Melanie Arntz
email: arntz@zew.de

and Qualitative Choice Models < C3 -Econometric Methods: Multiple/Simultaneous Equation Models < C -Mathematical and Quantitative Methods, J61 -Geographic Labor Mobility|Immigrant Workers < J6 -Mobility, Unemployment, and Vacancies < J -Labor and Demographic Economics, R23 -Regional Migration|Regional Labor Markets|Population

Keywords: C35 -Discrete Regression destination choice, allocation of human capital, convergence destination choice, spatial allocation of human capital, convergence Durch eine Untersuchung von pekuniären und nicht pekuniären Faktoren bei der Standortwahl heterogener Arbeitsplatzwechsler wird in diesem Beitrag versucht, die Zusammensetzung von Qualifikationen bei der interregionalen Angebots-und Nachfragesituation auf dem deutschen Arbeitsmarkt zu erklären. Auf diese Weise werden Einblicke geliefert, wie die Politik auf die räumliche Zuweisung von Humankapital einwirken kann, um die Konvergenz von Regionen wie Ost-und Westdeutschland zu fördern. Die Schätzungen eines Nested-Logit-Modells lassen darauf schließen, dass das räumliche Muster des Arbeitsplatzwechsels von hochqualifizierten Personen Standortwahl Räumliche Zuweisung von Humankapital Konvergenz

By examining pecuniary and non-pecuniary factors in the destination choices of heterogeneous job movers, this paper tries to explain the skill composition of interregional job matches in Germany. It thus provides insights on how policy can affect the spatial allocation of human capital to promote convergence between regions such as eastern and western Germany. Estimates from a nested logit model suggest that the spatial pattern of job moves by high-skilled individuals are mainly driven by interregional income differentials, while interregional job matches by less-skilled individuals are mainly determined by interregional differentials in job opportunities. The role of regional amenities in attracting high-skilled labour turns out to be less clear.

Understanding what attracts skilled migrants to a particular region is of high policy interest because the local availability of a large pool of qualified workers has been considered to facilitate innovative activities and to improve the endogenous growth potential of the region [START_REF] Lucas R | On the Mechanics of Economic Development[END_REF][START_REF] Romer | Endogenous Technological Change[END_REF]. [START_REF] Rauch | Productivity Gains from Geographic Concentration of Human Capital: Evidence from the Cities[END_REF] and [START_REF] Simon | Human Capital and Metropolitan Employment Growth[END_REF] empirically confirm the positive linkage between the initial human capital endowment of a region and its future economic growth. As a consequence of such skill externalities, the inward migration of skilled individuals may foster a self-reinforcing regional economic growth that intensifies regional economic disparities [START_REF] Nijkamp | Endogenous Technological Change, Long Run Growth and Spatial Interdependence: A Survey[END_REF]. In the German context, several recent studies suggest that net migration from eastern to western Germany is disproportionately high-skilled [START_REF] Schwarze | Beeinflusst das Lohngefälle zwischen Ost-und Westdeutschland das Migrationsverhalten der Ostdeutschen? Eine mikroökonomische Untersuchung mit Daten des Sozio-ökonomischen Panels 1991 bis 1994[END_REF][START_REF] Hunt | Alternative Nested Logit Model Structures and the Special Case of Partial Degeneracy[END_REF][START_REF] Burda | From Reunification to Economic Integration: Productivity and the Labor Market in Eastern Germany[END_REF]. This raises strong concerns that a brain drain from eastern to western Germany may reinforce east-west disparities in employment and wages. The aim of this paper is therefore to identify major determinants of the skill composition of migration flows in Germany. By doing so, the paper provides insights on how policy can promote convergence, a topic that is of high relevance in Germany, as well as in a broader European context.

Similar to a recent US study by [START_REF] Hunt | North American Migration: Returns to Skill, Border Effects, and Mobility Costs[END_REF], the paper considers a number of pecuniary and non-pecuniary forces behind the skill composition of internal migration in Germany. This approach fills an important research gap in the European context because European studies on the skill composition of internal migration flows -to the best of my knowledge -exist for Finland only and indicate that high-skilled individuals tend to relocate to high-density urban areas [START_REF] Ritsilä | Migration and Regional Centralization of Human Capital[END_REF][START_REF] Ritsilä | Where Do the Highly Educated Migrate? Micro-Level Evidence from Finland[END_REF]. Whether this is due to a mixture of a higher urban wage premium, job opportunities or consumer amenities, however, remains an unresolved question. This study sheds some light on this question in the German context. For this purpose, I use a partially degenerate two-level nested logit model to examine the relevance of both pecuniary and non-pecuniary regional disparities for the spatial pattern of job moves in Germany. 1 Furthermore, the paper extends previous studies by examining differences in destination choices not only by skill level, but also by the type of job match. This may be important if some of the differences by skill level are actually driven by different destination choices of job-to-job movers and job movers after unemployment. As another contribution to the literature, the econometric approach of this paper takes account of unobserved interregional heterogeneity. To the extent that amenity valuations differ by skill level, unobserved interregional amenity differentials may bias the impact of observed interregional income differentials that tend to compensate for amenity differentials. See [START_REF] Hunt | Equilibrium and Disequilibrium in Migration Modelling[END_REF] and [START_REF] Elhorst | The Mystery Of Regional Unemployment Differentials: Theoretical and Empirical Explanations[END_REF] for a discussion. While previous papers have addressed this problem by including amenity indicators such as regional climate differentials [START_REF] Hunt | North American Migration: Returns to Skill, Border Effects, and Mobility Costs[END_REF], this paper includes destination fixed effects to reduce remaining biases [START_REF] Train | Discrete Choice Methods with Simulation[END_REF].

Estimation results show some major differences in the spatial pattern of job matches by skill level. In a model with destination fixed effects, the spatial pattern of job matches by high-skilled individuals is mainly driven by interregional income differentials, while job matches by less-skilled individuals are mainly affected by regional differentials in job opportunities. Interregional differences in wage dispersion as well as amenity differentials only weakly contribute to spatial sorting processes in Germany which are partly driven by different destination choices of job-to-job movers and job movers after unemployment. As an extension to the seminal paper by [START_REF] Borjas | Self-Selection and Internal Migration in the United States[END_REF] on the income-maximising choice of destinations, [START_REF] Hunt | North American Migration: Returns to Skill, Border Effects, and Mobility Costs[END_REF] have recently modelled destination choices as a utility-maximising behaviour. This approach stresses the role of nonpecuniary returns from moving to a particular region. Following their approach, this paper assumes that movements between K regions are based on utility maximisation. Consider the net present value of the expected lifetime indirect utility of living and working in k if individual i originates from o, V iok , to depend on individual i 's preferences for certain region-specific attributes, his employment and wage prospects in region k and the cost of

A theoretical underpinning of skill sorting across space

relocating from o to k iok ik k ik k w w i ik iok C a b w dF w r V r i -           + - + = ∫ ) 1 ( ) ( 1 max α α , (1)
with r as the discount rate. There are several reasons why a utility-maximising behaviour of this net present value induces a sorting of skill groups across space.

First of all, α ik summarises the chances of individual i to find and keep an acceptable job in region k. This probability depends on the demand for the occupation and skill level of individual i in region k and the willingness to accept job offers, i.e. the reservation wage w i r .

(1-α ik ) thus denotes the individual-specific probability of future periods without any wage income but a real transfer income b k instead that may differ across space due to regional cost-of-living differences. In case of employment, the expected real wage for individual i is given by ) ( [START_REF] Roy | Some Thoughts on the Distribution of Earnings[END_REF][START_REF] Borjas | Self-Selection and the Earnings of Immigrants[END_REF][START_REF] Borjas | Self-Selection and Internal Migration in the United States[END_REF], migrants maximise their income by choosing a destination region that provides the most favourable income distribution. In particular, conditional on the mean wage, a high-skilled individual who is likely to draw wage offers from the upper quantile of the wage distribution has a higher expected wage in regions where the wage dispersion is large. 2 It follows that high-skilled individuals have incentives to move to regions that reward their human capital investments, whereas lessskilled individuals reduce the penalty attached to the lack of these skills by moving to regions with less income inequality.

In addition to these pecuniary factors, a ik captures the value of non-pecuniary benefits or costs that arise from living in region k. In particular, every location offers a set of natural (e.g. climate), consumer (e.g. the variety of consumption goods and activities) and public goods amenities (e.g. school quality, infrastructure), but also comes with disamenities (e.g. lack of housing space, pollution, crime rates). Recent research suggests that high-income or educated individuals tend to consume a disproportionate share of consumer amenities and may thus prefer amenity-rich regions due to higher amenity valuations [START_REF] Brueckner | Why is Central Paris Rich and Downtown Detroit Poor? An Amenity-Based Theory[END_REF][START_REF] Glaeser | Consumer City[END_REF].

Finally, the costs of moving to region k, C iok , may be negatively related to human capital [START_REF] Chiswick | Are Immigrants Favorably Self-Selected? An Economic Analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Brücker | Do the Best Go West? An Analysis of the Self-Selection of Employed East-West Migrants in Germany[END_REF]. This may be a reasonable assumption if high-skilled individuals have access to geographically broader social networks that reduce the information or psychological costs associated with migration. As a consequence, the skill level of internal migration flows might increase with migration distance.

One important insight of this framework is that the proportion of high-skilled individuals moving to k may be affected by skill-specific employment opportunities, the level of amenities, the degree of wage inequality and the migration costs involved in moving to region k. In line with these predictions, [START_REF] Hunt | North American Migration: Returns to Skill, Border Effects, and Mobility Costs[END_REF] find evidence in favour of higher amenity valuations among high-skilled migrants in the US and Canada.

Based on a nested logit model of destination choice, their findings also confirm lower The objective of this paper is to test these predictions in a German context. As an extension, the paper suggests that the skill composition of migration flows may be partially explained by different destination choices of job-to-job movers and job movers after unemployment since the proportion of job-to-job movers varies across skill groups. For one thing, a large share of job-to-job movers is likely to be non-searchers who receive job offers through career networks and professional contacts without actually looking for jobs [START_REF] Mcdonald | When Does Social Capital Matter? Non-Searching for Jobs Across the Life Course[END_REF]. For such informal job search, local labour demand conditions need not be important for finding a job in a particular region. By contrast, unemployed job movers are less likely to have access to such networks and may rely more on formal job search via employment agencies or the internet, in which case the local labour demand situation should be rather important. Secondly, job search theory predicts that the acceptable wage offer r i w in (1) is higher for on-the-job searchers than for otherwise identical unemployed job searchers. 3 For this reason, job-to-job movers are likely to prefer destinations with higher wage levels or otherwise attractive compensating conditions such as high amenities. The following empirical analysis thus examines destination choices not only by skill level but also by type of job move in order to shed some light on what determines the skill composition of migration flows and thus the allocation of human capital across space.

Data

The analysis is based on the IAB-R01, the IAB employment subsample 1975-2001regional file, an administrative data set that is available from the Institute of Employment Research (IAB) of the Federal Employment Agency [START_REF] Hamann | Die IAB-Regionalstichprobe 1975-2001: IABS-R01[END_REF]. This register data set contains information on a 2 % sample of the population working in jobs that are subject to social insurance payments, thus excluding civil servants and self-employed individuals. More specifically, the data consists of employment spells, i.e. daily information concerning the beginning and end of employment periods that are covered by the social security system. As a supplement, the data includes spell information on periods for which the individual receives unemployment compensation from the Federal Employment Agency. We can thus reconstruct employment histories including periods of transfer receipt on a daily basis.

Moreover, the IAB-R01 allows for comparing the microcensus region of the previous and the current workplace in order to identify interregional mobility. As the basis for distinguishing between intraregional and interregional mobility, I group the microcensus regions to 27 aggregated planning districts. The 97 original planning districts ("Raumordnungsregionen") in Germany are defined according to commuting ranges and thus comprise labour market regions that are relatively self-contained. Since due to the resulting sample size, using 97 regions for the destination choice model was not computable, I reduced the number of destinations by aggregating planning districts according to an algorithm that reduces the remaining external commuting linkages. 4,5 Based on the resulting regional classification (see Figure 1), I define the origin and destination region of each job move.

A job move in the IAB-R01 occurs if there has been a change in an establishment identifier from one to the next employment spell and the reason for ending the previous spell of employment is denoted as "end of employment". 6 Moreover, a job move is assumed without a change in the establishment identifier if the gap between two employment spells exceeds 120 days. This restriction ensures that recalls linked to seasonal work are for the most part not counted as job moves.

< Figure 1 The IAB-R01 does not allow for distinguishing between those who have left the labour force and those who are still unemployed without receiving unemployment compensation. 7 I thus distinguish between job-to-job moves and job moves after unemployment according to the following definitions 1. Job-to-job move (JJC): The job move occurs within 90 days after the last job ended and there has been no intermediate transfer receipt.

2. Job move after unemployment (UJC): A UJC occurs if there has been a preceding transfer receipt that terminated less than 90 days before the start of employment. Gaps between previous periods of transfer receipt are no longer than four weeks and transfer receipt started within four weeks after the last spell of employment ended. Since a voluntary job quit entails a suspension of unemployment compensation of at least four weeks, this last restriction ensures that UJC mostly excludes voluntary unemployment.

3. Job move after all other states (REST): REST comprises (1) Job moves without any intermediate transfer receipt but a gap of more than 90 days between both spells of employment. (2) Job moves with intermediate transfer receipts that do not fulfil the UJC definition due to longer gaps before, during or after transfer receipt.

For the subsequent analysis, I use only JJC and UJC since REST is a very heterogeneous sample for whom the intermediate labour market status and thus also the intermediate whereabouts are unclear. Furthermore, I restrict the sample to job moves between 1995 and 2001 since prior to 1995 there have been dramatic changes in the demarcation of eastern regions that complicate any regional analysis.

In order to receive a relatively homogeneous sample, I further restrict the sample to prime-age males aged 25 to 45 years who are reported full-time employed by their employers. Despite a growing literature regarding the substantial east-west migration of women in Germany [START_REF] Kröhnert | Die demografische Lage der Nation. Wie zukunftsfähig sind Deutschlands Regionen?[END_REF], I exclude women because the IAB-R01 does not include information on marital status or dependent children. Although such missing information also introduces unobserved heterogeneity in the male sample, numerous studies suggest that the relevance of this unobserved heterogeneity should be more severe for women because labour supply behaviour depends much more on the marital status and the presence of dependent children than for men (see [START_REF] Killingsworth | Female Labor Supply: A Survey[END_REF], for a formal discussion). The missing household information thus complicates the interpretation of female estimates. For this reason, I restrict the analysis in this paper to men only. 8 These data-driven sample selections should be borne in mind since the empirical findings may not be applicable to excluded labour market segments.

For the analysis, I distinguish between high-skilled job movers with a tertiary education and less-skilled individuals who are either unskilled or have a vocational training. Based on these definitions, the sample comprises 117,106 JJC and 85,177 UJC by 26,477 high-skilled and 175,806 less-skilled observations in the period from 1995 to 2001. 9 4. Background and descriptive evidence flows. Apparently, both eastern as well as some selective western regions, especially in the northern part of western Germany, experience net losses of human capital. In line with [START_REF] Büchel | Regionale und berufliche Mobilität von Hochqualifizierten -ein Vergleich Deutschland -USA[END_REF], the descriptive evidence thus points towards a continued brain drain from eastern to western Germany. Moreover, the east not only looses high-skilled migrants mainly to the southern parts of western Germany, but also experiences an even larger net loss of less-skilled migrants. The employment change induced by net migration from eastern to western Germany amounts to 1.2% of high-skilled, and 1.4% of lessskilled employment at the beginning of the observation period. By contrast, the middle and especially the southern parts of western Germany have positive net flows for both skill groups. The job flows thus mainly indicate a re-allocation of population and high-skilled labour from the east to the southern parts of western Germany. The following econometric analysis examines to what extent heterogeneous destination choices drive these observed sorting processes.

< Figure 3 to be displayed here >

A partially degenerate nested logit model

Following the random utility approach to discrete choice problems [START_REF] Mcfadden | Econometric Models of Probabilistic Choice[END_REF], the probability that individual i with origin o prefers destination j over alternative 13 with V iol denoting the observed utility for individual i of moving to region l = j,k as given in (1). ε iol is the unknown stochastic part. Assuming independent, identically extreme value distributed error terms between all regions yields the logit specification which has been used by a number of recent destination choice studies [START_REF] Davies | A Conditional Logit Approach to U.S. State to-State Migration[END_REF][START_REF] Schündeln | Migration of Natives and Foreigners Within Germany: Responsiveness to Labor Market Differentials and Cost of Migration[END_REF], but may be inappropriate if choices are related due to unobserved utility components. In order to allow for some correlation among non-origin regions, I thus use a partially degenerate nested logit model, as discussed in [START_REF] Hunt | Alternative Nested Logit Model Structures and the Special Case of Partial Degeneracy[END_REF] that distinguishes between two upper-level branches: staying in the local area (s) and migrating (m). At the lower-level, the degenerate branch s contains the origin region as the only choice, while branch m distinguishes between all non-origin regions and assumes Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives (IIA). The nested logit model can be decomposed into two probabilities. The conditional probability for the non-degenerate branch m can be written as

destinations k is [ ] k j V V P P iok iok ioj ioj ioj ≠ ∀ + > + = ε ε (2)
∑ ∈ + + = m k k iok j ioj m ioj d z d z P ) ' ' exp( ) ' ' exp( 2 1 2 1 γ γ γ γ , ( 3
)
while P ioo|s = 1 for the degenerate branch. γ 1 and γ 2 denote parameter vectors. Since the observed job moves occur between 1995 and 2001, the covariates specific to a certain destination path for individual i z iok always correspond to the year in which the job move takes place. Thus, z iok vary across observations depending not only on an individual's origin region but also on the year in which the job move takes place. This introduces some temporal variation in the data that allows for an introduction of destination-specific fixed effects d k in (3) in order to avoid biases from omitting time-invariant regional characteristics. In addition, the covariates z iok are defined as differences between the standardised values for the destination and the origin region, i.e.

z iok = ik z ~-io z ~.
This reflects the notion that destination choices are typically made by comparing potential destinations with the current region of residence. As a drawback, however, this imposes The marginal probability of migrating can be written as follows:

) ' ' exp( 1 ) ' ' exp( iom m o m i m iom m o m i m iom iv h x iv h x P ξ β α ξ β α + + + + + = , (4) with         + = ∑ ∈m k k iok iom d z iv ) ' ' exp( ln 2 1 γ γ . ( 5
)
The parameter vector α m measures the effect of individual characteristics x i and β m the effect of origin-specific fixed effects h o on the probability of migration. iv iom refers to the inclusive value which links the upper with the lower model. In particular, ξ m iv iom may be interpreted as the expected utility individual i derives from migrating to one of the nonorigin regions. Moreover, the inclusive value parameter ξ m reflects the degree of independence among all non-origin regions. Since ξ m =1 has been rejected for all subsequent estimations, the choices cannot be considered fully independent so that the nested logit model turns out to be an appropriate specification. I estimate a nonnormalised nested logit (NNNL) which is consistent with utility maximising behaviour only if no coefficients are common across branches and ξ m lies within the interval [0; 1] ( [START_REF] Koppelman | Alternative Nested Logit Models: Structure, Properties and Estimation[END_REF][START_REF] Hensher | Specification and Estimation of the Nested Logit Model: Alternative Normalisations[END_REF]. Both of these conditions are fulfilled in the subsequent estimations.

I estimate the NNNL sequentially by estimating the lower level model and the inclusive value before estimating the upper level model. This sequential estimation is less efficient than simultaneous estimation by full information maximum likelihood (FIML). Moreover, the standard errors of the upper level model may be biased downward [START_REF] Amemiya | On two-step Estimation of Multivariate Logit-models[END_REF].

Since FIML was computationally infeasible for the complete sample and the main focus of the paper is on lower level estimates for which both point estimates and standard errors are consistent, I decided to use the sequential estimation method. When comparing sequential estimates with FIML estimates for some smaller sub-samples, both point estimates and standard errors for upper level covariates were quite similar. This suggests that the sequential estimation bias may be negligible. For all estimations, I further impose standard errors that are robust to clustering at the regional level in order to avoid downward biased standard errors [START_REF] Moulton | An Illustration of a Pitfall in Estimating the Effects of Aggregate Variables on Micro Units[END_REF]. favourable job-finding conditions for high-skilled job movers. z ik also includes the median wage in individual i 's sector of activity as an indicator of interregional differences in the wage level and the ratio between the 80th and 20th wage percentile in region k as an indicator of regional wage inequality. xii,xiii For non-pecuniary regional differences, only few relevant indicators are available for the study period. As suggested by [START_REF] Herzog | Valuing Amenities and Disamenities of Urban Scale: Can Bigger Be Better[END_REF], I include population levels as a proxy for urban-scale related consumer amenities. Moreover, I use the population density as a measure of agglomeration effects as suggested by [START_REF] Ciccone | Productivity and the Density of Economic Activity[END_REF] xiv . While urban-scale related amenities should be attractive for migrants, especially high-skilled ones, a denser agglomeration for a given urban scale may also capture disamenities such as pollution or lack of housing space. xv In addition, I use hotel capacities per resident as a proxy for the general attractiveness of the region as proposed by [START_REF] Glaeser | Consumer City[END_REF]. Moreover, I include regional child care facilities as an indicator of the availability of a specific type of public goods. As a specific source of disutility, I include regional crime rates. Regional land price differentials are used as a rough proxy for interregional cost of living differentials. In addition, the model includes the distance between origin and destination region as a measure of migration costs that may be related to distance such as psychological costs. Moreover, since some covariates such as employment growth and population size may be endogenous due to a simultaneity issue, I use the values in the period prior to the job move for all covariates z iok for which a simultaneity issue is likely to arise (see Appendix A).

Upper
In addition to destination-specific fixed effects, the specification includes fixed effects for movements across the former inter-German border and for movements between northern and southern Germany in order to capture unobserved factors such as the psychological or cultural proximity between these regions. Appendix A lists the exact definitions and data sources of all lower-level variables, while Appendix B gives the corresponding summary statistics. Including lagged covariates, regional fixed effects for destination regions and fixed effects for some major migration path should reduce potential biases compared to earlier studies that do not consider any fixed effects such as [START_REF] Hunt | North American Migration: Returns to Skill, Border Effects, and Mobility Costs[END_REF].

Marginal effects of an increase in the difference between origin and destination region For both lower and upper level marginal effects, the delta method has been applied to calculate standard errors. Marginal effects and standard errors shown in the subsequent tables always refer to the average effects in the sample population [START_REF] Train | Discrete Choice Methods with Simulation[END_REF].

z

Estimation Results

Lower level estimates. Table 1 shows estimated marginal effects on the conditional probability of moving to destination k by skill level for the pooled sample of all job moves. Specification A includes neither destination-specific fixed effects nor dummy variables for specific migration paths while specification B includes these additional covariates.

Comparing both specifications in Table 1 suggests that including a number of regional amenity indicators in specification A does not suffice to prevent biases from unobserved time-invariant interregional amenity variations. In particular, the effect of the wage level seems to be downward biased while the impact of the unemployment rate is upward biased. These biases are consistent with the notion that higher local amenities compensate for lower wages and higher unemployment rates. In this case, the interregional wage differential is negatively related to the unobserved interregional amenity differential, while the unemployment differential should be positively related to the amenity differential [START_REF] Elhorst | The Mystery Of Regional Unemployment Differentials: Theoretical and Empirical Explanations[END_REF]. Moreover, amenity indicators also seem to be biased due to unobserved region-specific factors. As an example, specification A suggests that higher crime rates attract individuals, while no such evidence can be found for specification B. Specification B also seems to be more reliable than specification A when it comes to testing the Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives assumption by running a Small-Hsiao test for successively excluding each of the 27 regions. xvi Table 1 shows that the IIA assumption is not rejected for any region with model B. This is some evidence that the nested logit model is well specified. xvii In order to examine whether the type of job move matters for destination choices, Economic conditions. As expected, interregional job movers tend to move to regions with higher wage levels. Interestingly though, the last column in Table 1 suggests that this effect is significantly stronger at a 5% significance level for high-skilled than for less-skilled interregional job movers. While for less-skilled individuals a one standard deviation increase in the sector wage level in region k increases the probability of moving to k by only 0.5pp, the corresponding effect for their high-skilled counterparts is four times as large, which may reflect higher labour supply elasticities among high-skilled individuals.

Furthermore, consistent with the theoretical notion in section 2 that income prospects may be more important for career-oriented job-to-job moves than for job moves after unemployment, point estimates in Table 2 suggest that the wage level is a more important determinant of destination choices for job-to-job movers than for job movers after unemployment. Differences between the two types of job movers are not significant though.

There is no significant evidence in Table 1 that high-skilled job movers prefer regions with high wage inequality, while there is significant evidence that their less-skilled counterparts avoid such regions. Controlling for the type of job move in Table 2 does not alter this result. Consistent with the extended Roy model, this finding may thus suggest some weak skill sorting based on interregional differences in wage inequality. Compared to the U.S. study by [START_REF] Hunt | North American Migration: Returns to Skill, Border Effects, and Mobility Costs[END_REF], however, the impact of wage inequality is relatively weak. This may be because, with the exception of east-west disparities, interregional differences in wage dispersion are much smaller in Germany than in the US due to the fact that central wage bargaining leaves less room for regionally tailored wage agreements. Thus, in Germany, the effect of wage dispersion is more difficult to identify and thus only differences in wage level appear to have a strong impact on both the level and skill composition of interregional migration flows.

The skill composition of interregional job flows is also affected by interregional differences in employment opportunities. Table 2 shows that irrespective of the type of job move there is significant evidence that less-skilled individuals tend to move to regions with low unemployment rates, while no significant evidence can be found for their high-skilled counterparts. This contradicts the notion from section 2 that direct job movers are more likely to make use of interregional career networks than unemployed job seekers. Instead, the findings rather suggest that high-skilled job movers are more likely to make use of interregional career networks than their less-skilled counterparts irrespective of the type of job move. If less-skilled job movers have less interregional personal contacts, they may rely more on formal job search for which the competition from other searchers, and thus the labour market tightness as reflected in unemployment levels may be particularly important.

We can conclude that interregional economic differences affect the skill composition of interregional job flows for two main reasons. Firstly, higher wage levels disproportionately attract high-skilled migrants, especially high-skilled job-to-job movers, whereas interregional differences in wage dispersion contribute only weakly to skill sorting across space. Secondly, unemployment differentials only exert a strong and significant effect on less-skilled job movers.

< Table 2 to be displayed here >

Amenities and rents. Compared to the impact of interregional income and job-finding differentials, amenity differentials as captured by the previously discussed proxies do not seem to have a strong impact on destination choices according to specification B in Table 1. As regards different preferences for amenities between skill groups, parameter estimates for specification B in Table 1 do not contradict the idea that high-skilled individuals may have higher amenity valuations, but also do not present strong evidence in favour of this notion. Point estimates for the urban scale effect of higher population high-skilled job movers. Moreover, the availability of child care facilities as a specific type of public good significantly attracts only high-skilled job movers (+0.6pp). Table 2 suggests, however, that the already weak evidence in favour of higher amenity valuation among high-skilled movers vanishes when controlling for the type of job move. In particular, although differences between JJC and UJC are not statistically significant, Table 2 indicates that it is rather higher amenity valuations by the relatively well-educated JJC compared to the less-educated UJC that results in the observed skill sorting across space in Table 1. Additional indicators either do not significantly affect destination choices (e.g. crime rates) or leave the skill composition mainly unaffected (e.g. population density).

To some extent, these rather weak findings regarding the impact of amenities may result from region-specific fixed effects soaking up interregional amenity differentials because such differentials are relatively stable across the relevant 7-year observation period. Thus, while specification B should give a less biased picture than specification A, it should also yield a rather conservative picture regarding the relevance of amenity differentials in destination choices. It may thus be worthwhile to take a closer look at the marginal effects of the destination dummies which reflect the average unobserved attractiveness of a region as a destination for interregional job movers. Appendix D includes maps of these marginal effects for both skill groups. In order to examine the factors behind these interregional differentials, it is interesting to regress these marginal effects on some time-constant regional characteristics to assess their impact on the probability of moving to region k for different skill-groups:

k k k k k k R x HS R HS ARG M ε α α α α + + + + = 4 3 2 1 (8)
where Marg k with k = 1,…,54 denotes the destination-specific marginal effects (including the reference destination with a marginal effect of zero) for both high-and less-skilled 1. xviii,xix HS is a dummy variable that indicates whether a marginal effect has been estimated for the high-skilled or less-skilled sample of job movers. R k contains a set of region-specific explanatory variables and R x HS contains the respective interactions. Since OLS standard errors may be subject to a small sample bias (N = 54), I report the heteroscedasticity-robust standard errors based on a jackknife procedure. xx The set of destination-specific explanatory variables includes the population density, the gross domestic product, the share of employees in services as well as two climate indicators (average temperatures in July and January). All these indicators are either time-constant for the relevant observation period (climate) or are calculated as the average across the seven year observation period. They thus capture average differences across regions that may be related to the unobserved interregional differential in the attractiveness of destination regions as reflected in the marginal effect. Interregional differences in the gross domestic product per head, for example, should be positively correlated with unobservable interregional cost-of-living differentials. Moreover, regions with higher average population densities and higher average shares of jobs in services across the 7-year period are likely to be amenity-rich regions with regard to consumer amenities. In addition, climate-related characteristics have been found to significantly affect interregional migration in the US, especially among high-skilled individuals [START_REF] Hunt | North American Migration: Returns to Skill, Border Effects, and Mobility Costs[END_REF]. Although interregional climate differences are less strong in Germany, I include them to test for their relevance in the German context.

All continuous variables in Table 3 have been standardised. As a first finding, note that a higher population density and a higher share of service jobs are associated with a higher probability of moving to this region. Moreover, these relationships are significantly stronger for high-skilled job movers. To the extent that these indicators proxy for consumer amenities, this indicates the relevance of such factors in destination choices, especially among high-skilled migrants. Note also that regions with a higher GDP per head have lower probabilities of being destination regions. Since GDP per head should be positively correlated to unobserved regional costs of living, this finding may suggest that job movers avoid expensive places for living. Similar to the findings from [START_REF] Hunt | North American Migration: Returns to Skill, Border Effects, and Mobility Costs[END_REF], climatic characteristics seem to be more important for high-skilled than for lessskilled job movers. A higher average temperature in July, for example, is related to a significantly higher probability of high-skilled inward migration. Although these results should not be considered to give any causal relationship since there may be biases from omitting important regional characteristics, Table 3 still provides some evidence that amenity valuations differ more across skill-groups than suggested by estimates in Tables 1 and2.

< Table 3 to be displayed here > Migration cost. Consistent with the theoretical framework, Tables 1 and2 show that the likelihood of moving to a region significantly decreases with distance for all skill levels and that costs associated with migration distance tend to be higher for less-skilled than for high-skilled job movers. In order to keep the probability of moving to region k constant if migration distance marginally increases from 100 to 101 km, the hourly wage level in k has to be 0.02 euros higher for high-skilled and 0.12 euros higher for less-skilled individuals. xxi Based on the point estimates, the proportion of high-skilled following a particular migration path would thus increase with distance. According to Table 2, this finding is robust if the type of job move is controlled for.

Interestingly, moving to eastern Germany seems to be associated with a strong and significant disutility for individuals born in West Germany while there is no additional utility assigned to the opposite direction for former East Germans. These additional costs of crossing the former border are likely to reflect some reluctance on the part of West Germans to move to eastern Germany that is not explicable by observed regional disparities. Such reluctance has also been found by [START_REF] Büchel | Regionale und berufliche Mobilität von Hochqualifizierten -ein Vergleich Deutschland -USA[END_REF] in a study of Previous recalls dramatically reduce the likelihood of migration because these individuals tend to be recalled locally again and may simply not look for jobs elsewhere. Longer average tenure also reduces the probability of leaving the local region, probably due to the regional attachment that comes with long job tenure. Furthermore, migration levels increased during the observation period from 1995 to 2001. This is in line with [START_REF] Heiland | Trends in East-West German Migration from 1989 to 2002[END_REF] who finds that increasing migration levels coincided with a period of stagnation in eastern Germany in the mid to late 1990s. Finally, the estimates suggest a much higher probability of changing a job interregionally for less-skilled East Germans as compared to West Germans. This may mainly reflect unfavourable employment conditions that force < Table 4 to be displayed here >

Conclusion

This paper has identified some determinants of the skill composition of internal job flows in Germany by looking at destination choices of heterogeneous job movers. Since regional economic prospects critically hinge on the skill composition of internal migration flows, the analysis thus provides some insights into how policy may contribute to regional convergence. Such insights are of particular value in light of the continued brain drain from eastern to western Germany. As an extension to previous studies, this study has examined whether different destination choice patterns of job-to job movers and job movers after unemployment contribute to skill-sorting across space. Moreover, the analysis takes account of unobserved regional heterogeneity which proved important to reduce biases arising from the omission of unobserved regional characteristics. Using a partially degenerate nested logit analysis, this paper comes to the following main conclusions:

• Interregional income differentials affect the skill composition of job flows because high-skilled job movers are more responsive to interregional variation in the wage level than their less-skilled counterparts. By contrast, compared to the US findings by [START_REF] Hunt | North American Migration: Returns to Skill, Border Effects, and Mobility Costs[END_REF], wage inequality only weakly contributes to skill sorting. This may reflect that central wage bargaining in Germany leaves little scope for local wage agreements.

• Interregional unemployment differentials only exert a significant effect on the migration behaviour of less-skilled job seekers. • Higher amenity valuations of job-to-job movers compared to job movers after unemployment seem to contribute weakly to skill sorting across space. However, effects of amenity differentials may partly be captured by destination-specific fixed effects. Regressing the corresponding marginal effects on some time-constant interregional differences suggests that amenity differentials may induce stronger skill sorting than suggested by the observable amenity indicators in the nested logit analysis.

• High-skilled job movers seem to face lower migration costs so that the proportion of high-skilled migrants strongly increases with migration distance.

• High-skilled job-to-job movers are more responsive to pull factors than all other subgroups. Improving destination conditions thus disproportionately mobilise this group which affects the skill composition of interregional job flows.

These findings imply that it is mainly economic conditions that drive the skill composition of job flows in Germany, although amenity differentials may also contribute to the re-allocation of human capital. Currently, eastern wages are still a quarter below the western wage level and unemployment rates are almost twice as high as in western Germany while differences in observable amenity indicators are small or even to the advantage of the eastern regions. A policy approach to attract human capital to eastern Germany should thus focus on economic conditions and create productivity-enhancing conditions that, at the same time, allow for increasing wages and stable or falling unemployment rates.

Due to data limitations, these results are based on a sample of prime age male job movers only. Thus, extending the analysis to endogenously model the job mobility decision would allow for examining how certain labour market conditions may induce or retard job mobility and may affect the composition of job moves and the resulting spatial patterns of job matches. Moreover, data limitations that stem from missing information such as the marital status and the tenant status of the job mover point to the need of reinvestigating the results when better data become available. As a methodological extension, the spatial character of choosing a destination may be incorporated more explicitly into the destination choice model by allowing for more general spatial substitution patterns as discussed by Hunt et al. (2004). In addition, research about destination choices in Germany should be extended to single females and first time job entrants such as university graduates. These groups have recently experienced the highest rates of east-west migration. In addition to skill sorting, the sorting by age and sex thus comes to the spotlight of research interests as the lack of young individuals and especially young females already poses severe problems to the viability of certain regions in eastern Germany. The maps suggest some spatial pattern in the attractiveness of a destination with respect to time-constant unobserved factors that are captured by the regional dummies. In particular, for less-skilled job movers, eastern Germany appears to be a more attractive destination than is captured by the observables in the estimation. For high-skilled job movers, a similar pattern can be found. However, some core urban regions (Munich, Frankfurt, and Cologne/Bonn) in western Germany also attract high-skilled job movers beyond what is found by the observables.

F

E -Four macro regions (aggregated from Figure 1) this independence assumption is a feasible approach.

F
x A less restrictive specification with additional origin-specific characteristics in the upper-level model did not converge when estimated simultaneously.

xi Unfortunately, no regionally disaggregated unemployment rates by skill group are available.

xii When using the regional wage level across all sectors, estimates turned out to be similar, but weaker.

xiii Following a methodology by [START_REF] Hunt | A Methodology For Estimating Returns To Skills For Canadian Provinces and US States[END_REF], both income indicators have been estimated based on the IAB-R01 and control for different regional compositions of the labour force such that differences in these indicators reflect differences in labour prices only.

xiv Ciccone and Hall use employment density instead, but population densities should be a similar indicator.

xv Positive agglomeration effects such as higher productivity levels due to closer proximity of workers and lower transportation cost should mainly be captured by the regional wage distribution.

xvi As discussed in [START_REF] Small | Multinomial Logit Specification Tests[END_REF], the Small Hsiao test should be preferred to the Hausman test because it avoids the computational and inference problems.

xvii Thus, there also seems to be no need to look for alternative specifications where one allows for hierarchical choice sets that are linked to the accessibility of places or the ordering of central places as discussed in [START_REF] Fotheringham | Modelling hierarchical destination choice[END_REF] and [START_REF] Fik | Spatial flows and competing central places: towards a general theory of hierarchical interaction[END_REF]. Moreover, there also seems to be no need to allow for more general spatial patterns of substitution between the destinations. However, as pointed out by an anonymous referee, this is likely to be the case due to the fixed effects approach applied in the analysis. Alternatively, one can explicitly allow for spatial patterns of substitution in choice modelling as reviewed in Hunt et al. (2004).

xviii As an alternative to specifying the destination choice model with destination dummies (specification B), I included these time-constant regional covariates instead. The resulting estimates are quite similar to the estimates for specification A in xix I ran the specification using only the 30 destination-specific effects whose marginal effect is significant at a 10% level. Since estimates were quite similar, results are shown for the full sample of marginal effects only, but results for the restricted sample are available from the author upon request.

xx According to [START_REF] Mackinnon | Some Heteroskedasticity-Consistent Covariate Matrix Estimators with Improved Finite Sample Properties[END_REF], the jackknife procedure performs better in small samples than alternative estimators.

xxi The wage change that keeps the probability of moving to k constant if distance increases is calculated by rearranging the total derivative of the utility with respect to changes in wages and distance in order to compute the marginal rate of substitution between distance and wages as

  the skill composition of migration flows in Germany by looking at the destination choices of different skill groups.

  wage distribution F k (w) in region k. While a variance-preserving increase in the mean wage level should attract individuals irrespective of skill level, a change in the wage dispersion may induce skill sorting. According to the extended Roy selection model

  high-skilled migrants and the implication of the Roy model that highskilled individuals tend to move to regions with a high skill premium.

Figure 2

 2 Figure 2 shows average economic conditions in the aggregated planning districts between

Figure 3

 3 Figure 3 looks at the employment change by skill level that is induced by net migration

  responses to changes in the origin or the destination region are symmetric. x

  iok by one standard deviation on the lower level probability of moving to region k have been marginal effects of a change in w i on the marginal probability of leaving the local region are given as

  example, are indicative for higher valuations of consumer amenities among

  West Germans. According to this study, only one third of those who are willing to change residential location are also willing to move to eastern Germany while more than 50% are willing to leave the country. Thus, at least for individuals born in West Germany, the former border still seems to exist in their minds.Upper level estimates. Table4shows marginal effects on the probability of leaving the local region, i.e. the probability of experiencing an interregional instead of an intraregional job move. The specification comprises the inclusive value estimate im v i ˆfrom the lower level specification B which reflects the expected utility that an individual derives from migration. The corresponding parameter estimate ξ m indicates whether pull factors are important in determining mobility decisions. According to a test of equal parameters across sub-groups, high-skilled job-to-job movers are significantly more responsive to pull factors than other sub-groups. As a consequence, the share of interregional movers who are high-skilled slightly increases if other labour markets gain in attractiveness. Apart from the inclusive value, there are a number of additional upper level covariates that significantly affect the decision to change a job interregionally. Across all sub-groups, younger, better skilled and previously well-earning job movers are more likely to migrate.

  skilled individuals in eastern Germany to look for jobs in alternative locations.

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: Employment change by skill level induced by net migration flows, IAB-R01, 1995 -2001 (as a share of employees by skill level at the beginning of the observation period, 01/01/1995)

  regional employment growth in individual i 's skill group and the share of high-skilled employed in region k. xi While the unemployment rate indicates general job-finding conditions, higher employment growth in individual i 's skill group indicates improving employment prospects. Moreover, a region with a high level of qualified jobs may offer

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level covariates x i consist of individual-level characteristics such as age, previous job status, previous sector of activity, previous type of occupation and wage income in the job prior to the job move that may affect individual mobility decisions. Unfortunately, the IAB-R01 does not include important characteristics such as home ownership and marital status which have been shown to affect the propensity to be mobile. Instead, the data set allows for capturing the individual employment history (e.g. previous average tenure, previous recalls, duration of previous non-employment periods) which should at least reduce some of the unobserved heterogeneity among individuals. I also include an indicator for individuals of East German origin to capture differences in the propensities to be mobile. Moreover, since individuals may experience more than one job move during the observation period, an additional indicator for multiple job moves controls for major differences between multiple job movers and individuals with only one job move. In addition, x i includes dummies for the year in which the job move occurs. Moreover, (3) includes origin dummies h o to capture differences in the propensity to be mobile across origin regions. Appendix C contains summary statistics for all upper level covariates.

Lower level covariates z iok are intended to capture observed utility differences between alternative destinations as suggested by the theoretical framework. As an indicator of regional job-finding conditions for individual i, I use the regional unemployment rate,

to be displayed here >

  Table 2 thus displays estimation results by skill level and type of job move for specification B only.

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< Table

1

  Indicator whether an individual contributes two or more observations (i.e. job moves) to the sample.

	B -Sample averages for lower level covariates by sub-sample C -Sample averages for upper level covariates by sub-sample a Health-related/Teaching/Consulting 0.02 0.12 0.01	0.18
	Other service jobs Covariates Covariates Year of job move (Reference: 1995) LS Migrant 1996	JJC 0.20 HS LS 0.21 0.13	JJC 0.05 LS HS 0.38 0.11	0.16 UJC LS HS 0.15 0.15	0.07 UJC HS 0.39 0.14
	Median sector wage Age (Reference: Age 35-40) 1997	0.104	0.055 0.13	0.139 0.12	0.110 0.17		0.15
	Wage variance index 25-30 1998	0.066	0.013 0.29 0.13	0.085 0.15 0.14	0.034 0.27 0.15		0.13 0.15
	Unemployment rate 30-35 1999	-0.114	-0.057 0.29 0.15	-0.146 0.37 0.17	-0.137 0.27 0.15	0.32 0.15
	Employment growth 40-45 2000	0.026	0.028 0.19 0.16	0.038 0.20 0.18	0.043 0.22 0.13		0.26 0.13
	o r F o r Unemployment rate Average yearly unemployment rate Skill level Share of high-skilled employees F o r Skill level -0.009 0.028 Log(Distance) 5.163 5.307 Population size 0.012 0.014 Population density 0.014 0.003 F o r 2001 0.15 Wage quintile in previous job b (Reference: 1st wage quintile) -0.009 5.209 0.022 0.041 0.18 2nd 0.25 0.08 3rd 0.16 0.09 4th 0.10 0.19 # of job moves 96,061 21,045 F a Sample averages refer to sample shares as all covariates are dummy variables. Yes Yes 0.125 5.276 0.050 0.032 0.13 0.31 0.17 0.07 79,745 o r b Wage quintile of all full time employees observed on January 1st of each year (Data: IAB-C B 0.13 0.18 0.15 0.17 5,432
	P e e r R P e e r R Log of average distance between all county capitals of any two regions Number of residents in 100,000 Number of residents (in 100) per km 2 Total offences per 100 residents Number of hotel beds per 1000 residents Places in day care for children per 1,000 residents No -Yes Yes No No P e e r R -0.051 -0.020 -0.066 -0.060 0.010 0.002 -0.019 -0.048 0.006 -0.062 0.094 0.071 0.122 0.205 # of interregional moves Log (Distance) Population size Population density Crime Rate Hotel capacity Child care facilities Crime Rate Hotel capacity Child care facilities Land prices 19,927 8,092 11,573 Notes: R Months prev. non-employed 1.04 0.76 2.24 Prev. recall by employer 0.01 0.01 0.18 R 2,137 e r Multiple job moves c 0.68 0.62 0.80 Prev. average tenure (yrs.) 2.91 2.44 1.74 r e -0.050 e Born in East Germany 0.21 0.13 0.33 e 0.012 P 5th 0.07 0.39 0.02 Employment history and other covariates P R01).	D E E F E E 0.03 1.97 0.67 1.76 0.22 0.19
	e v i e w e v i e w Land prices in 100 Euros per m 2 a A -Own calculation based on the IAB-R01 1995-2001 and the methodology proposed by Hunt Land prices No E and Mueller (2002). e v i e Except for log(distance), all covariates refer to the difference between the e Previous sector of activity (Reference: Agriculture and Fishing) e standardised value for the destination (d) and the origin (o) region. Thus a value of 1 indicates a difference of one standard deviation between d and o. JJC -Job-to-job mover; UJC -Job movers after unemployment; LS -Less-skilled; HS -High-skilled v i e Primary industry 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.04 Invest. goods/engineering 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.07 Invest. goods/vehicles 0.07 0.11 0.04 0.07 v i e B -Own calculation based on IAB-R01 1993-2001. C -Federal Employment Agency ("Bundesagentur für Arbeit") D -Own calculations based on the grid position of county capitals. w w Cons. goods/ food process. 0.07 0.04 0.07 0.04 Construction 0.17 0.05 0.37 0.10 w
	O n l y O n l y F -European Regional Crime Database, Entorf and Spengler (2004) E -Federal Statistical Office ("Statistisches Bundesamt") b I distinguish between employment growth for high-skilled individuals with a tertiary education and less-skilled individuals. O n l y O n l y Wholesale trade 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.07 Retail 0.07 0.03 0.05 0.04 Transport/Communication 0.10 0.03 0.06 0.03 Financial services 0.17 0.32 0.09 O n l 0.22 Domestic services 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.03 y
	Social services		0.04	0.15	0.05		0.22
	Public authorities		0.01	0.02	0.02		0.04
	Previous type of occupation (Reference: Agricultural work)
	Blue-collar work		0.53	0.05	0.66		0.12
	Salesmen		0.07	0.06	0.04		0.06
	Technical work		0.06	0.35	0.03		0.29
	Clerical work		0.06	0.11	0.03		0.10
	White-collar work		0.05	0.26	0.02		0.16
							30

c

Table 1 : Lower level marginal effects

 1

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| by

skill level for a pooled sample of JJC and UJC in percentage points (pp), IAB-R01 1995-2001 a

  Marginal effects and standard errors have been calculated as sample averages.

			Model A		Model B
	Variable		LS b	HS b	LS b	HS b	p-value c
	Median sector wage		0.057	1.359**	0.532*	2.054**	0.045
	Wage variation		-0.222	-0.024	-0.385**	0.030	0.192
	Unemployment rate		-0.452 †	-0.150	-1.256**	-0.580	0.250
	Employment growth		0.645**	0.175	0.137	0.209 †	0.543
	Share of HS employment Log(Distance) Population size Population density F o r	0.704** -6.448** 1.271** -0.221 †	1.294** -4.665** 1.369** -0.315**	0.619 † -6.132** 0.395** -0.230*	-0.560 -4.318** 0.492** -0.187 †	0.134 0.167 0.501 0.587
	Crime Rate Hotel capacity Child care facilities Land prices East-West migration	0.292 † 0.256* -0.093 e P 0.120 e r	0.378** 0.206* -0.080 0.176	-0.038 -0.949** 0.062 -0.121 4.207	0.094 0.547 0.595** -0.268 -1.861	0.380 0.109 0.154 0.507 0.181
	West-East migration South-North migration North-South migration		R e	-3.691** 0.347 -0.073	-2.644** 0.422 0.255	0.359 0.751 0.494
	27 destination dummies East d Mid d North d South d	No	No v i e Yes 3.68 -2.33** -1.95** -2.32** w	Yes 21.74* 5.94 5.04 3.80	0.184 0.163 0.165 0.137
	LL (Lower level) # of regional moves IIA fails e (Small-Hsiao)	-86,744.6 -28,774.3 -85,443.2 -28,378.4 31,500 10,229 31,500 10,229 8/27 3/27 0/27 0/27 O n l
	Significance level: b LS: Less-skilled individuals with high-school degree or vocational training; HS: High-skilled y
	individuals with tertiary education.

† :10% *: 5% **: 1% a c p-values refer to test of significance of difference between high-and less-skilled. d The reference destination region is the most northern region along the Danish border. All marginal effects are plotted in Appendix D. The table contains only the average marginal effect and standard error for four macro regions (Appendix E).

e Number of regions (out of 27) for which IIA fails at a significance level of 5%.

Table 2 : Lower level marginal effects

 2

	id P ∂	m	/	∂	z	id

| by

skill level and type of job mover in percentage points (pp), IAB-R01 1995-2001 a

  p-values refer to test of significance of difference between JJC and UJC.

		Less-skilled b			High-skilled b
	Variable	JJC	UJC	p-value c	JJC	UJC	p-value c
	Median sector wage	0.62*	0.36	0.40	2.22**	1.41**	0.23
	Wage variation	-0.24 †	-0.50**	0.27	-0.06	0.33	0.34
	Unemployment rate	-0.90**	-1.16*	0.53	-0.59	-0.56	0.88
	Employment growth	0.51*	-0.14	0.15	0.24 †	0.12	0.55
	Skill level Log(Distance) Population size Population density Crime Rate Hotel capacity Child care facilities Land prices East-West migration West-East migration South-North migration North-South migration 27 destination dummies East d Mid d North d South d LL (Lower level) # of regional moves IIA fails e (Small-Hsiao) o r 0.22 -6.06** 0.57** -0.24* 0.02 -0.61* 0.36* -0.07 3.39 -3.45** 0.48 -0.10 Yes 3.51 -1.61* -1.22 -1.76** -53,681.5 -31,618.5 1.24** -6.26** 0.23 † -0.23 † -0.14 -1.16** -0.19 -0.26 5.63 -3.93** 0.14 -0.01 Yes 1.05 -3.29** -2.77** -3.15** 19,927 11,573 0/27 0/27 P e e r R e v 0.22 0.69 0.19 0.79 0.35 0.28 0.16 0.45 0.50 0.56 0.54 0.75 0.51 0.24 0.26 0.28 i e w O -0.88 -4.22** 0.57** -0.20 † 0.19 0.39 0.72* -0.28 -2.00 † -2.69** 0.48 0.46 Yes 23.55 † 6.67 5.23 4.90 -22,401.5 -5,947.5 0.09 -4.65** 0.24 -0.15 -0.23 0.92 0.27 -0.24 -1.39 -2.44* 0.17 -0.38 Yes 16.61 4.00 4.47 1.24 8,092 2,137 2/27 0/27 n l Significance level: F y	0.38 0.49 0.37 0.70 0.28 0.50 0.35 0.80 0.53 0.69 0.53 0.33 0.62 0.58 0.75 0.43
							40

† : 10% *: 5% **: 1% a, b, d, e See notes in Table 1.

c

Table 3 : OLS estimates for percentage point change of destination-specific marginal effects from estimation B in Table 1

 3 Yearly information from the Statistisches Bundesamt averaged across the 7-year observation period. Climate data from the German weather service (Deutscher Wetterdienst)

	interacted with high-skilled

a Heteroscedasticity-robust jackknife standard errors. b c

  46with only one randomly drawn job move per individual resulted in similar findings suggesting that

	F o r F o r	> -10.0% --5.0% > -5.0% --2.0% > -2.0% -0.0% > 0.0% -2.0% > 2.0% -10.0%	> -3.0% --1.0% > -1.0% -0.0% > 0.0% -0.5% > 0.5% -1.0% >1.0% -3.0%
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		R R
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			O n l O n l
			y y

  Table 3 and 4. This suggests additional time invariant heterogeneity that is not captured by the time-constant covariates. I thus 47 prefer the inclusion of destination dummies in order to reduce biases from omitted variables and conduct this second stage analysis instead. Estimates for the alternative lower level specification are available from the author upon request.

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Acknowledgements

Melanie Arntz gratefully acknowledges financial support by the German Research Foundation (DFG) through the research project "Potentials for more flexibility of regional labour markets by means of interregional labour mobility". Comments and feedback at the EALE conference in Prague 2006 and the Verein für Socialpolitik in Bayreuth 2006 are gratefully acknowledged. I would further like to thank two anonymous referees, Horst Entorf, Denis Beninger, Ralf Wilke and François Laisney for very helpful comments. This work uses the IAB Employment Subsample 1975-2001 (IAB-R01) of the Federal Employment Agency (Bundesagentur für Arbeit). The Federal Employment Agency does not take any responsibility for the use of its data. All remaining errors are my sole responsibility.

Notes 1 Extending the analysis to endogenously model the probability of changing jobs is not feasible with the data used and is thus left for future research.

2 This only holds if an individual ranks equally in the skill distribution across all regions.

3 [START_REF] Mortensen | Estimating Structural Models of Unemployment and Job Duration[END_REF] show that an acceptable wage offer for a worker has to exceed his current wage which should exceed the reservation wage of an identical unemployed individual.

4 Details on the aggregation procedure are available from the author upon request. 5 As pointed out by an anonymous referee, this aggregation may affect the estimation results due to the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP, see for instance [START_REF] Fotheringham | The modifiable areal unit problem in multivariate statistical analysis[END_REF].

Due to the limits to the estimability of the model with a more disaggregated regional classification, I cannot easily examine the relevance of the MAUP. However, as some indication of the robustness of results to the MAUP, re-estimation of the destination choice model with an even coarser spatial resolution (16 German Länder) did not substantially affect the findings.

6 A company may have different establishment identifiers due to multiple locations as well as due to changes of the legal status of the company or a re-organization of its establishment structure.

Thus a change in the establishment identifier need not always correspond to a change of employer. However, job moves included in the analysis are conditioned on the employer reporting an "end of employment". Except for cases in which an employer spuriously reports an "end of employment" despite the employment relationship continuing in just another legal setting or at another workplace, the sample should include job moves that correspond to changes in employers. The IAB has launched a research project to examine the relevance of such reporting, but no evidence is available yet.

7 See [START_REF] Fitzenberger | Unemployment Durations in West-Germany Before and After the Reform of the Unemployment Compensation System During the 1980s[END_REF] for a discussion.

8 Estimates for female job movers are available from the author upon request. 9 There may be multiple job moves by one individual during the observation period. These are treated as independent observations conditional on covariates. An alternative sampling approach


Hélène Pignot

Odile Piton

Mary Astell's words in A Serious Proposal to the Ladies (part I, 1694), a lexicographic inquiry with NooJ

In the following article we elected to study with NooJ the lexis of a 17 th century text, Mary Astell's seminal essay, A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, part I, published in 1694. We first focused on the semantics to see how Astell builds her vindication of the female sex, which words she uses to sensitise women to their alienated condition and promote their education. Then we studied the morphology of the lexemes (which is different from contemporary English) used by the author, thanks to the NooJ tools we have devised for this purpose. NooJ has great functionalities for lexicographic work. Its commands and graphs prove to be most efficient in the spotting of archaic words or variants in spelling.

Introduction

In our previous articles, we have studied the singularities of 17 th century English within the framework of a diachronic analysis thanks to syntactical and morphological graphs and thanks to the dictionaries we have compiled from a corpus that may be expanded overtime. Our early work was based on a limited corpus of English travel literature to Greece in the 17 th century. This article deals with a late seventeenth century text written by a woman philosopher and essayist, Mary Astell (1666-1731), considered as one of the first English feminists. In this essay we will see how NooJ can help us analyse Astell's rhetoric: what point of view does she adopt, does she speak in her own name, in the name of all women, what is her representation of men and women and their relationships in the text, what are the goals of education? Then we will turn our attention to the morphology of words in the text and use NooJ commands and graphs to carry out a lexicographic inquiry into Astell's lexemes.

I. About the Author and Remarks on the Text

Who was Mary Astell?

In A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, part I, first published anonymously in 1694, Mary Astell makes a rather odd suggestion (for the period): women should withdraw from the world in a "blest abode" that she even dares to call a convent (in a country where all convents had been closed down). There they might enjoy each other's company, spend their time in study, good works and prayer (without forgetting daily church attendance). This place could also be a refuge for heiresses and unmarried women who need to escape the assiduities of adventurers and fortune seekers. Her book was widely discussed in her day and satirised by the moralist Richard Steele in the Tatler in 1709, calling Astell the leader of "an order of Platonick Ladies" bent on celibacy and "resolv'd to join their Fortunes and erect a Nunnery". According to the historian Antonia Fraser (1984, 404), what inspired Astell to write her proposal was the life of her friend Hortense Mancini, Duchesse de Mazarin, King Charles II's ex-mistress, who was the subject of numerous scandals, such as "the running away in Disguise with a Spruce Cavalier"! Astell was convinced her friend's "unhappy shipwreck" pointed out "the dangers of an ill Education and unequal marriage" (1700, 3). A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, part I, is signed "by a Lover of her Sex" and was first published anonymously in 1694 when the author was only 28. Part II (which will not be tackled here) is an application of Descartes' and Malebranche's philosophy to the education of women.

2. From the Text to the Digital Text

OCR software could not be used for this text so we had to type the text preserving the original spelling and punctuation. NooJ does not preserve the italics, hence the literary effects created by Astell's use of italics are lost. In 17 th century printing, most nouns are capitalised. The last word (or its last syllable) on the page is repeated at the top of the next page: here "ous" and "home" in illustration 1.

Illustration 1: Frontispiece and Excerpt from A Serious Proposal to the Ladies

Astell's point of view

We first focused on the semantics, to examine how Astell builds her vindication of the female sex, which words she uses to sensitise women to their alienated condition and promote their education. As the object of this article is a literary text, it is interesting first to study point of view and the use of personal pronouns and possessive adjectives in Astell's text.

Personal pronouns.

The study of personal pronouns highlight different aspects of Astell's rhetoric: she exhorts with the personal pronoun "you", denounces with "they", creates complicity with "we", and seldom uses the first person "I". The hortatory aspect of the text may be highlighted when we extract the sentences in which the pronoun "you" is used (locate pattern you): "How can you be content to be in the World like Tulips in a Garden, to make a fine shew and be good for nothing; have all your Glories set in the grave..." This functionality enabled us to extract expressions such as "I pray you", "I entreat you", "render you", "persuade you", I "would have you", "all that is required of you". The text is a protrepsis, an exhortation to women to change their lives and shake off the yoke of ignorance and superficiality. The frequent use of the pronoun "we" is meant to encourage identification with the author and with a community of women sharing the same fate in a male-dominated society. By contrast, the occurrences of "I, me, my" account for 4.56 % of pronouns. Astell does not use the pronouns "I" and "me" very much: these self-references (84) account for only 0.44% of the words of the text, which points to her self-effacement as an author, to be linked with that of the female author in the 17 th century. Incidentally, it should be noted that her book is signed "by a Lover of her Sex", and not under her own name. In her preface to Letters Concerning the Love of God (1695,4), Astell says she wants "to slide gently through the world without so much as being seen or taken notice of." Such self-effacement was indeed common at the time as writing was not considered as an occupation befitting the female sex! It was only in the late 18 th century that women were to establish themselves as authors and make a living as novelists. A talented novelist like Sarah Fielding, the sister of Henry Fielding, considered as one of the first 18th century female novelists, published all of her novels anonymously, and lived most of her life in strained circumstances. Indeed, she depended on the generosities of noble patrons who enabled her to publish her books by subscription. As the literary critic Vivien Jones points out: "for women to write and publish at all was by definition a transgressive and potentially liberating act, a penetration of the forbidden public sphere, and the virulence with which fiction was attacked as a corrupting 'female' genre is telling evidence of its disruptive potential " (1990, 12).

References to both sexes in the text

Now let us direct our attention to Astell's words. Is there anything about them that is provocative or subversive of traditional female roles and women's relationships with men? Is there any such thing as a feminine nature? When we established the concordances for "man" and "woman", "husband" and "wife", masculine v. feminine and for the pronouns "they","we" and "you", we could extract key sentences like these ones, which show that all the supposed faults or vices that are attributed to women are not part of their nature, but result from a deficient education:

"if from our Infancy we are nurs'd up in Ignorance and Vanity; are taught to be Proud and Petulant, Delicate and Fantastick, Humorous and Inconstant, 'tis not strange that the ill effects of this conduct appear in all the future actions of our lives."

"that Ignorance is the cause of most Feminine Vices, may be instanc'd in that Pride and Vanity which is usually imputed to us, and which I suppose -if thoroughly sifted, will appear to be some way or other, the rise and Original of all the rest. These, tho' very bad Weeds, are the product of a good Soil, they are nothing else but Generosity degenerated and corrupted. A desire to advance and perfect its Being, is planted by GOD in all Rational Natures, to excite them hereby to every worthy and becoming Action."

Astell likes to use vegetal metaphors to make her point: uneducated women are compared to "tulips in a garden"1 and education is likened to gardening. Women are rational (and not sentimental) creatures just like men: "We value them too much, and our selves too little, if we place any part of our worth in their opinion; and do not think our selves capable of nobler Things than the pitiful Conquest of some worthless heart"2 (Proposal, 11) and they are trapped in the benign neglect in which men have purposely kept them: "We're indeed oblig'd to them for their management...So that instead of inquiring why all Women are not wise and good, we have reason to wonder that there are any so. Were the men as much neglected, and as little care taken to cultivate and improve them, perhaps they wou'd be so far from surpassing those whom they now dispise, that they themselves wou'd sink into the greatest stupidity and brutality" (Proposal, 15). Women and men by custom are made to live in two separate spheres, respectively appearance and essence. Women are made by men creatures of appearance3 , frivolity and thoughtlessness, thanks to education they will have access to the realm of being and knowledge as God has given them -just as men-the faculty of reason: "The Ladies, I'm sure, have no reason to dislike this Proposal, but I know not how the men will resent [=feel] it, to have their enclosure broken down, and Women invited to tast of that tree of Knowledge they have so long unjustly monopoliz'd. But they must excuse me, if I be as partial to my own Sex as they are to theirs, and think Women as capable of Learning as men are, and that it becomes them as well" (Proposal, 58). Incidentally, a clever, welleducated woman might also conveniently help conceal her companion's intellectual limitations4 !

Astell's favourite words: the goals of women's education

In Astell's text (aside from grammatical words which are not significant here), the most commonly used lexemes are GOD (capitalized most of the time) and world. This may reflect a tension in the text between two conflicting demands for women in the 17 th century: finding a place in the world but also accomplishing their spiritual destiny as God's creatures, endowed with reason just as males. The other most frequently used words in Astell's text are soul, virtue, nature, mind, knowledge and piety: these two notions are asserted throughout the text as the goals that women should pursue. However, such lists and figures (even they reveal interesting frequent occurrences of certain words) can help literary analysis but not replace it. The absence of a word does not prove that the concept is not in the text; the writer may also use suggestion, circumlocution, euphemism or negation. The words need to be put back into context (which can be shown by NooJ), as writers can resort to irony or humour, using words and meaning their exact opposites. The extraction of certain sentences from Astell's text highlights the author's frequent use of humour and irony. Moreover, it must be pointed out that these listings do not provide any information on the sense relationships between individual lexemes. We are also aware that we have not studied collocations and frozen expressions in the text. However, within the scope of our work (recording the singularities of 17 century English), NooJ tools prove to be most efficient when the reader wants to study affixes in a 17 th century text, as they help him locate archaic words or words whose prefixation, suffixation and spelling have changed over time.

II. Morphological study of Astell's words with NooJ

After studying the length of words, we will record the morphological modifications we have observed and described with NooJ. Some lexemes are modified thanks to a punctuation mark such as an apostrophe (marking elision or contraction) or a hyphen.

Other modifications include variations in affixes.

Illustration 2: Morphological graph to locate long words

Long words in Astell's text.

In English long words (as opposed to short Saxon words) are often learned words derived from Latin or Greek. A large number of Latin and Greek words were imported into the English language during the Renaissance. Astell's text is a literary work and we wondered if we might find the percentage of long words in her text thanks to NooJ. To do so, we created a graph that enables NooJ to locate them. We determined their number and the occurrences of each lexeme in a very simple manner. The graph below can tag the words in the text according to their length. Then to look for the occurrence of a N-letter word, we use the command <LETTERS+NUMBER>. The total number of long words is 3659 out of 18,759 words in the text, i.e. a percentage of around 19.5%. This graph enables us to determine the percentage of long words and spot very long words (e.g. 16: uncharitableness) and some archaic words (e.g. 15: pragmaticalness). On average long words are used about twice (2.03).

Study of compounds and juxtaposed words

Hyphenated compounds

Many words were broken off and spelled as hyphenated compounds, instead of one single word: for instance fore-heads (17 th century form) which is spelled foreheads in modern English. We have applied the following syntactical graph to be able to spot these forms. This graph highlights a systematic tendency to isolate the prefix from the root in 17 th century spelling, thanks to the hyphenation (first path).

Illustration 3: Syntactical graph for compounds

This produced 28 results or occurrences of the form word1-word2 ( for example God-like for godlike or pre-ingage for preengage) recognised by NooJ.

During the search, NooJ also appeals to another graph which enables it to take into account the transformation of the prefix -in into -en or -en into -in (as we saw in a previous article, [START_REF] Pignot | Language processing of 17 th Century British English with NooJ[END_REF]. Sometimes a fusing together of two hyphenated words may also need to be performed, as in "where-ever" which becomes "wherever". At our request NooJ was modified by Max Silberstein to permit this transformation.

Juxtaposed words

Some words result from the concatenation or fusing together of two lexemes, as in the case of personal pronouns (my self for myself). In 17 th century English, these words were spelled as juxtaposed words instead of one single entity. We came across a few occurrences of this type of words in Astell's text; the second path in illustration 3 enables us to look for them systematically. Besides personal pronouns such as 'her self', 'our selves' (whose spelling indicates that "self" was perceived as a noun), we have found 11 compounds: some body, every day, for ever, every one, any one, any thing, often times, like wise, to day, no body, back wardness. However, this link also produces much noise and funny results: are a,area; be an,bean; direct or,director; not able,notable; yet I, yeti! Some compounds are still hyphenated in contemporary English, while verbs (except when the prefix ends with the same letter as the first letter of the root) and adjectives no longer isolate the prefix thanks to the hyphenation. With a locate pattern of a single ', we have found 421 occurrences of apostrophes in the text. There are more apostrophes than full stops (356) and three times less than commas (1334). In 17 th century typography, many words could be spelled with an apostrophe, which marked the elision of a letter, usually the mute e. Besides 118 past participles in 'd or 't, some 's and some familiar contractions, we have extracted other contractions that are not in the NooJ dictionary as they are not used in contemporary English. These contractions needed to be adequately described and added to our dictionary. Here are a few examples: e'er, <ever,ADV> +UNAMB and 'twou'd, <it,it,PRO+3+n+s> <would,V+PT+3+s> +UNAMB. Each entry describes the individual units in the contraction and we have tagged the entry as unambiguous (+UNAMB) when only one interpretation is possible. In the case of tho't; the apostrophe is used to mark two elisions (an apocope and an aphaeresis): tho'= though and 't = it. Our dictionary (which includes Max' Silberstein's 49 forms and ours) of contracted or elided forms has 90 entries. Many of these contractions are no longer used except in poetry (ex: cou'd : could; e'er: ever; ev'ry: every; heav'n: heaven). Any word containing an e mute could be elided in 17 th century spelling (a graph could be made for this).

Words with apostrophes

A Study of affixes in Astell's text

Inflectional affixes for adjectives, adverbs and verbs

In 17 th century English any adverb or adjective whatever its length (except those ending in -ous) could form the comparative by adding the affix -er and the superlative by adding -est. The following graph may locate superlatives and comparatives; in Astell's text it can locate the archaic form worser (a double comparative of bad).

Illustration 4: Recognition of the comparative and the superlative Astell only uses the comparative in -er and the superlative in -est for short words. Among grammatical affixes that are specific to 17 th century English, mention should be made of the verb inflexions in -est and -eth (st, 2 nd-person singular, -th or -st 3 rd person singular) in the present and the preterite.

They may be spotted thanks to the graph below, and are recognised as valid verb forms when s or es is added to the root. It should be noted that there is only one occurrence of this form in our text ("profiteth") which dates from 1694. We can also automatically recognise the absence of affix in the subjunctive in clauses introduced by a conjunction like lest (also spelled least): "least she only change the instance and retain the absurdity". The subjunctive was in full use as a thought-mood in 17 th century English as we saw in a previous article [START_REF] Pignot | Language processing of 17 th Century British English with NooJ[END_REF], not only after certain adjectives and verbs as in contemporary English, but in conditional, concessive and temporal clauses. The infinitive may be used for all persons.

variations in affixes

In a previous article when we tackled our corpus of English travellers to Greece, we noticed variations in affixes (prefixes or suffixes). This new study is different as it simply uses simple existing NooJ commands to list prefixes and suffixes systematically and compare the word forms with their forms in contemporary English and spot the words that are archaic or have fallen into disuse. To do so, we have taken up the classification of affixes described by [START_REF] Tournier | Précis de lexicologie anglaise[END_REF]. We decided not to specify the grammatical category (noun, verb, adjective) of the word form to make sure we could find all the results and sort them by grammatical category afterwards. We made a general inquiry into all the prefixes and suffixes mentioned by Tournier and only present the most significant results here.

Prefixes

As far as adjectival prefixes are concerned, Tournier's description includes quantitative prefixes (demi, semi, hemi, uni, ono, bi, di, diplo, ter/tri, quadri, quinque, penta, centi, hecto, ulti, pluri, poly), antonymic prefixes (a, in, un, non-, anti, dis) and spatial prefixes (epi, super, circum, peri, hypo, infra, sub, endo, intra). In Astell's text, there are no results for quantitative and spatial adjectives.

To locate prefixes thanks to NooJ, we need to use the following command <WF+MP="^prefix">, which can spot the variation of the prefix from "in" to "en" and vice-versa for verbs: for the "en" prefix NooJ found 41 answers, such as encrease (increase in CE); conversely for the in prefix we get 42 answers and five verbs could be found this way such as inforce, ingage, incourage (enforce etc. in contemporary English). This method also allows us to locate words starting with "dis" with a different spelling or generally speaking long, obsolete words that are no longer used in contemporary English or with a different meaning. For the prefix -dis among 78 answers, it found the verb dispise, a spelling variant of despise in contemporary English (which comes from the Latin despicere) and nouns such as disquisition (a formal enquiry, this word first appears in 1640 according to the OED), dispensatory (which means pharmacopoeia, a book in which medical substances and their properties are described). As the grammarian James Howell explains (1662, 10), e and i "supply one anothers place" and are used indifferently in English spelling at the time, just as in Spanish and Italian.

Suffixes

Dictionaries and grammars contain lists of prefixes. To locate suffixes in a text with NooJ, we need to use the command "locate pattern": <WF+MP="suffix$">. For NooJ, a suffix is a chain of characters, not a semantic entity. As far as nouns and verbs are concerned we observed variants that we have recapitulated further down. The main noun suffixes that we investigated are shown in table 6. The total number of archaic nouns or archaic forms for nouns located thanks to the study of suffixes is 26.

Suffix

Number of nouns

Number of occurrences

Nouns with an archaic meaning or spelling For the suffix 'ness' we get 48 results, among which some archaic words: pragmaticalness (opinionatedness or stubbornness in CE), frowardness (disposition to disobedience and opposition), and one archaic form: back wardness spelled in two words that we added to our dictionary of 17 th century English. The most productive suffixes seem to be -tion and -ness.

Here are other obsolete forms or meanings for words with the suffixes -ure, -tion, -cy, and -ce: contexture, disquisition, innocency, indifferency, subserviency, acquiesce, the verb "acquiesce in" having a specific meaning which is "remain at rest". The variation from -ence to -ency concerns nouns and when there are two forms of the same word the competing form in -ency tends to become archaic.

As regards adjectives and verbs, we systematically counted and studied adjectives in ous (117), al (91), able (61), ary (30), ly (26), ish (15), ate (15), less (15), ick (7), ical (6), ic (2), ose (0) and ist (0). We only observed 10 variations in spelling: woful (woeful); fantastick; heroick; flitting (fleeting), pityable (pitiable); changeable; improveable; unblameable; publick; vertuous (virtuous). For verbs we found thirteen archaic forms: the verbs "disinteress", "attone", "glorifie" and "rectifie", six archaic spellings of the past participle (ex: "deprest, affixt"), and four gerunds: rejoycing (rejoicing), blustring, loosning and mouldring -in these three forms the mute e is elided.

Numerical assessment

If we do not apply the graphs and dictionaries we have created, NooJ finds 199 unknown words, such as improveable, improveing, incogitancy, incourage, inferiour, inforce, or ingage. The tools we have been developing with NooJ enabled us to correctly process 190 archaic words. After applying our graphs and dictionaries there were still 9 unknown forms (accrew, Aegypt, benumb, buz, cyons, meerly, mormo, shewn, viz) that we have added to our dictionary. In the case of "benumb" and "viz." these are not archaic forms or meanings but words that are missing from the sdic NooJ dictionary of contemporary English. Our systematic study of prefixes and suffixes enabled us to locate 49 archaic forms (nouns, verbs and adjectives).

Conclusion

From a semantic viewpoint, NooJ's functionalities (such as locate pattern) allow the reader to study the lexis of a text and single out its main lexical fields and recurrent words. Astell's essay is a very positive and optimistic advocacy of women's education, a proto-feminist text that has potent anti-male overtones as we saw in part I of this presentation. What motivates Astell in writing her text is above all a sincere wish to see women improve themselves thanks to education and fulfill themselves spiritually and intellectually.

When we read the text linearly, we counted 69 words out of 18,734 that have a specific meaning in 17 th century English. NooJ could not locate every of them because their forms are in its dictionary, but could have other archaic meanings in 17 th century English, for example "to close with a proposal" which means to accept it, "fantastick" which is synonymous with eccentric or quaint, "generals" (generalities), and "temporals" (temporal matters). We have added all these archaic meanings to our NooJ dictionary with a specific presentation which is meant to facilitate their recognition and listing.

When the word varies only in spelling, the modern spelling is indicated next to the entry which reads: accrew,accrue,V+EN=accrue+Dic_EN_XVII+spelling. When the meaning (not the form) of the word is different and archaic, we indicate it: displacency,N+EN=displeasure+Dic_EN_XVII+meaning. Each archaic meaning of a word necessitates a new entry. All these NooJ tools will help us in a great but arduous work in progress, the creation of a dictionary of 17 th century English which we would like to put at the disposal of the NooJ community.

Illustration 5 :

 5 Morphological graph to recognise the third person present

Table 1 .

 1 Number of personal pronouns.

	Personal pronouns	occurrences	Total by group
	Me/ my self / my / I	12 / 5 / 15 / 52	84
	Thou / Thy / thine	0	0
	She / her	129 / 183	129
	He / him / his	18 / 24 / 24	631
	We / us / our	141 / 88 / 144	373
	You / your	125 / 81	206
	They / them / their	148 / 111 / 159	418
	Total	1841

Table 2 .

 2 Astell's 15 favourite lexemes

  Our results are presented in table 3:

	LENGTH	WORDS	OCCURRENCES	OCC per WORD
	SEVEN	515	1213	2.36
	EIGHT	408	819	2.01
	NINE	334	691	2.07
	TEN	251	455	1.81
	ELEVEN	144	248	1.73
	TWELVE	79	121	1.53
	THIRTEEN	37	68	1.84
	FOURTEEN	16	27	1.69
	FIFTEEN	10	15	1.5
	SIXTEEN	1	1	1
	Total	1795	3659	2.03

Table 3 :

 3 Long words>6 letters

Table 4 .

 4 From hyphenated words to concatenated words

		NOUNS: 14	VERBS: 9	ADJECTIVES: 2	CONJ or ADV: 2
	Block-head blockhead	me-thinks (impers verb) or	God-like	godlike	hence-forward henceforward
	church-yard churchyard	methinks (arch): it seems	over-careful overcareful	where-ever	wherever
	eye-sight	eyesight	to me
	fore-heads	foreheads	out-do	outdo
	good-will	goodwill	out-weigh	outweigh
	Holy-day	holiday	over-done overdone
	ill-nature	illnature	over-grown overgrown
	non-improvement	over-rate	overrate
		nonimprovement	over-run	overrun
	non-sense	nonsense	over-stock'd overstocked
	out-side	outside	pre-ingage	preengage
	pre-eminence preeminence	(prefix in becomes en)
	set-offs	setoffs
	well-fare	welfare
	well-wishers wellwishers

Table 5 :

 5 Apostrophes in Astell's text

	Frequence	329	2	90	356	1334
	Character	'	'	'	.	,

Table 6 :

 6 Archaic forms or meanings for nouns

	tion/tions	98/17	171/25	commendation, concoction, disquisition
	ity/ities	52/12	100/22
	ness/nesses	49/2	78/2	forwardness, pragmaticalness, back wardness, dearnesses
	ment/ments	28/22	61/33

"How can you be content to be in the World like Tulips in a Garden, to make a fine shew and be good for nothing" (Proposal, 9).

And further down: "But I will not pretend to correct their Errors, who either are, or at least think themselves too wise to receive Instruction from a Womans Pen" .

At one point in the text she calls dressing "that grand devourer" of time and energy, a remark mothers of teenage girls may still make today!

"The only danger is that the Wife be more knowing than the Husband; but if she be 'tis his own fault, since he wants no opportunities of improvement; unless he be a natural Block-head, and then such an one will need a wise Woman to govern him, whose prudence will conceal it from publick Observation, and at once both cover and supply his defects."

Primary sources Astell Mary. 1694. A Serious Proposal to the Ladies: for the Advancement of their true and greatest Interest. London. Astell Mary. 1697. A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, Parts I and II. Wherein a Method is offer'd for the Improvement of their Minds. London. Astell Mary. 1700. Some Reflections Upon Marriage. London. Astell Mary. 2002. A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, Parts I and II. Wherein a Method is offer'd for the Improvement of their Minds, ed. P. Springborg. Broadview Literary Texts, Peterborough. Astell Mary and John Norris. 1695. Letters Concerning the Love of God. London. Howell James 1662. A New English Grammar prescribing as certain rules as the English language will bear, for forreners to learn English. London. Miège Guy 1688. The English Grammar or the Grounds and Genius of the English Tongue. London. Steel Richard 1709. The Tatler, 23 June 1709.