock cycle and related systems thinking, involves high order thinking skills -but thinking skills that can be developed through appropriate teaching strategies. Meanwhile Sibley et al (2007) have shown that novel approaches (in their case, by asking students to link processes in a 'box diagram') can be effective in teaching cyclic thinking of the type needed to understand the rock cycle.

Work specifically related to the understanding of igneous processes has been reviewed by [START_REF] Dove | Students alternative conceptions in earth science: a review of research and implications for teaching and learning[END_REF] who found a, 'tendency for students to confuse earthquake with volcanic activity.' (p187) -going on to stress that, 'only a minority of earthquakes are caused in this way.' (p188). Some studies, such as that of [START_REF] Lillo | An analysis of the annotated drawings of the internal structure of the Earth made by students aged 10-15 from primary and secondary schools in Spain[END_REF] and [START_REF] Dahl | Digging into earth science: alternative conceptions held by K-12 teachers[END_REF] have shown the misunderstanding that magma that erupts through volcanoes originates in the Earth's core -when virtually all magma is thought to originate in the upper portion of the mantle or crust (Hancock & Skinner, 2000). Researchers have also found that US college students, 'believed that volcanoes only occur on islands, that they are associated with warm climates, and that volcanoes only occur along the equator, among other ideas.' (Libarkin et al, 2005, p24). These findings were supported by [START_REF] Marques | Alternative frameworks of urban Portuguese pupils of ages 10-11 and 14-15 to Earth, life and volcanoes[END_REF] for Portuguese students of ages 10-11 and 14-15.

Given the widespread misconceptions about rock-forming processes found in these studies, it is not surprising that misconceptions were also common in the textbook materials surveyed, with errors around the rock-forming processes forming 40% of the total data: sedimentary -24.1%; igneous -7.5%; metamorphic -8.3%. The misconceptions were wide-ranging and the most common concerned lack of understanding about how sediments become cemented to produce sedimentary rocks (indicating, for example, that sedimentary rocks are formed by compression only), confusion about limestone and chalk formation (eg. chalk is made from skeletons), misunderstandings about sediment and soil (eg. sediment grains are always small), about where magma comes from (suggesting magma comes from the core) and how granites and basalts form, and misconceptions about the causes and results of metamorphism (indicating that metamorphism happens when rocks are buried). Consensus scientific views on these topics are given in Table 2.

Geological time, correlation and dating

Children's understanding of geological time was investigated by [START_REF] Ault | Time in geological explanations as perceived by elementary school students[END_REF] and this work has been followed up more recently by a number of researchers. Schoon (1992Schoon ( , 1995) ) showed that nearly a third of the US primary (10-11 year old) pupils and a fifth of the pre-service primary teachers in his surveys thought that dinosaurs lived at the same time as cavemen. Trend (1998) studied the understanding of upper primary (10-11 year old) UK pupils showing that although the children had, 'a general awareness of major events such as the Ice Age and moving continents … a clear chronology is almost entirely lacking.' (p973). Trend went on to study understandings of geological time among UK pre-service primary teachers (2000), concluding that, 'Trainee teachers … are more comfortable and imaginative with their teaching of history than with their geology, despite the parallels.' (p539). In further commentary, Trend (2001) geoscience phenomena is constrained by an all-pervasive confusion with deep time, both relative and absolute.' (p196). He also found that, 'Primary teachers do not have a secure grasp of deep time either in absolute or relative terms.' (p215)indicating that they are neither secure with the magnitude of geological time (the big numbers) or the ordering of time (the relative dating and correlation of geological events). This work is supported by that of Hidalgo and Otero (2004) who showed that students find it difficult to remember timed events in isolation. While they are sometimes able to deduce the order of geological events from other information, they find it very difficult to conceptualise long periods of time. Libarkin et al (2005) found that US college students held a number of misconceptions about the dating of the formation of the Earth and the formation of life. In further work Libarkin & Anderson (2005) found that students had poor ideas of the scale of geological time, the occurrence of events in geological history and absolute age dating. Meanwhile, [START_REF] Dahl | Digging into earth science: alternative conceptions held by K-12 teachers[END_REF] working with US practising teachers, found that they were fairly comfortable with relative dating, but not comfortable with allocating dates to geological events. Meanwhile [START_REF] Dodick | Cognitive factors affecting student understanding of geologic time[END_REF] have shown that most Israeli students in their study did not have the cognitive skills to cope with the concept of geological time until they reached the age of 12 or older.

Together, this research indicates that the population at large does not generally have a 'feel' for geological time and that while younger children have difficulty with both relative time (sequencing events) and absolute time (allocating ages to the events)older people are more able to cope with relative time, but still find the concept of absolute time difficult to comprehend.

For these reasons, it is crucial for science textbook writers to at least provide correct information. Thus it is unfortunate that they are also prone to error in this area, producing both numerical errors (eg. that radiometric dating might show a rock to be 9000 million years old, ie. older than the solar system) and general misunderstandings (for example, by stating that the age of a rock can be determined from the rock type). In future, the best examples of textbook writing in this area will respond to Trend's (2001) recommendation to include, 'a carefully designed deep time framework that comprises a small number of key major geo-events …' (p192) in their work.

Earthquakes and the structure of the Earth [START_REF] Leather | Views of the origin and nature of earthquakes and oil held by eleven to seventeen year olds[END_REF], through his study of UK children's understanding of earthquakes at different ages, has shown how their misconceptions diminished with age and the scientific view became dominant. So, whilst most 11 year olds thought earthquakes were related to hot countries, were directly related to volcanic activity, and could never occur in Britain, they had mainly lost these views by the age of 17. However, Schoon (1992Schoon ( , 1995) ) has shown in separate surveys that nearly a third of both US primary pupils (10-11 year olds) and pre-service primary teachers thought incorrectly that Chicago could not be damaged by an earthquake; this misconception therefore did not diminish with age. In Israel, a country prone to earthquakes, 77% of the 12-16 years old students surveyed were unaware that their school was situated in a high risk area (Rutin & Sofer, 2007) and many had little idea of the correct response to a future earthquake. That many primary children (5-11 year olds) have little understanding of the causes of earthquakes has been supported by the work in the US of Ross & Shuell (1993) and in the UK by Sharp et al (1995). The mythological and supernatural views of the origin of earthquakes held by some pupils in Taiwan have been studied by [START_REF] Tsai | Ideas about earthquakes after experiencing a natural disaster in Taiwan: An analysis of students' worldviews[END_REF]. [START_REF] Lillo | An analysis of the annotated drawings of the internal structure of the Earth made by students aged 10-15 from primary and secondary schools in Spain[END_REF] researched 10-15 year old Spanish children's understandings of the internal structure of the Earth by asking them to draw pictures. These showed that, whilst most students thought the Earth was formed of concentric layers, and this view increased with age, many of all ages thought the hot molten core was the source of the magma involved in volcanic eruption. Many students also drew the thicknesses of the layers wrongly, with the crust often much too thick. This paralleled a similar misconception of UK practising science teachers (King, 2000) and US college students (Steer et al, 2005). Steer et al (2005), having identified this misconception, used practical model making and peer group discussion to teach the correct dimensions of the Earth's core, mantle and crust, with a high level of success, as shown by post-course assessment several weeks after completion of the course. Marques and Thompson (1997a) asked Portuguese students to indicate on a diagram where they thought the densest materials in the Earth would be found, and many of primary age indicated near the South Pole. A significant, but reduced number of older students also showed this misconception.

Research into the understanding of earthquakes and the structure of the Earth by older (college) students and teachers has been limited. However Libarkin et al (2005) have shown that, whilst most of the US college students they surveyed related earthquakes to plate tectonics, 'Alternative explanations for the primary causes of earthquakes included the influence of heat, temperature, climate, weather, people and animals … gas pressure, gravity, the rotation of the Earth and processes in the Earth's core, "exploding soil" and volcanoes …' and the expanding Earth (p23).

They also found that, when questioned about the interior of the Earth, 'almost all students mixed physical state (lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, inner core, outer core) and chemical boundary (crust, mantle, core) terms, indicating a lack of understanding of the basis of subdividing the Earth's interior.' (p24). King (2000) surveyed practising UK science teachers and found high levels of misconception about the states (solid, partial solid, partial liquid or liquid) of the different layers of the Earth and of the thickness of the crust. Poor understanding was also shown of how the density of the Earth changes with depth and where different depths of earthquakes are likely to be found. example, the crust being shown much thicker than it actually is) was particularly common in both the literature relating to older students and the textbook survey.

Plate tectonics [START_REF] Marques | Misconceptions and conceptual changes concerning continental drift and plate tectonics among Portuguese students aged 16-17[END_REF] researched the misconceptions about plate tectonics held by 16-17 year old Portuguese students after they had been taught about plate tectonics in the classroom. They found that many students had developed little understanding of how continents and oceans form and develop. They also had poor understanding of the term 'plate', of how plates move, or the causes of this movement. Meanwhile King (2000) showed that practising UK science teachers had little understanding of how earthquake and heat flow distributions on Earth were linked to plate tectonics. Libarkin et al (2005) showed that some US college students (mainly 19-20 year olds), 'were unsure about the location of the Earth's tectonic plates, believing them to be somewhere below the surface …', whilst a few, 'place tectonic plates at the Earth's core or in the atmosphere …' (p23). Many of the students surveyed, 'were unable to conceive of tectonic plates relative to their own space, and most preferred to disconnect tectonic plates and their movement from the Earth's surface.' (p23), whilst few students connected volcanoes with plate tectonics. Meanwhile Libarkin & Anderson (2005) found that most US college students, 'are exiting courses with a poor understanding of the location of tectonic plates.' (p394) and Libarkin (2006) commented on, 'the fact that most [US] college students would claim that they have learned about gravity or plate tectonics in prior coursework does not mean that they fully understand these phenomena.' (p9).

Most instances of misconception in the textbook/ syllabus surveys related to confusion between the thin crust and the thicker lithosphere that forms the plates, a finding that did not figure strongly in the research literature. However, there were also many single instances of misconception in the textbooks (such as indicating that the continental crust was dragged down in subduction, when it is much too buoyant for this to happen), reflecting the confusion identified in the literature noted above.

History of geology

Only a small number of instances of misconception was identified in the textbook and syllabus surveys for this aspect of the curriculum, and there is also little coverage of misconceptions in this area in the literature.

Economic geology [START_REF] Leather | Views of the origin and nature of earthquakes and oil held by eleven to seventeen year olds[END_REF] asked UK pupils what oil formed from, and found that, 'Dead sea creatures (or animals) … [was] the most popular idea at all ages, and plants, vegetation, leaves or seaweed … [comes] a strong second.' (p105), although some pupils thought oil formed from water, and others from coal. Few of the pupils he surveyed had a clear idea of how oil was trapped underground, 'The most popular view was that oil is contained below the sea bed in some sort of hollow, described as pockets, holes, spaces, potholes, gaps, cavities, crannies, pools, ponds, crevices, chambers and caves. This answer was given by 16% of the eleven year olds, 35% of the fourteen year olds and 24% of the seventeen year olds. A less common misconception was that oil collects on the sea bed (14% of eleven year olds)' (p106) These findings relate closely to the misconceptions about oil noted in the textbook/ syllabus surveys. The textbooks also refer to oil being formed from animals/ creatures (when the consensus view is that almost all oil and gas is derived from plant material and bacteria, see Table 2). The textbook survey identified several confused diagrams and statements about oil/ gas trapping mechanisms that relate to the misconceptions of pupils, noted above.

Atmosphere and ocean

The atmosphere and ocean only have limited coverage in the science curriculum of England and Wales and therefore only have limited coverage in the textbooks and syllabuses that relate to the curriculum. Thus only a relatively small number of 'errors/ oversimplifications' was recorded in the surveys (20 in a total of 531 instances, or 4% of the data).

Since the coverage of the atmosphere and ocean, and particularly concerns about the greenhouse effect and global warming, form a key part of the earth science and environmental science studies of pupils across the globe, research into misconceptions in these areas has been extensive, and too large to cover adequately in this discussion.

Nevertheless the environmental research literature indicates widespread misconception about environmental issues amongst school students and pre-service and practising science teachers. The textbook instances found by the survey, reflected some of the misconceptions noted in the research, relating particularly to incomplete carbon cycles and global warming diagrams showing the atmosphere reflecting heat.

The level of misconception relating to the atmosphere and ocean identified by the survey was smaller than for other areas of earth science. Thus it does seem that UK textbook-writers are more comfortable with this area of the curriculum than with those areas relating to geological science in particular. The syllabus surveys (King at al, 1998(King at al, , 2004;;King and Hughes, 2007) (1996) of, 'Lies, dam lies and books on geology' (p.289). The limited research evidence shows that in countries where there is a 'free press' (no government control over textbook content), the earth science content of broad science textbooks is poor and prone to misconception. However, the situation can be improved by surveys like this. As a result of wide circulation and dissemination of the report, several publishers asked for their materials to be proof-read before publication, and this has continued to today.

That scrutiny of syllabuses and examinations can be effective, is suggested by the reduction in the level of misconception shown by three reports over time (King et al, 1998(King et al, , 2004;;King and Hughes, 2007), following their wide circulation and publication of the findings.

Textbooks play a central role in daily teaching, (as indicated by the research described in the 'Science textbooks and their importance' section above) and it is likely that syllabuses and examination papers play an even more crucial role. The work of [START_REF] Ball | Reform by the book: What is -or might be -the role of curriculum materials in teacher learning and instructional reform[END_REF] King (2008a).

Comparison between the earth science misconceptions identified in the literature and those noted in the textbook/ syllabus surveys show contrasts for different age levels. Where much of the published misconception work has focussed on primary (elementary) children, few of the misconceptions identified in the literature have been exhibited by the writers of the secondary (high school) textbooks/ syllabuses surveyed. However, where the published misconception work has focussed on mainly on college students and trainee (pre-service) teachers there is a much closer correlation. With a high level of misconception in earth science understanding of trainee teachers, practicing teachers and textbook writers, there is a major task ahead to improve the education of all these groups.

The correlation between the misconceptions of college students/ trainee (preservice) teachers and the textbook/ syllabus survey strengthens the view that the textbook/ syllabus survey provides a useful reflection of the misconceptions of practicing science teachers in the UK. This is because most textbook/ syllabus However, one of the disadvantages of textbook/ syllabus surveys is that they do not provide opportunities for analysis of how the misconceptions of the writers developed. They may have come from the teaching the writers themselves received, from erroneous textbook sources, or from overzealous attempts at oversimplification for their pupil readers. Study of how textbook-writers developed their misconceptions would provide a valuable, if problematical, line of future research.

One way of improving education is to ensure that curriculum materials are of high quality and are error-free. This analysis has shown that this is not been the case in the past with many of the materials written for the earth science component of the secondary (high school) science curriculum in England and Wales. Meanwhile, similar situations seem to pertain in US and Spanish teaching materials. The detailed review of the misconceptions in the published materials provided by the reports (King et al, 1998(King et al, , 2002) ) and the analysis and review of the data provided by this paper can provide a foundation for future improvement in all these cases. Nevertheless, continued scrutiny will be necessary, so the anecdotal evidence that this scrutiny can be effective, is reassuring.

Table 2 provides the background that will allow future science textbook writers to correct and improve their writing of earth science materials and so offer the opportunity for these improved materials to address the earth science misconceptions of teachers and pupils alike. So, rather than promulgating earth science misconceptions, as in many cases in the past, textbook writers now have the opportunity to improve teaching and learning in this area of key importance to the science curriculum and to the knowledge and understanding of citizens of the future.

8317 words. The mantle is almost entirely solid, as shown by the fact that it transmits seismic Swaves which can only pass through solid material. There is a zone in the upper mantle between the solid lithosphere above and the solid mantle below, called the asthenosphere that is between 1 and 5% liquid (i.e. is 95 -99% solid). As the molten material is found as films around the edges of crystals, it allows the solid material of the asthenosphere to Considering that glass is a liquid when it has the characteristi cs of a solid in solid state creep.' (Hancock & Skinner, 2000, p47) 'This view, that the crust is a relatively thin layer of solid rock on a liquid interior, became widely prevalent until about a century ago, when it was shown to be unsound.' (Duff, 1993, p12) flow very slowly. However, the mantle beneath can also flow, even though it is completely solid. A good analogy is ice that, although solid (and capable of being broken by a hammer) can flow downhill in glaciers. 'Crust … At its thickest it is about 40km.' (H4 -166 -textbook for 14 -16 year olds) Earth crosssection diagram showing the core too small and the crust far too thick. C1 -C 147textbook for 14 -16 year olds) an average crustal thickness of 35 km for the continents and 7 km for the oceans …' (Duff, 1993, p599) 'Continental crust … averaging 35km and reaching 70 km in some places.' (Duff, 1993, p14) 'The boundary [of the core] with the mantle lies at a depth of c2900 km from the surface and the core therefore occupies … over 50 percent of the radius.' (Duff, 1993, p13) boundary, the Moho, is a chemical boundary. in water-filled pores and cracks, the rocks are relentlessly broken to bits' (Duff, 1993, p22) more deeply into the crack widened by the previous freeze, until a fragment eventually breaks off. The expansion of water on freezing, causing this process, can be demonstrated by freezing a sealed syringe of 10 ml of water, (Williams, 1984) (Clark et al. 1997, p3) Most of the gas in the UK was formed from coals deposited as swamp deposits some 300 million years ago. Most of the oil and some gas were formed from algae and bacteria that settled on the sea floor around 140 million years ago. These formed source rocks that were heated and compressed to release their oil and gas and are still slowly releasing them today.

F

Thinking that evolution happened millions of years ago Key: N4 -C, 282. Reference to textbook, syllabus or examination source of quote containing 'error/ oversimplification'. * In the past, the term 'erosion' has been used more broadly to include weathering, but this is not the normal usage in scientific discussion today.

Category

Key texts Minerals, rocks and fossils [START_REF] Piaget | The child's conception of the world[END_REF]Ault, 1984;Happs, 1982Happs, , 1985aHapps, , 1985b;;Hawley, 2002;[START_REF] Dove | Student identification of rock types[END_REF][START_REF] Dove | Students alternative conceptions in earth science: a review of research and implications for teaching and learning[END_REF][START_REF] Oversby | Knowledge of earth science and the potential for its development[END_REF][START_REF] Ford | Sixth graders' conceptions of rocks in their local environment[END_REF][START_REF] Ford | The challenges of observing geologically: third graders' descriptions of rock and mineral properties[END_REF] Sedimentary rocks and processes [START_REF] Cosgrove | Children's conceptions of the changes of state of water[END_REF][START_REF] Dove | Student ideas about weathering and erosion[END_REF] Igneous rocks and processes [START_REF] Lillo | An analysis of the annotated drawings of the internal structure of the Earth made by students aged 10-15 from primary and secondary schools in Spain[END_REF][START_REF] Dove | Students alternative conceptions in earth science: a review of research and implications for teaching and learning[END_REF]Libarkin et al, 2005;[START_REF] Dahl | Digging into earth science: alternative conceptions held by K-12 teachers[END_REF] Metamorphic rocks and processes None specific to this topic The rock cycle Stofflett, 1993;[START_REF] Ford | Sixth graders' conceptions of rocks in their local environment[END_REF]Kali et al, 2003;Sibley et al, 2007Happs, 1982;[START_REF] Driver | Making sense of secondary science research into children's ideas[END_REF]Stofflett, 1994;[START_REF] Kusnick | Growing pebbles and conceptual prisms -understanding the sources of student misconceptions about rock formation[END_REF][START_REF] Blake | Helping young children to see what is relevant and why: supporting cognitive change in earth science using analogy[END_REF] Geological time, correlation and dating Ault,1982;Trend, 1998Trend, , 2000Trend, , 2001;;[START_REF] Dodick | Cognitive factors affecting student understanding of geologic time[END_REF]Hidalgo & Otero, 2004;Libarkin et al, 2005;Libarkin & Anderson, 2005;[START_REF] Dahl | Digging into earth science: alternative conceptions held by K-12 teachers[END_REF] Earthquakes and the structure of the Earth [START_REF] Leather | Views of the origin and nature of earthquakes and oil held by eleven to seventeen year olds[END_REF]Schoon, 1992Schoon, , 1995;;Ross & Shuell, 1993;[START_REF] Lillo | An analysis of the annotated drawings of the internal structure of the Earth made by students aged 10-15 from primary and secondary schools in Spain[END_REF]Sharp et al, 1995;Marques & Thompson, 1997a;King, 2000;[START_REF] Tsai | Ideas about earthquakes after experiencing a natural disaster in Taiwan: An analysis of students' worldviews[END_REF]Libarkin et al, 2005;Steer et Dove (1996b), showed that the US pre-service secondary (high) school teachers surveyed held a range of misconceptions about the environment, concerning in particular, the greenhouse effect, ozone and acid rain. He also reported the work of Hooper (1988) and Subbarani (1991) indicating that practising science teachers hold similar misconceptions. The mantle is almost entirely solid, as shown by the fact that it transmits seismic Swaves which can only pass through solid material. There is a zone in the upper mantle between the solid lithosphere above and the solid mantle below, called the asthenosphere that is between 1 and 5% liquid (i.e. is 95 -99% solid). As the molten material is found as films around the edges of crystals, it allows the solid material of the asthenosphere to Considering that glass is a liquid when it has the characteristi cs of a solid in solid state creep.' (Hancock & Skinner, 2000, p47) 'This view, that the crust is a relatively thin layer of solid rock on a liquid interior, became widely prevalent until about a century ago, when it was shown to be unsound.' (Duff, 1993, p12) flow very slowly. However, the mantle beneath can also flow, even though it is completely solid. A good analogy is ice that, although solid ( 'Crust … At its thickest it is about 40km.' (H4 -166 -textbook for 14 -16 year olds) Earth crosssection diagram showing the core too small and the crust far too thick. C1 -C 147textbook for 14 -16 year olds) an average crustal thickness of 35 km for the continents and 7 km for the oceans …' (Duff, 1993, p599) 'Continental crust … averaging 35km and reaching 70 km in some places.' (Duff, 1993, p14) 'The boundary [of the core] with the mantle lies at a depth of c2900 km from the surface and the core therefore occupies … over 50 percent of the radius.' [START_REF] Duff | Holmes' Principles of Physical Geology[END_REF] (Clark et al. 1997, p3) Most of the gas in the UK was formed from coals deposited as swamp deposits some 300 million years ago. Most of the oil and some gas were formed from algae and bacteria that settled on the sea floor around 140 million years ago. These formed source rocks that were heated and compressed to release their oil and gas and are still slowly releasing them today.

Thinking that evolution happened millions of years ago Key: N4 -C, 282. Reference to textbook, syllabus or examination source of quote containing 'error/ oversimplification'. * In the past, the term 'erosion' has been used more broadly to include weathering, but this is not the normal usage in scientific discussion today. 3. Key references relating to earth science misconceptions.

Category

Key texts Minerals, rocks and fossils [START_REF] Piaget | The child's conception of the world[END_REF]Ault, 1984;Happs, 1982Happs, , 1985aHapps, , 1985b;;Hawley, 2002;[START_REF] Dove | Student identification of rock types[END_REF][START_REF] Dove | Students alternative conceptions in earth science: a review of research and implications for teaching and learning[END_REF][START_REF] Oversby | Knowledge of earth science and the potential for its development[END_REF][START_REF] Ford | Sixth graders' conceptions of rocks in their local environment[END_REF][START_REF] Ford | The challenges of observing geologically: third graders' descriptions of rock and mineral properties[END_REF] Sedimentary rocks and processes [START_REF] Cosgrove | Children's conceptions of the changes of state of water[END_REF][START_REF] Dove | Student ideas about weathering and erosion[END_REF] Igneous rocks and processes [START_REF] Lillo | An analysis of the annotated drawings of the internal structure of the Earth made by students aged 10-15 from primary and secondary schools in Spain[END_REF][START_REF] Dove | Students alternative conceptions in earth science: a review of research and implications for teaching and learning[END_REF]Libarkin et al, 2005;[START_REF] Dahl | Digging into earth science: alternative conceptions held by K-12 teachers[END_REF] Metamorphic rocks and processes None specific to this topic The rock cycle Stofflett, 1993;[START_REF] Ford | Sixth graders' conceptions of rocks in their local environment[END_REF]Kali et al, 2003;Sibley et al, 2007Happs, 1982;[START_REF] Driver | Making sense of secondary science research into children's ideas[END_REF]Stofflett, 1994;[START_REF] Kusnick | Growing pebbles and conceptual prisms -understanding the sources of student misconceptions about rock formation[END_REF][START_REF] Blake | Helping young children to see what is relevant and why: supporting cognitive change in earth science using analogy[END_REF] Geological time, correlation and dating Ault,1982;Trend, 1998Trend, , 2000Trend, , 2001;;[START_REF] Dodick | Cognitive factors affecting student understanding of geologic time[END_REF]Hidalgo & Otero, 2004;Libarkin et al, 2005;Libarkin & Anderson, 2005;[START_REF] Dahl | Digging into earth science: alternative conceptions held by K-12 teachers[END_REF] Earthquakes and the structure of the Earth [START_REF] Leather | Views of the origin and nature of earthquakes and oil held by eleven to seventeen year olds[END_REF]Schoon, 1992Schoon, , 1995;;Ross & Shuell, 1993;[START_REF] Lillo | An analysis of the annotated drawings of the internal structure of the Earth made by students aged 10-15 from primary and secondary schools in Spain[END_REF]Sharp et al, 1995;Marques & Thompson, 1997a;King, 2000;[START_REF] Tsai | Ideas about earthquakes after experiencing a natural disaster in Taiwan: An analysis of students' worldviews[END_REF]Libarkin et al, 2005;Steer et al, 2005;Rutin & Sofer, 2007 Plate tectonics

Marques [START_REF] Marques | Misconceptions and conceptual changes concerning continental drift and plate tectonics among Portuguese students aged 16-17[END_REF]King, 2000;Libarkin et al, 2005 et al, 1993;Dove, 1996b;Groves & Pugh, 1999;Meadows & Wiesenmayer, 1999;Summers et al, 2000Summers et al, , 2001;;Khalid, 2003

AN ANALYSIS OF MISCONCEPTIONS IN SCIENCE TEXTBOOKS: EARTH SCIENCE IN ENGLAND AND WALES

Running heading: Misconceptions in science textbooks: earth science ABSTRACT Surveys of the earth science content of all secondary (high school) science textbooks and related publications used in England and Wales have revealed high levels of error/ misconception. The 29 science textbooks or textbook series surveyed (51 texts in all) showed poor coverage of National Curriculum earth science and contained a mean level of one earth science error/ misconception per page. Science syllabuses and examinations surveyed also showed errors/ misconceptions. More than 500 instances of misconception were identified through the surveys. These were analysed for frequency, indicating that those areas of the earth science curriculum most prone to misconception are sedimentary processes/ rocks, earthquakes/ Earth's structure, and plate tectonics.

For the fifteen most frequent misconceptions, examples of quotes from the textbooks are given, together with the scientific consensus view, a discussion, and an example of a misconception of similar significance in another area of science.

The misconceptions identified in the surveys are compared with those described in the literature. This indicates that the misconceptions found in college students and pre-service/ practising science teachers are often also found in published materials, and therefore are likely to reinforce the misconceptions in teachers and their students. The analysis may also reflect the prevalence earth science misconceptions in the UK secondary (high school) science teaching population.

The analysis and discussion provides the opportunity for writers of secondary science materials to improve their work on earth science and to provide a platform for improved teaching and learning of earth science in the future.

words

Key Words: earth science education; high school; misconception; secondary school; textbooks.

EARTH SCIENCE IN ENGLAND AND WALES

'Earth science' in the National Curriculum for Science (NCS) in England and Wales covers content that is largely geology-related and so differs from the broader 'earth science' taught through some science curricula in other parts of the world. The 'earth science' in the NCS evolved through four mandatory versions prior to the survey reported below, as described in King (2001). The initial version (DES, 1989) contained 17 sections of content including two directly related to earth science, namely 'Human influences on the Earth' and 'Earth and atmosphere'. During subsequent revisions, the 'Human influences on the Earth' section was incorporated into biological sections, and developed a strong ecological flavour. Meanwhile, the 'atmosphere' section was largely removed and the 'earth' section, comprising largely geological material, was incorporated in the chemical section.

The textbook survey was carried out against the version of the National Science Curriculum based on this model, which was mandatory at the time (QCA, 1999). For 11-14 year olds (Key Stage 3, KS3) this involved: physical and chemical weathering; the formation of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks; a discussion of different energy sources; and a little on environmental protection. Meanwhile, 14-16 year olds (Key Stage 4, KS4) covered: fossils in the context of evolution; environmental issues; changes in the atmosphere and ocean over time and the carbon cycle; evidence for sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rock formation and their subsequent deformation; seismological evidence for the Earth's structure; plate tectonics; and the radioactive dating of rocks.

Since the textbook survey was carried out, the National Curriculum for Science has been revised yet again, the section for 14-16 year olds (KS4) in 2004 (DES, 2004) and the section for 11-14 year olds in 2007 (QCA website). In these revisions, the content of the curriculum is presented in a less detailed and prescriptive way, but the earth science has been separated out into a different section again. So the current version has four sections, focussed on biology; chemistry; physics and earth, and environmental science and astronomy. This important development may give scope for the further development of the earth/environmental science content of the curriculum in the future. In other countries across the globe, 'earth science' often includes much more on the atmosphere and oceans and on environmental change than is covered by the science curriculum in England and Wales (King, 2008a). In England and Wales, this material is usually covered in more detail in the geography curriculum.

Thus, the perspective on 'earth science' taken as the basis for this research is the geology-centred earth science currently studied in secondary (high) schools in England and Wales.

TEXTBOOKS, SYLLABUSES AND EXAMINATIONS IN ENGLAND AND WALES

A survey of all the science textbooks in print and being used in secondary (high) schools in England and Wales was carried out in the Spring of 2002. All the major publishers of science textbooks who exhibited at the Association for Science Education (ASE) Annual Meeting in January 2000, and all the relevant textbooks in print that they published, were covered by the survey. Each contributed between one and five textbooks or series. A total of 13 books or series for 11-14 year old pupils (KS3) was reviewed and 16 books or series for 14-16 year olds (KS4). The total number of individual books surveyed was 27 at KS3 and 24 at KS4, a grand total of 51 books. The full survey was described in a report (King et al, 2002) and in a subsequent publication (King et al, 2005) The 'errors/ oversimplifications' identified in the textbook survey were added to the similar list derived from a previous survey of syllabuses and examinations for 16 year olds (King et al, report 1998(King et al, report , publication 1999)). Following publication of the textbook report, other sources of earth science information written for 11 -16 year olds were examined and some publishers invited the authors of the reports to proof-read drafts of textbook material. During these exercises, more examples of 'error/ oversimplification' were identified and added to the list. The final list of 'error/ oversimplification' examples recorded through all these surveys numbered more than 500.

In England and Wales, government control of the content of school science is restricted to publication of the National Curriculum for Science, such as the current example (QCA website), and oversight of the examination processes. This provides freedom for any publisher to produce textbooks or other teaching materials without government scrutiny. Meanwhile the examination processes are managed by commercial organisations called Awarding Bodies (or Exam Boards). The Awarding Bodies produce the syllabuses, which should cover the National Curriculum content, and a government body, the Qualifications and Assessment Authority, approves the syllabuses. The Awarding Bodies produce the examinations to assess each syllabus.

As a result of the freedom available to publishers and Awarding Bodies, a range of different publications and syllabuses (with associated examinations) has become available. However, there is little detailed scrutiny of content, particularly in areas less familiar to many teachers and writers, such as earth science. The result is the wide range of 'errors/ oversimplifications' in textbooks, syllabuses and examinations identified in the surveys.

The scale of this issue in the UK was highlighted recently by a piece on earth science submitted for inclusion on the website of a learned scientific institution. Proof reading found ten 'errors/ oversimplifications' in 328 words (King, 2008b), an average of one error in every 33 words.

The 'errors/ oversimplifications' from the textbook and syllabus/examination surveys have been collated to provide insight into the misunderstandings prevalent in the writers of these materials. These are likely to be indicative of the misconceptions held by many science teachers. The misconceptions are being promulgated through use of the textbooks, syllabuses and examinations that are prone to error.

SCIENCE TEXTBOOKS AND THEIR IMPORTANCE

A review carried out in the late 1990s amongst nearly 150 science teachers teaching earth science in England and Wales (King, 2001) showed that their own educational backgrounds in earth science was poor and that science textbooks were key sources of information for them. These included science textbooks written for 11-14 year olds (25% of responses), science texts written for 14-16 year olds (15%) and general science textbooks (29% of respondents). Science textbooks were much more widely used than earth science-specific materials (used by a mean of only 12% of respondents). The only more widely used source of support was their science colleagues (46% of respondents). This research indicating widespread use of textbooks in the UK is supported by a report of the government Council for Science and Technology (CST, 2000) which found that 89% of the 586 secondary (high) school teachers surveyed used science textbooks 'often' (whilst 39% used their colleagues 'often' as well).

Meanwhile [START_REF] Ball | Reform by the book: What is -or might be -the role of curriculum materials in teacher learning and instructional reform[END_REF], quoting [START_REF] Goodlad | Prospects for the future[END_REF], note that 'Commercially published curriculum materials dominate teaching practice in the United States', and continue, 'Unlike frameworks, objectives, assessments and other mechanisms that seek to guide curriculum, instructional materials are concrete and daily. They are the stuff of lessons and units, of what teachers and students do. That centrality affords curricular materials a uniquely intimate connection to teaching' (p6).

Good (1993) says, 'most science teachers seem to use science textbooks most of the time …' (p619) and Abraham et al. (1992) comment, 'In the experience of the researchers, many junior high school teachers are much too dependent on textbooks.' (p117). [START_REF] Wandershee | Research on alternative conceptions in science[END_REF] in reviewing the claim that 'Teachers often subscribe to the same alternative conceptions as their students', comment, 'In the defence of teachers, the persistence of their alternative conceptions may be an effect of poor college science textbook writing or poorly taught science courses' (p189). Clearly science textbooks have a very important influence on both science teachers and their pupils.

It was for this reason that the American Association for the Advancement of Science, as part of its Project 2061, undertook a review of science textbooks available to teachers in the USA. Their findings have been reported and discussed in a number of reports and publications. In one of these, Kesidou & Roseman, (2002) state that, 'Whereas curriculum materials (and in particular textbooks and their accompanying teacher's guides) are but one of the resources available to teachers, they have a major role in teaching and learning. Many teachers rely on them to provide some or all of their content and pedagogical knowledge, and this is specially so when the teacher is a novice or is teaching outside his or her area of expertise …' (p522).

Stern & Roseman (2004) add, 'For better or for worse, the majority of schools are still relying on textbooks as the primary source of the classroom curriculum, and textbooks strongly influence student learning through their influence on teachers.' (p556).

The overall findings of the Project 2061 textbook evaluation team were that the textbooks evaluated were generally poor in a number of ways. For example, 'Programs [textbook teaching schemes] only rarely provided students with a sense of purpose for the units of study, took account of student beliefs that interfere with learning, engaged students with relevant criteria to make abstract scientific ideas plausible, modelled the use of scientific knowledge so that students could apply what they had learned in everyday situations, or scaffolded student efforts to make meaning of key phenomena and ideas presented in the programs.' (Kesidou & Roseman, 2002, p522), 'currently available curriculum materials provide little support for the attainment of key ideas chosen by this study. In general, these materials do not take into account students' prior knowledge, lack representations to clarify abstract ideas, and are deficient in phenomena that can be explained by the key ideas and hence make them plausible.' (Stern & Roseman 2004, p538), and 'Assessment scores of life and earth sciences are almost uniformly poor' (Stern & Ahlgren, 2002, p897).

Although the research methodology of the Project 2061 researchers has been questioned (Holliday, 2003), it has also been strongly defended (Kesidou & Roseman, 2003).

As part of their work, the Project 2061 evaluation team reviewed the earth science content of middle school science textbooks (for 11 -14 year olds) published in the USA against eight earth science ideas. Their ratings, as published on the Project 2061 website (AAAS -Project 2061), find the texts examined to be almost universally poor when measured against a range of instructional categories.

This issue is prevalent in other educational systems, as indicated by Sellés-Martinez (2007) for Argentina, in citing examples of the earth science content of seven Spanish introductory science textbooks which, 'rendered alarming results.' (p207).

This review of importance and quality of science textbooks, and particularly their earth science components, provides the backdrop to the surveys carried out in England and Wales.

SURVEY METHODOLOGY THAT IDENTIFIED ERRORS AND OVERSIMPLIFICATIONS

'Errors/ oversimplifications' were first identified in a survey of the GCSE science examination syllabuses in use in England and Wales in 1996. General Certification in Secondary Education (GCSE) syllabuses and examinations are aimed at 16 year olds, which are taken by more than 80% of the school students in the two countries. The survey was undertaken by five experienced earth science teachers and examiners and covered all 11 examinations available in 1996 in England and Wales at the time. The survey covered the syllabuses used and the science examinations set for each of the syllabuses in 1996. Each syllabus and set of examination papers was evaluated independently against a proforma by two members of the working group and their views were combined by a moderator to provide an overview. The findings were reported in King et al. (report 1998King et al. (report , publication 1999)). The survey identified poor coverage of the earth science components of the National Curriculum and no syllabuses that were error-free; 13 'errors/ oversimplifications' were recorded.

Meanwhile the examinations showed a preponderance of low level, recall-based questions and also contained errors. Three of the eleven sets of papers contained seven 'errors/ oversimplifications' between them. The draft survey report was sent to all the Awarding Bodies for comment. No feedback was received and so the final report was prepared and widely circulated.

It is noteworthy that a more recent survey of the six GCSE science syllabuses available in England and Wales in 2004 (King et al. 2004) found better National Curriculum coverage and a much reduced 'error/ oversimplification' level. The most recent 2007 survey of the five GCSE science syllabuses (now called specifications) currently used, found a poorer National Curriculum coverage but a further reduction in the level of 'error/ oversimplification' (King andHughes, report 2007, publication 2008). The reduction in the level of 'error/ oversimplification' over time may reflect publication and dissemination of the results of the previous surveys.

A survey of all the science textbooks in print and in use in schools in England and Wales was undertaken in 2002 to identify a base level of quality of earth science content against which future textbooks could be judged (King et al, report 2002(King et al, report , publication 2005). As indicated above, 13 books or series (programs) for 11-14 year old pupils and 16 books or series for 14-16 year olds were reviewed, involving 27 books for the 11-14 age range and 24 for 14-16 year olds, a total of 51 textbooks.

The survey was carried out by four experienced earth science educators. Initially a proforma similar to that used in the syllabus survey above was agreed, through which each book could be checked for National Curriculum coverage, and percentage of earth science content and any 'errors/ oversimplifications' included would be noted. The recorded 'errors/ oversimplifications' were not simply typing or grammatical errors, but were errors which showed that the author had an incorrect understanding of the process being described. The 'oversimplifications' involved simplifications that had introduced errors. All of the 'errors/ oversimplifications' recorded were re-written correctly at a similar language level and with a similar number of words, to illustrate to the publishers and authors that the material could have been presented correctly.

The proforma was initially applied by all the reviewers to the same textbook and, following discussion at the moderation meeting, the final form of the proforma and methodology was agreed. Each reviewer then reviewed their quota of textbooks and their results were moderated by the coordinator. The complete set of moderated comments was circulated to all involved for further comment and checking before the results were collated. The findings allowed the textbooks to be ranked in terms of National Curriculum coverage, amount of earth science included (percentage of pages of earth science relative to the number of pages of the book), numbers of 'errors/ oversimplifications' and amount of material additional to the National Curriculum content.

Finally, the full 100+ page draft report containing all the data was sent to all the publishers involved for their response, and the limited feedback received was incorporated, before publication and wide circulation of the final report. The report findings are summarised in Table 1. The report findings show that that more than half the National Curriculum earth science content was inadequately covered and that the mean level of 'error/ oversimplification' was one error per page of earth science. Of the 29 textbooks/ series evaluated (several textbooks in the same series were treated together), no textbook/series was completely error-free. The lowest error level was 0.1 error per page of earth science. Seventeen textbooks/series had 0-1 errors per page; nine textbooks/series had 1-2 errors per page and three textbooks/series had more than two errors per page, the worst having 2.5 errors per page (66 'errors/ oversimplifications' in 26 pages). Through the textbook survey, 453 instances of 'error/ oversimplification' in total were recorded.

During 2003, more instances of 'error/ oversimplification' in material published for use by science teachers were identified: 38 from proof-reading of pre-publication science textbook material and 20 from a BBC science revision website.

Together a total of 531 instances of 'error/ oversimplification' was identified from all these sources, and these form the basis of the analysis undertaken below.

EARTH SCIENCE 'ERROR/ OVERSIMPLIFICATION' DATA COLLECTED FROM THE SCIENCE-TEACHING MATERIALS

The 531 instances of 'error/ oversimplification' have been categorised and are shown graphically in Figure 1. Figure 1 indicates that the majority of 'errors/ oversimplifications' relate to rocks and rock-forming processes (40%), particularly to sedimentary rocks and processes (24%). A high percentage is found in the earthquake, Earth's structure and plate tectonic categories (29%), whilst in the data relating to economic geology, more than half (9% of the total) related to energy. Some 'errors/ oversimplifications' occurred in the data as multiple instances and these have been ranked in order to show those 'errors/ oversimplifications' that are most widespread amongst writers of published science materials. The 'top 15' examples of 'error/ oversimplification' found are ranked in Table 2, each instance comprising more than 1.3% of the data. The table lists:

• the earth science 'error/ oversimplification' as it might be found in a textbook;

• its prevalence in the data;

• examples of quotes containing 'errors/ oversimplifications' taken from the materials reviewed • the scientific consensus view, given as quotes from authoritative textbooks;

• discussion -providing guidance to those attempting to address the 'error/ oversimplification' in question; • an example of an 'error/ oversimplification' of similar significance in another science area -provided to give some indication to the non-specialist of the 'importance' of the 'error/ oversimplification' to the teaching of earth science.

F

ERRORS/OVERSIMPLIFICATIONS, MISCONCEPTIONS AND ALTERNATIVE CONCEPTIONS

The term 'errors/ oversimplifications' has been used above because of its usage in the two reports King et al. (1998) and King et al. (2002). The term was used independently of any usage of the terms in research literature, specifically for use with sources of information written for teachers and pupils (pupil textbooks, examination syllabuses, etc).

However there has been wide discussion in the literature around the best terminology to use for instances of error and misconception. For example [START_REF] Abimbola | The problem of terminology in the study of student conceptions in science[END_REF] He goes on to discuss use of the terms 'alternative frameworks' and 'alternative conceptions'. 'Alternative conceptions' is his preferred term, for, 'particular conceptions that are held strongly and persistently by students' (p180). [START_REF] Wandershee | Research on alternative conceptions in science[END_REF] in their discussion of the 'plethora of terms' used in this field, also decide that 'alternative conceptions' is the most appropriate term for the understandings that children have, whilst noting that 'Not all researchers, however, agree that the term misconception should be disregarded' (p179). Meanwhile Dove (1998) reviews usage of some of the terms noted above, together with, 'children's science', 'preconceptions', 'untutored beliefs', 'intuitive notions', 'ideas' and 'errors' (p184) before also deciding to use the term 'alternative conceptions'.

Much of the discussion of terminology has centred on the ways in which children form ideas about science and the ways in which these ideas are retained, even if they differ from consensus views in science (or 'final form science' - [START_REF] Duschl | Restructuring science education[END_REF]) (Driver et al, 1985[START_REF] Driver | Making sense of secondary science research into children's ideas[END_REF]. These can rightly be called 'alternative conceptions' since they are conceptions of the science derived from the experiences of the pupils.

However, the instances observed in textbooks and other similar sources cannot be described as 'alternative conceptions' since, while they may have first developed as a child's evolving view of science, they may well have come from other sources as well, such as erroneous information written elsewhere, or older consensus views, now superseded. They may derive from the author's limited understanding, from poor attempts to simplify ideas for their pupil-readers, or by inadequate attempts to couch their writing to address the views of science that pupils are likely to have, the 'children's science' of Gilbert et al (1982, p623). Where they clearly differ from today's scientific consensus they can best be described as 'errors', however the ways in which they are written in textbooks and their widespread usage indicates that many of these errors are not simple mistakes, but are deep-seated and widely held amongst the writers, which is why the term 'misconception' will be used for these instances in this paper hereafter.

Research into misconceptions in science education has a long track record, with prominent publications in the 1980s [START_REF] Gilbert | Concepts, misconceptions and alternative conceptions: changing perspectives in science education[END_REF]Driver et al, 1985;[START_REF] Gunstone | Developments in style and purpose of research on the learning of science[END_REF] and the 1990's (Driver et al, 1994a[START_REF] Driver | Making sense of secondary science research into children's ideas[END_REF][START_REF] Wandershee | Research on alternative conceptions in science[END_REF]. Much of this work has focussed on biology, chemistry, physics and space science; nevertheless, there is a small body of work on misconceptions in earth science, discussed below.

EARTH-SCIENCE MISCONCEPTIONS: COMPARISONS BETWEEN THE LITERATURE AND THE TEXTBOOK/SYLLABUS SURVEY FINDINGS

Little analysis of the misconceptions in the earth science content of published textbooks has been carried out previously. Thus the list of more than 500 misconceptions from the textbook and syllabus surveys has been subjected to analysis to identify those areas of earth science most prone to misconception. This textbook and syllabus data is important, as most textbook and syllabus writers are themselves, or have been, science teachers, so the analysis provides a guide to the misconceptions held more generally by science teachers in England and Wales. Such information on the misconceptions of practicing science teachers is not readily available since most research into earth science misconceptions to date has focussed on primary (elementary) and secondary (high school) pupils, on college students, or on trainee (pre-service) teachers from a range of countries.

A comparison of the textbook/ syllabus analysis with the published earth science misconception work, largely from pupils, students and trainee teachers, has enabled a series of similarities and differences to be identified. The textbook/ syllabus data was categorised into a number of earth science areas and most of them attracted at least some research allowing comparisons to be made.

Key works relating to earth science misconceptions are listed in Table 3 whilst earlier works are summarised in Thompson (1986). The main areas of comparison/ contrast between the research literature and the textbook/ syllabus survey are described below and tabulated in Table 4.

Table 3 hereabouts. Key references relating to earth science misconceptions.

Table 4 hereabouts. Comparison between earth science misconceptions common in the literature and those most frequently found in the textbook/ syllabus surveys.

Minerals, rocks and fossils

The concepts of rocks, minerals and fossils provide key building blocks of geological understanding. However, many pupils bring with them a range of misconceptions about them, as indicated by Happs (1982), 'The term 'rock' is largely used in a nonscientific way …' (p14) and [START_REF] Dove | Student identification of rock types[END_REF] Concerning minerals, [START_REF] Blake | Helping young children to see what is relevant and why: supporting cognitive change in earth science using analogy[END_REF] noted that the term 'mineral' was a problematic concept for 9-11 year old children whilst Happs (1982) found no 11-18 year old students that were able to use the term 'mineral' in the scientific sense.' (p18).

Children's understanding of rocks has been studied since [START_REF] Piaget | The child's conception of the world[END_REF] reported that many young children thought that rocks were created by men or God whilst others thought they grew from seeds in the soil. Studies since have been summarised by Dove (1998, p185) as showing that pupils of all ages regarded rocks as, 'dull, heavy, large, dark material … [and] colour was also an important criterion'. Children also confuse rocks with minerals (Happs, 1985a;[START_REF] Oversby | Knowledge of earth science and the potential for its development[END_REF]. Meanwhile [START_REF] Ford | Sixth graders' conceptions of rocks in their local environment[END_REF] found that, unlike experienced earth scientists, most primary (elementary) children in his survey (87% in the group studied using a rock kit) looked for properties that provided no evidence of the mode of rock formation. [START_REF] Blake | Helping young children to see what is relevant and why: supporting cognitive change in earth science using analogy[END_REF] summarised his work and others as, 'Children's alternative conceptions for describing and classifying rocks centre on simple physical properties such as colour or shape and reveal only limited ideas about the origins of rocks.' (p1857). Meanwhile Happs (1985b) has shown that even when children do make the observations that would allow them to interpret how rocks were formed, they can often misinterpret these clues, and come to incorrect conclusions. Misconceptions about rocks are particularly problematical when children are asked to classify and identify rocks, so it is not surprising that when trainee (pre-service) teachers were asked to teach rock identification, they showed relatively high anxiety levels [START_REF] Westerback | Comparisons or preservice elementary teachers' anxiety about teaching students to identify minerals and rocks and students in geology courses' anxiety about identification of minerals and rocks[END_REF]. These studies reveal the need for systems to teach about rock characteristics and classification using intrinsic features that provide evidence of the rock-forming processes, such as that described by Hawley (2002). [START_REF] Oversby | Knowledge of earth science and the potential for its development[END_REF] in researching understanding of fossils, has shown that many pupils and pre-service teachers, when given descriptions of fossils and non-fossils, were unable to distinguish between them. He concluded that, 'A source of the confusion may be that pupils have been taught that a petrified body is an example of a fossil; this is then reinterpreted as a belief that only petrified bodies are fossils.'(p 94). This comment links with two similar examples found in the textbook survey.

The textbook survey showed marked similarities between the misconceptions concerning minerals, rocks and fossils found in textbooks and those described in the literature. Eleven examples of misconceived rock definitions were found in the textbook survey (including confusion between 'minerals' and 'rocks') together with confusion about the meaning of 'hardness' as applied to rocks. Confusion was also found in textbooks around processes of fossilisation, similar to those found by [START_REF] Oversby | Knowledge of earth science and the potential for its development[END_REF] who found for example, suggestions that there is only one method of fossilisation. Since textbook writers were once pupils and later were trainee teachers, these similarities are not surprising.

Sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic processes

Research into understanding of rock-forming processes has ranged from broad studies of a range of processes and their rock products to those that focus on specific processes. Dove, in her 1997 survey, investigated student ideas about weathering and erosion and uncovered a range of misconceptions. As [START_REF] Dove | Student ideas about weathering and erosion[END_REF][START_REF] Dove | Students alternative conceptions in earth science: a review of research and implications for teaching and learning[END_REF] Nevertheless, the definitions are clear in most authoritative texts used by earth scientists, as shown in Table 2.

Many of the misconceptions identified by Dove were also found in the textbook/ syllabus surveys, where confusion between the terms 'weathering' and 'erosion' (Table 2, Section A) provided the greatest incidence of misconception recorded. It is because processes of weathering and erosion generally act together that, if the processes are to be properly understood, they need to be distinguished so that the results of combining different processes in different ways can be interpreted. This fine point may be lost on a non-specialist teacher, which is why a comparable chemical example is added to Table 2 in an attempt to indicate to a non-specialist the scale of the issues involved.

The fact that freeze/ thaw weathering requires many cycles of freezing and thawing (Table 2, J) is not made clear in many science texts. This misconception can be compounded by the findings that many pupils expect water to shrink on freezing, rather than to expand [START_REF] Cosgrove | Children's conceptions of the changes of state of water[END_REF]. They recommend that teachers should demonstrate to pupils that water does expand on freezing, to underpin their correct understanding of the freeze/ thaw weathering process.

The evidence for processes of rock-formation, and the environments in which the rocks formed, is preserved in the rocks. Thus misunderstandings about rock-forming processes will be reflected in misunderstandings about the features preserved in rocks, and vice versa. Happs (1982) found a range of misunderstandings in children about the concepts of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks such that [START_REF] Driver | Making sense of secondary science research into children's ideas[END_REF] summarised his work as, 'Very few children … appreciated the relationship between sedimentary rocks and the sedimentary processes by which they are formed. … Most children …, when confronted with specimens of igneous rocks had no ideas on formation to offer ...' and, '… the word 'metamorphic' was associated by most children with metamorphosis in animals …' (p113).

Misunderstandings like these can be carried right through to adulthood as shown in Stofflett's (1993) work with pre-service primary (elementary) teachers, commenting that, 'The misconceptions exhibited in this study [about rocks and their formation] were, quite frankly, appalling.' (p230). Stofflett (1994) also showed that the, 'average teacher candidate understood only 18 percent of the concepts [relating to rockforming processes] presented.' (p495). [START_REF] Kusnick | Growing pebbles and conceptual prisms -understanding the sources of student misconceptions about rock formation[END_REF], in another survey of preservice primary teachers, showed that, 'Students hold a surprising number of misconceptions about how rocks form.' (p31), commenting that, 'a startling number of students described rocks as forming by processes that no geologist would recognise.' (p37) and concluding that, 'students need schooling experiences which build a basis for conceptual understanding …' (p38). [START_REF] Ford | The challenges of observing geologically: third graders' descriptions of rock and mineral properties[END_REF] one student responded, "It went through the rock cycle" much as laundry goes through a wash cycle -something that is done to a rock to change it.' (p375).

Meanwhile, Kali et al (2003) have shown that the type of thinking needed to understand the rock cycle and related systems thinking, involves high order thinking skills -but thinking skills that can be developed through appropriate teaching strategies. Meanwhile Sibley et al (2007) have shown that novel approaches (in their case, by asking students to link processes in a 'box diagram') can be effective in teaching cyclic thinking of the type needed to understand the rock cycle.

Work specifically related to the understanding of igneous processes has been reviewed by [START_REF] Dove | Students alternative conceptions in earth science: a review of research and implications for teaching and learning[END_REF] who found a, 'tendency for students to confuse earthquake with volcanic activity.' (p187) -going on to stress that, 'only a minority of earthquakes are caused in this way.' (p188). Some studies, such as that of [START_REF] Lillo | An analysis of the annotated drawings of the internal structure of the Earth made by students aged 10-15 from primary and secondary schools in Spain[END_REF] and [START_REF] Dahl | Digging into earth science: alternative conceptions held by K-12 teachers[END_REF] have shown the misunderstanding that magma that erupts through volcanoes originates in the Earth's core -when virtually all magma is thought to originate in the upper portion of the mantle or crust (Hancock & Skinner, 2000). Researchers have also found that US college students, 'believed that volcanoes only occur on islands, that they are associated with warm climates, and that volcanoes only occur along the equator, among other ideas.' (Libarkin et al, 2005, p24). These findings were supported by [START_REF] Marques | Alternative frameworks of urban Portuguese pupils of ages 10-11 and 14-15 to Earth, life and volcanoes[END_REF] for Portuguese students of ages 10-11 and 14-15.

Given the widespread misconceptions about rock-forming processes found in these studies, it is not surprising that misconceptions were also common in the textbook materials surveyed, with errors around the rock-forming processes forming 40% of the total data: sedimentary -24.1%; igneous -7.5%; metamorphic -8.3%. The misconceptions were wide-ranging and the most common concerned lack of understanding about how sediments become cemented to produce sedimentary rocks (indicating, for example, that sedimentary rocks are formed by compression only), confusion about limestone and chalk formation (eg. chalk is made from skeletons), misunderstandings about sediment and soil (eg. sediment grains are always small), about where magma comes from (suggesting magma comes from the core) and how granites and basalts form, and misconceptions about the causes and results of metamorphism (indicating that metamorphism happens when rocks are buried). Consensus scientific views on these topics are given in Table 2.

Geological time, correlation and dating

Children's understanding of geological time was investigated by [START_REF] Ault | Time in geological explanations as perceived by elementary school students[END_REF] and this work has been followed up more recently by a number of researchers. Schoon (1992Schoon ( , 1995) ) showed that nearly a third of the US primary (10-11 year old) pupils and a fifth of the pre-service primary teachers in his surveys thought that dinosaurs lived at the same time as cavemen. Trend (1998) studied the understanding of upper primary (10-11 year old) UK pupils showing that although the children had, 'a general awareness of major events such as the Ice Age and moving continents … a clear chronology is almost entirely lacking.' (p973). Trend went on to study understandings of geological time among UK pre-service primary teachers (2000), concluding that, 'Trainee teachers … are more comfortable and imaginative with their teaching of history than with their geology, despite the parallels.' (p539). In further commentary, Trend (2001), 'proposed that the nature and quality of UK society's engagement with geoscience phenomena is constrained by an all-pervasive confusion with deep time, both relative and absolute.' (p196). He also found that, 'Primary teachers do not have a secure grasp of deep time either in absolute or relative terms.' (p215)indicating that they are neither secure with the magnitude of geological time (the big numbers) or the ordering of time (the relative dating and correlation of geological events). This work is supported by that of Hidalgo and Otero (2004) who showed that students find it difficult to remember timed events in isolation. While they are sometimes able to deduce the order of geological events from other information, they find it very difficult to conceptualise long periods of time. Libarkin et al (2005) found that US college students held a number of misconceptions about the dating of the formation of the Earth and the formation of life. In further work Libarkin & Anderson (2005) found that students had poor ideas of the scale of geological time, the occurrence of events in geological history and absolute age dating. Meanwhile, [START_REF] Dahl | Digging into earth science: alternative conceptions held by K-12 teachers[END_REF] working with US practising teachers, found that they were fairly comfortable with relative dating, but not comfortable with allocating dates to geological events. Meanwhile [START_REF] Dodick | Cognitive factors affecting student understanding of geologic time[END_REF] have shown that most Israeli students in their study did not have the cognitive skills to cope with the concept of geological time until they reached the age of 12 or older.

Together, this research indicates that the population at large does not generally have a 'feel' for geological time and that while younger children have difficulty with both relative time (sequencing events) and absolute time (allocating ages to the events)older people are more able to cope with relative time, but still find the concept of absolute time difficult to comprehend.

For these reasons, it is crucial for science textbook writers to at least provide correct information. Thus it is unfortunate that they are also prone to error in this area, producing both numerical errors (eg. that radiometric dating might show a rock to be 9000 million years old, ie. older than the solar system) and general misunderstandings (for example, by stating that the age of a rock can be determined from the rock type). In future, the best examples of textbook writing in this area will respond to Trend's (2001) recommendation to include, 'a carefully designed deep time framework that comprises a small number of key major geo-events …' (p192) in their work.

Earthquakes and the structure of the Earth [START_REF] Leather | Views of the origin and nature of earthquakes and oil held by eleven to seventeen year olds[END_REF], through his study of UK children's understanding of earthquakes at different ages, has shown how their misconceptions diminished with age and the scientific view became dominant. So, whilst most 11 year olds thought earthquakes were related to hot countries, were directly related to volcanic activity, and could never occur in Britain, they had mainly lost these views by the age of 17. However, Schoon (1992Schoon ( , 1995) ) has shown in separate surveys that nearly a third of both US primary pupils (10-11 year olds) and pre-service primary teachers thought incorrectly that Chicago could not be damaged by an earthquake; this misconception therefore did not diminish with age. In Israel, a country prone to earthquakes, 77% of the 12-16 years old students surveyed were unaware that their school was situated in a high risk area (Rutin & Sofer, 2007) and many had little idea of the correct response to a future earthquake. That many primary children (5-11 year olds) have little understanding of the causes of earthquakes has been supported by the work in the US of Ross & Shuell (1993) and in the UK by Sharp et al (1995). The mythological and supernatural views of the origin of earthquakes held by some pupils in Taiwan have been studied by [START_REF] Tsai | Ideas about earthquakes after experiencing a natural disaster in Taiwan: An analysis of students' worldviews[END_REF]. [START_REF] Lillo | An analysis of the annotated drawings of the internal structure of the Earth made by students aged 10-15 from primary and secondary schools in Spain[END_REF] researched 10-15 year old Spanish children's understandings of the internal structure of the Earth by asking them to draw pictures. These showed that, whilst most students thought the Earth was formed of concentric layers, and this view increased with age, many of all ages thought the hot molten core was the source of the magma involved in volcanic eruption. Many students also drew the thicknesses of the layers wrongly, with the crust often much too thick. This paralleled a similar misconception of UK practising science teachers (King, 2000) and US college students (Steer et al, 2005). Steer et al (2005), having identified this misconception, used practical model making and peer group discussion to teach the correct dimensions of the Earth's core, mantle and crust, with a high level of success, as shown by post-course assessment several weeks after completion of the course. Marques and Thompson (1997a) asked Portuguese students to indicate on a diagram where they thought the densest materials in the Earth would be found, and many of primary age indicated near the South Pole. A significant, but reduced number of older students also showed this misconception.

Research into the understanding of earthquakes and the structure of the Earth by older (college) students and teachers has been limited. However Libarkin et al (2005) have shown that, whilst most of the US college students they surveyed related earthquakes to plate tectonics, 'Alternative explanations for the primary causes of earthquakes included the influence of heat, temperature, climate, weather, people and animals … gas pressure, gravity, the rotation of the Earth and processes in the Earth's core, "exploding soil" and volcanoes …' and the expanding Earth (p23).

They also found that, when questioned about the interior of the Earth, 'almost all students mixed physical state (lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, inner core, outer core) and chemical boundary (crust, mantle, core) terms, indicating a lack of understanding of the basis of subdividing the Earth's interior.' (p24). King (2000) surveyed practising UK science teachers and found high levels of misconception about the states (solid, partial solid, partial liquid or liquid) of the different layers of the Earth and of the thickness of the crust. Poor understanding was also shown of how the density of the Earth changes with depth and where earthquakes of different depths are likely to be found. example, the crust being shown much thicker than it actually is) were particularly common in both the literature relating to older students and the textbook survey. [START_REF] Marques | Misconceptions and conceptual changes concerning continental drift and plate tectonics among Portuguese students aged 16-17[END_REF] researched the misconceptions about plate tectonics held by 16-17 year old Portuguese students after they had been taught about plate tectonics in the classroom. They found that many students had developed little understanding of how continents and oceans form and develop. They also had poor understanding of the term 'plate', of how plates move, or the causes of this movement. Meanwhile King (2000) showed that practising UK science teachers had little understanding of how earthquake and heat flow distributions on Earth were linked to plate tectonics. Libarkin et al (2005) showed that some US college students (mainly 19-20 year olds), 'were unsure about the location of the Earth's tectonic plates, believing them to be somewhere below the surface …', whilst a few, 'place tectonic plates at the Earth's core or in the atmosphere …' (p23). Many of the students surveyed, 'were unable to conceive of tectonic plates relative to their own space, and most preferred to disconnect tectonic plates and their movement from the Earth's surface.' (p23), whilst few students connected volcanoes with plate tectonics. Meanwhile Libarkin & Anderson (2005) found that most US college students, 'are exiting courses with a poor understanding of the location of tectonic plates.' (p394) and Libarkin (2006) commented on, 'the fact that most [US] college students would claim that they have learned about gravity or plate tectonics in prior coursework does not mean that they fully understand these phenomena.' (p9).

Plate tectonics

Most instances of misconception in the textbook/ syllabus surveys related to confusion between the thin crust and the thicker lithosphere that forms the plates, a finding that did not figure strongly in the research literature. However, there were also many single instances of misconception in the textbooks (such as indicating that the continental crust was dragged down in subduction, when it is much too buoyant for this to happen), reflecting the confusion identified in the literature noted above.

History of geology

Only a small number of instances of misconception was identified in the textbook and syllabus surveys for this aspect of the curriculum, and there is also little coverage of misconceptions in this area in the literature. [START_REF] Leather | Views of the origin and nature of earthquakes and oil held by eleven to seventeen year olds[END_REF] asked UK pupils what oil formed from, and found that, 'Dead sea creatures (or animals) … [was] the most popular idea at all ages, and plants, vegetation, leaves or seaweed … [comes] a strong second.' (p105), although some pupils thought oil formed from water, and others from coal. Few of the pupils he surveyed had a clear idea of how oil was trapped underground, 'The most popular view was that oil is contained below the sea bed in some sort of hollow, described as pockets, holes, spaces, potholes, gaps, cavities, crannies, pools, ponds, crevices, chambers and caves. This answer was given by 16% of the eleven year olds, 35% of the fourteen year olds and 24% of the seventeen year olds. A less common misconception was that oil collects on the sea bed (14% of eleven year olds)' (p106) These findings relate closely to the misconceptions about oil noted in the textbook/ syllabus surveys. The textbooks also refer to oil being formed from animals/ creatures (when the consensus view is that almost all oil and gas is derived from plant material and bacteria, see Table 2). The textbook survey identified several confused diagrams and statements about oil/ gas trapping mechanisms that relate to the misconceptions of pupils, noted above.

Economic geology

Atmosphere and ocean

The atmosphere and ocean have limited coverage in the science curriculum of England and Wales and therefore only have limited coverage in the textbooks and syllabuses that relate to the curriculum. Thus a relatively small number of 'errors/ oversimplifications' was recorded in the surveys (20 in a total of 531 instances, or 4% of the data).

Since the coverage of the atmosphere and ocean, and particularly concerns about the greenhouse effect and global warming, form a key part of the earth science and environmental science studies of pupils across the globe, research into misconceptions in these areas has been extensive, and too large to cover adequately in this discussion.

Nevertheless the environmental research literature indicates widespread misconception about environmental issues amongst school students and pre-service and practising science teachers. The textbook instances found by the survey, reflected some of the misconceptions noted in the research, relating particularly to incomplete carbon cycles and global warming diagrams showing the atmosphere reflecting heat.

Even after the limited coverage of the atmosphere and ocean noted above is taken into account, the level of misconception relating to the atmosphere and ocean identified by the survey was smaller than for other areas of earth science. Thus it does seem that UK textbook-writers are more comfortable with this area of the curriculum than with those areas relating to geological science in particular. The syllabus surveys (King at al, 1998(King at al, , 2004;;King and Hughes, 2007), certainly showed poorer coverage of geological science than 'environmental science' concepts.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Most of the instances of misconception covered by this analysis were identified through a survey of all the science textbooks that were being used in secondary (high) schools in England and Wales in 2002. The survey compared the content of the textbooks with the requirements of the government National Curriculum for science and found poor coverage. During the survey a total of 453 instances of 'error/ oversimplification' were noted. This poor situation is mirrored in the US where the Project 2061 textbook survey (Kesidou & Roseman, 2002;Stern & Ahlgren, 2002;Stern & Roseman 2004) also reported poor content, particularly for the earth sciences. Sellés-Martinez (2007) has found a similar situation in Spanish textbooks used in Argentina. The situation could be summarised in the terms used by [START_REF] Arthur | Lies, dam lies and books on geology[END_REF] of, 'Lies, dam lies and books on geology' (p.289). The limited research evidence shows that in countries where there is a 'free press' (no government control over textbook content), the earth science content of broad science textbooks is poor and prone to misconception. However, the situation can be improved by surveys like this. As a result of wide circulation and dissemination of the report, several publishers asked for their materials to be proof-read before publication, and this has continued to today.

That scrutiny of syllabuses and examinations can be effective, is suggested by the reduction in the level of misconception shown by three reports over time (King et al, 1998(King et al, , 2004;;King and Hughes, 2007), following their wide circulation and publication of the findings.

Textbooks play a central role in daily teaching, (as indicated by the research described in the 'Science textbooks and their importance' section above) and it is likely that syllabuses and examination papers play an even more crucial role. The work of [START_REF] Ball | Reform by the book: What is -or might be -the role of curriculum materials in teacher learning and instructional reform[END_REF] King (2008a).

Comparison between the earth science misconceptions identified in the literature and those noted in the textbook/ syllabus surveys show contrasts for different age levels. Where much of the published misconception work has focussed on primary (elementary) children, few of the misconceptions identified in the literature have been exhibited by the writers of the secondary (high school) textbooks/ syllabuses surveyed. However, where the published misconception work has focussed mainly on college students and trainee (pre-service) teachers there is a much closer correlation. With a high level of misconception in earth science understanding of trainee teachers, practicing teachers and textbook writers, there is a major task ahead to improve the education of all these groups.

The correlation between the misconceptions of college students/ trainee (preservice) teachers and the textbook/ syllabus survey strengthens the view that the textbook/ syllabus survey provides a useful reflection of the misconceptions of practicing science teachers in the UK. This is because most textbook/ syllabus writers are, or have been, classroom science teachers themselves. Data on the misconceptions of practicing science teachers is difficult to find in the research literature, since there are few opportunities to probe the earth science understanding of classroom science teachers. The insights provided by the textbook/ syllabus survey therefore have increased importance if they provide a better snapshot of the misconceptions involved in normal classroom earth science teaching than other elements of the literature on earth science misconceptions. However, one of the disadvantages of textbook/ syllabus surveys is that they do not provide opportunities for analysis of how the misconceptions of the writers developed. They may have come from the teaching the writers themselves received, from erroneous textbook sources, or from overzealous attempts at oversimplification for their pupil readers. Study of how textbook-writers developed their misconceptions would provide a valuable, if problematical, line of future research.

One way of improving education is to ensure that curriculum materials are of high quality and are error-free. This analysis has shown that this is not been the case in the past with many of the materials written for the earth science component of the secondary (high school) science curriculum in England and Wales. Meanwhile, similar situations seem to pertain in US and Spanish teaching materials. The detailed review of the misconceptions in the published materials provided by the reports (King et al, 1998(King et al, , 2002) ) and the analysis and review of the data provided by this paper can provide a foundation for future improvement in all these cases. Nevertheless, continued scrutiny will be necessary, so the anecdotal evidence that this scrutiny can be effective, is reassuring.

Table 2 provides the background that will allow future science textbook writers to correct and improve their writing of earth science materials and so offer the opportunity for these improved materials to address the earth science misconceptions of teachers and pupils alike. So, rather than promulgating earth science misconceptions, as in many cases in the past, textbook writers now have the opportunity to improve teaching and learning in this area of key importance to the science curriculum and to the knowledge and understanding of citizens of the future.

8363 words. (Duff, 1993, p599) 'Continental crust … averaging 35km and reaching 70 km in some places.' (Duff, 1993, p14) 'The boundary [of the core] with the mantle lies at a depth of c2900 km from the surface and the core therefore occupies … over 50 percent of the radius.' (Duff, 1993, p13) boundary, the Moho, is a chemical boundary. in water-filled pores and cracks, the rocks are relentlessly broken to bits' (Duff, 1993, p22) more deeply into the crack widened by the previous freeze, until a fragment eventually breaks off. The expansion of water on freezing, causing this process, can be demonstrated by freezing a sealed syringe of 10 ml of water, (Williams, 1984) (Clark et al. 1997, p3) Most of the gas in the UK was formed from coals deposited as swamp deposits some 300 million years ago. Most of the oil and some gas were formed from algae and bacteria that settled on the sea floor around 140 million years ago. These formed source rocks that were heated and compressed to release their oil and gas and are still slowly releasing them today. 3. Key references relating to earth science misconceptions.

F

Category

Key texts Minerals, rocks and fossils [START_REF] Piaget | The child's conception of the world[END_REF]Ault, 1984;Happs, 1982Happs, , 1985aHapps, , 1985b;;Hawley, 2002;[START_REF] Dove | Student identification of rock types[END_REF][START_REF] Dove | Students alternative conceptions in earth science: a review of research and implications for teaching and learning[END_REF][START_REF] Oversby | Knowledge of earth science and the potential for its development[END_REF][START_REF] Ford | Sixth graders' conceptions of rocks in their local environment[END_REF][START_REF] Ford | The challenges of observing geologically: third graders' descriptions of rock and mineral properties[END_REF] Sedimentary rocks and processes [START_REF] Cosgrove | Children's conceptions of the changes of state of water[END_REF][START_REF] Dove | Student ideas about weathering and erosion[END_REF] Igneous rocks and processes [START_REF] Lillo | An analysis of the annotated drawings of the internal structure of the Earth made by students aged 10-15 from primary and secondary schools in Spain[END_REF][START_REF] Dove | Students alternative conceptions in earth science: a review of research and implications for teaching and learning[END_REF]Libarkin et al, 2005;[START_REF] Dahl | Digging into earth science: alternative conceptions held by K-12 teachers[END_REF] Metamorphic rocks and processes None specific to this topic The rock cycle Stofflett, 1993;[START_REF] Ford | Sixth graders' conceptions of rocks in their local environment[END_REF]Kali et al, 2003;Sibley et al, 2007Happs, 1982;[START_REF] Driver | Making sense of secondary science research into children's ideas[END_REF]Stofflett, 1994;[START_REF] Kusnick | Growing pebbles and conceptual prisms -understanding the sources of student misconceptions about rock formation[END_REF][START_REF] Blake | Helping young children to see what is relevant and why: supporting cognitive change in earth science using analogy[END_REF] Geological time, correlation and dating Ault,1982;Trend, 1998Trend, , 2000Trend, , 2001;;[START_REF] Dodick | Cognitive factors affecting student understanding of geologic time[END_REF]Hidalgo & Otero, 2004;Libarkin et al, 2005;Libarkin & Anderson, 2005;[START_REF] Dahl | Digging into earth science: alternative conceptions held by K-12 teachers[END_REF] Earthquakes and the structure of the Earth [START_REF] Leather | Views of the origin and nature of earthquakes and oil held by eleven to seventeen year olds[END_REF]Schoon, 1992Schoon, , 1995;;Ross & Shuell, 1993;[START_REF] Lillo | An analysis of the annotated drawings of the internal structure of the Earth made by students aged 10-15 from primary and secondary schools in Spain[END_REF]Sharp et al, 1995;Marques & Thompson, 1997a;King, 2000;[START_REF] Tsai | Ideas about earthquakes after experiencing a natural disaster in Taiwan: An analysis of students' worldviews[END_REF]Libarkin et al, 2005;Steer et al, 2005;Rutin & Sofer, 2007 Plate tectonics

Marques [START_REF] Marques | Misconceptions and conceptual changes concerning continental drift and plate tectonics among Portuguese students aged 16-17[END_REF]King, 2000;Libarkin et al, 2005

Figure 1

 1 Figure 1 hereabouts. Instances of earth science 'error/ oversimplification' in published science materials for 11 -16 year olds in England and Wales (n = 531).

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 1 Figure 1 hereabouts. Instances of earth science 'error/ oversimplification' in published science materials for 11 -16 year olds in England and Wales (n = 531).

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•

  Thinking that the hole in the ozone layer results in global warming • Little understanding of the link between fossil fuels and the carbon cycle • Poor understanding of the role of • Gases are acidic • Incomplete carbon cycle

  Table 1 hereabouts. Baseline data obtained from the survey of the earth science content of secondary science textbooks, Spring 2002.

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  Table 2 hereabouts. Common earth science 'errors/ oversimplifications' in secondary (11 -16 year old) science textbooks in England and Wales -in rank order of frequency.

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Table 3

 3

hereabouts. Key references relating to earth science misconceptions.

Table 4

 4

hereabouts. Comparison between earth science misconceptions common in the literature and those most frequently found in the textbook/ syllabus surveys.

  researched understanding of the rock cycle as a whole and found that 11-12 year old US pupils, having previously learned about the rock cycle, rarely mentioned it in their explanations of the formation of different types of rocks. She found that, 'students did not grasp the purpose of instruction about the rock cycle. Instead their responses indicate they perceive the rock cycle as the cause of rock formation, rather than a model representing relationships between rock categories and their formation. For example, when asked how a rock formed,

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  , 'proposed that the nature and quality of UK society's engagement with

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Table 1 .

 1 Baseline data obtained from the survey of the earth science content of secondary science textbooks, Spring 2002.

		Deleted: June
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		Nelson, B. & Bisard, W. (1994).
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	R e	change: What are its manifestations? What are its origins? What corrective action can be taken? Journal of Science Education and Technology, 2, 541-557. Formatted ... [5]
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Table 2 .

 2 Common earth science 'errors/ oversimplifications' in secondary (11 -16 year old) science textbooks in England and Wales -in rank order of frequency.

	Earth	Prevale	Examples of	Scientific	Discussion	Mis-
	science	nce in	quotes	consensus		conception
	'error/	531	containing	view		of similar
	oversim	'errors/	'errors/			significanc
	plificatio	oversim	oversimplificatio			e in
	n'	plificati	ns' from			another
		ons'	textbooks,			science
		found	syllabuses and			area
			examinations
	A.	37	'Stone is worn	'Weathering.	Weathering happens in	Confusing
	Weatheri	7.0%	away by the air,	The	place and so no solid	the
	ng/		wind and rain.	breakdown of	material is removed.	dissolving of
	erosion		This is called	rocks and	Weathering causes	salt and the
	confusion		weathering.' (O1 -	minerals at the	chemical breakdown or	'dissolving'
	, eg.		B2, 85 -textbook	Earth's surface	physical disintegration	of calcium
	'weatheri		series for 11-14	by the action	(eg. by freeze thaw	carbonate in
	ng and		year olds)	of physical and	action, plant root	acid.
	erosion		'Rocks can be	chemical	growth). Erosion is the
	are the		worn away in 3	processes'	removal of material
	same' or		ways: physical	(Allaby &	from the site. Erosion
	'weather		weathering,	Allaby, 1991,	occurs when one or
	causes		chemical	p401)	more erosive agents
	weatherin		weathering, and,	'Erosion is the	(such as gravity, wind,
	g'		biological	process that	moving water, or moving
			weathering.' (N4 -	moves	ice) removes weathered
			C, 282 -textbook	material	material (so wind is an
			series for 14 -16	resulting from	agent of erosion, not
			year olds)	the	weathering). [Note: the
				breakdown, or	chemical attack of
				weathering of	rainwater on limestone
				bedrock'	removes material in
				(Hancock &	solution and so is
				Skinner, 2000,	weathering and not
				p314)*	erosion].
	B.	35	'The earth's crust	'The
	Indicating	6.6%	is split into	asthenosphere
	that the		different sections	(derived from
	mantle is		called 'plates'.	the Greek for
	liquid eg.		These plates float	'weak sphere')
	'the		around on the hot	is the relatively
	mantle is		liquid magma	weak, ductile
	made of		beneath.' C3 -B2,	layer in the
	magma'		136 -textbook	upper mantle
	(see also		series for 11-14	immediately
	the		year olds)	underlying the
	section		'Material which	lithosphere.
	below of		enters the liquid	Although solid
	nine		mantle can	at normal
	misconce		emerge through	strain rates,
	ptions		volcanoes to form	like the rest of
	that the		igneous rocks. '	the non-
	mantle is		(B5 -96 -a	lithospheric
	'semi -		revision guide for	mantle, it can
	liquid or		11 -14 year olds)	deform slowly

Table 3 .

 3 Key references relating to earth science misconceptions.

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Table 4 .

 4 Comparison between earth science misconceptions common in the literature and those most frequently found in the textbook/ syllabus surveys.

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	Plate tectonics	Marques & Thompson, 1997b; King, 2000; Libarkin et al, 2005; Libarkin,	Formatted	... [314]
	History of geology Economic geology	2006 None specific to this topic Leather, 1987	Formatted Formatted	... [315] ... [316]
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  Summers et al (2000) also probed understanding of the carbon cycle in practising UK primary (elementary) teachers, finding that the 'locking up' of carbon in fossil fuels was understood by less than half the teachers and that most did not grasp the idea that large quantities of 'ancient carbon' are being released into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels. Their work on researching understanding of the greenhouse effect showed that few of the teachers were aware of how the atmosphere causes the greenhouse effect or how human activities can enhance this. InSummers et al (2001), they report, 'striking features …were … practising primary teachers' low awareness of, or uncertainty about, … the role of carbon dioxide in global warming …' (p50/1)

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	Meadows & Wiesenmayer (1999) identified a common misconception among
	schoolchildren as, 'the "hole" in the ozone layer allows a greater penetration of
	sunlight which results in raising the temperature of the earth [global warming].'
	(p236). This misconception is also held by many pre-service primary
	(elementary) teachers, as noted in a review of the literature by Summers et al
	(2000), and in the UK practising primary (elementary) teachers they surveyed.
	Meanwhile, Khalid (2003) reports a high frequency of this misconception among
	US pre-service secondary (high) school teachers as well.
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Khalid's (2003)

work, using the methodology of

uk International Journal of Science Education

  Renner, J. W.,Abraham, M. R., Grzybowski, E. B. & Marek, E. A. (1990). Understanding and misunderstandings of eighth graders of four physics concepts found in textbooks. Journal of Research in ScienceTeaching, 27, 35-54. Subbarini, M. S. (1991). Environmental knowledge of in-service classroom teachers enrolled in the certification program at Yarmouk University. Environmental Education and Information. 10, 129-142 Summers M.,Kruger C. & Childs, A. (2001). Understanding the science of environmental issues: development of a subject knowledge guide for primary teacher education. International Journal of Science Education, 23, 33-53. Figure 1. Instances of earth science misconception in published science materials for 11 -16 year olds (n = 531).

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	Page 19: [15] Formatted Page 23: [36] Formatted Summers, M., Kruger C., Childs, A. & Mant, J. (2000). Primary School Teachers' Chris 10/29/2008 11:11:00 PM Chris 10/29/2008 11:11:00 PM No underline, Font color: Auto No underline, Font color: Auto No underline No underline, Font color: Auto No underline, Font color: Auto No underline, Font color: Auto Rocks
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PM No underline, Font color: Auto Page 30: [153] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline, Font color: Auto Page 30: [154] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline, Font color: Auto Page 30: [155] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline, Font color: Auto Page 30: [156] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline Page 30: [157] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline, Font color: Auto Page 30: [158] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline, Font color: Auto Page 30: [159] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline, Font color: Auto Page 30: [160] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline, Font color: Auto Page 30: [161] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline, Font color: Auto Page 30: [162] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline, Font color: Auto Page 30: [163] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM F o r P e e r R e v i e w O n l y F o r P e e r R e v i e w O n l y F o r P e e r R e v i e w O n l y F o r P e e r R e v i e w O n l y F o r P e e r R e v i e w O n l y F o r P e e r R e v i e w O n l y F o r P e e r R e v i e w O n l y F o r P e e r R e v i e w O n l y F o r P e e r R e v i e w O n l y F o r P e e r R e v i e w O n l y F o r P e e r R e v i e w O n l y Igneous rocks and processes F o r F o r Metamorphic rocks and processes Rock cycle Geological time, correlation and … Earthquakes and Earth's structure F o r F o r P e e r P e e r Plate tectonics P P History of geology e e Economic geology -energy Economic geology -raw materials Economic geology -minerals e r e r R e R Atmosphere and ocean General R R v i e e v i e 0 10 20 e e 30 % of misconceptions v i e v i e w w w w O n l y O n l O n l O n l No underline, Font color: Auto Page 30: [164] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM y y y
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	No underline, Font color: Auto Page 19: [10] Formatted Groves, F. H. & Pugh, A. F. (1999). Elementary Pre-Service Teacher Perceptions Chris 10/29/2008 11:11:00 PM Page 24: [52] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 11:11:00 PM No underline, Font color: Auto No underline No underline, Font color: Auto No underline, Font color: Auto No underline, Font color: Auto No underline, Font color: Auto of the Greenhouse Effect. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 8, 75-No underline, Font color: Auto Page 28: [67] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM Page 28: [73] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM Page 28: [80] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM Page 29: [99] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM Page 29: [121] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM Page 30: [143] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM Page 30: [165] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM 1 2
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Thus it is surprising that the number of misconception instances relating to the atmosphere and ocean in the textbook/ syllabus surveys was rather smaller than in some other areas of earth science. Font: 12 pt, No underline, Font color: Auto Font: 12 pt, No underline, Font color: Auto Font: 12 pt, No underline, Font color: Auto Font: 12 pt, No underline, Font color: Auto Font: 12 pt, No underline, Font color: Auto URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/tsed Email: ijse_editor@hotmail.co.

Table 1 .

 1 Baseline data obtained from the survey of the earth science content of secondary science textbooks, Spring 2002.

	Criterion	Mean findings of
		the 27 textbooks
		for 11-

14 year olds Mean findings of the 24 textbooks for 14-16 year olds Mean findings from the 51 textbooks surveyed in total

	Percentage of the National	52%	57%	55%
	Curriculum earth science
	statements inadequately covered
	Percentage of earth science	8.7%	10.0%	9.4%
	(number of pages of earth science
	relative to the number of pages in
	the textbook)
	Mean number of 'Errors/	1.1	0.9	1.0
	misconceptions' per page
	F o r
	P
	e
		e r
		R
		e
		v i e
			w
			O n l
				y
		3

Table 2 .

 2 Common earth science 'errors/ oversimplifications' in secondary (11 -16 year old) science textbooks in England and Wales -in rank order of frequency.

	Earth	Prevale	Examples of	Scientific	Discussion	Mis-
	science	nce in	quotes	consensus		conception
	'error/	531	containing	view		of similar
	oversim	'errors/	'errors/			significanc
	plificatio	oversim	oversimplificatio			e in
	n'	plificati	ns' from			another
		ons'	textbooks,			science
		found	syllabuses and			area
			examinations
	A.	37	'Stone is worn	'Weathering.	Weathering happens in	Confusing
	Weatheri	7.0%	away by the air,	The	place and so no solid	the
	ng/		wind and rain.	breakdown of	material is removed.	dissolving of
	erosion		This is called	rocks and	Weathering causes	salt and the
	confusion		weathering.' (O1 -	minerals at the	chemical breakdown or	'dissolving'
	, eg.		B2, 85 -textbook	Earth's surface	physical disintegration	of calcium
	'weatheri		series for 11-14	by the action	(eg. by freeze thaw	carbonate in
	ng and		year olds)	of physical and	action, plant root	acid.
	erosion		'Rocks can be	chemical	growth). Erosion is the
	are the		worn away in 3	processes'	removal of material
	same' or		ways: physical	(Allaby &	from the site. Erosion
	'weather		weathering,	Allaby, 1991,	occurs when one or
	causes		chemical	p401)	more erosive agents
	weatherin		weathering, and,	'Erosion is the	(such as gravity, wind,
	g'		biological	process that	moving water, or moving
			weathering.' (N4 -	moves	ice) removes weathered
			C, 282 -textbook	material	material (so wind is an
			series for 14 -16	resulting from	agent of erosion, not
			year olds)	the	weathering). [Note: the
				breakdown, or	chemical attack of
				weathering of	rainwater on limestone
				bedrock'	removes material in
				(Hancock &	solution and so is
				Skinner, 2000,	weathering and not
				p314)*	erosion].
	B.	35	'The earth's crust	'The
	Indicating	6.6%	is split into	asthenosphere
	that the		different sections	(derived from
	mantle is		called 'plates'.	the Greek for
	liquid eg.		These plates float	'weak sphere')
	'the		around on the hot	is the relatively
	mantle is		liquid magma	weak, ductile
	made of		beneath.' C3 -B2,	layer in the
	magma'		136 -textbook	upper mantle
	(see also		series for 11-14	immediately
	the		year olds)	underlying the
	section		'Material which	lithosphere.
	below of		enters the liquid	Although solid
	nine		mantle can	at normal
	misconce		emerge through	strain rates,
	ptions		volcanoes to form	like the rest of
	that the		igneous rocks. '	the non-
	mantle is		(B5 -96 -a	lithospheric
	'semi -		revision guide for	mantle, it can
	liquid or		11 -14 year olds)	deform slowly

Table 4 .

 4 Comparison between earth science misconceptions common in the literature and those most frequently found in the textbook/ syllabus surveys.

	; Libarkin,

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  Table 1 hereabouts. Baseline data obtained from the survey of the earth science content of secondary science textbooks, Spring 2002.

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  , 'the[assessment] activities provided … evidence to suggest that the term 'rock' is widely misunderstood among students' (p269).

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  describes, this is probably because the terms have altered in meaning over time and can still be interpreted in different ways by textbooks of today.

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  researched understanding of the rock cycle as a whole and found that 11-12 year old US pupils, having previously learned about the rock cycle, rarely mentioned it in their explanations of the formation of different types of rocks. She found that, 'students did not grasp the purpose of instruction about the rock cycle. Instead their responses indicate they perceive the rock cycle as the cause of rock formation, rather than a model representing relationships between rock categories and their formation. For example, when asked how a rock formed,

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  The misconceptions about earthquakes and Earth's interior held by younger children were generally not found in UK science textbooks. However those misconceptions prevalent in US college students and UK teachers were common in the science textbooks. Confusion about the physical state of Earth layers (such as statements that the mantle is liquid, when it is almost entirely solid) and their thickness (for

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  has highlighted the importance of curriculum materials in developing the understanding of teachers and in influencing teaching and learning. They comment, 'We know far too little about how written materials might support teachers' learning …[nevertheless] … we propose the creation of curricula that would help teachers better enact curriculum in practice … curriculum materials could offer teachers opportunities to learn in and from their work.' (p8). The analysis of the misconception data for science textbooks and syllabuses in England and Wales summarised in this paper has revealed the misconceptions that are most prevalent amongst writers of science materials. Misconceptions are particularly common in the areas of sedimentary processes/ rocks, earthquakes/ Earth's structure, and plate tectonics. Study of Earth science misconceptions forms an important part of the research literature in earth science education, summarised by

uk International Journal of Science Education

  King, C., Brooks, M., Gill, R., Rhodes, A. & Thompson, D. (1998). A Comparison of GCSE Double Award Science Syllabuses and Exams for their Earth Science Content, Accuracy and Level of Demand. Internal report. London: Geological Society. pp 45. This is available on request from the ESEU.King, C., Brooks, M., Gill, R., Rhodes, A., & Thompson. D. (1999). Earth science in

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	Figure 1. Instances of earth science misconception in published science materials for
	11 -16 year olds (n = 531).
	Minerals
	Rocks
	Fossils
	Sedimentary rocks and processes
	Igneous rocks and processes
	Metamorphic rocks and processes
	Rock cycle
	Geological time, correlation and …
	o r F o r F o r F o r F o r F o r F o r F o r Earthquakes and Earth's structure Plate tectonics History of geology Economic geology -energy Economic geology -raw materials F o r
	P e P e P e P e P e P e P e P e Economic geology -minerals P Atmosphere and ocean General e
	0	e r e r e r e r e r e r e r e r 10 % of misconceptions 20 e r	30
		R R R R R R R R R
		e e e e e e e e e
		v i e v i e v i e v i e v i e v i e v i e v i e v i e
			w w w w w w w w w
			O n l O n l O n l O n l O n l O n l O n l O n l O n l
			y y y y y y y y y
		22 26 27

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Table 1 .

 1 Baseline data obtained from the survey of the earth science content of secondary science textbooks, Spring 2002.

	Criterion	Mean findings of
		the 27 textbooks
		for 11-

14 year olds Mean findings of the 24 textbooks for 14-16 year olds

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				Mean findings from
				the 51 textbooks
				surveyed in total
	Percentage of the National	52%	57%	55%
	Curriculum earth science
	statements inadequately covered
	Percentage of earth science	8.7%	10.0%	9.4%
	(number of pages of earth science
	relative to the number of pages in
	the textbook)
	Mean number of 'Errors/	1.1	0.9	1.0
	misconceptions' per page

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Table 2 .

 2 Common earth science 'errors/ oversimplifications' in secondary (11 -16 year old) science textbooks in England and Wales -in rank order of frequency.

	Earth	Prevale	Examples of	Scientific	Discussion	Mis-
	science	nce in	quotes	consensus		conception
	'error/	531	containing	view		of similar
	oversim	'errors/	'errors/			significanc
	plificatio	oversim	oversimplificatio			e in
	n'	plificati	ns' from			another
		ons'	textbooks,			science
		found	syllabuses and			area
			examinations
	A.	37	'Stone is worn	'Weathering.	Weathering happens in	Confusing
	Weatheri	7.0%	away by the air,	The	place and so no solid	the
	ng/		wind and rain.	breakdown of	material is removed.	dissolving of
	erosion		This is called	rocks and	Weathering causes	salt and the
	confusion		weathering.' (O1 -	minerals at the	chemical breakdown or	'dissolving'
	, eg.		B2, 85 -textbook	Earth's surface	physical disintegration	of calcium
	'weatheri		series for 11-14	by the action	(eg. by freeze thaw	carbonate in
	ng and		year olds)	of physical and	action, plant root	acid.
	erosion		'Rocks can be	chemical	growth). Erosion is the
	are the		worn away in 3	processes'	removal of material
	same' or		ways: physical	(Allaby &	from the site. Erosion
	'weather		weathering,	Allaby, 1991,	occurs when one or
	causes		chemical	p401)	more erosive agents
	weatherin		weathering, and,	'Erosion is the	(such as gravity, wind,
	g'		biological	process that	moving water, or moving
			weathering.' (N4 -	moves	ice) remove weathered	Deleted: removes
			C, 282 -textbook	material	material (so wind is an
			series for 14 -16	resulting from	agent of erosion, not
			year olds)	the	weathering). [Note: the
				breakdown, or	chemical attack of
				weathering of	rainwater on limestone
				bedrock'	removes material in
				(Hancock &	solution and so is
				Skinner, 2000,	weathering and not
				p314)*	erosion].
	B.	35	'The earth's crust	'The	The mantle is almost	Considering
	Indicating	6.6%	is split into	asthenosphere	entirely solid, as shown	that glass is
	that the		different sections	(derived from	by the fact that it	a liquid
	mantle is		called 'plates'.	the Greek for	transmits seismic S-	when it has
	liquid eg.		These plates float	'weak sphere')	waves which can only	the
	'the		around on the hot	is the relatively	pass through solid	characteristi
	mantle is		liquid magma	weak, ductile	material. There is a	cs of a solid
	made of		beneath.' C3 -B2,	layer in the	zone in the upper
	magma'		136 -textbook	upper mantle	mantle between the
	(see also		series for 11-14	immediately	solid lithosphere above
	the		year olds)	underlying the	and the solid mantle
	section		'Material which	lithosphere.	below, called the
	below of		enters the liquid	Although solid	asthenosphere that is
	nine		mantle can	at normal	between 1 and 5% liquid
	misconce		emerge through	strain rates,	(i.e. is 95 -99% solid).
	ptions		volcanoes to form	like the rest of	As the molten material is
	that the		igneous rocks. '	the non-	found as films around
	mantle is		(B5 -96 -a	lithospheric	the edges of crystals, it
	'semi -		revision guide for	mantle, it can	allows the solid material
	liquid or		11 -14 year olds)	deform slowly	of the asthenosphere to

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	incorrectl	olds)	an average
	y	'Crust … At its	crustal
		thickest it is about	thickness of 35
		40km.' (H4 -166	km for the
		-textbook for 14	continents and
		-16 year olds)	7 km for the
		Earth cross-	oceans …'
		section diagram
		showing the core
		too small and the
		crust far too thick.
		C1 -C 147 -
		textbook for 14 -
		16 year olds)
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	. wide variety of textures Limestones occur in a and colours. Some are soft and porous, others are harder and at hand specimen scale are non-porous (but can be porous at a larger scale because of cracks and fissures). Chalk is a type of limestone formed mainly are formed of structures of most rocks can be very variable. However, some rocks See 'the mantle is liquid' section above 'Limestone is a grey rock with a rough powdery texture. J1 -C99 -textbook series for 11 -14 year olds) 'Chalk: A soft crumbly rock composed of the calcium carbonate shells of 'Limestones … exhibit the same variety of grain sizes, textures and sedimentary structures as siliclastic deposits [conglomerate s, sandstones, mudstones, 16 year olds) ordered atomic r -question in a science examination for range of composition, and an o 'Olivine is a hard, dense rock … Olivine is an example of a silicate rock. … Olivine is an example of an igneous rock. … Olivine and are sometimes found …' (L4 -11 'A mineral can be defined as a naturally occurring homogenous solid, inorganically formed, with a definite composition or a definite A mineral is an element or compound. Thus a mineral has a definite chemical composition, atomic structure and physical properties (that vary between fixed limits). A rock is a mixture of one or more of rocks or fossils) so the compositions and Page F K. Misunder standings of limestone and chalk, eg. 'limeston e only has grey porous forms' or 9 1.7% L. Indicating that the mantle is semi-liquid or semi-solid 9 1.7% M. Mineral/r ock confusion , eg. ''mineral' and 'rock' mean the same' 8 1.5% similar minerals chemical minerals (or fragments	Thinking that Iron and steel are different metals -and steel is mainly carbon Confusing mixtures and compounds (eg. a mixture of iron filings and sulphur with iron sulphide)
	'chalk is made of the skeletons of sea creatures'	prehistoric sea animals. H2 -BB, 93 -textbook series for 11 -14 year olds) 'Chalk is one form of calcium carbonate …. Limestone is the most important 'Some minerals, like limestone, are found in rocks on P etc.] and, in addition, others not exhibited by siliclastic deposits.' (Hancock & Skinner, 2000, p605) 'The arrangement.' (Hancock & Skinner, 2000, their own.' L8 -47 -textbook for p692) 'Rock. A e 14 -16 year olds) consolidated or unconsolidate e minerals or r d aggregate of	of the microscopic plates of planktonic single celled plants (ie they are microscopic plant remains) predominantly one mineral, such as limestone (largely calcite), quartzite (largely quartz) and rock salt (largely halite). Igneous rocks usually contain more than one mineral.
		form of calcium carbonate… The third form of calcium carbonate is marble.' N4 -C, 121 -textbook series for 14 -16 year olds)	Cretaceous chalks … are composed largely of coccoliths … (Tucker, 1982, p155) 'Coccolithopho rids … are planktonic algae which skeleton … composed of numerous have a … organic matter. The minerals may be all of R one type … or of many types e e w i …' (Allaby & Allaby, 1991, v p319)
			calcareous plates called coccoliths. (Tucker 1982, p111)	O n l
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	N. Basalt	8	'Molten rock	'Basalt, a dark-	Granite and basalt are	Confusing
	and	1.5%	which emerges	coloured, fine-	chemically very different	caustic soda
	granite		through	grained	and so cannot change	(sodium
	can form		volcanoes is	extrusive	from one to the other.	hydroxide)
	from the		called lava. As	igneous rock	When the mantle	with
	same		this cools it forms	… containing	partially melts, dark	common
	magma,		a variety of solids	not more than	magma forms. This iron-	salt (sodium
	eg. 'a		and these are	53 wt% SiO 2 '	rich, silica-poor magma	chloride)
	single		known as igneous	(Allaby &	produces basalt if it
	magma		rock … -one	Allaby, 1991,	cools quickly at the
	can		example is	34)	surface or coarse-
	produce		granite.' (L11 -	'Granite. A	grained gabbro if it cools
	granite or		100 -textbook for	light-coloured,	slowly at depth. When
	basalt' or		11 -14 year olds)	coarse grained	the crust partially melts,
	'granite		Edinburgh Castle	igneous rock	a paler, silica-rich
	comes		stands on a 'plug'	…' (Allaby &	magma is formed. This
	from		of granite that	Allaby, 1991,	is rarely erupted as lava,
	volcanoe s'		was once inside a volcano. N4 -C, F 282 -textbook series for 14 -16 year olds) o r	p164) 'Granites are intrusive igneous rocks that contain of silica (SiO 2 )' large amounts	but can explode as ash or pumice. Usually this magma crystallises slowly underground to form coarse-grained granite.
	O. Oil indicated as forming millions of years ago, eg.	7 1.3%	(Hancock & Skinner, 2000, p464) P 'Coal, oil and natural gas are 'In the North Sea … oil e called fossil fuels. They were made from plants and forms at 3 -4.5 km depth, gas at 4 -6 e animals that lived km. … Burial r on Earth about to these
	'oil formed once in geologica l time'		100 million years ago.' (N3 B7, 42 -textbook series for 11 -14 year olds) 'Oil was formed from the remains of organisms examination syllabus for 16 year olds) ago.' (N1/2 -38 -science millions of years which lived	depths occurs in areas where the Earth's R crust is sagging … e These processes continue today v w e i …'
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	History of geology Economic geology	2006 None specific to this topic Leather, 1987 F o r	; Libarkin,
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Table 4 .

 4 Comparison between earth science misconceptions common in the literature and those most frequently found in the textbook/ syllabus surveys.

	Category	Misconceptions of children, students	Misconceptions identified in the
		and teachers commonly cited in	textbook/syllabus surveys in order of
		existing literature	frequency
	Minerals,
	rocks and
	fossils

•

  The terms 'rock' and 'mineral' often used in a non-scientific sense and/or misunderstood Little understanding of the causes of earthquakes • Poor knowledge of the structure of the Earth and of the state (solid, liquid, etc.) of its layers• Mantle is liquid/magma • Thickness of Earth layers incorrect • Mantle is semi-liquid/semi-solid

			• Mineral/rock confusion
			• Mineral definition
			• Rock definition
			• Rock hardness
	Sedimentary	• Confusion between 'weathering' and	• Weathering/erosion confusion
	rocks and	'erosion'	• Formation of sedimentary rocks by
	processes	• Little understanding that	compression only
		sedimentary rocks were formed by	• Sedimentary definitions
		sedimentary processes	• Freeze-thaw mechanism
			• Chalk/limestone confusion
	Igneous	• Erroneous ideas about volcanoes,	• Granite forms in volcanoes
	rocks and	including that their magma	• Igneous definitions
	processes	originates in the core and that they	• Magma comes only from the mantle
		only occur in warm climates or on
		islands
	Metamorphic	• Metamorphic processes wrongly	• Metamorphic rocks formed by
	rocks and	associated with metamorphosis in	overburden pressure and heat
	processes	animals	• Metamorphic rocks never contain fossils
	The rock	• The rock cycle not understood as an	• The rock cycle is continuous
	cycle	explanatory model
	Geological	• Most people had poor chronological	• Rocks dated by radioactivity of 'rocks'
	time,	understanding of geological events	or fossils
	correlation
	and dating
	Earthquakes	• Little understanding of the locations
	and the	of earthquakes
	structure of the Earth • Plate • Poor understanding of the nature of	• Plates made of crust
	tectonics	continents and oceans	• Many single instances of misconception
		• Little understanding of the concept
		of 'tectonic plate'
		• Poor knowledge of the links
		between earthquakes, volcanoes
		and plate movement
	History of	None found	• Wegener proposed plate tectonics
	geology
	Economic	• Thinking that oil formed from dead	• Oil formed from animals
	geology	sea creatures	• Oil formed millions of years ago
		• Indicating that oil is trapped in	• Misunderstanding of 'ore'
		[largish] holes under the ground	• How traps are formed
			• Geothermal energy is renewable
	Atmosphere
	and ocean

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am most grateful to the reviewers of an earlier draft of this paper, who have enabled me to greatly improve the original.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am most grateful to the reviewers of an earlier draft of this paper, who have enabled me to greatly improve the original. GCSE science syllabuses and examinations. School Science Review, 80, 87-93. King, C., Fleming, A., Kennett, P. & Thompson, D. (2002). A report on the Earth Science content of commonly used Secondary Science Textbooks. pp 101. Keele: The Earth Science Education Unit, Keele University. This is available on request from the ESEU. King, C., Edwards, N., & Hughes, H. (2004). Earth Science in GCSE Double Award Science Specifications. pp. 12. Keele: The Earth Science Education Unit, Keele University. This is available on request from the ESEU. King, C., Fleming, A., Kennett, P. & Thompson, D. (2005). How effectively do Science Textbooks teach Earth Science? School Science Review, 87 (318) 95-104. King, C. & Hughes, E. (2007). Comparisons of the earth science-related content of GCSE Science Specifications in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Keele: The Earth Science Education Unit, Keele University. This is available on request from the ESEU.

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10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline, Font color: Auto Page 36: [337] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline, Font color: Auto Page 36: [338] Deleted Chris 10/28/2008 11:45:00 AM Economic geology Leather, 1987 Atmosphere and ocean Boyes et al, 1993; Dove, 1996b; Groves & Pugh, 1999; Meadows & Wiesenmayer, 1999; Summers et al, 2000 Summers et al, , 2001;; Khalid, 2003 Page 36: [339] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline, Font color: Auto Page 36: [340] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline, Font color: Auto Page 36: [341] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline, Font color: Auto Page 36: [342] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline, Font color: Auto Page 36: [343] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline Page 36: [344] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline, Font color: Auto Page 36: [345] Formatted Unknown Font: Arial Page 37: [346] Formatted Chris 10/29/2008 10:36:00 PM No underline, Font color: 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