what islands off the coast of northern gabon were uninhabited until the portuguese arrived in 1470
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São Tomé is the capital and largest city of the Central African island country of São Tomé and Príncipe. Its name is Portuguese for "Saint Thomas". Founded in the 15th century, it is one of Africa's oldest colonial cities. History Álvaro Caminha founded the colony of São Tomé in 1493. The Portuguese came to São Tomé in search of land to grow sugarcane. The island was uninhabited before the arrival of the Portuguese sometime around 1470. São Tomé, situated about north of the equator, had a climate wet enough to grow sugarcane in wild abundance. In 1497, 2,000 Jewish children, eight years old and under, were taken from the Iberian peninsula, to receive catholic education, following the national policy of conversion to Catholicism. The nearby African Kingdom of Kongo eventually became a source of slave labor as well. The island of São Tomé was the main center of sugar production in the sixteenth century; it was overtaken by Brazil by 1600. São Tomé is centred on a sixteenth-century cathedral, that was largely rebuilt in the 19th century. Another early building is Fort São Sebastião, built in 1566 and now the São Tomé National Museum. On July 9, 1595, a slave revolt led by Rei Amador took control of the capital; they were subjugated in 1596. In 1599, the Dutch took the city as well as the islands for two days; they re-occupied it in 1641 for a year. The city served as the capital of the Portuguese colony of São Tomé and Príncipe and, from São Tomé and Príncipe's independence in 1975, as capital of the sovereign nation. Geography Important as a port, São Tomé is located on Ana Chaves Bay in the northeast of São Tomé Island, and Ilhéu das Cabras lies nearby offshore. São Tomé is located northeast of Trindade, southeast of Guadalupe and northwest of Santana. It is linked to these towns by a highway which encircles the entire island of São Tomé. It is linked to Cape Verde by a weekly ferry. Features of the town include the Presidential Palace, the cathedral, and a cinema. The city is also home to schools, and middle schools, high schools, one polytechnic, two markets, three radio stations, the public television station TVSP, several clinics and hospitals, the country's main airport - São Tomé International Airport (with direct regular scheduled flights to Angola, Gabon, Ghana and Portugal as well as occasional domestic flights to Príncipe), and many squares (praças). São Tomé also serves as the centre of the island's road and bus networks The town is well known for the tchiloli playing. Population history Transport São Tomé is served by São Tomé International Airport with regular flights to Europe and other African countries. Climate São Tomé features a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen As), although it is not far above a semi-arid climate (BSh) due to the influence of the cold Benguela Current, which makes even the wettest months drier than would be expected for such a low latitude
São Tomé
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Annobón (; ) is a province of Equatorial Guinea. The province consists of the island of Annobón and its associated islets in the Gulf of Guinea. Annobón is the smallest province of Equatorial Guinea in both area and population. According to the 2015 census, Annobón had 5,314 inhabitants, a small population increase from the 5,008 registered by the 2001 census. The official language is Spanish but most of the inhabitants speak a creole form of Portuguese. The island's main industries are fishing and forestry. Annobón is the only island of the country located in the Southern Hemisphere of the Atlantic Ocean. The provincial capital is San Antonio de Palé on the north side of the island; the other town is Mabana, formerly known as San Pedro. The roadstead is relatively safe, and some passing vessels take advantage of it in order to obtain water and fresh provisions, of which Annobón has offered an abundant supply. However, there is no regular shipping service to the rest of Equatorial Guinea, and ships call as infrequently as every few months. Name Annobón derives its name from Portuguese . The island was named for the date of its discovery by the Portuguese on New Year's Day in 1473. The province was formerly known as Anno Bom or Annabona. During the final years of the Francisco Macías Nguema administration, the island was called Pigalu or Pagalu, from the Portuguese . Geography and geology Annobón is an extinct volcano, part of the Cameroon line, about west of Cape Lopez in Gabon and southwest of São Tomé Island. The main island measures about long by wide, with an area of about , but a number of small rocky islets surround it, including Santarém to the south. Its central crater lake is named Lago A Pot and its highest peak is Quioveo, which rises . The island is characterized by a succession of lush valleys and steep mountains, covered with rich woods and luxuriant vegetation. Annobón is often described as being "in the Gulf of Guinea", like the neighboring islands of São Tomé and Príncipe, but the formal boundary line for the Gulf of Guinea established by the International Hydrographic Organization actually runs north of it. History The island was discovered by the Portuguese on January 1, 1473; it obtained its name from that date ("New Year"). However, Spanish explorer Diego Ramirez de la Diaz first spotted the island in 1470 and named it San Antonio. It was apparently uninhabited until colonized under the Portuguese from 1474, primarily by Africans from Angola via São Tomé Island. These slaves (who the Portuguese called escravos de regate) are considered the first members of Annobonese society. Beginning in the early sixteenth century, many of these slaves who were now marrying Europeans gave birth to the next generations of Annobonese who were called forros (slaves about to be free). Forros began to develop a distinct identity and socio-economic powers. This period also saw the emergence of the Annobonese Creole language. The island
Annobón
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The history of the Jews in São Tomé and Príncipe dates back to the late 1400s, when Portuguese Jews were expelled from Portugal. History In 1496, King Manuel I of Portugal punished Portuguese Jews who refused to pay a head tax by deporting almost 2,000 Jewish children to São Tomé and Príncipe. The children ranged in age between 2 and 10. The children were raised as Roman Catholics and worked in the sugar trade, where they had to fend off crocodiles. A year after being deported to the islands, only 600 children remained alive. Some of the children tried to retain their Judaism and Jewish heritage. Until the early 1600s, descendants of the deported Jewish children retained some Jewish practices. By the 18th century, the Jewish heritage on the islands had largely dissipated. A generation later, when Portugal colonized Brazil, some of the grown children were sent to work in the Brazilian sugar trade. A new community of Jews was established on the islands in the 19th and 20th centuries with the arrival of a small number of Jewish sugar and cocoa traders. In contemporary São Tomé and Príncipe, there are no practicing Jews. However, living descendants of the Portuguese-Jewish children remain on the islands where they are visibly distinctive due to their lighter complexions. On July 12, 1995, an international conference was held on the islands' twentieth independence day to commemorate the Portuguese-Jewish children who were deported to the islands in the 15th century. Some of the Jews of São Tomé and Príncipe later settled in the Kingdom of Loango, along the coasts of continental Africa in what is now Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, and the Cabinda Province of Angola. See also History of the Jews in Cameroon History of the Jews in Cape Verde History of the Jews in Gabon History of the Jews in Nigeria Religion in São Tomé and Príncipe References External links São Tomé e Príncipe, Jews Were Here When Jews Were Illegals, The Forward Making History: The Sephardi Jewish Orphans of Sao-Tome and the African-American Appropriation of their Story, Florida International University History of the Jews in Central Africa Portuguese diaspora in São Tomé and Príncipe Portuguese-Jewish diaspora in Africa Religion in São Tomé and Príncipe Sephardi Jewish culture in Africa
History of the Jews in São Tomé and Príncipe
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Príncipe (; ) is the smaller, northern major island of the country of São Tomé and Príncipe lying off the west coast of Africa in the Gulf of Guinea. It has an area of (including offshore islets) and a population of 7,324 at the 2012 Census; the latest official estimate (at May 2018) was 8,420. The island is a heavily eroded volcano speculated to be over three million years old, surrounded by smaller islands including Ilheu Bom Bom, Ilhéu Caroço, Tinhosa Grande and Tinhosa Pequena. Part of the Cameroon Line archipelago, Príncipe rises in the south to 947 metres at Pico do Príncipe. The island is the main constituent of the Autonomous Region of Príncipe, established in 1995, and of the coterminous district of Pagué. History The island was uninhabited when discovered by the Portuguese on 17 January 1471 and was first named after Saint Anthony ("Ilha de Santo Antão"). Later the island was renamed Príncipe ("Prince's [Island]") by King John II of Portugal in honour of his son Afonso, Hereditary Prince of Portugal (1475–1491). The first settlement, the town Santo António, was founded in 1502. Subsequently, the north and centre of the island were made into plantations by Portuguese colonists using slave labor. These concentrated initially on producing sugar and after 1822 on cocoa, becoming the world's greatest cocoa producer. Since independence, these plantations have largely reverted to forest. The island's fortress named Fortaleza de Santo António da Ponta da Mina on a point inside Baía de Santo António (Santo António Bay) was built in 1695. In 1706, the city and the fortress were destroyed by the French. From 1753 until 1852, Santo António was the colonial capital of Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe. Príncipe was the site where Einstein's theory of relativity was experimentally corroborated by Arthur Stanley Eddington and his team during the total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919; photographs of the eclipse revealed evidence of the 'bending' of starlight, in accordance with Einstein's predictions (see Eddington experiment). On April 29, 1995, the Autonomous Region of Príncipe was established, corresponding with the existing Pagué District. Settlements Príncipe has one town, Santo António, and an airport (IATA code: PCP, ICAO: FPPR). Some other smaller settlements are Sundy and Porto Real. Demographics Portuguese is the official and main language of the island. Portuguese creoles are also spoken: Principense or Lunguyê and, in some scale, Forro are also spoken. In 1771, Príncipe had a population of 5,850: 111 whites, 165 free mulattoes, 6 mulatto slaves, 900 free blacks, and 4,668 black slaves. In 1875, the year when slavery was officially abolished in the archipelago, Príncipe's population had dropped to only 1,946, of whom 45 were Europeans, 1,521 were free natives, and 380 were freemen. In 2018, Príncipe had a population of 8,420 people. Nature In 2006, the Parque Natural Obô do Príncipe was established, covering the mountainous, densely forested and uninhabited southern part of the island of Príncipe. There are numerous endemic species of fauna on Príncipe, including birds
Príncipe
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The Bight of Biafra, also known as the Bight of Bonny, is a bight off the west-central African coast, in the easternmost part of the Gulf of Guinea. Geography The Bight of Bonny, between Cape Formosa and Cape Lopez, is the most eastern part of the Gulf of Guinea; it contains the islands Bioko [Equatorial Guinea], São Tomé and Príncipe. The name Biafra – as indicating the country – fell into disuse in the later part of the 19th century A 1710 map indicates that the region known as "Biafar" was located in present-day Cameroon. The Bight of Bonny extends east from the River Delta of the Niger in the north until it reaches Cape Lopez in Gabon. Besides the Niger River, other rivers reaching the bay are the Cross River, Calabar River, Ndian, Wouri, Sanaga, Nyong River, Ntem, Mbia, Mbini, Muni and Komo River. The main islands in the Bay are Bioko and Príncipe; other important islands are Ilhéu Bom Bom, Ilhéu Caroço, Elobey Grande and Elobey Chico. Countries located at the Bight of Biafra are Cameroon, the eastern region of Nigeria, Equatorial Guinea (Bioko Island and Rio Muni), and Gabon History The Bight of Biafra accounted for an estimated 10.7% of all enslaved people that were transported to the Americas between 1519-1700. Between 1701-1800, it accounted for an estimated 14.97%. Slaves purchased from the markets on the Bight of Biafra included Bamileke, Efik/Ibibio, Igbo, Tikar, Bakossi, Fang, Massa, Bubi and many more. These captured Africans arrived in what would become the United States and were sold in Virginia, which held 60% of all slaves on the eastern coast. Virginia and surrounding colonies held 30,000 slaves. Normally, enslaved people were cheaper when bought in Cameroon because they preferred to die rather than accept slavery. By the middle of the eighteenth century, Bonny had emerged as the major slave trading port on the Bight of Biafra outpacing the earlier dominant slave ports at Elem Kalabari (also known then as New Calabar) and Old Calabar. These 3 ports together accounted for over 90% of the slave trade emanating from the Bight of Biafra. Timeline Between 1525 and 1859, the British accounted for over two-thirds of slaves exported from the Bight of Biafra to the New World. In 1777, Portugal transferred control of Fernando Po and Annobón to Spanish suzerainty thus introducing Spain into the early colonial history of the Bight of Biafra. In 1807, the United Kingdom made illegal the international trade in slaves, and the Royal Navy was deployed to forcibly prevent slavers from the United States, France, Spain, Portugal, Holland, West Africa and Arabia from plying their trade. On 30 June 1849, Britain established its military influence over the Bight of Biafra by building a naval base and consulate on the island of Fernando Po, under the authority of the British Consuls of the Bight of Benin: On 6 August 1861, the Bight of Biafra and the neighboring Bight of Benin (under its own British consuls) became a united
Bight of Biafra
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The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to São Tomé and Príncipe: São Tomé and Príncipe – island nation located in the Gulf of Guinea, off the western equatorial coast of Africa. The republic comprises two main islands: São Tomé Island and Príncipe Island, located about apart and about and , respectively, off the northwestern coast of Gabon. Both islands are part of an extinct volcanic mountain range. São Tomé, the sizable southern island, is situated just north of the equator. It was named in honor of Saint Thomas by Portuguese explorers who happened to arrive at the island on his feast day. São Tomé and Príncipe is the second-smallest African country in terms of population (the Seychelles being the smallest). It is the smallest country in the world that is not a former British overseas territory, a former United States trusteeship, or one of the European microstates. It is also the smallest Portuguese-speaking country. General reference Pronunciation: Common English country name: São Tomé and Príncipe Official English country name: (The) Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe Common endonym(s): Official endonym(s): Adjectival(s): São Toméan Demonym(s): Etymology: Name of São Tomé and Príncipe ISO country codes: ST, STP, 678 ISO region codes: See ISO 3166-2:ST Internet country code top-level domain: .st Geography of São Tomé and Príncipe Geography of São Tomé and Príncipe São Tomé and Príncipe is: an island country consisting of two islands Location: Eastern Hemisphere, on the Equator Atlantic Ocean Gulf of Guinea Africa (though not on the mainland) Time zone: Coordinated Universal Time UTC+00 Extreme points of São Tomé and Príncipe High: Pico de São Tomé on São Tomé Island Low: Gulf of Guinea 0 m Land boundaries: none Coastline: Gulf of Guinea 209 km Population of São Tomé and Príncipe: 158,000 - 181st most populous country Area of São Tomé and Príncipe: 964 Atlas of São Tomé and Príncipe Environment of São Tomé and Príncipe Environment of São Tomé and Príncipe Wildlife of São Tomé and Príncipe Fauna of São Tomé and Príncipe Birds of São Tomé and Príncipe Mammals of São Tomé and Príncipe Natural geographic features of São Tomé and Príncipe List of landforms of São Tomé and Príncipe Glaciers in São Tomé and Príncipe: none Islands of São Tomé and Príncipe Mountains of São Tomé and Príncipe Volcanoes in São Tomé and Príncipe Rivers of São Tomé and Príncipe Valleys of São Tomé and Príncipe World Heritage Sites in São Tomé and Príncipe: None Regions of São Tomé and Príncipe Regions of São Tomé and Príncipe Ecoregions of São Tomé and Príncipe List of ecoregions in São Tomé and Príncipe Administrative divisions of São Tomé and Príncipe Administrative divisions of São Tomé and Príncipe Autonomous Region of Príncipe Districts of São Tomé and Príncipe Districts of São Tomé and Príncipe Districts of São Tomé and Príncipe Demography of São Tomé and Príncipe Demographics of São Tomé and Príncipe Government and politics of São Tomé and Príncipe Form
Outline of São Tomé and Príncipe
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Portugal–São Tomé and Príncipe relations refers to the diplomatic relations between the Portuguese Republic and São Tomé and Príncipe. Both nations are members of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries and the United Nations. History In 1470, Portuguese explorers, João de Santarém and Pêro Escobar discovered the islands uninhabited. The territory was soon incorporated into the Portuguese Empire. In order to cultivate the islands, the Portuguese brought people as slaves from the African mainland to work the cocoa and sugar plantations on the islands. São Tomé and Príncipe became important staging post for the Atlantic slave trade. In 1972, a São Toméan nationalist political party, the Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe (MLSTP), was created by exiles based in Equatorial Guinea with the intent of creating an independent nation. After the Carnation Revolution of 1974, the new Portuguese regime was committed to the dissolution of its overseas colonies. In November 1974, their representatives met with members of the MLSTP in Algiers and worked out an agreement for the transfer of sovereignty. Portugal granted independence to São Tomé and Príncipe on 12 July 1975. That same day, both nations established diplomatic relations. Since independence, relations between Portugal and São Tomé and Príncipe have remained strong. There are many cultural similarities between both nations. There have also been several high-level visits between leaders of both nations and both countries work closely together within the Community of Portuguese Language Countries. Bilateral agreements Both nations have signed a few bilateral agreements such as an Agreement for Cooperation and Friendship (1975); Agreement on Trade (1978); Agreement on Cultural Cooperation (1978); Agreement on Maritime Transport (1978); Agreement on Migration (1978); and an Agreement on Technical Cooperation in Police Training (1989). In September 2022, Portugal and São Tomé and Príncipe signed a new cooperation agreement for defence, bolstering training and maritime security. Transportation There are direct flights between both nations with STP Airways and TAP Air Portugal. Resident diplomatic missions Portugal has an embassy in São Tomé. São Tomé and Príncipe has an embassy in Lisbon. See also Foreign relations of Portugal Foreign relations of São Tomé and Príncipe Portuguese Africans Portuguese language in Africa References Sao Tome and Principe Bilateral relations of São Tomé and Príncipe Relations of colonizer and former colony
Portugal–São Tomé and Príncipe relations
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This Timeline of European imperialism covers episodes of imperialism outside of Europe by western nations since 1400; for other countries, see . Pre-1700 1402 Castillian invasion of Canary Islands. 1415 Portuguese conquest of Ceuta. 1420-1425 Portuguese settlement of Madeira. 1433-1436 Portuguese settlement of Azores. 1445 Portuguese construction of trading post on Arguin Island. 1450 Portuguese construction of trading post on Gorée Island. 1462 Portuguese settlement of Cape Verde islands. 1474 Portuguese settlement of Annobón island. 1470 Portuguese settlement of Bioko island. 1482 Portuguese construction of Elmina Castle. 1493 Portuguese settlement of São Tomé and Príncipe. 1510 Portuguese conquest of Goa. 1511 Portuguese conquest of Malacca City. 1517 Portuguese conquest of Colombo. 1556 Portuguese colonization of Timor. 1557 Portuguese construction of trading post in Macau. 1556-1599 Spanish conquest of Philippines. 1598: Dutch established colony on uninhabited island of Mauritius; they abandon it in 1710. 1608: Dutch opened their first trading post in India at Golconda. 1613: Dutch East India Company expands operations in Java. 1613–20: Netherlands becomes England's major rival in trade, fishing, and whaling. The Dutch form alliances with Sweden and the Hanseatic League; England counters with an alliance with Denmark. 1623. The Amboyna massacre occurs in Japan with execution of English traders; England closes its commercial base opened in 1613 at Hirado. Trade ends for more than two centuries. 1664. French East India Company Chartered for trade in Asia and Africa. Colonization of North America 1565 – St. Augustine, Florida – Spanish 1604 – Acadia – French 1605 – Port-Royal – French; in Nova Scotia 1607 – Jamestown, Virginia – English; established by Virginia Company 1607 – Popham Colony – English; failed effort in Maine 1608 – Quebec, Canada – French 1610 – Cuper's Cove, First English settlement in Newfoundland; abandoned by 1820 1610 – Santa Fe, New Mexico – Spanish 1612 – Bermuda – English; established by Virginia Company 1615 – Fort Nassau – Dutch; became Albany New York 1620 – St. John's, Newfoundland – English; capital of Newfoundland 1620 – Plymouth Colony, absorbed by Massachusetts Bay– English; small settlement by Pilgrims 1621 – Nova Scotia – Scottish 1623 – Portsmouth, New Hampshire – English; becomes the Colony of New Hampshire 1625 – New Amsterdam – Dutch; becomes New York City 1630 – Massachusetts Bay Colony – English; The main Puritan colony. 1632 – Williamsburgh – English; becomes the capital of Virginia. 1633 – Fort Hoop – Dutch settlement; Now part of Hartford Connecticut 1633 – Windsor, Connecticut – English 1634 – Maryland Colony – English 1634 – Wethersfield, Connecticut – First English settlement in Connecticut, comprising migrants from Massachusetts Bay. 1635 – Territory of Sagadahock – English 1636 – Providence Plantations – English; became Rhode Island* 1636 – Connecticut Colony – English 1638 – New Haven Colony – English; later merged into Connecticut colony 1638 – Fort Christina – Swedish; now part of Wilmington Delaware 1638 – Hampton, New Hampshire – English 1639 – San Marcos – Spanish 1640 – Swedesboro- Swedish 1651 – Fort Casimir –
Timeline of European imperialism
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São Tomé and Príncipe is a Portuguese-speaking island nation in the Gulf of Guinea, off the western equatorial coast of Central Africa. It consists of two archipelagos around the two main islands: São Tomé and Príncipe, located about apart and about , respectively, off the northwestern coast of Gabon. Since the 19th century, the economy of São Tomé and Príncipe has been based on plantation agriculture. At the time of independence, Portuguese-owned plantations occupied 90% of the cultivated area. After independence, control of these plantations passed to various state-owned agricultural enterprises. The main crop on São Tomé is cocoa, representing about 95% of agricultural exports. Other export crops include copra, palm kernels, and coffee. Notable firms This list includes notable companies with primary headquarters located in the country. The industry and sector follow the Industry Classification Benchmark taxonomy. Organizations which have ceased operations are included and noted as defunct. See also List of airlines of São Tomé and Príncipe List of banks in São Tomé and Príncipe References Sao Tome e Principe
List of companies of São Tomé and Príncipe
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This is a list of airports in São Tomé and Príncipe, sorted by location. São Tomé and Príncipe, officially the Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe, is a Portuguese-speaking island nation in the Gulf of Guinea, off the western equatorial coast of Africa. It consists of two islands: São Tomé and Príncipe, located about apart and about , respectively, off the northwestern coast of Gabon. São Tomé and Príncipe are located between the islands of Annobón and Bioko, both part of Equatorial Guinea. The nation is divided into seven districts, six on São Tomé and one on Príncipe. Its capital is the city of São Tomé. Airports See also Transport in São Tomé and Príncipe List of airports by ICAO code: F#FP - São Tomé and Príncipe Wikipedia: WikiProject Aviation/Airline destination lists: Africa#São Tomé and Príncipe References - includes IATA codes Great Circle Mapper: Airports in São Tomé and Príncipe - IATA and ICAO codes, coordinates - ICAO codes and coordinates São Tomé and Príncipe Airports Airports Sao Tome and Principe
List of airports in São Tomé and Príncipe
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Corisco, Mandj, or Mandyi, is a small island of Equatorial Guinea, located southwest of the Río Muni estuary that defines the border with Gabon. Corisco, whose name derives from the Portuguese word for lightning, has an area of , and its highest point is above sea level. The most important settlement on the island is Gobe. History During the Iron Age (50 BC - 1400 AD) and before the arrival of the Portuguese, the island was densely settled. The most important evidence of human occupation comes from the area of Nandá, near the eastern coast, where dozens of prehistoric burials have been excavated. These burials belong to two different periods: Early Iron Age (50 BC - 450 AD) and Middle Iron Age (1000-1150 AD). During the first period, the islanders deposited bundles of human bones and iron implements (axes, bracelets, spears, spoons, iron currency) in shallow pits dug in the sand. During the second period, tombs have been documented where the corpses (not preserved) lay surrounded by pots, probably containing food and alcoholic beverages. The deceased were interred with their adornments (collars, bracelets and anklets) and a few personal possessions (knives and adzes). When Portuguese sailors arrived in the Mino Estuary in 1471, they noted that the islands in the area were mainly unpopulated. They named Corisco after 'lightning', due to the gales they experienced around the island. After more than three centuries of abandonment, when it was sporadically visited by European sailors, Corisco was settled by the Benga people. They arrived during the second half of the 18th century attracted by the prospects of trade with the Europeans. The island was later acquired by Spain in 1843, as a result of an arrangement made by Juan José Lerena y Barry with Benga king Bonkoro I. Bonkoro I died in 1846 and was succeeded by his son Bonkoro II, but due to rivalries on the island, Bonkoro II moved to São Tomé, and Munga I ruled in Corisco 1848 to 1858, his son Munga II taking over, and meeting the explorer Manuel Iradier in the 1870s. In general, the Spanish paid little attention to Corisco. In the early part of the 20th century it was part of the administration of Elobey, Annobon, and Corisco, and postage stamps were issued under that name. It became an integral part of Equatorial Guinea upon independence. Corisco and the surrounding waters of Corisco Bay have become of interest in recent years for their oil prospects. A consortium of Elf Aquitaine and Petrogab began prospecting in 1981. The area is disputed with Gabon because of the perceived value of the oil. In February 2003, Gabonese Defence Minister Ali-Ben Bongo Ondimba visited the islands and re-stated Gabon's claim to them. See also Corisco International Airport References Further reading X. Ayán Vila et al., Arqueología en el Estuario del Muni (Guinea Ecuatorial). Revista de Arqueología, 362: 24–33. Max Liniger-Goumaz, Small is not always beautiful: The Story of Equatorial Guinea (1989, ) p. 7. External links Islands of
Corisco
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The Battle of Sincouwaan (), also known as Battle of Veniaga Island (Portuguese: Batalha da Ilha da Veniaga) was a naval battle between the Ming dynasty coast guard and a Portuguese fleet led by Martim Afonso de Mello that occurred in 1522. The Ming court threatened to expel Portuguese traders from China after receiving news that the Malacca Sultanate, a Ming tributary, had been invaded by the Portuguese. In addition, the Portuguese had been conducting piracy, acquiring slaves on the Chinese coast to sell in Portuguese Malacca, and preventing other foreigners from trading in China. Portuguese traders were executed in China and a Portuguese embassy was arrested, with their freedom promised on the condition that the Portuguese returned Malacca to its sultan. Martim Afonso de Mello arrived at the Pearl River but was blockaded by a Ming fleet despite his offers of amends. After two weeks without being able to gain a foothold in China they decided to run the blockade and managed to escape with the loss of two ships and several dozen men. The battle was fought off the northwestern coast of Lantau Island, Hong Kong at a location called Sai Tso Wan today. Background Because King Manuel I of Portugal wished to establish diplomatic and commercial relations with China, in April 1521, the new governor of Portuguese India Dom Duarte de Menezes was dispatched together with captain-major Martim Afonso de Mello, tasked with constructing a feitoria (trade post) close to Guangzhou. Since Mello's mission was primarily commercial and diplomatic, his vessels carried mainly small caliber cannon, and barely any heavy guns; furthermore, two-thirds of his crew had perished during the long voyage to Malacca. He arrived there in July 1522 where he came across skepticism towards his mission from the local Portuguese, who had been trading in China for several years, and informed him of the tensions in China. Portuguese such as Simão de Andrade had been conducting piracy and purchasing slaves along the Chinese coast to sell in Portuguese Malacca, and blatantly ignored the Ming emperor's authority by building a fort at Tunmen, after his request for Tunmen was denied. Although buying and selling children was common practice in the region, the Portuguese chronicler João de Barros concluded that they had been seized without knowledge from their parents and even came from noble families. Even children from well off families were sold and found years later at Diu in western India. Rumors that Simao and other Portuguese were cannibalizing children for food spread across China. Besides aggressive trading through force of arms and abducting and selling Chinese men, women, and children into slavery, Simao also encouraged "robbers, kidnappers, and all sorts of wickedness." Other foreigners such as Malays and Siamese were prevented from conducting trade until the Portuguese had finished their own business. They refused to pay customs duties and abused an official who had complained about their behavior. The Portuguese were also accused of robbing foreign ships. Simao's pirating activities greatly angered both the Chinese
Battle of Sincouwaan
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The history of the Americas begins with people migrating to these areas from Asia during the height of an ice age. These groups are generally believed to have been isolated from the people of the "Old World" until the coming of Europeans in the 10th century from Iceland led by Leif Erikson, and in 1492 with the voyages of Christopher Columbus. The ancestors of today's American Indigenous peoples were the Paleo-Indians; they were hunter-gatherers who migrated into North America. The most popular theory asserts that migrants came to the Americas via Beringia, the land mass now covered by the ocean waters of the Bering Strait. Small lithic stage peoples followed megafauna like bison, mammoth (now extinct), and caribou, thus gaining the modern nickname "big-game hunters." Groups of people may also have traveled into North America on shelf or sheet ice along the northern Pacific coast. Sedentary societies developed primarily in two regions: Mesoamerica and the Andean civilizations. Mesoamerican cultures include Zapotec, Toltec, Olmec, Maya, Aztec, Mixtec, Totonac, Teotihuacan, Huastec people, Purépecha, Izapa and Mazatec. Andean cultures include Inca, Caral-Supe, Wari, Tiwanaku, Chimor, Moche, Muisca, Chavin, Paracas and Nazca. After the voyages of Christopher Columbus in 1492, Spanish and later Portuguese, English, French and Dutch colonial expeditions arrived in the New World, conquering and settling the discovered lands, which led to a transformation of the cultural and physical landscape in the Americas. Spain colonized most of the Americas from present-day Southwestern United States, Florida and the Caribbean to the southern tip of South America. Portugal settled in what is mostly present-day Brazil while England established colonies on the Eastern coast of the United States, as well as the North Pacific coast and in most of Canada. France settled in Quebec and other parts of Eastern Canada and claimed an area in what is today the central United States. The Netherlands settled New Netherland (administrative centre New Amsterdam – now New York), some Caribbean islands and parts of Northern South America. European colonization of the Americas led to the rise of new cultures, civilizations and eventually states, which resulted from the fusion of Native American, European, and African traditions, peoples and institutions. The transformation of American cultures through colonization is evident in architecture, religion, gastronomy, the arts and particularly languages, the most widespread being Spanish (376 million speakers), English (348 million) and Portuguese (201 million). The colonial period lasted approximately three centuries, from the early 16th to the early 19th centuries, when Brazil and the larger Hispanic American nations declared independence. The United States obtained independence from Great Britain much earlier, in 1776, while Canada formed a federal dominion in 1867 and received legal independence in 1931. Others remained attached to their European parent state until the end of the 19th century, such as Cuba and Puerto Rico which were linked to Spain until 1898. Smaller territories such as Guyana obtained independence in the mid-20th century, while certain Caribbean islands and French Guiana remain part of a European power to this day.
History of the Americas
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Sears Island, known as Wassumkeag or shining beach by the indigenous Wabanaki tribes of northern New England, is located off the coast of Searsport in Waldo County, Maine, at the top of Penobscot Bay. The island is the largest undeveloped, uninhabited, causeway-accessible island on the eastern coast of the United States. It is in area. It is part of the Town of Searsport. History and geography It was named after David Sears of Boston after he agreed to grant a large sum of money towards founding of Searsport. Sears Island is state-owned land, but is part of the town of Searsport. It used to be known as Brigadier's Island. A causeway was built in the 1980s upon what had been a tidal bar. At high tide Sears Island was a true island, and at low tide the exposed gravel bar allowed for easy access. Locals would drive over at low tide, always careful to return in time, lest they would have to wade or swim and leave the car stranded until the next tide. There were farms on the island from the mid-18th century until the last vacant farm was removed in 1934 . Only stone cellar holes and a few small fields remain today. Sears Island acts as a great element barrier for one of the most well-protected harbors in the state of Maine: Stockton Harbor, an attractive anchorage for not only the protection it offers, but also its convenience to upper Penobscot Bay towns Searsport, Belfast and Castine. Bar Harbor is about an hour's car ride east, and both Camden and Bangor are about a half-hour south and north, respectively. Sears Island also has views of Cape Jellison. It is home to a number of species of birds, mammals, fish, amphibians and plant life. The shallow shoal off the west side of the island supports meadows of eelgrass (Zostera marina) and other nursery habitats and features that play an important role in the fish and shellfish populations of greater Penobscot Bay. Environmental controversies The possible industrial development of the island has been a point of controversy for many years. Writer E. B. White, a resident of nearby Brooklin, Maine, noted in a 1975 essay for the New Yorker that he had attended an evening forum about a Central Maine Power Company proposal to construct a nuclear power plant on Sears Island. White reported to New Yorker readers that the Central Maine Power Company "feels very good about nuclear generating plants, is not worried about radiation or accidents." In response to a goat farmer, their spokesman acknowledged radioactive "iodine can contaminate milk... [b]ut he was cheerful about the prospect. You would simply put the animals on a controlled diet, he said, and after about forty days the radioactivity would be gone." Facing local opposition, the plant was not built. Since the 1980s, successive Maine governors have promoted development of the island as a general cargo port (Joseph Brennan; John McKernan) a wood-chip port; (Angus King) an LNG terminal; (John
Sears Island
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Cape Verde was a colony of the Portuguese Empire from the initial settlement of the Cape Verde Islands in 1462 until the independence of Cape Verde in 1975. History 15th century The islands of Cape Verde was discovered in 1444 by Prince Henry the Navigator (Son of King John I) and Antonio Noli in the service of Henrys relative King Afonso V. The southeastern islands, including the largest island Santiago, were discovered in 1460 by António de Noli and Diogo Gomes. The remaining northwestern islands São Nicolau, São Vicente and Santo Antão were discovered in 1461 or 1462 by Diogo Afonso. There is no evidence of human settlement on Cape Verde prior to the arrival of the Portuguese. In 1462, the town of Ribeira Grande (now Cidade Velha) was founded on the south coast of Santiago. The settlement became a key port of call for Portuguese colonisation towards Africa and South America. In the 16th and 17th centuries, it was a centre of maritime trade between Africa, the Cape, Brazil and the Caribbean. Due to its proximity to the African coast, it was an essential platform for the trade of enslaved persons. Other early Portuguese settlements were São Filipe on the island of Fogo (between 1470 and 1490), Praia on Santiago (before 1516), Ribeira Grande on Santo Antão (mid 16th century) and Ribeira Brava on São Nicolau (1653). Between 1492 and 1497, Manuel I of Portugal exiled thousands of forcefully baptized Jews to São Tomé, Príncipe, and Cape Verde. They were allowed to engage in trade. Free-lance traders were referred to as lançados, who were often, but not always, of Jewish origin. 16th—19th centuries The riches of Ribeira Grande and conflicts between Portugal and rival colonial powers France and Britain attracted pirate attacks, including those by Francis Drake (1585) and Jacques Cassard (1712). Despite the construction of Forte Real de São Filipe in 1587-93, Ribeira Grande remained vulnerable and went into decline. The capital was moved to Praia in 1770. The eruption of the volcano Pico do Fogo in 1680 covered much of the island of Fogo in ash, which forced many inhabitants to flee to the nearby island of Brava. From the end of the 18th century, whaling ships from North America started hunting whales around the Azores and the Cape Verde Islands. They used the harbours of Brava to stock up on supplies and drinking water. They hired men from Brava as sailors, and several of these settled around the Massachusetts whaling port of New Bedford. The exploitation of salt on the island of Sal took a rise from around 1800. The port city of Mindelo grew rapidly after 1838, when a coal depot was established to supply ships on Atlantic routes. In the course of the 19th century, the Plateau of Praia was completely redeveloped with streets according to a grid plan, lined with grand colonial buildings and mansions. Slavery was abolished in Cape Verde in 1876. 20th century From the beginning of the 20th century the
Portuguese Cape Verde
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Nuussuaq (old spelling: Nûgssuaq), formerly Kraulshavn, is a settlement in Avannaata municipality in northwestern Greenland. It is the only mainland settlement in the Upernavik Archipelago, located near the western tip of the Nuussuaq Peninsula, on the northern coast of Sugar Loaf Bay, an indentation of Baffin Bay. It is most famously known as the official halfway point between Saskatoon and Helsinki as decided in the 2023 Concorde Drive halfway challenge. The settlement was founded in 1923 as a trading station, growing in size during the post-war consolidation phase, when hunters from several small villages in the region of neighboring Inussulik Bay, Sugar Loaf Bay, and Tasiusaq Bay moved into the larger settlements such as Nuussuaq and Kullorsuaq further north in Melville Bay. Today Nuussuaq remains one of the most traditional hunting and fishing villages in Greenland, with a stable population. The settlement had 181 inhabitants in 2020. History Prehistory The Upernavik Archipelago belongs to the earliest-settled areas of Greenland; the first migrants arriving approximately 2,000 years BCE All southbound migrations of the Inuit passed through the area, leaving behind a trail of archeological sites. The early Saqqaq culture diminished in importance around 1.000 BCE, followed by the migrants of Dorset culture, who spread alongside the coast of Baffin Bay, being in turn misplaced by the Thule people in the 13th and 14th centuries. The archipelago has been continuously inhabited since then. 20th century Nuussuaq was founded in 1923 as a trading post, during the modern northbound migration of Greenlanders from Upernavik. The settlement was initially populated by hunters from the now abandoned villages of the region: Kuuk, Itissaalik (abandoned in 1957), and Ikermiut (abandoned in 1954). Not all of the initial wave of settlers from these villages of fewer than 10 people remained in Nuussuaq, but by the end of the 1920s, other families arrived in place of the hunters who moved north to Kullorsuaq in Melville Bay, and the community began to slowly grow. Between 1930 and 1960, northwestern Greenland underwent a consolidation phase, driven by the Danish colonial authorities via Royal Greenland, then part of KNI, with a countrywide monopoly on trade. The mutual agreement between the hunting families and the trade company limited the pre-war northward expansion until the 1950s, when the populations of the smaller settlements reinforced larger communities in Nuussuaq and Kullorsuaq, where the physical limit of uninhabitable Melville Bay presented a natural barrier to expansion. Today Nuussuaq remains one of the most traditional hunting and fishing villages in Greenland. Geography Nuussuaq is located in the northern part of Upernavik Archipelago, a vast archipelago of small islands on the coast of northeastern Baffin Bay. The settlement straddles a small rock spur jutting off Nuussuaq Peninsula, on the northern coast of Sugar Loaf Bay, an indentation of Baffin Bay. The name of both the settlement and the peninsula means "a large tip" in the Greenlandic language. Nuussuaq is the only mainland settlement between Ukkusissat in the Uummannaq Fjord region and Pituffik, near Pituffik Space Base. All
Nuussuaq
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Christianity is the predominant religion in Gabon, with significant minorities of the adherents of Islam and traditional faiths. Gabon is a secular country and the constitution ensures freedom of religion. Many people practice elements of both Christianity and traditional indigenous religious beliefs. Approximately 85% of the population (mainly Catholic) practice one of the denominations of Christianity; 10 percent practice Islam (mainly Sunni); the remainder practice traditional or other religions. History Christianity arrived in Gabon through the Portuguese traders in early 16th century. The Italian Capuchin friars set up Christian missions in the 17th century. The Portuguese missionaries and Italian friars cooperation ended in the 18th century, and the Portuguese officials expelled the Capuchin friars in 1777. New missions such as the Sacred Heart and Holy Ghost, as well as Protestant missions from Europe arrived in the mid 19th century. Catholicism had established itself in Gabon with the Portuguese colonial efforts in 18th century, and grown to be the leading denomination by 1900. With the start of French colonial rule, Christian missions from Paris arrived between 1890s and 1960. More evangelical Churches have grown since the mid 20th century. The Babongo are a forest people of Gabon on the west coast of equatorial Africa. They are the originators of the Bwiti religion. Other peoples in Gabon have combined traditional Bwiti practices with animism and Christian concepts to produce a very different modern form of Bwiti. The Bwiti rituals form part of the initiation into the Babongo people. Babonga people's lives are highly ritualised through dance, music and ceremony associated with natural forces and jungle animals. Islam has had a small presence in Gabon, with about 10% of the people following Sunni practice. The former president Omar Bongo converted to Islam in 1973 after a visit to Libya. Under Bongo's one-party rule, Gabon joined the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation in 1974. Gabon reintroduced multiparty democracy in 1993, though Bongo remained president until his death in 2009, upon which his son, also a Muslim, succeeded him. The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respects this right in practice. On February 3, 2016, the Gabonese Republic granted official recognition to the local Orthodox Church, including plans to erect the first Orthodox church in the capital city Libreville. Religious freedom In 2023, the country was scored 3 out of 4 for religious freedom; it was noted that some religious groups reported difficulty in registering with the government. See also Roman Catholicism in Gabon Evangelical Church of Gabon Islam in Gabon References
Religion in Gabon
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Portuguese Guinea (), called the Overseas Province of Guinea from 1951 until 1972 and then State of Guinea from 1972 until 1974, was a West African colony of Portugal from 1588 until 10 September 1974, when it gained independence as Guinea-Bissau. Slave trade The Portuguese Crown commissioned its navigators to explore the Atlantic coast of West Africa in the 1430s, to find sources of gold. At that time the gold trade was controlled by Morocco. Muslim caravans across the Sahara also carried salt, kola, textiles, fish, grain, and slaves. The navigators first passed the obstruction of Cape Bojador in 1437 and were able to explore the West African coast as far as Sierra Leone by 1460 and colonize the Cape Verde islands beginning in 1456. The gold ultimately came from the upper reaches of the Niger and Volta Rivers and the Portuguese crown wanted to divert the gold trade to the coast. To control the gold trade, the Portuguese king ordered a castle built, called São Jorge da Mina (now Elmina Castle), on the Portuguese Gold Coast in 1482 along with other trading posts. The Portuguese government founded the Company of Guinea to trade and set the prices of goods, including gold and ivory, Melegueta pepper and slaves. The Atlantic slave trade transported an estimated eleven million people from Africa between 1440 and 1870, including two million from Senegambia and Upper Guinea. This area was the source of an estimated 150,000 African slaves transported by the Portuguese before 1500, mainly from Upper Guinea. Some were used to grow cotton and indigo in the previously uninhabited Cape Verde islands. Portuguese traders and exiled criminals penetrated the rivers and creeks of Upper Guinea, forming a mulatto population speaking a Portuguese-based Creole language as a lingua franca. However, after 1500 most Portuguese interest, both for gold and slaves, centered further south in the Gold Coast. At the beginning of the 17th century, the Portuguese exported slaves from Upper Guinea from Santiago in Cape Verde, and those from the Gulf of Guinea from São Tomé Island. In the 1630s and 1640s, the Dutch drove the Portuguese from most of the Gold Coast. The Portuguese did retain a foothold at São João de Ajuda in Benin, now called Ouidah, since before the 1750s they preferred to acquire slaves from the Gulf of Guinea rather than Upper Guinea. In the 17th century, the French established bases at Saint-Louis, Senegal, the English at Kunta Kinteh Island on the Gambia River and Dutch at Gorée. The very weak Portuguese position in Upper Guinea was strengthened by the first Marquess of Pombal who promoted the supply of slaves from this area to the provinces of Grão-Pará and Maranhão in northern Brazil. Between 1757 and 1777, over 25,000 slaves were transported from the “Rivers of Guinea”, which approximated Portuguese Guinea and parts of Senegal, even though this area had been largely neglected by the Portuguese for the previous 200 years. Bissau, founded in 1765, became the centre of Portuguese control.
Portuguese Guinea
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Bolama is the closest of the Bissagos Islands to the mainland of Guinea-Bissau. The island has a population of 6,024 (2009 census). It shares its name with ist largest settlement, the town Bolama, which is the capital of the island and the Bolama Region. It is almost surrounded by mangrove swamps and is known for its cashew nuts. Although often visited by local people, the island was apparently uninhabited when British colonists settled it in 1792. Following a series of failures, they abandoned the island in 1794, another colonisation attempt in 1814 also being quickly ended. History In 1792, a group of officers of the Royal Navy led an attempt to resettle Black former slaves from the Americas on the island of Bulama off the coast of Portuguese Guinea. Philip Beaver was president of the council of the colonization society; Richard Hancorn was vice-president. Most of the settlers died and the survivors abandoned the colony in November 1793 and made their way to Settler Town in what later became the Colony of Sierra Leone. The Portuguese also claimed Bolama in 1830 and a dispute developed. In 1860, the British proclaimed the island annexed to Sierra Leone, but in 1870 a commission chaired by Ulysses S. Grant awarded Bolama to Portugal. Subsequently, in 1879, the town of Bolama became the first capital of Portuguese Guinea and remained so until its transfer to Bissau in 1941. Bissau had been founded in 1687 by Portugal as a fortified port and trading center. This transfer was needed due to the shortage of fresh water in Bolama. Bolama later became a seaplane stop, and a seaplane crash in 1931 is commemorated by a statue in the town. A fruit processing plant was built on Bolama shortly after independence of Guinea-Bissau, with Dutch foreign aid. This plant produced canned juice and jelly of cashew fruit. However, it could not expand and had to shut down its operations, due to the shortage of fresh water on the island. Attractions on the island include sandy beaches and the abandoned ruins of the town of Bolama. It is also designated as a biosphere reserve, and the Bissau-Guinean government is aiming for it to be designated the nation's first World Heritage Site. A causeway links the island to the Ilha das Cobras. Further reading The history of the English colonisation attempt in 1792 is chronicled in the first six chapters of the 2013 book "The Ship of Death: The Voyage that Changed the Atlantic World" by (professor of history) Billy G. Smith. References External links Abolition Gone Wrong - article about the failed 1792 English settlement of Bolama Bolama Region Bissagos Islands Sectors of Guinea-Bissau
Bolama Island
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Mayaguana (from Taíno language Mayaguana, meaning "Lesser Midwestern Land") is the easternmost island and district of The Bahamas. Its population was 277 in the 2010 census. It has an area of about . About north of Great Inagua and southeast of the capital Nassau, Mayaguana is considered the halfway point between South Florida and Puerto Rico and is about off Palm Beach, Florida. It is a popular stopover for boaters en-route to the eastern Caribbean. Etymology The indigenous Lucayan people named the island Mayaguana (or Mariguana) meaning "lesser mid-western land". History Mayaguana was inhabited by Lucayans prior to the arrival of the Spanish following 1492. After the last of the Lucayans were carried off to Hispaniola by the Spanish early in the 16th century, the island remained uninhabited until 1812, when people began to migrate from the Turks and Caicos Islands, which are located about southeast. The Brazilian historian Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen suggested in 1824 that Mayaguana is Guanahani, the first island visited by Christopher Columbus at his discovery of the Americas. His theory has found little support. Mayaguana apparently was the Lucayan name (meaning "Lesser Midwestern Land" ) for the island. The first steamship to circumnavigate the globe, the Royal Navy sloop HMS Driver, wrecked on Mayaguana on 3 August 1861, 14 years after the completion of her epic voyage in 1847. During NASA's Project Mercury and the Apollo program, the United States space program had a missile tracking station on what is now Mayaguana Airport. The station was used to help keep astronauts on course. The Mayaguana Airport was built by US Army Engineers attached to the US Air Force. The airport was built as a runway for jet planes that would follow missiles fired from Cape Canaveral. Real-time sighting and photography was the best technology of the time for observing the flight of the missiles. The Bahamian government has recently approved working with American investors MMC to turn Mayaguana into a "free trade zone," complete with tourism development of approximately 14% of the island. Actually, this is 14% of the total landmass but essentially most of the coastal region. The proposal was met with moderate resistance by Mayaguanians, who look forward to economic expansion but are unsure of what change is to come. This development is still in a planning phase and is trying to maintain the nature of the island as a quiet eco-tourist destination while still creating sustainable economic growth. People The largest settlement is Abraham's Bay (pop. 143) on the south coast; other settlements are the neighboring towns of Betsy Bay (pop. 44) and Pirate's Well (pop. 90) in the northwest with the population slowly decreasing. The uninhabited areas of Upper Point (north shore), Northeast Point, and Southeast Point are largely inaccessible by road. Culture The Betsy Bay Homecoming Festival is held annually in Mayaguana. As of 2020, the All Mayaguana Regatta was also held annually in Mayaguana. Economy The least developed Bahamian island, Mayaguana has never really seen major growth largely due
Mayaguana
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Islam is the second largest religion in Maharashtra, India, comprising 12,971,152 people which is 11.54% of the population. Muslims are largely concentrated in urban areas of the state, especially in Mumbai and the Marathwada region. There are several groups of Muslims in Maharashtra: Marathi and Konkani Muslims, whose native language is various dialects of Marathi and Konkani, Dakhni Muslims, whose native language is Dakhni Urdu, and more recent Urdu-speaking migrants from North India. History The Konkan Coast, like other regions along the western coast of India, long had trade relations with the Arab world. The first presence of Islam in what is today Maharashtra comes from Arab traders arriving on the Konkan coast in the 7th and 8th centuries. These Arab traders often married local women and settled down to form their own communities. In the rest of Maharashtra, the first time Islam was brought there was when Alauddin Khilji raided Devagiri, capital of the Yadava dynasty, in 1296. Ramachandra reluctantly agreed to pay tribute to the Delhi Sultanate and become his tributary. In 1308, Malik Kafur, under Alauddin Khilji, conquered Devagiri and renamed it to Daulatabad. This was the beginning of Islamic rule over western Maharashtra. During this time, many Sufi saints came to the region and spread Islam among common people, although the vast majority remained non-Muslim. During the 14th century, Muhammad bin Tughlaq attempted to shift his capital to Daulatabad, but soon gave up and moved back to Delhi. However in 1347, during the rebellion of Ismail Mukh, Alauddin Bahman Shah declared his independence from the Delhi Sultanate, forming the Bahmani Sultanate. These sultans, who were ruling over a population that was overwhelmingly non-Muslim, did not follow the advice of their Maulvis to impose strict Shariah in their territories for all citizens. Although the Delhi Sultans did destroy temples, as did the early Bahamani sultans, they never faced much opposition from the still-powerful Hindu nobility. In the last two decades of Bahamani rule, the kingdom split into five different sultanates: Ahmednagar, Berar, Bijapur, Bidar and Golconda. The northern Konkan coast was ruled by the Gujarat Sultanate. This region, especially the islands that would make up Mumbai, were constantly being fought over by the Gujarat and Bahamani sultans until the Portuguese arrival. The sultans constructed numerous mosques and dargahs on the various islands, the most famous being the Haji Ali Dargah. In 1535, the Gujarat sultanate signed a treaty ceding all of the northern Konkan coast to the Portuguese, ending Islamic rule in the region. South of Mumbai was the state of Janjira, founded by a Sheedi Muslim commander who defeated the local ruler, Ramrao Patil, who put himself under the overlordship of the Bijapur Sultans. When the Portuguese arrived and the Ottomans resisted their entry to the Indian Ocean, Janjira played an important role as an Ottoman ally. The Sultanates continued Muslim rule, although they relied heavily on Hindu jagirdars, especially Marathas, for collection of taxes and maintaining their armies. During this time, a composite Hindu-Muslim syncretism
Islam in Maharashtra
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Fogo Island (Fogo, Portuguese for "Fire") is the largest of the offshore islands of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. The Town of Fogo Island encompasses Fogo, Joe Batt's Arm-Barr'd Islands-Shoal Bay, Seldom-Little Seldom and Tilting, with the unincorporated areas of Fogo Island. It lies off the northeast coast of Newfoundland, northwest of Musgrave Harbour across Hamilton Sound, just east of the Change Islands. The island is about long and wide. The total area is . The island had a population of 2,706 people in the 2006 census, 2,395 in the 2011 census, and 2,244 in the 2016 census. Though migratory French fishermen visited Fogo Island from the early 16th century until 1718, the first permanent settlement of the island took place in the 18th century. Fogo Harbour and Tilting Harbour were the first settlements on the island. The English and Irish descendants of the first inhabitants retained traces of their Elizabethan English and Old Irish dialects, which can be heard on the island today. The island has many ancient folk customs brought from England and Ireland, but they are disappearing. History Fogo Island is one of the oldest named features on the coast of Newfoundland. The Bertius map from 1606 shows Fogo Island as one of only about a dozen important features around the coast of Newfoundland. On French maps of the 16th to 18th centuries, the island is referred to as Ile des Fougues. The island was likely named by Portuguese explorers and early fishing crews in the 16th century (Fogo means Fire in Portuguese). Until 1783, Fogo Island was on an area of the coast called the French Shore. Though English and Irish were not supposed to settle here, under the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht, they did settle; by 1750, Fogo was a thriving part of the British mercantile system of fisheries, based out of West Country English towns such as Poole, in Dorset. Tilting Harbour on Fogo Island is a National Cultural Landscape District of Canada and is Newfoundland and Labrador's first Provincial Heritage District. Tilting is unique for its Irish culture and, some people say, its Irish dialect. The Irish Cemetery in Tilting may be the oldest in North America. Local oral history indicates that Tilting was originally a French harbour before becoming a venue of Irish settlement. This is highly likely, given the traditional commercial and cultural links between southern Irish and northern French fishing ports. The first Irish settled in Tilting in the 1750s, and uniquely for Newfoundland, Tilting evolved into an exclusively Irish and Catholic town by the 1780s. Beothuk traversed Fogo Island for many hundreds of years before Irish and English settlers arrived. The Beothuk pursued the seal and salmon fisheries in the area. They also travelled out to the Funk Islands to collect feathers and eggs from the birds there. In the early years of European settlement at Fogo, there were incidents of violence between the Beothuk and the Europeans. This contact ended around the year 1800. The Beothuk became
Fogo Island (Newfoundland and Labrador)
803280
Rote Island (, also spelled Roti) is an island of Indonesia, part of the East Nusa Tenggara province of the Lesser Sunda Islands. According to legend, this island got its name accidentally when a lost Portuguese sailor arrived and asked a farmer where he was. The surprised farmer, who could not speak Portuguese, introduced himself, "Rote". Geography Rote lies 500 km (310.686 miles) northwest of the Australian coast and 150 km (105.633 miles) north of the Ashmore and Cartier Islands. The island is situated to the southwest of the larger island of Timor. To the north is the Savu Sea, and to the south is the Timor Sea. To the west lie Savu and Sumba. The uninhabited Pamana (or Ndana) island, just south of Rote, with an area of , is the southernmost island of Indonesia. Along with some other nearby small islands, such as Nuse Island and Ndao island to the west of Rote, it forms the kabupaten (regency) of Rote Ndao Regency, which in the 2020 decennial census recorded a population of 143,764; the official estimate as at mid 2022 was 148,811. Rote island has an area of (including offshore islands). The main town, Ba'a, is located on the northern side of the island. Rote has a good surf area in the south, around the village of Nembrala. For the most part, the island is covered by grassland and palms. This island experiences tropical savanna climate (Aw) with dry months for much of the year because of the dry winds that blow from mainland Australia. The main rainfall usually occurs between November and March. Between 80% and 95% of all rain falls during the wet west monsoon period and with little or no rain falling between July and October. The mean rainfall for Rote Island is around 1,200 to 1,300 mm annually. During the dry season, many streams and rivers run dry and local inhabitants must rely only on wells for their water supplies. Geology Rote is the youngest island of the Banda Fore Arc. The Banda Fore Arc is an accretionary wedge forming in response to an arc continent collision between oceanic crust of the Eurasian Plate and the Australian Plate. As the Australian continental shelf subducts under the Banda Arc, marine sediment is transferred to the upper plate, forming and accretionary wedge. Most of the wedge is submarine, but some parts are exposed above sea level forming the islands of Sumba, Savu, Rote and Timor. Rote and Savu are the youngest of these islands. Researchers have investigated the biostratigraphy of microfossils to time the uplift of these islands and the rate at which they rose from below sea level. Planktonic microorganisms called Foraminifera build shells of calcite. When they die, their shells accumulate on the seafloor as thick sequences of chalk. Chalk forms in deep marine, low energy environments. The Neogene Batu Putih Formation is a deposit of chalk, 100s of meters thick, that accumulated on top of the Banda Fore Arc accretionary wedge. This chalk
Rote Island
12191
The economy of Guinea-Bissau comprises a mixture of state-owned and private companies. Guinea-Bissau is among the world's least developed nations and one of the 10 poorest countries in the world, and depends mainly on agriculture and fishing. Cashew crops have increased remarkably in recent years, and the country ranked ninth in cashew production for the year 2019. Guinea-Bissau exports to Asia non-fillet frozen fish and seafood, peanuts, palm kernels, and timber. License fees for fishing in their sea-zone (Gulf of Guinea) provide the government with some small revenue. Rice is the major crop and staple food. Due to European regulations, fish and cashew-nuts exports to Europe are totally prohibited as well as agriculture products in general. Economic history Early colonialism From a European viewpoint, the economic history of the Guinea Coast is largely associated with slavery. Indeed, one of the alternative names for the region was the Slave Coast. When the Portuguese first sailed down the Atlantic coast of Africa in the 1430s, they were interested in gold. Ever since Mansa Musa, king of the Mali Empire, made his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1325, with 500 slaves and 100 camels (each carrying gold) the region had become synonymous with such wealth. The trade from sub-Saharan Africa was controlled by the Islamic Empire which stretched along Africa's northern coast. Muslim trade routes across the Sahara, which had existed for centuries, involved salt, kola, textiles, fish, grain and slaves. As the Portuguese extended their influence around the coast, Mauritania, Senegambia (by 1445) and Guinea, they created trading posts. Rather than becoming direct competitors to the Muslim merchants, the expanding market opportunities in Europe and the Mediterranean resulted in increased trade across the Sahara. In addition, the Portuguese merchants gained access to the interior via the Sénégal and Gambia rivers which bisected long-standing trans-Saharan routes. The Portuguese brought in copper ware, cloth, tools, wine and horses. Trade goods soon also included arms and ammunition. In exchange, the Portuguese received gold (transported from mines of the Akan deposits), pepper (a trade which lasted until Vasco da Gama reached India in 1498) and ivory. There was a very small market for African slaves as domestic workers in Europe, and as workers on the sugar plantations of the Mediterranean. The Portuguese found they could make considerable amounts of gold transporting slaves from one trading post to another, along the Atlantic coast of Africa. Muslim merchants had a high demand for slaves, which were used as porters on the trans-Saharan routes, and for sale in the Islamic Empire. The Portuguese found Muslim merchants entrenched along the African coast as far as the Bight of Benin. Before the arrival of the Europeans, the African slave trade, centuries old in Africa, was not yet the major feature of the coastal economy of Guinea. The expansion of trade occurs after the Portuguese reach this region in 1446, bringing great wealth to several local slave trading tribes. The Portuguese used slave labour to colonize and develop the previously uninhabited Cape Verde
Economy of Guinea-Bissau
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Álvaro Fernandes (sometimes given erroneously as António Fernandes), was a 15th-century Portuguese explorer from Madeira, in the service of Henry the Navigator. He captained two important expeditions (in 1445 and 1446), which expanded the limit of the Portuguese discovery of the West African coast, probably as far as the northern borderlands of modern Guinea-Bissau. Álvaro Fernandes's farthest point (approximately Cape Roxo) would not be surpassed for ten years, until the voyage of Alvise Cadamosto in 1456. Background Álvaro Fernandes was the nephew João Gonçalves Zarco, discoverer and donatary captain of Funchal. Fernandes was brought up (as a page or squire) in the household of Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator. 1st expedition In 1448, as part of a larger expedition mainly based in Lagos, Algarve, a small caravel fleet was assembled in Madeira. Two of the ships were outfitted by João Gonçalves Zarco, donatary of Funchal, who appointed his nephew, Álvaro Fernandes, created by Prince Henry, to captain one of them. Another ship was commanded by Tristão da Ilha, donatary captain of Machico, and another by Álvaro de Ornellas. According to 15th-century chronicler Gomes Eanes de Zurara, Álvaro Fernandes went out alone, personally instructed by Prince Henry to avoid any raids, and aim straight for Guinea for the glory of exploration alone. Skipping Arguin, Álvaro Fernandes sailed straight south, reaching the mouth of the Senegal River. He stopped there only long enough to fill two barrels with river water. Álvaro Fernandes continued sailing down the Grande Côte of Senegal until Cape Verde, the farthest point reached by Dinis Dias. It is uncertain if Dias actually surpassed the cape. If not, then Álvaro Fernandes may very well have been the first European to double Cape Verde and sail into the Angra de Bezeguiche (Bay of Dakar). Fernandes anchored at Bezeguiche island (Gorée island), which was uninhabited, but had many wild goats, which the crew proceeded to slaughter for food. Fernandes is said to have left his marker on the island by carving Prince Henry the Navigator's knightly motto, Talent de bien faire ("Hunger for good deeds") on a tree trunk. While idling off the island, a couple of curious native canoes (five men each) from the mainland (Wolof or more probably Lebou people) paddled out to the caravel. The first encounter went smoothly enough—gestures were exchanged expressing peaceful intentions, and several of the natives were invited aboard, and given food and drink by the Portuguese, before setting back in their canoes and returning to the mainland. Encouraged by the report of the initial pacific encounter, six more canoes decided to paddle out to the caravel. But this time Álvaro Fernandes decided to set up an ambush, and prepared a launch with armed men, behind the concealed side of the caravel. As the native canoes got within range, Fernandes gave the signal and the hidden Portuguese armed launch darted out from behind the ship. The native canoes immediately began to turn around to make their way back to shore, but not before the
Álvaro Fernandes
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The history of Madeira begins with the discovery of the islands by Portugal in 1419. There is no record of anyone living on the islands at that time. Portugal began populating the island in 1420. Pre-Portuguese times Pliny mentions certain Purple Islands, the position of which with reference to the Fortunate Islands or Canaries might seem to indicate Madeira islands. Plutarch (Sertorius, 75 AD) referring to the military commander Quintus Sertorius (d. 72 BC), relates that after his return to Cádiz, "he met seamen recently arrived from Atlantic islands, two in number, divided from one another only by a narrow channel and distant from the coast of Africa 10,000 furlongs. They are called Isles of the Blest." The estimated distance from Africa, and the closeness of the two islands, seem to indicate Madeira and Porto Santo, which is much smaller than Madeira itself, and to the north east of it. Tenth- or eleventh-century fragments of mouse bone found in Madeira, along with mitochondrial DNA of Madeiran mice, may indicate that the Vikings have come to Madeira (bringing mice with them), prior to colonisation by Portugal. However, because of “widespread trade routes, a mouse from Scandinavia could easily have boarded a ship in what today is Portugal and sailed over to Madeira, as well as the Azores” (as pointed out by the geographer Simon Connor). The geographer concludes that there is no evidence of a Scandinavian settlement or sighting of the islands and that the Portuguese were the ones that brought those mice from northern Europe to Madeira. There is a romantic tale about two lovers, Robert Machim and Anna d'Arfet in time of the King Edward III of England, fleeing from England to France in 1346, were driven off their course by a violent storm, and cast on the coast of Madeira at the place subsequently named Machico, in memory of one of them. On the evidence of a portolan contained in the Medici Atlas dated 1351, preserved at Florence, Italy, it would appear that Madeira had been discovered long before that date, possibly by Portuguese vessels under Genoese captains. 15th and 16th centuries In 1419 two captains of Prince Henry the Navigator, João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vaz Teixeira, were driven by a storm to the island they called Porto Santo, or Holy Harbour, in gratitude for their rescue from shipwreck. The next year an expedition was sent to populate the island, and, Madeira being described, they made for it, and took possession on behalf of the Portuguese crown, together with captain Bartolomeu Perestrello. The discoveries of Porto Santo and Madeira were first described by Gomes Eanes de Zurara in Chronica da Descoberta e Conquista da Guiné. (Eng. version by Edgar Prestage in 2 vols. issued by the Hakluyt Society, London, 1896–1899: The Chronicle of Discovery and Conquest of Guinea.) Arkan Simaan relates these discoveries in French in his novel based on Azurara's chronicle: L’Écuyer d’Henri le Navigateur, published by Éditions l’Harmattan, Paris. The islands started to be settled
History of Madeira
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Angola was first settled by San hunter-gatherer societies before the northern domains came under the rule of Bantu states such as Kongo and Ndongo. In the 15th century, Portuguese colonists began trading, and a settlement was established at Luanda during the 16th century. Portugal annexed territories in the region which were ruled as a colony from 1655, and Angola was incorporated as an overseas province of Portugal in 1951. After the Angolan War of Independence, which ended in 1974 with an army mutiny and leftist coup in Lisbon, Angola achieved independence in 1975 through the Alvor Agreement. After independence, Angola entered a long period of civil war that lasted until 2002. Prehistory The area of present day Angola was inhabited during the paleolithic and neolithic eras, as attested by remains found in Luanda, Congo, and the Namibe desert. At the beginning of recorded history other cultures and people also arrived. The first ones to settle were the San people. This changed at the beginning of the sixth century AD, when the Bantu, already in possession of metal-working technology, ceramics and agriculture began migrating from the north. When they reached what is now Angola they encountered the San and other groups. The establishment of the Bantu took many centuries and gave rise to a variety of groupings that took on different ethnic characteristics. The first large political entity in the area, known to history as the Kingdom of Kongo, appeared in the thirteenth century and stretched from Gabon in the north to the river Kwanza in the south, and from the Atlantic in the west to the river Cuango in the east. The wealth of the Kongo came mainly from agriculture. Power was in the hands of the Mani, aristocrats who occupied key positions in the kingdom and who answered only to the all-powerful King of the Kongo. Mbanza was the name given to a territorial unit administered and ruled by a Mani; Mbanza Congo, the capital, had a population of over fifty thousand in the sixteenth century. The Kingdom of Kongo was divided into six provinces and included some dependent kingdoms, such as Ndongo to the south. Trade was the main activity, based on highly productive agriculture and increasing exploitation of mineral wealth. In 1482, Portuguese caravels commanded by Diogo Cão arrived in the Congo and he explored the extreme north-western coast of what today is Angola in 1484. Other expeditions followed, and close relations were soon established between the two states. The Portuguese brought firearms and many other technological advances, as well as a new religion (Christianity); in return, the King of the Congo offered plenty of slaves, ivory, and minerals. Portuguese colony The Portuguese colony of Angola was founded in 1575 with the arrival of Paulo Dias de Novais with a hundred Portuguese families and four hundred soldiers. Its center at Luanda was granted the status of city in 1605. The King of the Kongo soon converted to Christianity and adopted a similar political structure to the Europeans.
History of Angola
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Malabo ( , ; formerly ) is the capital of Equatorial Guinea and the province of Bioko Norte. It is located on the north coast of the island of Bioko (, and as Fernando Pó by the Europeans). In 2018, the city had a population of approximately 297,000 inhabitants. Spanish is the official language of the city and of the country as well, but Pichinglis is used as a language of wider communication across Bioko island, including Malabo. Malabo is the oldest city in Equatorial Guinea. Ciudad de la Paz is a planned community under construction in mainland Equatorial Guinea which was designed to replace Malabo as the capital. The institutions of governance of Equatorial Guinea began the process of locating to Ciudad de la Paz in February 2017. History European discovery and Portuguese occupation In 1472, in an attempt to find a new route to India, the Portuguese navigator Fernão do Pó, encountered the island of Bioko, which he called Formosa. Later, the island was named after its discoverer, Fernando Pó. At the beginning of the 16th century, specifically in 1507, the Portuguese Ramos de Esquivel made a first attempt at colonization on the island of Fernando Pó. He established a factory in Concepción (now Riaba) and developed plantations of sugarcane. With the treaties of San Ildefonso in 1777 and El Pardo in 1778, during the reign of the Spanish King Charles III, the Portuguese gave to the Spanish the islands of Fernando Pó, Annobón, and the right to conduct trade in the mainland, an area of influence of approximately 800 000 km2 in Africa, in exchange for the Colonia del Sacramento in Río de la Plata and the Santa Catarina Island off the Brazilian coast (occupied by the Spaniards) during a recent war trying to stop Portuguese expansion in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. The area stretched from the Niger Delta to the mouth of Ogooué River — in current Gabon — and included, besides the islands of Fernando Pó and Annobón, the islets of Corisco and Elobeyes. Spain wasn't interested in these lands because already had vast colonies in other parts of the world, Spain lost interest in Spanish Guinea in 1827 and authorized the British to use the island as a base for suppressing the slave trade. British presence In 1821, the Nelly approached the island of Fernando Pó. He found it abandoned and founded the establishments of Melville Bay (now Riaba) and San Carlos (now Luba). Some years later, another British captain, William Fitzwilliam Owen, decided to colonize the island and in the north of it — on the site of the present capital — erected a base for British ships hunting slave traders. Thus, on 25 December 1827, Port Clarence was founded on the ruins of a previous Portuguese settlement. The name was chosen in honor of the Duke of Clarence, who later became King William IV. The Bubis indigenous to the island called it Ripotó (place of the foreigners). The
Malabo
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A padrão (, standard; plural: ) is a stone pillar left by Portuguese maritime explorers in the 15th and 16th centuries to record significant landfalls and thereby establish primacy and possession. They were often placed on promontories and capes or at the mouths of major rivers. Early markers were simple wooden pillars or crosses but they deteriorated quickly in the tropical climate where they were often erected. Later, padrões were carved from stone in the form of a pillar surmounted by a cross and the royal coat of arms. History Diogo Cão was the first to place stone padrões on his voyage of discovery along the coast of Africa in 1482–1484. They had been carved ahead of time in Portugal and carried in his ship at the behest of King João II. Cão placed the pillars at points in what is now Gabon, Angola and Namibia. The first was installed at the mouth of the river Congo. In August 1483 he erected one on the headlands of Angola at Cabo Negro with the inscription: Subsequent excavations and surveys, particularly by Eric Axelson in the 1950s, located the remains of a number of the padrões. Some of the crosses were fragmentary, but could be identified from their use of Portuguese limestone. In 1498 Vasco da Gama erected a padrão at Malindi in East Africa before setting across the Indian Ocean to Calicut. This is known today as the Vasco da Gama Pillar and includes the original cross, made from Portuguese limestone. In 1522 the Portuguese mariner Henrique Leme negotiated a treaty with the Sunda Kingdom and in commemoration he raised a padrão at the kingdom's main port, Sunda Kalapa, now part of Jakarta, Indonesia. The Luso Sundanese padrão was rediscovered in 1918 and is exhibited at the National Museum of Indonesia. Other notable explorers known to have erected padrões include Pero da Covilhã, Bartolomeu Dias, Goncalo Coelho and Jorge Álvares. The Lisbon Geographic Society managed to restore in the 20th century three erected by Diogo Cão and one by Bartolomeu Dias. At the Dias Cross Memorial on the coast of South Africa's Eastern Cape province, there is a padrão replica on a promontory at what is now known as Kwaaihoek; it was placed by Bartolomeu Dias in 1488 to mark the site of his most easterly landfall after becoming the first European navigator to round the Cape of Good Hope. The original padrão was discovered by Eric Axelson in the 1930s – it had fallen, or was pushed, off the top of Kwaaihoek, and was in pieces in the gullies below. Axelson recovered these pieces and was able to reconstruct the stone monument; the reconstructed original now stands in the William Cullen Library of the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg. List of padrões See also Padrão dos Descobrimentos References Notes Citations Sources Types of monuments and memorials Cross symbols Maritime history of Portugal Portuguese exploration in the Age of Discovery
Padrão
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Juana Maria (died October 19, 1853), better known to history as the Lone Woman of San Nicolas Island (her Native American name is unknown), was a Native Californian woman who was the last surviving member of her tribe, the Nicoleño. She lived alone on San Nicolas Island off the coast of Alta California from 1835 until her removal from the island in 1853. Scott O'Dell's award-winning children's novel Island of the Blue Dolphins (1960) was inspired by her story. She was the last native speaker of the Nicoleño language. Background The Channel Islands have long been inhabited by humans, with Native American colonization occurring 10,000 years ago or earlier. At the time of European contact, two distinct ethnic groups occupied the archipelago: the Chumash lived on the Northern Channel Islands and the Tongva on the Southern Islands. Juana Maria's tribe, the Nicoleño, were believed to be closely related to the Tongva. In the early 1540s, Spanish (or Portuguese, according to some accounts) conquistador Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo explored the California coast, claiming it on behalf of Spain. Arrival of the fur trappers (Aleuts) In 1814, the brig Il’mena brought a party of Native Alaskan otter hunters working for the Russian-American Company (RAC), who massacred most of the islanders after accusing them of killing a Native Alaskan hunter. Although there was speculation that the Franciscan padres of the California missions requested that the remaining Nicoleños be removed from the island, there is no documentary evidence to back that claim. The missions were undergoing secularization in the 1830s and there was no Franciscan priest at Mission San Gabriel from mid-1835 through spring of 1836 to receive any Nicoleños brought to the mainland. In late November 1835, the schooner Peor es Nada ("Nothing is Worse"), commanded by Charles Hubbard, left southern California to remove the remaining people living on San Nicolas. Upon arriving at the island, Hubbard's party, which included Isaac Sparks, gathered the islanders on the beach and brought them aboard. Juana Maria, however, was not among them. A strong storm arose, and the Peor es Nada'''s crew, realizing the imminent danger of being wrecked by the surf and rocks, panicked and sailed toward the mainland, leaving her behind. A more romantic version tells of Juana Maria diving overboard after realizing her younger brother had been left behind, although archaeologist Steven J. Schwartz notes, "The story of her jumping overboard does not show up until the 1880s ... By then the Victorian era is well underway, and literature takes on a flowery, even romantic flavor." This version is recorded by Juana Maria's eventual rescuer, George Nidever, who heard it from a hunter who had been on the Peor es Nada; however, Nidever makes it clear he may be misremembering what he heard. Discovery According to Emma Hardacre, there are differing accounts as to the discovery of the Lone Woman. The first is that Father José González Rubio of the Santa Barbara Mission offered a man named Carl Dittman $100 to find her. The
Juana Maria
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Anjediva Island (also Anjadip Island) (; ) is an Indian island in the Arabian Sea. It sits off the coast of Canacona, Goa. It is politically part of Goa state, geographically the nearest mainland is the coastal Kanara subregion of Carnataca. The island is about south of Goa, and extends over . It was part of the Portuguese Indian settlements until 1961, following the annexation of Goa and Damaon the place was turned into a military base, after which the civilian population was resettled to India or returned to Portugal. The island is home to the Portuguese-built Anjediva fortress, which houses the shrines of Our Lady of Brotas and São Francisco de Assis. The island is connected to the mainland by a breakwater and is part of INS Kadamba Naval Base, on the outskirts of the city of Karwar and hence under the jurisdiction of the Indian Navy. Geography The island lies approximately 1.8 km from the district of Uttar Kannada. It is 4 km south of Karwar (once Baticala, or the kingdom of Garsopa, in Portuguese times) and about 87 km south of what once was called the city of Goa. Covering only 1.5 square kilometers, the island is 1.3 km long and 300 meters wide, on average. The only regular presence is members of the Indian Navy. Occasionally, other visitors and fishermen come across the island. In the nineteenth century, some 200 people had permanent settlements there. History Origin Vasco da Gama claimed the island as Portuguese crown territory on September 24, 1498 during his first trip to India. The Portuguese presence on the island began with the landing of D. Francisco de Almeida on September 13, 1505, who ordered the building of a fortress, which was destroyed seven months later. The Afonso de Albuquerque attack, which culminated in the conquest of Goa in 1510, was launched from Anjediva. The island was unoccupied until 1661 when the English settled there, waiting for the treaty of July 23 to be complied. This treaty eventually yielded them Bombay, which was transferred among the colonial powers in 1665. English presence The English presence came when Viceroy Antonio de Melo e Castro refused to hand Bombay to the British following the marriage of Charles II to Catherine of Braganza, in which the city formed part of her dowry. Ships transported the English troops, commanded by the Earl of Marlborough and accompanied by future Governor-general Sir Abraham Shipman, sought shelter from the monsoons. Shipman, along with many officers and soldiers, eventually died due to the climate and poor housing, so harsh that of the initial force of over 500 men who arrived in 1662, only 191 men survived to leave the island. With the departure of the British in 1665, the island was vacant until the Marathas raids (led by Sambhaji in 1682) forced the Portuguese to rebuild the fort. The work was ordered by viceroy Francisco de Távora, Count of Alvor, as recorded by a plaque placed on the fortress. In addition
Anjediva Island
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João de Lisboa (c.1470 – 1525) was a Portuguese explorer. He is known to have sailed together with Tristão da Cunha, and to have explored Río de La Plata and possibly the San Matias Gulf, around 1511-12. The Brazilian historian Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen erroneously stated that he was in Ferdinand Magellan circumnavigation voyage. He is the author of a Treatise on the Nautical Needle, dated 1514, which is extant in a later copy included in an undated (ca. 1550?) Portuguese nautical atlas. He died in 1525 while traveling in the Indian Ocean. Treatise of Seamanship It is composed by the Brief Treatise on Seamanship and a "Treatise on the Nautical Needle found by João de Lisboa in the year 1514". Thereafter, an atlas of 20 charts follows. The 20 charts present: Chart 1: Newfoundland, Azores, Iceland, England, Lisbon; Chart 2: Central America, Antilles Sea, South America northwest; Chart 3: Antilles Sea, South America coast from Maracaibo Gulf to Maranhão; Chart 4: South America coast, from Rio de Janeiro to the Magellan Strait, with La Plata River; Chart 5: Coast from Maranhão to the South of Brazil; Chart 6: From the Brazilian northeast to the west of Africa; Chart 7: South Atlantic islands; Chart 8: North Atlantic, with Bacallaos Land (Newfoundland), Iceland, England, Lisbon; Chart 9: Western Europe Chart 10: West Africa and Brazilian Northeast. Chart 11: Guinea Gulf; Chart 12: Western Africa; Chart 13: Eastern Africa; Chart 14: Southwest islands in the Indian Ocean; Chart 15: Red Sea and Persian Gulf; Chart 16: From Persian Gulf coast to Sri Lanka; Chart 17: Far East from the Siamese Gulf to Japan; Chart 18: Bengala Gulf; Chart 19: Insulindia; Chart 20: Globe of the world - radial representation centered at the North Pole; The book can be found in Torre do Tombo National Archive (Colecção Cartográfica nº166), with an additional information that the maps are made of parchment. The maps of the Tratado clearly date from after 1514. For instance, it shows the Magellan Strait or Japan (which was only reported by the Portuguese in 1543). On the other hand, the position of certain Portuguese flags is not consistent with historical events; in particular in one of the charts, Portuguese castles are drawn in Inca territory, something that was never reported in any official document. Based on the presence of Japan, Armando Cortesão dated the atlas as "circa 1560", while other authors date it to "circa 1550". References External links Mapas no Tratado de Marinharia Portuguese explorers 1470 births 1525 deaths 15th-century Portuguese people 16th-century Portuguese people 15th-century explorers 16th-century explorers 16th-century Portuguese writers 16th-century male writers
João de Lisboa
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John Scolvus or John of Kolno may have been a navigator of the late 15th century. According to some sources he was among a group of early Europeans to reach the shores of the Americas prior to Columbus, arriving in 1476 as steersman of Didrik Pining, although this view is not supported by contemporary evidence, and as he is not mentioned contemporaneously, his identity and even existence have been disputed. Pining expedition It has been claimed that in the 1470s, a fleet of several Danish ships sponsored by Christian I of Denmark set sail from Norway westwards to Greenland. There was such a fleet in 1473 or 1476, commanded by John of Kolno, supposedly a Polish navigator at the service of the king of Denmark. According to speculations lacking surviving written evidence, the fleet was commanded by two Baltic sailors and pirate hunters, Didrik Pining and Hans Pothorst and possibly also included the Portuguese João Vaz Corte-Real on one of the journeys. It has been claimed that from the Western coast of Greenland they may have reached the North American mainland. The story cannot be verified today, since the only surviving records tell us that Pothorst and Pining saw a "rocky island called Hvitsark, halfway between Iceland and Greenland" in 1494, as described by Samuel Eliot Morison in his "The European Discovery of America, The Northern Voyages". John of Kolno ("Jan z Kolna" in Polish, eventually "Jan Scolvo") by contrast, was a navigator who led a Danish fleet to the coast of Labrador in 1476, or even 1473, according to one source, at the command of Christian I of Denmark. Sources for his alleged existence It is not certain if John Scolvus really existed and whether he reached America aboard these ships. All sources mentioning him were written long afterwards. Some evidence may suggest that Scolvus did exist and sailed to some location in the North Atlantic. Primarily, a 1536 globe of cartographer Gemma Frisius depicts an area within the Arctic Circle, north of a strait dividing Terra Corterealis and Baccalearum Regio from the westward projection of Greenland. Within this area is the inscription, "Quij, the people to whom Joes Scoluss, a Dane, penetrated about the year 1476." According to the Encyclopedia of Newfoundland and Labrador "Based on study of toponymy and cartography, most scholars have concluded that Scolvus visited Greenland and not Labrador." (Friseus’ knowledge of Labrador may have come from Portuguese sources). DCB /. acb Spanish author Francisco López de Gómara wrote in his Historia de las Indias (1553) about la Tierra de Labrador; "Hither also came men from Norway with the pilot [navigator] Joan Scoluo, and Englishmen with Sebastian [should be John] Gaboto." (In the sixteenth century, Greenland is known to have been referred to as "Labrador" by south European sources). Gómara had supposedly met Olaus Magnus in Bologna and Venice, perhaps in 1548. This suggests that the source of the statement about "Joan Scoluo" may have been him. Another possible reference to John Scolvus visiting Labrador
John Scolvus
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The Anglophone Crisis, an ongoing civil war between the Cameroonian state and Anglophone separatists who are trying to establish a new state called "Ambazonia", broke out due to grievances which built up within Cameroon at large and its English-speaking parts specifically over several decades. History Early colonisation and German Kamerun European traders from several nations visited Ambas Bay beginning with the Portuguese in the 1470s. The first permanent European settlement on the mainland in the region was founded in 1858 by British Baptist Missionary Alfred Saker as a haven for freed slaves. This settlement which was later named Victoria (now Limbe, Cameroon) after the then Queen Victoria. Until the 1880s, European activity was dominated by trading companies and missionaries. However, in the 1880s, the Scramble for Africa reached full swing with European powers rushing to gain diplomatic or military control over Africa to secure colonial claims. The Germans, who had established substantial trading centers to the southeast on the Wouri River delta (modern Douala), and the British, who had extensive interests to the west in Nigeria, both raced to sign agreements with local rulers. German explorer Gustav Nachtigal signed key treaties with several prominent kings. Dissatisfaction with these agreements led to the brief Douala War in 1884, in which Germany assisted its local allies in winning, essentially cementing its colonial position in Cameroon and by 1887 Britain had abandoned its claims in the region. Germany continued to consolidate its control over the coast through agreements with local leaders backed up by military expeditions. Germany conquered Buea in 1891 after several years of fighting, transferring the colonial capital there in 1892 from Douala. By 1914, the Germans had established control either directly or through local leaders well into the hinterlands of the territory now claimed by Ambazonia, conquering communities such as Nkambe and establishing a garrison fort at Bamenda in 1912. However, many towns and villages in the hinterlands had no German administration and may have only seen German soldiers a handful of times. German administration was focused on establishing plantations for cash crops, and improving transportation and communication infrastructure to bring products and natural resources swiftly to ports and thence to Europe. The rough terrain of the Cameroon line and the lack of navigable rivers in much of the interior of the region claimed by Ambazonia limited colonial activity outside the coastal regions. British colonial period (1914–1961) In 1914, as World War I began, British forces from British Nigeria and French forces from French Equatorial Africa and Gabon attacked German Kamerun. Allied naval superiority allowed the swift capture of the Cameroonian coast, cutting the Germans off from reinforcement or resupply. In early 1916, the last Germans surrendered or withdrew from Cameroon into neutral Spanish Guinea. In 1919, Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles, formally surrendered its colonies to the Allies. A few weeks later, Britain and France issued a statement known as the Simon-Milner Declaration, delineating the frontiers between the British Cameroons and French Cameroon. This boundary was recognized internationally
Origins of the Anglophone Crisis
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The Brazil socio-geographic division is a slightly different division than the Brazilian Division by Regions. It separates the country into three different and distinctive regions: Amazônia Legal Centro-Sul Nordeste Historically, the different regions of Brazil had their own migratory movements, which resulted in racial differences between these areas. The Southern region had a greater impact of the European immigration and has a large White majority, which contrasts with the Northern and Northeastern regions, which have a large Pardo (mixed-race) majority. In Northern Brazil, the main racial contribution was of the native Amerindians, with a smaller European and African influence. In Northeastern Brazil, the main contribution was of Africans, with a smaller European and Amerindian influence. In Southeastern Brazil, the main contribution was of Europeans, with a smaller African and Amerindian influence. Socio-geographic distinction This does not separate the country by borders of states. The north of Minas Gerais, for example, is in the socio-geographic division of Nordeste, but its southern part is in Centro-Sul. However, it is not very used, mainly because it is unofficial; all official information by IBGE is listed by the criteria of regions. The division by Socio-Geographic similarities is used mainly in universities and private companies, and it is little mentioned at regular school (grades 6–10). Regions South The South of Brazil is the region with the largest percentage of Whites. According to the 2005 census, people of European ancestry account for 79.6% of the population. In colonial times, this region had a very small population. The region what is now Southern Brazil was originally settled by Amerindian peoples, mostly Guarani and Kaingangs. Only a few settlers from São Paulo were living there. This situation made the region vulnerable to attacks from neighboring countries. This fact forced the King of Portugal to decide to populate the region. For this, settlers from the Portuguese Azores islands were sent to the coast. To stimulate the immigration to Brazil, the king offered several benefits for the Azorean couples. Between 1748 and 1756, six thousand Portuguese from the Azores moved to the coast of Santa Catarina. They were mainly newly married who were seeking a better life. At that time, the Azores were one of the poorest regions of Portugal. They established themselves mainly in the Santa Catarina Island, nowadays the region of Florianópolis. Later, some couples moved to Rio Grande do Sul, where they established Porto Alegre, the capital. The Azoreans lived on fishing and agriculture, especially flour. They composed over half of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina's population in the late 18th century. The state of Paraná was settled by colonists from São Paulo due to their proximity (Paraná was part of São Paulo until the mid-19th century). With the development of cattle in the interior of Rio Grande do Sul, enslaved Africans began arriving in large numbers. By 1822, Blacks were 50% of Rio Grande do Sul's population. This number decreased to 25% in 1858 and to only 5.2% in 2005. Most of them came
Brazil socio-geographic division
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Belle Isle (French for "Beautiful Island") is an uninhabited island slightly more than off the coast of Labrador and slightly less than north of Newfoundland at the Atlantic entrance to the Strait of Belle Isle, which takes its name. Named by the French explorer Jacques Cartier, the island lies on the shortest shipping lane between the Great Lakes and Europe and is on the main north-south shipping route to Hudson Bay and the Northwest Territories. The northern terminus of the International Appalachian Trail is on Belle Isle. Geography Belle Isle rises to about at its highest point and is in area, long and wide. It is nearly from either coast, but it is slightly closer to the Labrador side of the Strait of Belle Isle, and it has a lighthouse (supported by flying buttresses) at both its northern and its southern ends. Officially uninhabited, the island has some seasonal occupation during fishing season. Belle Isle is the northernmost peak of the Appalachian Mountains, which extend in various shapes over southwest to Alabama, United States. Ice patterns show that the island lies at the meeting point of two sea currents. The Labrador Current flows from the northwest, and a smaller current, driven by dominant westerly winds, flows from the southwest. Flow lines in sea ice give a sense of the movement of the ice. Ice floes embedded in the Labrador Current appear as a relatively open pattern. Sea ice with a denser pattern enters from the strait, banking against the west side of Belle Isle. Tendrils flow around capes at both ends of the island, with an ice-free "shadow" on the opposite, downstream side. Eddies off the western coast in the ice patterns, indicated by curved arrows in this photograph, show the place in which the currents interact north and west of the island. Climate Belle Isle has a marginal subarctic climate (Köppen climate classification Dfc), exceptionally cold for a coastal location so far south as the 51st parallel. As an illustration, Dunkirk on the opposite side of the Atlantic averages warmer for the year as a whole, due to the contrasting currents on the eastern and western sides of the Icelandic Low. The climate features short, cool summers and long, severely cold winters lasting most of the year. Precipitation peaks during the warmer months of June to September in the form of rain. See also List of communities in Newfoundland and Labrador List of ghost towns in Newfoundland and Labrador References External links Strait of Belle Isle ecoregion Chart of The Strait of Belle Isle and Belle Isle by Captain James Cook Uninhabited islands of Newfoundland and Labrador
Belle Isle (Newfoundland and Labrador)
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Batek Island or Fatu Sinai is a small uninhabited island located in the Savu Sea, northwest of the island of Timor, off the East Timorese municipality of Oecusse. The sovereignty of the island is disputed between Indonesia and East Timor. Etymology The island is uninhabited, but is traditionally considered sacred by the local population on both sides of the border, even though the majority are now Christians. It is therefore referred to as Fatu Lulik (sacred mountain) or adat. Legend has it that the island came to its present position from Timor's interior. While the inhabitants of Nitibe see its origin in the East Timorese Oesilo, the people from North Amfoang assign the island's origin to the Indonesian Mount Mutis, the highest mountain in West Timor. The legends are similar because despite the border dating back to colonial times, the inhabitants of the region on both sides of the border belong to the Atoin Meto ethnic group. History Colonial period The border treaties between Portugal and the Netherlands in 1859, 1896, 1904 and 1914 established the border between the two colonial powers' dominions on the island of Timor. Out of the four treaties, only the 1904 treaty mentions the island as Pulau Batek, where it is divided between Portuguese (Portuguese Timor) and the Dutch (Dutch East Indies). Later, Batek Island was a "forgotten island" that the colonial powers did not care about any further. After the Indonesian invasion of East Timor in 1975, the island was solely under Indonesian administration. Dispute East Timor is claiming the island, using a map of 1914 as reference. In 2004, Indonesian Colonel Moesanip said that this claim was abandoned when the East Timorese Minister of Foreign Affairs, José Ramos-Horta, recognized Indonesian sovereignty over the island. The Batek Island dispute between Indonesia and East Timor has largely been ended in 2005. However, East Timorese chief negotiator Xanana Gusmão indicated in 2022 that negotiations were continuing. After the 1999 independence referendum, in which East Timor opted for a state independent of Indonesia and later placed under UN administration, Batek Island became a point of contention. In the first drafts of the Constitutional Commission of Oecussi Enclave, Batek Island was defined as part of Oe-Cusse Ambeno and thus as part of East Timorese territory, based on several consultations with the communities. However, the Constitution of East Timor did not list Batek Island as part of the national territory. In the second half of 2002, Indonesia built a small lighthouse on Batek Island. On 14 December 2003, the Indonesian military conducted a military exercise in which a warship, helicopters and jet fighters used the island for several hours as part of the exercise. The inhabitants of Citrana, on the coast of Nitibe, felt threatened by this, especially as East Timor had not been informed of the manoeuvre beforehand. Publicly, the East Timorese government and the United Nations were reluctant to comment, and it was not until 12 January 2004 that the Australian press reported on the incident. On
Batek Island
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The history of Seychelles dates back to the fourth of the Portuguese India Armadas led by Vasco da Gama, though Seychelles was likely already known to Arab navigators and other sailors for many centuries. On 15 March 1503, the scrivener Thomé Lopes noted the sighting of an elevated island, doubtless one of the granitic islands and almost certainly Silhouette Island. The first recorded landing was by the men of the English East India Company ship Ascension, which arrived in Seychelles in January 1609.The islands were claimed by France in 1756. Seychelles remained uninhabited until the first settlers arrived on board the ship Thélemaque, which arrived on 27 August 1770. Captain Leblanc Lecore landed the first colonists, comprising 15 white men, eight Africans and five Indians. The Seychellois Creole language developed as a means of communication between the different races. The British frigate Orpheus commanded by Captain Henry Newcome arrived at Mahé on 16 May 1794. Terms of capitulation were drawn up and the next day Seychelles was surrendered to Britain. Following the fall of Mauritius to British forces, Captain Phillip Beaver of the Nisus arrived at Mahé on 23 April 1811 and took possession of Seychelles as a permanent colony of Britain. The Seychelles became an independent republic in 1976. Following a coup d'état, a socialist one-party state ruled the country from 1977 to 1993. The subsequent democratic Presidential elections were won by candidates of the same party. Pre-colonial history The early (pre-European colonisation) history of Isle de Séchelles or Seychelles is unknown. Austronesians from Borneo, who eventually settled on Madagascar, perhaps lingered here circa 200-300 AD. Arab navigators, on trading voyages across the Indian Ocean, were probably aware of the islands, although they did not settle them. Arabs were trading the highly valued coco de mer nuts, found only in Seychelles, long before European discovery of the islands. The rotted-out nuts can float and were found washed ashore in the Maldives and Indonesia. Age of Discoveries and colonisation On 15 March 1503, Vasco da Gama, crossing from India to East Africa, sighted what was almost certainly Silhouette Island and the next day, Desroches Island. The granitic islands began to appear on Portuguese charts as the Seven Sisters. In March 1608, a trading fleet of the English East India Company set sail for India. Lost in a storm, the Ascension's crew saw "high land" on 19 January 1609 and headed for it. They anchored "as in a pond". They found an uninhabited island with plentiful fresh water, fish, coconuts, birds, turtles and giant tortoises with which to replenish their stores. The Ascension sailed, and reported what they had found, but the British took no action. Towards the end of the 17th century, pirates arrived in the Indian Ocean from the Caribbean and made a base in Madagascar, from where they preyed upon vessels approaching and leaving the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. The French had occupied the Isle de France (now Mauritius) since 1715. This colony was growing in
History of Seychelles
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San Pietro Island (Italian: Isola di San Pietro, Ligurian Tabarchino: Uiza de San Pé, Sardinian: Isula 'e Sàntu Pèdru) is an island approximately off the South western Coast of Sardinia, Italy, facing the Sulcis peninsula. With an area of it is the sixth-largest island of Italy by area. The approximately 6,000 inhabitants are mostly concentrated in the fishing town of Carloforte, the only comune in the island. It is included in the province of South Sardinia. It is named after Saint Peter. The island is connected by regular ferry service to Portovesme and Calasetta. Geography The island is of volcanic origin. The rocks are of Cenozoic age, and include basalt, dacite and rhyolite (including the peralkaline variety comendite). The of its coasts are mostly rocky; the western and northern part includes some natural grottoes, unprotected landings, with a few small beaches, in general here the coast is usually very steep, rocky. The eastern coast, on which the port of Carloforte lies, is more protected low and sandy. Off the north-western coast are two small islands, the Isola dei Ratti and Isola Piana. The latter includes the remains of one of the largest tonnara in Italy, now turned into a tourist resort. The island has no rivers or streams, but features numerous ponds and marshes. The interior is hilly, the highest points being the Bricco (hill) Guardia dei Mori () and Bricco Tortoriso (). The vegetation is that typical of the Mediterranean coast, with Cistus, mastic, strawberry tree, juniper, Aleppo pine and holm oak. Here groves of oak and pine with clearings that are often cultivated, and populated with scattered houses. Cultivation, held especially in the eastern and more protected region, includes grape (Vitis vinifera), fig and Indian fig. The western part exposed to the prevailing wind, the mistral, is more arid, with low scrub vegetation and largely uninhabited. The climate is temperate-hot. The island is connected to Sardinia and to the next island of Sant'Antioco by two ferry lines. History The island has been known since ancient times. The Phoenicians called it Enosim or Inosim, which means "island of Accipiters", while for the Greek it was Hieracon Nesos and for the Romans Accipitrum Insula (Sparrowhawk Island). The latter is derived from the presence of the small Eleonora's falcon, which is still present on the island. San Pietro is home today to remains from the Phoenician, Roman and Sardinian civilizations. According to a legend, the island is so named because St. Peter visited the island in 46 AD. In 1739 century the then-uninhabited San Pietro was colonized by people of Ligurian language and ethnicity. They had fled the Republic of Genoa's colony on the small Tunisian island of Tabarka, established in 1542 for the purpose of coral fishing, after it had been taken over by the Bey of Tunisia. Today most of the population has retained a variant of the Genoese dialect, called Tabarchino, which is also spoken in Calasetta, in the northern part of the neighboring Sant'Antioco island, whose residents
San Pietro Island
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Álvaro Martins, also known as Álvaro Martins Homem, was a 15th-century Portuguese explorer alleged to have explored the western Atlantic and later the African coast. He is claimed to have accompanied João Vaz Corte-Real on an undocumented expedition to Terra Nova do Bacalhau (literally, "New Land of the Codfish") in the early 1470s, by Gaspar Frutuoso in his 1570s book Saudades da Terra. It is known that Álvaro Martins was granted the captaincy of Praia, in the Portuguese archipelago of the Azores, on 17 February 1474 for his services to Infante Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu, an office he held for some years. It was following the disappearance of Jacome de Bruges that the King divided the island between Angra and Praia, granting Praia to Álvaro Martins, while João Vaz Corte-Real obtained the Captaincy of Angra. Álvaro Martins and his son (Antão) were responsible for the fortifications, and the development of agriculture and commerce in northern Terceira. He is also said to have accompanied Bartolomeu Dias on his journey around the Cape of Good Hope from 1487 to 1488. References Notes Sources Martins Homem Portuguese explorers 15th-century explorers of Africa Maritime history of Portugal 15th-century Portuguese people
Álvaro Martins
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The history of the Falkland Islands () goes back at least five hundred years, with active exploration and colonisation only taking place in the 18th century. Nonetheless, the Falkland Islands have been a matter of controversy, as they have been claimed by the French, British, Spaniards and Argentines at various points. The islands were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans. France established a colony on the islands in 1764. In 1765, a British captain claimed the islands for Britain. In early 1770 a Spanish commander arrived from Buenos Aires with five ships and 1,400 soldiers forcing the British to leave Port Egmont. Britain and Spain almost went to war over the islands, but the British government decided that it should withdraw its presence from many overseas settlements in 1774. Spain, which had a garrison at Puerto Soledad on East Falklands, administered the garrison from Montevideo until 1811 when it was compelled to withdraw as a result of the war against Argentine independence and the pressures of Peninsular War. Luis Vernet attempted to establish a settlement in 1826, seeking support from both the Argentine and British Governments but most of his settlers took the opportunity to leave in 1831 following a raid by the USS Lexington. An attempt made by Argentina to establish a penal colony in 1832 failed due to a mutiny. In 1833, the British returned to the Falkland Islands. Argentina invaded the islands on 2 April 1982. The British responded with an expeditionary force that forced the Argentines to surrender. Claims of pre-Columbian discovery When the world sea level was lower in the Ice Age, the Falkland Islands may have been joined to the mainland of South America. While Fuegians from Patagonia could have visited the Falklands, the islands were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans. Recent discoveries of arrowheads in Lafonia (on the southern half of East Falkland) as well as the remains of a wooden canoe provide evidence that the Yaghan people of Tierra del Fuego may have made the journey to the islands. It is not known if these are evidence of one-way journeys, but there is no known evidence of pre-Columbian buildings or structures. However, it is not certain that the discovery predates arrival of Europeans. A Patagonian Missionary Society mission station was founded on Keppel Island (off the west coast of West Falkland) in 1856. Yahgan people were at this station from 1856 to 1898 so this may be the source of the artifacts that have been found. In 2021, a paper was published on deposits of marine animal bones (primarily South American sea lion and Southern rockhopper penguin) on New Island off the coast of West Falkland, at the same site where a quartzite arrowhead made of local stone had been found in 1979. The sites dated to 1275 to 1420 CE, and were interpreted as processing or midden sites where marine animals had been butchered. A charcoal spike consistent with anthropogenic causes (i.e. caused by humans) on New Island was also dated to
History of the Falkland Islands
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Bernardo de la Torre or della Torres (died 1545) was a Spanish explorer during the Age of Discovery. He participated in Ruy López de Villalobos's failed expedition to establish a greater Spanish presence in the East Indies. Stuck for months on the eastern side of Mindanao, the expedition ran low on supplies, suffered repeated accidents, and was discovered and ordered to leave by the Portuguese. López de Villalobos sent De la Torre east across the Pacific Ocean to seek supplies and reinforcements from Mexico. Attempting a new northern route, De la Torre discovered the Volcano Islandswhich he named after an eruption active as he passedbefore being forced to turn back from lack of water and high storm waves. During this return voyage, his ship became the first known to have circumnavigated Mindanao. De la Torre is sometimes further claimed to have named Mindanao Caesarea Caroli in honor of the Habsburg emperor CharlesV; to have named Leyte and Samar the Philippines in honor of the crown prince Philip (later King PhilipII of Spain); to have named Iwo Jima Sulfur Island, eventually leading to its current Japanese name; to have discovered the Bonin Islands; and to have explored the northern coast of New Guinea. Life Original accounts of De la Torre's life and exploration have not survived and the four surviving near contemporary sources differ in some respects and contain some obvious errors. Bernardo de la Torre sailed in August 1543 under the instructions of Ruy López de Villalobos, who sent him from the Sarangani Islands on the San Juan de Letran ("St. John of Lateran") to try to find a return route to the western coast of Spanish Mexico from the Philippines. This was the fourth such failed attempt to find what would become known as the Manila galleon route once it was finally established in 1565. De la Torre reached 30°N but then, like his predecessors, was forced back by storms. In the course of his journey, De la Torre found some islets like modern-day Okinotorishima (which he named ) and, possibly, Marcus Island. He reached Leyte and Samar before the end of August and passed through the Marianas in September, sighting three islands that were probably the uninhabited northern groups of Farallon, Anatahan, and Sarigan. He then passed the Volcano Islands group, which he called and which include Iwo Jima, and some of the Bonin Islands (which he called the or "Archbishop Islands") including Chichijima (which he called ). On his return voyage after being forced back by the condition of his ships and supplies after a storm on October 18, he became the first European to circumnavigate Mindanao. The Portuguese and their agents had forced Villalobos to leave the area and De la Torre was forced into a fruitless search for them, eventually breaking off and going to Tidore for repairs. His explorations, among others, were mentioned in Juan de Gaetano's 1546 chronicle of his own exploration, entitled ("Voyage to the Islands of the West"). Legacy According to
Bernardo de la Torre
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Antoniotto Usodimare or Usus di Mare (1416–1462) was a Genoese trader and explorer in the service of the Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator. Jointly with Alvise Cadamosto, Usodimare discovered a great stretch of the West African coast in two known voyages in 1455 and 1456. They notably discovered the Cape Verde islands, and the Guinea coast from the Gambia River to the Geba River (in Guinea-Bissau) Background Antoniotto Usodimare was a prominent merchant and citizen of the Republic of Genoa, a director of the Genoese mint and a shareholder in the Banco di S. Giorgio. However, his fortunes soon took a turn for the worse. Around 1450, Usodimare fled Genoa to escape his creditors, making his way first to Seville, and then Lisbon. He eventually entered into the service of Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator, hoping that by engaging in the profitable Portuguese trade on the West African coast, he might quickly recover his fortunes and pay back his debts. In some sources, Antoniotto Usodimare is confused with António de Noli, another Genoese explorer in the service of Prince Henry, who, according to the memoirs of Portuguese captain Diogo Gomes, also went to the Gambia River and rediscovered the Cape Verde islands in 1462. Although the coincidences are interesting, there is no evidence they are the same man. Expeditions to Africa Antoniotto Usodimare sailed out in early 1455 in a Portuguese caravel, probably supplied by Prince Henry the Navigator, accompanied by another caravel with an unnamed Portuguese squire of the prince. Along the way, in June 1455, around Cape Vert peninsula, he stumbled across Alvise Cadamosto, a Venetian captain also in Henry's service. They joined forces and proceeded to jointly find the mouth of the Gambia River in June 1455. However, meeting strong hostility from the natives upriver, the ships returned to Portugal. It is here that Antoniotto Usodimare wrote his famous letter (dated December 12, 1455) to his creditors back in Genoa, giving a (rather exaggerated) account of his expedition the Gambia, and promising that on his next expedition there, he would make enough money to finally pay them back. Antoniotto Usoadimare, along with Alvise Cadamosto and a third unnamed Portuguese captain, set out again in May, 1456. Along the way, they deviated away from the Senegambian coast to avoid a storm, and ended up discovering the Cape Verde islands (some off the coast). Finding the uninhabited islands uninteresting, they returned to the coast, and sailed into the Gambia River once again. This time, they found no hostile opposition to their entry. They sailed probably up to 100 km upstream, and engaged in some petty trade with the Mandinka natives, but were disappointed to find little evidence of the abundance of gold or melegueta pepper they had expected to find upriver. Resolved to explore further, Antoniotto and Cadamosto sailed south along the previously unknown coast of Guinea, discovering the mouth of the Casamance River, Cape Roxo, the Cacheu River, reaching as far as the estuary of the Geba River
Antoniotto Usodimare
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Pate (Paté) Island () is located in the Indian Ocean close to the northern coast of Kenya, to which it belongs. It is the largest island in the Lamu Archipelago, which lie between the towns of Lamu and Kiunga in the former Coast Province. The island is almost completely surrounded by mangroves. Like much of the Swahili Coast, Pate's history was marked by a steady transition from agricultural communities in the early first millennium into a specialized, urban trading society around the 10th century, likely earlier. Islam spread down the coast from African Muslims in the Horn of Africa, helping to develop what would be known as the Swahili culture. Despite myths to the contrary, Pate was neither an Arab nor Persian colony, but an African town frequented by trading Arabs, Persians, Indians, and others. It was the centre of the Pate sultanate from the 13th–19th centuries. The Swahili port of Pate long vied with Lamu and Takwa (on Manda Island) for economic dominance of the area, and came into prominence around the 14th century. It was subjugated by Lamu, however, in the late 19th century. Public transportation is provided by a few mini buses (known as matatus). The main administrative centre on the island, with the police station, is in Faza. Faza Faza town, on the North coast, known by the name of Ampaza by the Portuguese, dates back at least to the 14th century. In 1587, the Portuguese destroyed Faza, because the local Sheikh had supported Mir Ali Bey, a notorious privateer who had earlier played a key role in ousting the Portuguese from Muscat. The Portuguese arrived from Goa with some 650 men on their punitive expedition, and unleashed their fury on Faza. Everybody they could find was killed, including the local Sheikh. The Portuguese preserved his head in a barrel of salt for display in India. After 4 days of looting they invited Fazas' arch-rivals from Pate town to take away anything that they liked from Faza. Faza was later resettled. The Portuguese in Faza constructed a chapel there, however, nothing remains of it. In the 18th century Faza again fell into decline due to the rise of Pate. The English Consul Holmwood visited the place in 1873 and found it "dirty and infected with diseases". Pate Town The Pate Sultanate was a sultanate from at least the beginning of the 13th century until 1895. From 1858 on it was the domain known as Wituland. Archeological evidence suggests Pate was a prominent location in local trade networks by the 10th century. Pate Town is situated on the south-west coast of the island. According to the Pate Chronicle, the town of Pate was founded by refugees from Oman in the 8th century. It was re-founded in 1203 by members of the Nabhani family, also from Oman. The Pate Chronicle also claims that in the 14th century, Pate was so powerful that it had conquered most of the towns on the Swahili coast. However, recent archaeological findings (by
Pate Island
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Fernando de Noronha (), officially the State District of Fernando de Noronha (Portuguese: ) and formerly known as the Territory of Fernando de Noronha (Portuguese: ) until 1988, is an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, part of the State of Pernambuco, Brazil, and located off the Brazilian coast. It consists of 21 islands and islets, extending over an area of . Only the eponymous main island is inhabited; it has an area of and a population estimated at 3,101 in 2020. While most of the archipelago is relatively low-lying, there are parts reaching more than in elevation. The islands are administratively unique in Brazil. They form a "state district" () that is administered directly by the government of the state of Pernambuco (despite being closer to the state of Rio Grande do Norte). The state district's jurisdiction also includes the very remote Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, located northeast of Fernando de Noronha. Seventy percent of the islands' area was established in 1988 as a national marine park. In 2001, UNESCO designated it as a World Heritage Site because of its importance as a feeding ground for tuna, sharks, turtles, and marine mammals. Its time zone is UTC−02:00 all year round. History Discovery Fernando de Noronha's occupation dates to the early 16th century. Due to its geographical position, the archipelago was one of the first lands sighted in the New World, being shown in a nautical chart in 1500 by the Spanish cartographer Juan de La Cosa, and in 1502 by the Portuguese Alberto Cantino, in the latter with the name "Quaresma". Based on the written record, Fernando de Noronha island was discovered on August 10, 1503, by a Portuguese expedition, organized and financed by a private commercial consortium headed by the Lisbon merchant Fernão de Loronha. The expedition was under the overall command of captain Gonçalo Coelho and carried the Italian adventurer Amerigo Vespucci aboard, who wrote an account of it. The flagship of the expedition hit a reef and foundered near the island, "nothing being saved but the crew." On Coelho's orders, Vespucci anchored at the island, and spent a week there, while the rest of the Coelho fleet went on south. In his letter to Soderini, Vespucci describes the uninhabited island and reports its name as the "island of St. Lawrence" (August 10 is the feast day of St. Lawrence; it was a custom of Portuguese explorations to name locations by the liturgical calendar). Its existence was reported to Lisbon sometime between then and January 16, 1504, when King Manuel I of Portugal issued a charter granting the "island of St. John" (São João) as a hereditary captaincy to Fernão de Loronha. The date and new name in the charter has presented historians with a puzzle. As Vespucci did not return to Lisbon until June 1504, the discovery must have been earlier. Historians have hypothesized that a stray ship of the Coelho fleet, under an unknown captain, may have returned to the island (prob. on August
Fernando de Noronha
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Rodrigues ( ; Creole: ) is a autonomous outer island of the Republic of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, about east of Mauritius. It is part of the Mascarene Islands, which include Mauritius and Réunion. Like Agaléga, Rodrigues is a constituent island of the Republic of Mauritius, under the Constitution of Mauritius and still remains, as explicitly defined by the same Constitution, part of the Sovereignty of Mauritius, together with the following islands: "Agalega, Tromelin, Cargados Carajos (Saint Brandon), Chagos Archipelago ... Diego Garcia and other islands included in the State of Mauritius". Rodrigues is of volcanic origin and is surrounded by coral reef, and some tiny uninhabited islands lie just off its coast. The island used to be the tenth District of Mauritius; it gained autonomous status on 10 December 2002, and is governed by the Rodrigues Regional Assembly. The capital of the island is Port Mathurin. The islands of Rodrigues, Agaléga and Saint Brandon form part of the larger territory of the Republic of Mauritius. Its inhabitants are Mauritian citizens. , the island's population was about 41,669, according to Statistics Mauritius. Most of the inhabitants are of African descent. Its economy is based mainly on fishing, farming, handicraft and a developing tourism sector. Etymology and history Rodrigues was named after Portuguese explorer Diogo Rodrigues, who first came upon the uninhabited island in 1528, under direction of Portuguese Viceroy Pedro Mascarenhas (namesake of the Mascarene Islands). Many maps also describe it as Diego Roiz. From the 10th century, Arabs are known to have visited the Mascarene Islands. The Cantino planisphere of and some other contemporary maps clearly show the three islands of the Mascarenes as Dina Arobi (or Harobi), Dina Margabin and Dina Moraze. These are apparently corrupted transliterations or transcriptions of the Arabic Diva Harab ("Desert Island"), Diva Maghrebin ("Western Island") and Diva Mashriq ("Eastern Island"). While the second clearly refers to Réunion, sources disagree about which of the other is Mauritius and which one Rodrigues, which are both to the east of Réunion and arranged in a somewhat stylised way on these maps. However, even in its original state, Rodrigues had some karst, while Mauritius even after suffering 500 years of deforestation can by no means be called "desert" even in a colloquial sense. The island was located again in February 1507. Part of the fleet of Afonso de Albuquerque and Tristão da Cunha, Diogo Fernandes Pereira's ship Cisne (Swan) spotted Réunion on 9 February after a cyclone had diverted their course forcing them to go around Madagascar, unlike the rest of the fleet. It has also been opined that this was due to a navigational error by Afonso de Albuquerque. The other two islands were subsequently rediscovered. The initial name was Diogo Fernandes; Domingo Froiz was given as a name some years later, and by 1528 it had been again renamed after the Portuguese navigator Dom Diogo Rodrigues and has remained so since. The orthography has been less stable at first, with the name being transcribed
Rodrigues
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Killiniq Island (English: ice floes) is a remote island in southeastern Nunavut and northern Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. Located at the extreme northern tip of Labrador between Ungava Bay and the Labrador Sea, it is notable in that it contains the only land border between Nunavut and Newfoundland and Labrador. Most other islands off the northern coast of Quebec and Labrador belong exclusively to Nunavut. Some cartographic sources do not correctly show the island's geopolitical boundaries; for instance, the seems to show it as belonging to Quebec (an apparent consequence of the province's longstanding boundary dispute with Labrador). The northernmost point of Newfoundland and Labrador is Cape Chidley on the island. The largest identifiable land mass is the Torngat Mountains, part of the Arctic Cordillera, which proceed from the north to the south of the island. A former community, meteorological station, Canadian Coast Guard radio station, trading post, missionary post, fishing station, and Royal Canadian Mounted Police post existed until 1978, when it was evacuated by the government of the Northwest Territories. The settlement, also called Killiniq (alternate spelling: Killinek; also known as Port Burwell; local variants: Killipaartalik or Kikkertaujak; previously: Bishop Jones' Village) was on what is now the Nunavut side of the island, part of the territory's Qikiqtaaluk Region. The locality was known by Europeans as early as 1569, marked on a Mercator map. The island is now uninhabited, but an automated remote radio transmitter for Iqaluit Coast Guard Radio remains in operation. References Islands of Newfoundland and Labrador Uninhabited islands of Qikiqtaaluk Region Islands of the Labrador Sea Borders of Nunavut Borders of Newfoundland and Labrador Former populated places in the Qikiqtaaluk Region
Killiniq Island
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The battle of Hormuz or the battle of the Persian Gulf on 11–12 February 1625 was "perhaps the largest naval battle ever fought in the Persian Gulf". It pitted a Portuguese force against a combined force of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and English East India Company (EIC). Although the battle was a draw, the result was the loss of Portuguese influence in the Gulf. The Portuguese had conquered Hormuz in 1507 and ruled it as a vassal state until in 1622 it was conquered by Persia with English assistance. The Portuguese made several efforts to recapture the fortress of Hormuz in the following years. Rui Freire de Andrada, with a force of galleys under his command, was besieging Hormuz and awaiting reinforcements from Portugal when in early 1625 he was forced to raise the siege by an allied fleet of English and Dutch ships. The Anglo-Dutch fleet had intelligence of the arrival at Goa of the Portuguese reinforcements under Nuno Álvares Botelho in September 1624. The allied fleet left Surat in India and arrived in the Strait of Hormuz in January 1625, forcing Andrada to lift the siege just weeks before the arrival of Botelho on 10 February. The Portuguese fleet consisted of the eight galleons of Botelho and a fleet of rowed galleys under Andrada. The Anglo-Dutch fleet had eight large and two small vessels. Botelho initiated battle early on 11 February. What followed was "one of the biggest sea battles ever fought in Asian waters during that period". According to a Portuguese observer, the exchange of gunfire was like the opening of the mouths of Hell and the Persians on shore were stunned. According to the English commander, John Weddell, the Persian governor of Bandar Abbas and the English agent in town watched the battle from their roofs. They counted 16–17,000 shots fired over two days of fighting, after which the fleets withdrew. Although many ships were heavily damaged, all were afloat. Botelho rejected advice to retreat to the coast of Arabia, preferring to wait out his rivals in case they decided to attack Portuguese Muscat. The rival fleets lay at anchor—the Portuguese off Larak Island and the companies under the guns of Bandar Abbas—until later that month, when the companies decided to leave. The Portuguese sallied forth to engage them, but the fighting was inconclusive. Botelho then took the fleet to Muscat for repairs. He reported 130 of his men killed in action. The English and Dutch reported 29 and 45 killed in action, respectively. The difference reflected different tactics. Following the battle, Persia and Portugal signed a treaty that was, in effect, a truce that regulated their commerce in the gulf. It is generally agreed that the treaty was signed in 1625, but the surviving text is undated and it may have been signed as late as 1630. Portugal was permitted to select a Persian port in which to establish an emporium. Portuguese vessels were obligated to trade there rather than at Arabian ports
Battle off Hormuz (1625)
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The Mariana Islands ( ; ), also simply the Marianas, are a crescent-shaped archipelago comprising the summits of fourteen longitudinally oriented, mostly dormant volcanic mountains in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, between the 12th and 21st parallels north and along the 145th meridian east. They lie south-southeast of Japan, west-southwest of Hawaii, north of New Guinea and east of the Philippines, demarcating the Philippine Sea's eastern limit. They are found in the northern part of the western Oceanic sub-region of Micronesia, and are politically divided into two jurisdictions of the United States: the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands and, at the southern end of the chain, the territory of Guam. The islands were named after the influential Spanish queen Mariana of Austria following their colonization in the 17th century. The indigenous inhabitants are the Chamorro people. Archaeologists in 2013 reported findings which indicated that the people who first settled the Marianas arrived there after making what may have been at the time the longest uninterrupted ocean voyage in human history. They further reported findings which suggested that Tinian is likely to have been the first island in Oceania to have been settled by humans. Spanish expeditions, beginning with one by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan in the early 16th century, were the first Europeans to arrive; eventually, Spain annexed and colonized the archipelago, establishing their capital on the largest island, Guam. The Marianas were the first islands Magellan encountered after traversing the Pacific from the southern tip of South America. The fruits found there saved the survivors from scurvy, which had already killed dozens of crewmembers. Geography The Mariana Islands are the southern part of a submerged mountain range that extends from Guam to near Japan. Geographically, the Marianas are part of a larger region called Micronesia, situated between 13° and 21°N latitude and 144° and 146°E longitude. The Mariana Islands have a total land area of . They are composed of two administrative units: Guam, a US territory the Northern Mariana Islands (including the islands of Saipan, Tinian and Rota), which make up a Commonwealth of the United States. The island chain geographically consists of two subgroups, a northern group of ten volcanic main islands, all are currently uninhabited; and a southern group of five coralline limestone islands (Rota, Guam, Aguijan, Tinian and Saipan), all inhabited except Aguijan. In the northern volcanic group a maximum elevation of about is reached; there are craters showing signs of activity, and earthquakes are not uncommon. Coral reefs fringe the coasts of the southern isles, which are of slight elevation. The lowest point on the Earth's crust, the Mariana Trench, is near the islands and is named after them. Geology The islands are part of a geologic structure known as the Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc system, and range in age from 5 million years old in the north to 30 million years old in the south (Guam). The island chain arose as a result of the western edge of the Pacific Plate moving westward and plunging
Mariana Islands
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Tata Islands are a pair of small uninhabited islands off the north coast of New Zealand's South Island. They are located some to the northwest of Tākaka in the southeast of Golden Bay close to Abel Tasman Point, and are contained within Abel Tasman National Park. The small settlement of Tata Beach lies on the South Island mainland one kilometre to the south of the islands. Geography The islands are small, with the larger of the two, Motu Island (North Tata) being roughly 300 metres in length and 100 metres in width. It is roughly tabular in form, with much of its area being between 20 and 30 metres in height, rising to some at its highest point. The southern island, Ngawhiti Island (South Tata), is roughly 160 by 120 metres in size, and, while less regular than its northern neighbour, rises to a similar altitude. Several small islets and stacks lie off the coast of Ngawhiti Island. The islands' most distinctive geographic feature is a large limestone stack at the southern end of Ngawhiti Island. Flora and fauna The waters around the islands are a significant fish nursery, and are also popular with kayakers. The area was proposed as a marine reserve in the 1990s, though this status was not granted. The islands themselves are the site of one of New Zealand's largest populations of spotted shag. History There is some evidence of pre-European Māori settlement on Ngawhiti Island, and its native flora may have been burnt back to allow for cultivation. Vegetation on Motu island is more diverse, suggesting that there was no similar burn-off there. The islands have historically provided deep water shelter for large ships visiting the Golden Bay area, the only site in the bay capable of providing such shelter. From about 1904, parts of Ngawhiti Island were mined for limestone, but in the first decade of the 20th century the government acquired the islands under the Public Works Act. For many years from the 1930s on, Ngawhiti Island was inhabited by a sole resident, Norwegian Peter Peterson, who was known locally as "The Hermit of South Tata Island". The island and its northern neighbour are now uninhabited. References Islands of the Tasman District Abel Tasman National Park Golden Bay
Tata Islands