which greek style of column has a scroll at the top
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The Corinthian order (, Korinthiakós rythmós; ) is the last developed and most ornate of the three principal classical orders of Ancient Greek architecture and Roman architecture. The other two are the Doric order, which was the earliest, followed by the Ionic order. In Ancient Greek architecture, the Corinthian order follows the Ionic in almost all respects, other than the capitals of the columns, though this changed in Roman architecture. A Corinthian capital may be seen as an enriched development of the Ionic capital, though one may have to look closely at a Corinthian capital to see the Ionic volutes ("helices"), at the corners, perhaps reduced in size and importance, scrolling out above the two ranks of stylized acanthus leaves and stalks ("cauliculi" or caulicoles), eight in all, and to notice that smaller volutes scroll inwards to meet each other on each side. The leaves may be quite stiff, schematic and dry, or they may be extravagantly drilled and undercut, naturalistic and spiky. The flat abacus at the top of the capital has a concave curve on each face, and usually a single flower ("rosette") projecting from the leaves below overlaps it on each face. When classical architecture was revived during the Renaissance, two more orders were added to the canon: the Tuscan order and the Composite order, known in Roman times, but regarded as a grand imperial variant of the Corinthian. The Corinthian has fluted columns and elaborate capitals decorated with acanthus leaves and scrolls. There are many variations. The name Corinthian is derived from the ancient Greek city of Corinth, although it was probably invented in Athens. Description Greek Corinthian order The Corinthian order is named for the Greek city-state of Corinth, to which it was connected in the period. However, according to the architectural historian Vitruvius, the column was created by the sculptor Callimachus, probably an Athenian, who drew acanthus leaves growing around a votive basket of toys, with a slab on top, on the grave of a Corinthian girl. Its earliest use can be traced back to the Late Classical Period (430–323 BC). The earliest Corinthian capitals, already in fragments and now lost, were found in Bassae in 1811–12; they are dated around 420 BC, and are in a temple of Apollo otherwise using the Ionic. There were three of them, carrying the frieze across the far end of the cella, which was open to the adytum. The Corinthian was probably devised to solve the awkwardness the Ionic capital created at corners by having clear and distinct front or back and side-on faces, a problem only finally solved by Vincenzo Scamozzi in the 16th century. A simplified late version of the Greek Corinthian capital is often known as the "Tower of the Winds Corinthian" after its use on the porches of the Tower of the Winds in Athens (about 50 BC). There is a single row of acanthus leaves at the bottom of the capital, with a row of "tall, narrow leaves" behind. These cling tightly
Corinthian order
2706622
The Composite order is a mixed order, combining the volutes of the Ionic order capital with the acanthus leaves of the Corinthian order. In many versions the composite order volutes are larger, however, and there is generally some ornament placed centrally between the volutes. The column of the composite order is typically ten diameters high, though as with all the orders these details may be adjusted by the architect for particular buildings. The Composite order is essentially treated as Corinthian except for the capital, with no consistent differences to that above or below the capital. The Composite order is not found in ancient Greek architecture and until the Renaissance was not ranked as a separate order. Instead it was considered as an imperial Roman form of the Corinthian order. Though the Arch of Titus, in the forum in Rome and built in 82 AD, is sometimes cited as the first prominent surviving example of a composite order, the order was probably invented "a little before Augustus's reign, and certainly well-developed before his death, the very time when the Roman version of Corinthian was being established." With the Tuscan order, a simplified version of the Doric order, also found in ancient Roman architecture but not included by Vitruvius in his three orders, the Composite was added by Renaissance writers to make five classical orders. Sebastiano Serlio (1475–1554) published his book I Sette libri dell'architettura in 1537 in which he was the second to mention the Composite order as its own order and not just as an evolution of the Corinthian order as previously suggested by Leon Battista Alberti. Leon Battista Alberti in his De re aedificatoria (English: On the Art of Building) mentions the Composite order, calling it "Italic". Form of the capital The Composite is partly based on the Ionic order, where the volutes (seen frontally) are joined by an essentially horizontal element across the top of the capital, so that they resemble a scroll partly rolled at each end. Despite this origin, very many Composite capitals in fact treat the two volutes as different elements, each springing from one side of their leafy base. In this, and in having a separate ornament between them, they resemble the Archaic Greek Aeolic order, though this seems not to have been the route of their development in early Imperial Rome. Equally, where the Greek Ionic volute is usually shown from the side as a single unit of unchanged width between the front and back of the column, the Composite volutes are normally treated as four different thinner units, one at each corner of the capital, projecting at some 45° to the façade. This has the advantage of removing the necessity to have a different appearance between the front and side views, and the Ionic eventually developed bending forms that also allowed this. The treatment of details has often been very variable, with the inclusion of figures, heraldic symbols and the like in the capital. The relationship of the volutes to the leaves
Composite order
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A volute is a spiral, scroll-like ornament that forms the basis of the Ionic order, found in the capital of the Ionic column. Volute may also refer to: Science and technology Volutidae (common name volutes), a taxonomic family of predatory sea snails Volute (pump), the casing in a centrifugal pump Volute spring, a compression spring in the form of a cone Other uses Volute, a spiral or scroll form in the arabesque form of artistic decoration Volute, a handrail for a bullnose step that is shaped like a spiral; See Stairs Volute krater, a type of Greek urn Volute, a scroll shaped carving at the tuning head of stringed musical instruments
Volute (disambiguation)
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The Song of the Sea (, Shirat HaYam; also known as Az Yashir Moshe and Song of Moses, or Mi Chamocha) is a poem that appears in the Book of Exodus of the Hebrew Bible, at . It is followed in verses 20 and 21 by a much shorter song sung by Miriam and the other women. The Song of the Sea was reputedly sung by the Israelites after their crossing the Red Sea in safety, and celebrates their freedom after generations of slavery and oppression by the Egyptians. The poem is included in Jewish prayer books, and recited daily in the morning shacharit services. The poem also comprises the first ode or hymn of the Eastern Orthodox canon, where it is known as the Song or Ode of Moses. It is also used in the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and other Christian liturgies at the Easter Vigil when the history of salvation is recounted. These traditions follow Revelation 15:3 by calling it the "Song of Moses" (not to be confused with the Song of Moses in Deuteronomy). In Judaism, the poem forms part of the sixteenth weekly Torah portion, or parshat Beshalach. The Sabbath on which it is read is known as Sabbath of the Song (שבת שירה). It is one of only two sections of the Sefer Torah (Torah scroll) that is written with a different layout from the normal simple columns. The other section written differently is the Song of Moses at the end of Deuteronomy, in the 53rd weekly portion, or parshat Ha'azinu. Origin The Song of the Sea is noted for its archaic language. It is written in a style of Hebrew much older than that of the rest of Exodus. A number of scholars consider it the oldest surviving text describing the Exodus, dating to the pre-monarchic period. An alternative is that it was deliberately written in an archaic style, a known literary device. As such, proposed dates for its composition range from the 13th to the 5th century BCE. Page layout The Ashkar-Gilson Manuscript is a fragment of a 7th or 8th century Torah scroll that contains the Song of the Sea. Some scholars have argued that the "brickwork" pattern of the Ashkar-Gilson version shows that the Masoretes accurately copied earlier manuscripts. This pattern was not used in the Dead Sea Scrolls. A similar pattern is used in modern Torah scrolls, and the Ashkenazi and Sepharadi Torah scrolls differ from the Yemenite scrolls in the arrangement of the very last line. Text {| class="wikitable" |- ! width=50% |Masoretic Text !Transliteration!! width="50%" | English translation (New International Version) |- | align="right"| |wayyōʾmərū lēʾmōr ʾāšīrā laYHWH kī-gāʾō gāʾā,sūs wərōḵəḇō rāmā ḇayyām | 1 Then Moses and the Israelites sang this song to the Lord: "I will sing to the Lord, for he is highly exalted. Both horse and driver he has hurled into the sea. |- | align="right"| |ze ʾēlī wəʾanwēhū ʾĕlōhē ʾāḇī waʾărōməmenhū |2 "The Lord is my strength and my defense; he has
Song of the Sea
9606636
Terminator is an open-source terminal emulator programmed in Java. It is available on Microsoft Windows, macOS, Linux and other Unix systems that use the X Window System. Terminator will run on any modern POSIX system running Java 6 or later. Terminator is licensed under the GPL-2.0-or-later license. Terminator was originally written by Phil Norman, who produced a more-or-less usable replacement for rxvt on his own between 21 April 2004 and 28 May 2004; roughly a month of development time. Elliott Hughes took Phil's terminal emulation and used it as a base upon which he could experiment with advanced terminal emulator features and continues to actively develop Terminator. Martin Dorey ported Terminator to Cygwin. Features Automatic Logging - Complete logs are automatically generated of all of the user's terminal sessions. Drag & Drop - Text, URLs, and files from GUI file managers can be dropped on Terminator to be inserted as text, with automatic quoting of filenames containing shell meta-characters. Find - Terminator provides you with a find function, so users can search for text and regular expressions within their terminal (including the scrollback) in the style of less, and offering quick movement to the next or previous match. Horizontal Scrolling - Most terminal emulators wrap text when it intrudes upon the right margin. Terminator instead provides a horizontal scrollbar when necessary. Multiple Tabs - Like tabbed browsing. Number Reinterpretation - Terminator will recognize numbers in a variety of bases as the current selection, and add informational menu items to the pop-up menu showing the same number in other bases. No more man ascii or resorting to bc. Portability - Written mostly in Java, with a small POSIX C++ part (for pseudo-terminal support) and a Ruby invocation script, Terminator should compile out of the box on most modern desktop operating systems. Tab Character Handling - Many terminal emulators translate tab characters into strings of spaces. If a section of text is then copied or pasted from the terminal into a text editor, it appears as spaces rather than tabs; Terminator remembers them as tab characters. Unlimited Scrollback - Terminator does not throw away output when it scrolls off the top of the screen, nor when it reaches any arbitrary limit. The user must manually clear the scrollback. Intelligent Vertical Scrolling - Terminator's scrollbar won't keep jumping when there's output if you've deliberately scrolled back to look at part of the history, but as soon as you scroll back to the bottom again, it will resume auto-scrolling. Safe Quit - Terminator knows when you still have processes running, and brings up a dialog rather than just letting those processes die. UTF-8 - Terminator does not mangle accented characters, and it copes well with languages such as Greek where there's a mix of normal and wide glyphs. See also PuTTY References External links Project home page X Window programs Free terminal emulators
Terminator (terminal emulator)
5380129
The Derveni papyrus is an ancient Greek papyrus roll that was found in 1962. It is a philosophical treatise that is an allegorical commentary on an Orphic poem, a theogony concerning the birth of the gods, produced in the circle of the philosopher Anaxagoras. The roll dates to around 340 BC, during the reign of Philip II of Macedon, making it Europe's oldest surviving manuscript. The poem itself was composed near the end of the 5th century BC, and "in the fields of Greek religion, the sophistic movement, early philosophy, and the origins of literary criticism it is unquestionably the most important textual discovery of the 20th century." While interim editions and translations were published over the subsequent years, the manuscript as a whole was finally published in 2006. Discovery The roll was found on 15 January 1962 at a site in Derveni, Macedonia, northern Greece, on the road from Thessaloniki to Kavala. The site is a nobleman's grave in a necropolis that was part of a rich cemetery belonging to the ancient city of Lete. It is the oldest surviving manuscript in the Western tradition, the only known ancient papyrus found in Greece proper, and possibly the oldest surviving papyrus written in Greek regardless of provenance. The archaeologists Petros Themelis and Maria Siganidou recovered the top parts of the charred papyrus scroll and fragments from ashes atop the slabs of the tomb; the bottom parts had burned away in the funeral pyre. The scroll was carefully unrolled and the fragments joined together, thus forming 26 columns of text. It survived in the humid Greek soil, which is unfavorable to the conservation of papyri, because it was carbonized (hence dried) in the nobleman's funeral pyre. However, this has made it extremely difficult to read, since the ink is black and the background is black too; in addition, it survives in the form of 266 fragments, which are conserved under glass in descending order of size, and has had to be painstakingly reconstructed. Many smaller fragments are still not placed. The papyrus is kept in the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki. Content The main part of the text is a commentary on a hexameter poem ascribed to Orpheus, which was used in the mystery cult of Dionysus by the 'Orphic initiators'. Fragments of the poem are quoted, followed by interpretations by the main author of the text, who tries to show that the poem does not mean what it literally says. The poem begins with the words "Close the doors, you uninitiated", a famous admonition to secrecy, also quoted by Plato. The interpreter claims that this shows that Orpheus wrote his poem as an allegory. The theogony described in the poem has Nyx (Night) give birth to Uranus (Sky), who becomes the first king. Cronus follows and takes the kingship from Uranus, but he is likewise succeeded by Zeus, whose power over the whole universe is celebrated. Zeus gains his power by hearing oracles from the sanctuary of Nyx, who tells him
Derveni papyrus
41408772
The Temple of Heracles or Temple of Hercules (the Roman name of the hero) is an ancient Greek temple of Magna Graecia in the ancient city of Akragas, located in the Valle dei Templi in Agrigento, Italy. The building, in the archaic Doric style, is found on what is known as the hill of the temples, on a rocky spur near Villa Aurea. The name Temple of Heracles is an attribution of modern scholarship, based on Cicero's mention of a temple dedicated to the hero non longe a foro "not far from the agora" (Verrine II 4.94), containing a famous statue of Heracles. That the agora of Akragas was in this area has not yet been demonstrated, but the identification is generally accepted. This temple is located approximately one kilometer to the west of Temple of Concordia. History The traditionally accepted chronology of the temple identifies it as the most ancient of the Greek Akragantine temples, dating to the final years of the 6th century BC. This dating is based on stylistic characteristics, especially its proportions, number of columns, and the profile of the columns and of their capitals. However, some connect the temple with the activities of Theron (Tyrant of Akragas 488-473/2 BC), claiming that it contains innovations compared to the architectural practice of the 6th century. In that case, it could be identified with the temple of Athena recorded by Polyaenus (Stratagems 6.51) in relation to the building activities of Theron after his seizure of power. The remains of the entablature constitute a problem for dating, because there are two types of cymatium with gutters and lion heads: the first, less well-preserved than the other, datable to the 460s BC and the second datable to around the middle of the fifth century. Probably the first cymatium is the original and was replaced by the second a few decades later (for reasons unknown). The temple's foundation is considered to be dated to the years before the Battle of Himera (480 BC); its completion would have taken a decade or maybe a little more. The building was restored in the Roman period with some modifications. The naos was divided into three, which could indicate a dedication to multiple divinities. If still in use by the 4th and 5th centuries, it would have been closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire. In the 20th century, restorers have reconstructed nine of the columns on the southeastern side through anastylosis. In addition, they restored part of the entablature and some of the capitals. Architecture The building was constructed on a crepidoma of three steps, which was erected on top of a substructure on the northern and western sides (due to the roughness of the terrain). It is a peripteros temple of unusually elongated proportions (67 metres long and 25.34 meters wide), with six columns along the front (hexastyle) and fifteen columns on the sides. Inside the peristasis is a long naos, bounded by a pronaos at the front and
Temple of Heracles, Agrigento
8603805
Ruplal House (formerly known as Aratoon House) is a 19th-century mansion in Farashganj area in Dhaka, Bangladesh. It was built on the northern bank of the Buriganga River, beside the Buckland Dam. The house was built in 1825 by an Armenian businessman Stephen Aratoon. It was later bought by two merchants, Ruplal Das and his brother Raghunath Das, in 1840. Later, an architect firm of Calcutta, Martin Company, re-constructed this building. History Ruplal House first came into limelight in 1886 when Ruplal Das threw a ball dance party in the honor of the Viceroy of India Lord Dufferin. After the partition of India in 1947, the family of Ruplal Das left for Kolkata. In 1962, through a formal deed of exchange, Siddick Jamall bought the house. Features Divided into two unequal blocks in slightly different styles, it is a two-storeyed edifice. It presents a Grand River front, about 9144 m long. It replicated Greek Doric column and there used to be a huge clock at the top of the building. In the earthquake of 1897. Its ground plan follows the shape of the letter 'E', with three arms extending towards the north or the city side, of which the middle arm projects about 1830 m. It accommodates a grand portico carried on a series of lofty semi-Corinthian fluted columns, and surmounted by a triangular pediment, characteristic of Renaissance architecture. The two blocks include, in two floors, over fifty rooms of various sizes and of them the central hall on the upper floor of the more impressive western wing was an elegantly decorated dance hall with a wooden floor. On the north and south two broad verandas run the entire length of the block and are supported on either round semi-Corinthian columns or rectangular brick pillars with segmented or trefoil arches above. The Ruplal House was the only competitor to the Ahsan Manzil during the British colonial era. Architectural style and structural features Ruplal house has three distinct blocks of different architectural style; these blocks were separated in the ground floor, but related at the upper floor by arch way. Those three blocks were: Ruplal block [western wing- around twenty five thousand square ft.] Raghunath block [eastern wing- around twelve thousand square ft.] Central block [approximately nine thousand square ft.] Architectural Features: Ruplal Block Ruplal block was designed in the Neo-classical style. This grand wing was square in plan with a square central courtyard. The lighter plain columns give the court sense of light and proportions. The rooms were arranged around this central courtyard in order to give privacy. Its main entry is from the northern portico with a triangular pediment over fluted columns with Corinthian capitals, which emphasizes the entry and its secondary entry from the front court through the series of archways which is also inviting. Service block lowering height is slightly detached from the main block. Structural Features: Ruplal Block Foundation: load bearing brick masonry foundation is used as the superstructure without using any reinforcement. There is no
Ruplal House
1810735
Chumash (also Ḥumash; , or or Yiddish: ; plural Ḥumashim) is a Torah in printed and book bound form (i.e. codex) as opposed to a Sefer Torah, which is a scroll. 'The word comes from the Hebrew word for five, (). A more formal term is , "five fifths of Torah". It is also known by the Latinised Greek term Pentateuch in common printed editions. Etymology The word is a standard Ashkenazic vowel shift of , meaning "one-fifth", alluding to any one of the five books; by synecdoche, it came to mean the five fifths of the Torah. The Modern Israeli Hebrew pronunciation is an erroneous reconstruction based on the assumption that the Ashkenazic accent, which is almost uniformly penultimately stressed, had also changed the stress of the word. In fact, preserves the original stress pattern and both pronunciations contain a shifted first vowel. In early scribal practice, there was a distinction between a Sefer Torah, containing the entire Pentateuch on a parchment scroll, and a copy of one of the five books on its own, which was generally bound in codex form, like a modern book, and had a lesser degree of sanctity. The term strictly applies to one of the latter. Thus, strictly means "the Genesis fifth", but was misread as and interpreted as meaning "The Pentateuch: Genesis", as if was the name of the book and the name of one of its parts. Compare the misunderstanding of "Tur" to mean the entirety of the Arba'ah Turim. In the legal codes, such as Maimonides' Mishneh Torah, it is laid down that any copy of the Pentateuch which does not comply with the strict rules for a Sefer Torah, for example, because it is not a parchment scroll or contains vowel signs, has only the same sanctity as a copy of an individual book (). In this way, the word (or ) came to have the extended sense of any copy of the Pentateuch other than a Sefer Torah. Usage The word ḥumash generally only refers to "book" bound editions of the Pentateuch, whereas the "scroll" form is called a sefer Torah ("book [of the] Torah"). In modern Jewish practice: A printed ḥumash usually sets out the Hebrew text of the Torah with niqqud (vowel marks) and cantillation marks, separated into its 54 constituent weekly Torah portions (parashiyyot), together with the haftarah for each portion and, often, translations and notes. A ḥumash-Rashi also contains the Targum Onkelos and the commentary of Rashi, and may or may not have a vernacular translation of the text. A Tikkun soferim or Tiqqun Qore'im sets out, in parallel columns, the unvocalized text of the Pentateuch as it would appear in a Torah scroll and the normal printed text as it appears in a Chumash; it sometimes includes haftarot and the Five Megillot. It exists as an aid for soferim (Torah scribes) and for those preparing to read from the sefer Torah in the synagogue. A multi-volume set in Hebrew only, often but not
Chumash (Judaism)
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The Custom House Tower is a skyscraper in McKinley Square, in the Financial District neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. The original building was constructed in 1837–47 and was designed by Ammi Burnham Young in the Greek Revival style. The tower was designed by Peabody and Stearns and was added in 1913–15. The building is part of the Custom House District, which was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. Standing at tall, the building is currently tied with The Hub on Causeway Residential Tower as Boston's 23rd-tallest buildings. It is part of the Custom House District, which was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. Since 1997, it has housed a Marriott timeshare hotel. Original building The site was purchased on September 13, 1837. Construction of a custom house was authorized by U.S. President Andrew Jackson. When it was completed in 1849, it cost about $1.076 million, in contemporary U.S. currency, including the site, foundations, etc. Ammi Burnham Young entered an 1837 competition to design the Boston Custom House, and won with his neoclassical design. This building was a cruciform (cross-shaped) Greek Revival structure, combining a Greek Doric portico with a Roman dome, resembled a four-faced Greek temple topped with a dome. It had 36 fluted Doric columns, each carved from a single piece of granite from Quincy, Massachusetts; each weighed 42 tons (37 metric tons) and cost about $5,200. Only half these actually support the structure; the others are free-standing. They are and in diameter and high. Inside, the rotunda was capped with a skylight dome. The entire structure sits on filled land and is supported by 3,000 wooden piles driven through fill to bedrock. Before land reclamation was done in the middle of the 19th century, Boston's waterfront extended right to this building. Ships moored at Long Wharf almost touched the eastern face of the building. The Custom House was built at the end of the City docks, to facilitate inspection and registration of cargo. The federal government used the building to collect maritime duties in the age of Boston sailing ships. This description of the original Custom House appears in the 1850 Boston Almanac: Situated at the head of the dock between Long and Central Wharves, fronts east on the dock, west on India Street, and is in the form of a Greek Cross, [with] the opposite sides and ends being alike. It is long north and south, wide at the ends, and through the centre. It is built on about 3,000 piles, fully secured against decay; the construction throughout is fireproof and of the very best kind. The exterior of the building is purely Grecian Doric, not a copy, but adapted to the exigencies and peculiarities of the structure, and consists of a portico [overhang] of 6 columns on each side, on a high flight of steps, and an order of engaged columns around the walls, 20 in number, on a high stylobate or basement; the order of engaged columns terminating
Custom House Tower
11979407
4Q107 ( or 4QCantb) is a fragment of the Song of Songs (2:9‑17; 3:1‑2, 5, 9‑11; 4:1‑3, 8‑11, 14‑16; 5:1) in Hebrew found in Cave 4 at Qumran in the Judean Desert in Israel and which comprises part of the Dead Sea Scrolls. From the palaeography (script) on the fragment it has been identified as being early-Herodian, i.e. c.30 BCE-30 CE. The scribe responsible for 4Q107 did not write 4Q108 as there are differences in writing style. Also, the lacuna in the second column of 4Q107 does not provide enough space to accommodate 4Q108. The fragments which make up the Song of Songs found at Qumran are called 4Q106, 4Q107, 4Q108, and 6Q6. The scroll 4Q240 is possibly a commentary on the Song of Songs. See also List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts Dead Sea Scrolls 4Q106 4Q108 4Q240 6Q6 Tanakh at Qumran References External links 4Q107 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Dead Sea Scrolls 1st-century BC biblical manuscripts
4Q107
6938
An order in architecture is a certain assemblage of parts subject to uniform established proportions, regulated by the office that each part has to perform. Coming down to the present from Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman civilization, the architectural orders are the styles of classical architecture, each distinguished by its proportions and characteristic profiles and details, and most readily recognizable by the type of column employed. The three orders of architecture—the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian—originated in Greece. To these the Romans added, in practice if not in name, the Tuscan, which they made simpler than Doric, and the Composite, which was more ornamental than the Corinthian. The architectural order of a classical building is akin to the mode or key of classical music; the grammar or rhetoric of a written composition. It is established by certain modules like the intervals of music, and it raises certain expectations in an audience attuned to its language. Whereas the orders were essentially structural in Ancient Greek architecture, which made little use of the arch until its late period, in Roman architecture where the arch was often dominant, the orders became increasingly decorative elements except in porticos and similar uses. Columns shrank into half-columns emerging from walls or turned into pilasters. This treatment continued after the conscious and "correct" use of the orders, initially following exclusively Roman models, returned in the Italian Renaissance. Greek Revival architecture, inspired by increasing knowledge of Greek originals, returned to more authentic models, including ones from relatively early periods. Elements Each style has distinctive capitals at the top of columns and horizontal entablatures which it supports, while the rest of the building does not in itself vary between the orders. The column shaft and base also varies with the order, and is sometimes articulated with vertical concave grooves known as fluting. The shaft is wider at the bottom than at the top, because its entasis, beginning a third of the way up, imperceptibly makes the column slightly more slender at the top, although some Doric columns, especially early Greek ones, are visibly "flared", with straight profiles that narrow going up the shaft. The capital rests on the shaft. It has a load-bearing function, which concentrates the weight of the entablature on the supportive column, but it primarily serves an aesthetic purpose. The necking is the continuation of the shaft, but is visually separated by one or many grooves. The echinus lies atop the necking. It is a circular block that bulges outwards towards the top to support the abacus, which is a square or shaped block that in turn supports the entablature. The entablature consists of three horizontal layers, all of which are visually separated from each other using moldings or bands. In Roman and post-Renaissance work, the entablature may be carried from column to column in the form of an arch that springs from the column that bears its weight, retaining its divisions and sculptural enrichment, if any. There are names for all the many parts of the
Classical order
19806266
The Adolph Brower House is located at the corner of Division and Water streets in New Hamburg, New York, United States, opposite the Abraham Brower House. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. It was built around 1845 by Brower, a New York City native who owned a nearby lime quarry. A brick Greek Revival structure with many of the classic features of that style, it and the other Brower house are the oldest in New Hamburg to remain largely as they were originally built. Building The house is at the southeast corner of a lot with a noncontributing swimming pool and outbuilding. Although it fronts on the stub end of Division Street (which once continued west to a dock) and is parallel with the other houses on that street, its address is Water Street. It is a two-and-a-half-story, three-bay structure of brick laid in common bond topped with a slate gabled roof and wooden cornice. Two chimneys, one on the west exterior and an interior one from the northeast, rise from it. There are star-shaped anchor bolts between the stories on the east and west elevations. The south (front) elevation has a two-story wooden porch with low hipped roof. Its square columns, duplicated in the porch of the Abraham Brower House on the opposite corner, have recessed panels and capitals. A similar single-bay porch, its upper level enclosed in clapboard, is attached to the east elevation. The front windows have stone sills and decorative lintels. A third two-story porch on the west elevation, overlooking the nearby Hudson River, has also been enclosed with aluminum siding. The stone foundation comes up to the second floor here, behind the garage. History A previous structure is shown on the site in an 1800 map, when the land was owned by early settler Ephraim DuBois. In 1837 Adolph Brower came up from New York City and bought the property. He built the house to overlook lime quarrying and kiln operations nearby. His customers were local pig iron producers and farmers and builders as far away as New Jersey, supplied by river boat. In 1870 the superintendent of the Poughkeepsie Iron Works, Albert Tower, bought the house and property. He destroyed all the kilns and concentrated strictly on quarrying limestone, outcrops of which are still visible behind the house. Over the course of the 20th century, as New Hamburg's industries declined, the road was closed and the property relandscaped extensively. But other than the addition of some more modern building materials, and the exact rebuilding of some of the front porch trim, the house itself has not been altered. Aesthetics Many of the features of the house typify it as Greek Revival. The gable returns, eyebrow windows, columned porch and side hall interior are particularly prominent. The entryway sidelights and transom, along with the finely done balustrade, are highly developed applications of the style. References Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state) Greek Revival
Adolph Brower House
4294959
Indo-Corinthian capitals are capitals crowning columns or pilasters, which can be found in the northwestern Indian subcontinent, and usually combine Hellenistic and Indian elements. These capitals are typically dated to the first centuries of the Common Era, and constitute an important aspect of Greco-Buddhist art. Corinthian design Indo-Corinthian capitals display a design and foliage structure which is derived from the academic Corinthian capital developed in Greece. Its importation to India followed the road of Hellenistic expansion in the East in the centuries after the conquests of Alexander the Great. In particular the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, centered on Bactria (today's northern Afghanistan), upheld the type at the doorstep of India, in such places as Ai-Khanoum until the end of the 2nd century BCE. In India, the design was often adapted, usually taking a more elongated form and sometimes being combined with scrolls, generally within the context of Buddhist stupas and temples. Figurines Indo-Corinthian capitals also incorporated figures of the Buddha or Bodhisattvas, usually as central figures surrounded by, and often under the shade of, the luxurious foliage of Corinthian designs. This practice was not limited to India, and also found favor in various areas of Central Asia. The depiction of figurines within the foliage of Corinthian capitals is not in itself an eastern development. In the ancient Greek world in the Mediterranean, figurines were often represented this way: Combinations with Buddhist architecture Indo-Corinthian capital were also used in combination with architectural elements, such as Buddhist stupas. One of the best example was excavated and reconstituted at Sirkap. Perhaps the most notable divergence from the western concept of function occurs at Kalawan, Taxila, where a large acanthus capital set on a lotus base was inserted between the conventional square basement and cylindrical dome of a votive stupa. Further, in the art of Gandhara, Indo-Corinthian capitals on top of separating pilasters are used extensively in narrative friezes of the life of the Buddha. This usage continued as late as the 5th century. Gallery See also Indo-Greek art Greco-Buddhist art References Buddhist architecture Hellenistic architecture Orders of columns Gandhara art
Indo-Corinthian capital
477808
A portico is a porch leading to the entrance of a building, or extended as a colonnade, with a roof structure over a walkway, supported by columns or enclosed by walls. This idea was widely used in ancient Greece and has influenced many cultures, including most Western cultures. Porticos are sometimes topped with pediments. Palladio was a pioneer of using temple-fronts for secular buildings. In the UK, the temple-front applied to The Vyne, Hampshire, was the first portico applied to an English country house. A pronaos ( or ) is the inner area of the portico of a Greek or Roman temple, situated between the portico's colonnade or walls and the entrance to the cella, or shrine. Roman temples commonly had an open pronaos, usually with only columns and no walls, and the pronaos could be as long as the cella. The word pronaos () is Greek for "before a temple". In Latin, a pronaos is also referred to as an anticum or prodomus. The pronaos of a Greek and Roman temple is typically topped with a pediment. Types The different variants of porticos are named by the number of columns they have. The "style" suffix comes from the Greek , "column". In Greek and Roman architecture, the pronaos of a temple is typically topped with a pediment. Tetrastyle The tetrastyle has four columns; it was commonly employed by the Greeks and the Etruscans for small structures such as public buildings and amphiprostyles. The Romans favoured the four columned portico for their pseudoperipteral temples like the Temple of Portunus, and for amphiprostyle temples such as the Temple of Venus and Roma, and for the prostyle entrance porticos of large public buildings like the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine. Roman provincial capitals also manifested tetrastyle construction, such as the Capitoline Temple in Volubilis. The North Portico of the White House is perhaps the most notable four-columned portico in the United States. Hexastyle Hexastyle buildings had six columns and were the standard façade in canonical Greek Doric architecture between the archaic period 600–550 BCE up to the Age of Pericles 450–430 BCE. Greek hexastyle Some well-known examples of classical Doric hexastyle Greek temples: The group at Paestum comprising the Temple of Hera (c. 550 BCE), the Temple of Apollo (c. 450 BCE), the first Temple of Athena ("Basilica") (c. 500 BCE) and the second Temple of Hera (460–440 BCE) The Temple of Aphaea at Aegina c. 495 BCE Temple E at Selinus (465–450 BCE) dedicated to Hera The Temple of Zeus at Olympia, now a ruin Temple F or the so-called "Temple of Concord" at Agrigentum (c. 430 BCE), one of the best-preserved classical Greek temples, retaining almost all of its peristyle and entablature The "unfinished temple" at Segesta (c. 430 BCE) The Temple of Hephaestus below the Acropolis at Athens, long known as the "Theseum" (449–444 BCE), also one of the most intact Greek temples surviving from antiquity The Temple of Poseidon on Cape Sunium (c. 449 BCE) Hexastyle was also
Portico
22764551
The Second Baptist Church in Poughkeepsie, New York, United States, is located at the corner of Vassar and Mill streets. It is a wooden building from the late 1830s in the Greek Revival architectural style, the only remaining church in the city in that style. A number of congregations have used the building since it was first erected. It was even a synagogue at one point, possibly leading to the nickname Vassar Temple, since it was built on land originally owned by Matthew Vassar, founder of Vassar College. In 1972 it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and later became a contributing property to the Mill Street-North Clover Street Historic District. Building The church is rectangular, three bays by six, with the narrow, colonnaded facade facing east. It has only one story, plus an attic, but appears to have two due to its brick basement being exposed on all but the south sides. The gabled roof has a gentle pitch Four pilasters on the short sides, and six on the long, separate each bay. All are sided in flush board. The main entrance is a pedimented portico supported by four wooden Doric columns topped with flat-disced architraves topped by a frieze of alternating flat panels and triglyphs. The entablature is framed by a boxed cornice, and a small round window with segmented frame is at its center. The two main entrance doors have stained glass windows, and there are four larger ones on the longer elevations. All have the same design, of two columns on ornate bases supporting an arched ribbed baldachin-like canopy and ornament. History The property was first used for religious purposes in the mid-1830s, when a splinter group from the Presbyterian Church bought it from Matthew Vassar's family. The church design is based on a pattern in an 1833 builder's guide. Greek Revival architecture was popular and influential for public buildings, as well as having elements used for residential buildings. The Presbyterian congregation did not last, and they sold the building to the First Congregational Church in 1842. The church's ownership and uses reflected changing demographics of the city. Years later the congregation sold it to a private owner, who donated it to the local Masonic lodge in 1859. The next year the lodge sold it to Matthew Vassar, Jr. He sold it to a local synagogue, the Congregated Brethren of Israel, in 1868. This use led to it being referred to as the "Vassar Temple", which also referred to its front colonnade. The Second Baptist Church and the Farmer's and Manufacturer's Bank on Market Street are the only major non-residential Greek Revival buildings left in Poughkeepsie. The rest, such as the former city hall, have been demolished and superseded. References Baptist churches in New York (state) Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state) Greek Revival church buildings in New York (state) 19th-century Baptist churches in the United States National Register of Historic Places in Poughkeepsie, New York Churches
Second Baptist Church (Poughkeepsie, New York)
38071254
4Q41 or 4QDeuteronomyn (often abbreviated 4QDeutn or 4QDtn), also known as the All Souls Deuteronomy, is a Hebrew Bible manuscript from the first century BC containing two passages from the Book of Deuteronomy. Discovered in 1952 in a cave at Qumran, near the Dead Sea, it preserves the oldest existing copy of the Ten Commandments. Discovery The scroll was found in the fourth Qumran cave, which was discovered by Ta'amireh Bedouin in August 1952. It was later purchased for "several thousand dollars" on the black market by Frank Moore Cross and Roland de Vaux with money supplied by an anonymous member of the Unitarian Church of All Souls (Mr. Thayer Lindsley) in New York. This then gave rise to the name 'All Souls' Deuteronomy. Description What is preserved of the scroll consists of two fragments that were originally sewn together. They were cut evenly at the bottom to a height of 7.1 cm and have a total length of about 45 cm. The first, containing one column of writing, was not the beginning of the scroll, as can be seen from the sewn edges on either side. The second sheet contains three complete and two damaged columns. The scroll was prepared with horizontal and vertical lines, as well as ink dots to mark the beginning of lines. The exceptionally well-preserved parchment used for 4Q41 is quite small compared to other Qumran scrolls. Date and script The manuscript is dated on paleographic grounds to the early Herodian period, between 30 and 1 BC. Its script is unusually tiny and the letters waw and yod are almost indistinguishable, making some readings uncertain. The orthography employed by the scribe is much fuller than the Masoretic text and the Samaritan Pentateuch. Contents The two sheets contain Deuteronomy 8:5–10 and Deuteronomy 5:1–6:1. Although the scroll was originally longer, the unusual ordering of the texts suggests it probably was not a regular biblical scroll, but contained only excerpts from Deuteronomy, possibly for liturgical or devotional purposes. Another explanation, suggested by Dead Sea Scrolls scholar John Strugnell, is that the scroll was repaired incorrectly. The text of the decalogue generally follows Deuteronomy, but is in some places modified to bring it in harmony with the parallel version in Exodus. One significant variant, unique to this manuscript, is the addition of the reason for the institution of the sabbath, normally found only in the account in Exodus. References External links 4Q41 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Literature Tov, Emmanuel, Hebrew Bible, Greek Bible and Qumran: Collected Essays, Mohr Siebeck, 2008, White, Sidnie Ann, The All Souls Deuteronomy and the Decalogue in ''Journal of Biblical Literature, 109/2 (1990) 193-206 Dead Sea Scrolls 1st-century BC biblical manuscripts
4Q41
70419828
The Temple of Roma and Augustus was a monopteral circular Ionic temple built on the Acropolis of Athens , likely coincident with Augustus' second visit to Athens. The structure was axially aligned with the eastern entrance of the Parthenon, placed eastward. The temple, which asserted the divinity of Rome and the Imperial cult in the context of the religious centre of the Acropolis, was a propaganda monument erected at a time of tension between Rome and Athens. Its ruins remain on the Acropolis. Description The Pentelic marble temple was at its greatest diameter , and likely measured in height. The building had one step and a stylobate on which its nine columns stood. It had no interior wall, making it a monopteros, and might have been the frame or setting for a statue or other cult object. In style it recalls the columns of the Erechtheion with elaborately carved floral motifs at the top of the shaft, making it an early example of the Roman classicizing Neo-Attic style. The inscribed epistyle was over the central intercolumniation which was slightly wider than the others and evidently faced east. The building had a sloping conical marble roof. A large square foundation, with sides of , has been preserved and it was investigated by Kavadias and Kawerau in the course of the excavations of 1885–1890. From then on it has been the consensus view that this was the foundation for the temple. The foundation consists of two courses of large tuff blocks deriving from another, older building. The construction apparently coincided with the repair of the west side of the Erechtheion, since a geison block from there was found built into the foundations of the circular temple. An inscription in an archaizing pseudo-stoichedon style on the architrave reads: Dio Cassius states that in the winter of 22–21 BCE, Augustus visited Athens, at which time the statue of Athena in the Parthenon, which usually faced eastward, turned west, and spat blood in Rome's direction. This implies an evident hostility on the part of Athens toward Augustus, when the city had previously sided with Antony in the Civil War. It was not until Augustus’ second visit, after his diplomatic victory over Parthia, when he participated in the Eleusinian rites, that relations must have sufficiently thawed for the exchange of honours. Placing the monument on the Acropolis, then, signalled Athenian willingness to embrace the Imperial cult and the Augustan regime. The meaning of the location of the temple may have further significance, however. Either its placement in the "field of victory" could signify the Athenian attempt to contextualise Roman power in the long span of Greek martial achievement, and thereby subtly subordinate it. Or its creation along with a programme of contemporary public works represented evidence of the enthusiastic romanisation of the city. Notes Bibliography Acropolis of Athens Ancient Greek buildings and structures in Athens Temples in ancient Athens Rome and Augustus Rotundas in Europe
Temple of Roma and Augustus
39438565
The following is a list of the Dead Sea Scrolls from the caves near Qumran. The Dead Sea Scrolls is a collection of manuscripts discovered between 1946 and 1956 in the West Bank near the Dead Sea. List of manuscripts The content of many scrolls has not yet been fully published. Some resources for more complete information on the scrolls are the book by Emanuel Tov, "Revised Lists of the Texts from the Judaean Desert" for a complete list of all of the Dead Sea Scroll texts, as well as the online webpages for the Shrine of the Book and the Leon Levy Collection, both of which present photographs and images of the scrolls and fragments themselves for closer study. Information is not always comprehensive, as content for many scrolls has not yet been fully published. Qumran Cave 1 Description Wadi Qumran Cave 1 was discovered for the first time in 1946. The initial discovery, by Bedouin shepherd Muhammed edh-Dhib, his cousin Jum'a Muhammed, and Khalil Musa, took place between November 1946 and February 1947. The shepherds discovered seven scrolls housed in jars in a cave near what is now known as the Qumran site, and they took them back to the camp to show to their families. None of the scrolls were destroyed in this process. The original seven Dead Sea Scrolls from Cave 1 at Qumran are the Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsa), a second copy of Isaiah (1QIsa), the Community Rule Scroll (1QS), the Pesher on Habakkuk (1QpHab), the War Scroll (1QM), the Thanksgiving Hymns (1QH), and the Genesis Apocryphon (1QapGen). One of the pottery jars containing the scrolls from Cave 1 is now kept in the British Museum. {|class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" |- ! Fragment or scroll identifier ! Fragment or scroll name ! Alternative identifier ! English Bible Association ! Language ! Date/script ! Description ! Reference |- ! colspan="8" style="background:#b8c7d6;"| Qumran Cave 1 |- | 1QIsa || Great Isaiah Scroll ||| Isaiah 1:1–31; 2:1–22; 3:1–5:30; 6:1–13; 7:1–25; 8:1–23; 9:1–20; 10:1–34; 11:1–45:25; 46:1–66:24 || Hebrew |356–103 BCE/150–100 BCE||Contains all 66 chapters with occasional lacunae and some missing words at the bottom of some columns || |- | 1QIsa || Isaiah |cf. 1Q8 || The Book of Isaiah || Hebrew |Hasmonean/Herodian ||A second copy of portions of the Book of Isaiah || |- |1QS |Serekh ha-Yahad or "Community Rule" ||| |Hebrew|| | cf. 4QS = 4Q255–64, 5Q11 | |- | 1QpHab || Pesher on Habakkuk ||| Habakkuk 1–2 |Hebrew || Later half of the 1st century BC |Commentary on Habakkuk 1:2–17; 2:1–20|| |- | 1QM || Milhamah or War Scroll ||| |Hebrew || |cf. 4Q491, 4Q493; 11Q14?|| |- | 1QH || Hodayot or Thanksgiving Hymns ||| |Hebrew|| |Some parts are also preserved in 1QH and 4QH | |- | 1QapGen || Genesis Apocryphon ||| Genesis 12:18–15:4 |Aramaic |25 BCE–50 CE|||| |- | CTLevi || Cairo Geniza or Testament of Levi ||| || Aramaic ||||| |- |1QGen||Genesis |1Q1|| Genesis 1:18–21; 3:11–14; 22:13–15; 23:17–19; 24:22–24 || Hebrew ||Herodian|| | |-
List of the Dead Sea Scrolls
879245
The Villa of the Papyri (, also known as Villa dei Pisoni and in early excavation records as the Villa Suburbana) was an ancient Roman villa in Herculaneum, in what is now Ercolano, southern Italy. It is named after its unique library of papyri scrolls, discovered in 1750. The Villa was considered to be one of the most luxurious houses in all of Herculaneum and in the Roman world. Its luxury is shown by its exquisite architecture and by the large number of outstanding works of art discovered, including frescoes, bronzes and marble sculpture which constitute the largest collection of Greek and Roman sculptures ever discovered in a single context. It was situated on the ancient coastline below the volcano Vesuvius with nothing to obstruct the view of the sea. It was perhaps owned by Julius Caesar's father-in-law, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus. In 1908, Barker suggested that Philodemus may have been the owner. In AD 79, the eruption of Vesuvius covered all of Herculaneum with up to of volcanic material from pyroclastic flows. Herculaneum was first excavated between 1750 and 1765 by Karl Weber by means of tunnels. The villa's name derives from the discovery of its library, the only surviving library from the Graeco-Roman world that exists in its entirety. It contained over 1,800 papyrus scrolls, now carbonised by the heat of the eruption, the "Herculaneum papyri". Most of the villa is still underground. Parts have been cleared of volcanic deposits. Many of the finds are displayed in the Naples National Archaeological Museum. The Getty Villa museum in Malibu, California, is a reproduction of the Villa of the Papyri. Layout The villa is located a few hundred metres from the nearest house in Herculaneum. Although it now lies inland, before the volcanic eruption of October 79 A.D., the structure occupied more than of coastline along the Gulf of Naples. On the other sides it was surrounded by a closed garden, vineyards and woods. The villa had four levels beneath the main floor, arranged in terraces overlooking the sea. It has recently been ascertained that the main floor was above sea level in antiquity. The villa's layout is an expanded version of the traditional Campanian villa suburbana. One entered through the fauces and proceeded to the atrium, which functioned as an entrance hall and a means of communication with the various parts of the house. The entrance opened with a columned portico on the sea side. After passing through the tablinum, one arrived at the first peristyle, made up of ten columns on each side, with a swimming pool in the centre. In this area were found the bronze herm adapted from the Doryphorus of Polykleitos and the herm of an Amazon made by Apollonios son of Archias of Athens. The large second peristyle could be reached by passing through a large tablinum in which, under a propylaeum, was the archaic statue of Athena Promachos. A collection of bronze busts were in the interior of the tablinum. These included the
Villa of the Papyri
21985328
The Thayer House is a historic house at 17 Channing Street in Newton, Massachusetts, USA. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986. Description The -story wood-frame house was built c. 1860, and is an unusual combination of Carpenter Gothic and Second Empire styling. The front facade has three steeply-pitched gables clad in flushboarding, and the gable windows are framed in scroll-sawn decorations. The house corners have rounded corner pilasters, and the main entrance is framed by Ionic columns and topped by a low-pitch gable with more scroll-sawn woodwork. A mansard-roofed addition extends from the rear of the house. History By 1869, the neighborhood around Channing Street was developed into house lots on land belonging to Phineas A Johnson, a cabinetmaker. Local Newton resident, developer, and businessman Joseph N. Bacon and Watertown resident Luke Forbes both bought and subdivided Johnson's land creating the neighborhood located on and around Channing Street. Until 1878, when it was incorporated as a city street, Channing Street was known as Linden Street and the neighborhood was built to serve bustling Newton Corner with its convenient rail transportation to Boston. With the exception of 34 Channing Street, an early 20th-century Colonial Revival building, the historic homes along Channing Street were all built within roughly a ten-year period between 1860 and 1870. Historically, the structure is important for its contribution to the architectural history of Newton as a locally distinctive combination of historic architectural styles (Gothic Revival and Second Empire), as the residence of local merchant Stephen O. Thayer, and as a contributing element in the 19th century character of Channing Street. The property is also historically associated with the development of Newton Corner during the late 19th century as a desirable urban village residence in proximity to railroad transportation to Boston. See also National Register of Historic Places listings in Newton, Massachusetts References Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Newton, Massachusetts Gothic Revival architecture in Massachusetts Houses completed in 1865
Thayer House (Newton, Massachusetts)
52685
Ancient Roman architecture adopted the external language of classical ancient Greek architecture for the purposes of the ancient Romans, but was different from Greek buildings, becoming a new architectural style. The two styles are often considered one body of classical architecture. Roman architecture flourished in the Roman Republic and to an even greater extent under the Empire, when the great majority of surviving buildings were constructed. It used new materials, particularly Roman concrete, and newer technologies such as the arch and the dome to make buildings that were typically strong and well engineered. Large numbers remain in some form across the former empire, sometimes complete and still in use today. Roman architecture covers the period from the establishment of the Roman Republic in 509 BC to about the 4th century AD, after which it becomes reclassified as Late Antique or Byzantine architecture. Few substantial examples survive from before about 100 BC, and most of the major survivals are from the later empire, after about 100 AD. Roman architectural style continued to influence building in the former empire for many centuries, and the style used in Western Europe beginning about 1000 is called Romanesque architecture to reflect this dependence on basic Roman forms. The Romans only began to achieve significant originality in architecture around the beginning of the Imperial period, after they had combined aspects of their originally Etruscan architecture with others taken from Greece, including most elements of the style we now call classical architecture. They moved from trabeated construction mostly based on columns and lintels to one based on massive walls, punctuated by arches, and later domes, both of which greatly developed under the Romans. The classical orders now became largely decorative rather than structural, except in colonnades. Stylistic developments included the Tuscan and Composite orders; the first being a shortened, simplified variant on the Doric order and the Composite being a tall order with the floral decoration of the Corinthian and the scrolls of the Ionic. The period from roughly 40 BC to about 230 AD saw most of the greatest achievements, before the Crisis of the Third Century and later troubles reduced the wealth and organizing power of the central governments. The Romans produced massive public buildings and works of civil engineering, and were responsible for significant developments in housing and public hygiene, for example their public and private baths and latrines, under-floor heating in the form of the hypocaust, mica glazing (examples in Ostia Antica), and piped hot and cold water (examples in Pompeii and Ostia). Overview Despite the technical developments of the Romans, which took their buildings far away from the basic Greek conception where columns were needed to support heavy beams and roofs, they were reluctant to abandon the classical orders in formal public buildings, even though these had become essentially decorative. However, they did not feel entirely restricted by Greek aesthetic concerns and treated the orders with considerable freedom. Innovation started in the 3rd or 2nd century BC with the development of Roman
Ancient Roman architecture
11999365
4Q106 (or 4QCanta) is one large and three small fragments from three columns of a scroll containing portions of the Song of Songs (3:4-5, 7–11; 4:1–7; 6:11?-12; 7:1-7) in Hebrew. It is one of three scrolls found in Cave 4 at Qumran that have been reconstructed as copies of the Song of Songs. These, and 6Q6 from Cave 6, comprise the total witness to the Song from the Dead Sea Scrolls, known so far. Description The parchment of 4Q106 is tan in colour. The text is bordered by a top margin of 1.3 cm, bottom margin of 1.5 cm and an inter-column margin averaging 1.1 cm. There is clear evidence of vertical, but not horizontal ruling. Unidentified fragment 6, which is thought to derive from 4Q106 does show evidence of horizontal ruling, which would explain the extremely regular writing of this manuscript. Ada Yardeni, in a private communication to Emanuel Tov, dated the manuscript as early Herodian. Contents The large fragment and one of the small fragments provide the bulk of the surviving text — from column II. The two other small fragments are from columns I and III. What can be reconstructed from column I is: [3:4... I grasped him and did no]t let him go until [I brought him to my mother's house, and into] [the room of the woman who conceived me. 5I charge y]ou daughters [of Jerusalem ...] From column II can be read: From column III can be read: ; See also List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts 4Q107 = 4QCantb 4Q108 = 4QCantc 6Q6 = 6QCant Tanakh at Qumran References Literature Yardeni, Ada. The Book of Hebrew Script. The British Library: London, 2002. . External links Emanuel Tov. 'A Categorized List of All the "Biblical Texts" Found in the Judean Desert.' Dead Sea Discoveries 8 (2001): 67-84. 4Q106 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Dead Sea Scrolls 1st-century BC biblical manuscripts
4Q106
31359466
The Egyptian Halls is a category A listed building at 84–100 Union Street, Glasgow, Scotland. It was built between 1870–72 and designed by Alexander "Greek" Thomson. Other than some retailers on the ground floor, the building is currently unoccupied and despite several attempts at restoration, it remains in a perilous state. As of March 2024 it was reported the building, now covered in scaffolding for fifteen years, was for sale. History Work started on the Egyptian Halls in March 1870 to provide new commercial premises for James Robertson, an iron manufacturer, and was completed in 1872. Built using cast iron and stone, the Egyptian Halls was one of the last major projects of Alexander Thomson. The building broke many of the rules of the time; thick stone columns normally found at ground level were on the top floor. The building is built on four storeys. The ground floor was occupied by shops with fully glazed wide bays. The first floor features eighteen window bays divided by square columns with a flowing scroll capital. On the second floor, shorter couple columns are positioned exactly above the first floor columns, again above these columns is a decorative entablature with a Roman-style decoration. Finally, on the third floor is a plinth with dwarf columns and pseudo-Egyptian lotus flower capitals. Behind these columns is a continuous glazed screen, which is not fixed to these columns. Topping these columns is another entablature with a cornice. This 'attic' room is lit by a series of sloping skylights. The name of the building seems to be a misnomer as there is very little Egyptian influence in its design. Instead, it is more closely modelled on Greek classical architecture, in particular the Corinthian order of the Tower of the Winds in Athens, which was Thomson's ideal of design. It is speculated that it takes its title from the earlier Egyptian Hall in Piccadilly, London, which was the precursor for the large multi-purpose commercial premises of Thomson's building. It is also speculated that some of the shops may have been Egyptian-themed. In addition to the shops, the building featured a lecture room, bazaar and a large central hall where displays of paintings and antiquities were staged, including the display of the complete Egyptian tomb of Thebes. Thomson was very proud of his work. Writing to his brother George, he commented: "He [the client] is very proud of the building – a writer in The Architect says of it – this is probably the Architect's most successful effort, and we doubt if its equal, for originality, grandeur of treatment or imposing effect, could be found in any City, not excepting the Metropolis itself." The building has been described as one of the finest in Glasgow and, according to the secretary of the Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland, is the finest surviving example of an Alexander Thomson commercial building and is of international importance. It has been protected as a category A listed building since 1966. Current status In common
The Egyptian Halls
61327162
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 4443 (also P.Oxy. 65. 4443, TM 61923, LDAB 3080, Rahlfs 0996) is a fragment of a Septuagint manuscript (LXX) written on papyrus in scroll form. It is the oldest extant manuscript that contains Esther 8:16–9:3 of the Septuagint text and verse numbering, according to the text of LXX. The manuscript has been assigned palaeographically to 50–150 CE. Description This fragment of a papyrus roll contains 31 lines of text in 3 columns. It is of semi-cursive script type. Treatment to the name of God The Hebrew book of Esther does not contain the tetragrammaton, so Anthony R. Meyer states that "it is well-known that the Tetragrammaton does not occur, and God plays virtually no role in the narrative. In the translation of this book, then, we have no reason to expect to find κύριος". A remarkable feature of the Greek Book of Ester, is that it has written the word θεός uncontracted, in Greek apocryphal additions, in which the word θεός (אֱלהִים) is not found in the Book of Esther of the Hebrew Bible (e.g. masoretic text). The scroll form and the presence of the uncontracted word θεός (theos, not in nomina sacra form) suggest that it is of Jewish rather than Christian origin. The Masoretic Text of Esther makes no mention whatever of God under any title, although God is mentioned throughout the Septuagint text of the book and even more often in the independent "Alpha Text". Content The text of the fragment consists mainly of a letter of Ahasuerus that Jerome moved to form chapter 16:1–24 of the Vulgate. It is also referred to as Addition E and in the Septuagint text stood between verses 8:12 and 8:13 of the shorter Masoretic Text. According to Richard H. Hiers addition E "makes much pious reference to the power and justice of God". Location This manuscript comes from Bahnasa, Oxyrhychus, Egypt. Currently the manuscript is kept in Oxford, Sackler Library, Papyrology Rooms P. Oxy. 4443. References Sources External links High resolution image of P. Oxy. 65. 4443 Septuagint manuscripts 1st-century biblical manuscripts 2nd-century biblical manuscripts Book of Esther
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 4443
40438422
St Mary's Church is in North Drive, Wavertree, Liverpool, Merseyside, England. It is an active Anglican parish church in the deanery of Toxteth and Wavertree, the archdeaconry of Liverpool, and the diocese of Liverpool. The church is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II listed building. History The building originated as a Methodist church, which was built in 1872–73. In the 1880s additions were made to it, including a tower with a broach spire. The church was damaged during the First World War, and was renovated in 1925. It failed to flourish, and closed as a Methodist church in 1950. St Mary's Anglican church was designed by W. and J. Hay and built in Sandown Park. The foundation stone was laid on 15 August 1850, and the church was consecrated in 1856, but it was destroyed by bombing in the Second World War. When the Methodists closed the church, it was sold to the Church of England, and converted for use as an Anglican church. This was consecrated in December 1952. Architecture The church is constructed in yellow sandstone with red sandstone dressings. It has a slate roof. The plan consists of a five-bay nave without aisles, shallow transeptal projections, a canted apse at the east end, a west baptistry, and a northeast steeple. The tower has angle buttresses, and an entrance under a pointed arch, above which are two lancet windows. Over this are two-light windows with rose windows, and above them are a Lombard frieze, gargoyles, and a pierced parapet. The windows along the sides of the nave have two lights and contain Decorated tracery. At the east end of the church is a blocked entrance, with a five-light window above it. Incorporated in the blocked entrance is the foundation stone of the original Anglican church. Associated features In the churchyard is a war memorial that was moved from the churchyard of the previous church. The memorial is also recorded as a designated Grade II listed building. It is in stone, and has a triangular plinth. On the plinth is a triangular pedestal with scrolled feet on the corners at the base, and a cornice with carved scrolls at the top. Standing on the pedestal is a hexagonal tapering column with a simple hexagonal column at the top. On the east side of the base is a stone plaque commemorating those who died in the Second World War, on each side of the plinth is an inscribed stone plaque, and on the sides of the pedestal are plaques with the names of those who died in the First World War. The memorial stands in a hexagonal area bounded by a kerb and filled with gravel. See also Grade II listed buildings in Liverpool-L15 References Churches in Liverpool Grade II listed buildings in Liverpool Grade II listed churches in Merseyside Anglican Diocese of Liverpool Church of England church buildings in Merseyside Gothic Revival church buildings in England Gothic Revival architecture in Merseyside
St Mary's Church, Wavertree
9581553
The French term goût grec (; "Greek taste") is often applied to the earliest expression of the Neoclassical style in France and refers specifically to the decorative arts and architecture of the mid-1750s to the late 1760s. The style was more fanciful than historically accurate, though the first archaeological surveys of Greece had begun to appear at this time. It was characterized by severe rectilinear and trabeated forms with a somewhat crude Greek detailing incorporating bold pilasters, Ionic scrolls, Greek key and scroll frets and guilloche. The style's origin may be found in the suite of furniture designed by Louis-Joseph Le Lorrain for the Parisian financier Ange-Laurent de La Live de Jully (now in the Musée Condé, Chantilly). In comparison to the prevailing Rococo style, the austerity of these pieces is stark, and found praise from the contemporary authority on Greek antiquity, the Comte de Caylus. Also influential were the engravings of the architect Jean-François de Neufforge, the architecture of Charles De Wailly, and the designs of Philippe de La Guêpière. The goût grec was a style of avant-garde circles in upper-class Paris, but was ignored at the court at Versailles, where a more conservative, stiffened Louis XV style and modified "Transitional" style obtained. The goût grec was short-lived and replaced quickly with the delicate, linear (or insipid, according to preference) goût étrusque and goût arabesque, neo-Etruscan and "arabesque" fashions with closer parallels in contemporary British Adam style of the 1770s and 80s. See also Neo-Grec Notes References Svend Eriksen, Early Neo-Classicism in France. (London: Faber). Translated by Peter Thornton. Decorative arts Architectural styles Neoclassical architecture in France Greek Revival architecture
Goût grec
41428274
The Temple of Apollo ( Apollonion) is one of the most important ancient Greek monuments of Magna Graecia on Ortygia, in front of the Piazza Pancali in Syracuse, Sicily, Italy. History Dating to the 6th century B.C., this temple is one of the most ancient Doric temples in Sicily, and among the first with the layout consisting of a peripteros of stone columns. This layout became standard for Greek temples. The temple underwent several transformations: closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire, it was a Byzantine church, from which period the front steps and traces of a central door are preserved, and then an Islamic mosque during the Emirate of Sicily. After the Norman defeat of the Saracens, it was reconsecrated at the Church of the Saviour, which was then incorporated into a 16th-century Spanish barracks and into private houses, though some architectural elements remained visible. For instance, in 1778, Dominique Vivant Denon described the temple: These successive renovations severely damaged the building, which were rediscovered around 1890 inside the barracks and was brought to light in its entirety thanks to the efficient excavations of Paolo Orsi. Description The temple's stylobate measures 55.36 x 21.47 metres, with its very squat columns in a 6 x 17 arrangement. It represents the moment of transition in the Greek west between temples with a wooden structure and those built completely out of stone, with a hexastyle front and a continuous colonnade around the perimeter which surrounds the pronaos and a naos divided into three aisles by two internal colonnades of more slender columns, which supported a wooden roof, which is difficult to reconstruct. At the back of the naos was a closed space, typical of Sicelian temples, called an adyton. The construction of a building with forty-two monolithic columns, probably transported by sea, must have seemed incredible to its builders, as demonstrated by the unusual inscription on the top step on the eastern face dedicated to Apollo, in which the builder (or the architect) celebrates the construction of the building with an emphasis on the pioneering character of the construction. The remains permit the reconstruction of the original appearance of the temple, which belongs to the proto-doric period and shows uncertainties in construction and style, such as the extreme closeness of the columns on the sides, the variation of the intercolumniation, the lack of concern for the correspondence of the triglyphs with the columns and archaic aspects the very elongated floor plan. The architrave was unusually high and lightened at the back by an L-shaped cross section. Some aspects are very experimental, such as the importance given to the eastern face with a double colonnade, wider separation of the central columns and more generally a pursuit of emphasis rather than proportional harmony. The pioneering building was a defining step in the emergence of the peripteral Doric temple in Sicily, representing a sort of local prototype which juxtaposed aspects developed in mainland Greece with an unusual height which was imitated
Temple of Apollo (Syracuse)
48518445
The Great Psalms Scroll, also referred to as 11Q5, is the most substantial and well preserved manuscript of Psalms of the thirty-seven discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls in the Qumran caves. It is one of six Psalms manuscripts discovered in Cave 11. Description The scroll was discovered in February of the year 1956, ten years after the initial discovery of the scrolls. It was purchased by The Palestine Archaeological Museum located in Jerusalem and first unrolled in November 1961. Four fragments of this scroll were later purchased by the same museum. The scroll's physical make up is that of dark yellow animal hide and is a little less than 1 mm thick. The primary body of the manuscript consists of “5 sheets of leather, still sewn together”, and is 4.253 meters in length. It is estimated to have been copied anywhere from 30-50 AD, and is written in Biblical style Hebrew. When rolled out, it forms a slight arc, and the top part is clean and well kept, while the bottom is decomposing significantly. It was first edited and published by James A. Sanders in 1965, with a second volume also published by Sanders two years later with a wider and more general audience in mind. The full scroll is published in the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Shape and content of the 11Q5 Psalter The reason this manuscript is of such great interest to scholars is due to its major deviance from the Masoretic Psalter. Its textual makeup is that of “apocryphal compositions interspersed with canonical psalms in a radically different order”. It contains approximately fifty compositions, forty of which are found in the Masoretic text. While some maintain the masoretic order, such as some of the Psalms of Ascent, others are scattered throughout in a different order. 11Q5 has generated a lot of interest in scholars due to its large difference from the Masoretic Psalter, “both in ordering of contents and in the presence of additional compositions”. It contains several compositions that are not present in the Masoretic Psalter of 150 hymns and prayers and therefore, “challenges traditional ideas concerning the shape and finalization of the book of Psalms.” There are eight non-Masoretic compositions with an additional prose composition that is not formatted like a psalm. Three highlighted compositions include “The Apostrophe to Zion”, “Plea for Deliverance”, and Psalm 151; in addition, the prose composition is researched to be known as “David’s Compositions”. While these are non-Masoretic, one of them, Psalm 151, was known in the Septuagint. The Apostrophe to Zion, written as a love poem to Zion, is one of two non-Masoretic compositions that are complete in the Great Psalm Scroll. It has the “same style as three biblical apostrophes in Isaiah 54:1-8, 60:1-22, 62:1-8” and another copy of this composition can be found in 4Q88. The Plea for Deliverance, found in column 19, was a psalm unknown before the discovery of 11Q5, where neither the beginning nor the end of the poem can
Great Psalms Scroll
8428554
The Thanksgiving Scroll was one of the first seven Dead Sea Scrolls discovered in 1947 by the Bedouin. The scroll gets its name from the recurring use of the phrase "I thank you" in many of the poems. The Hebrew word Hodayot refers to "thanks" or "thanksgiving". Other names include Thanksgiving Hymns, Thanksgiving Psalms, Hymns Scroll and Scroll of Hymns. The main scroll found in 1947 is designated 1QHa. Other fragments of this text have been found in Caves 1 and 4 (1Q35, 4Q427–432). But even when these readings are added to 1QHa, there is still a substantial amount of text missing. The style of the hymns is so similar to that of the Old Testament that scholars have described it as a “mosaic of Old Testament Texts”. Like the biblical "psalms of lament", they employ intimate and personal language. The content varies from poem to poem but there are certainly overriding themes: first and foremost the scroll talks about and to God and is usually contrasted with the weakness, dependency, unworthiness and wretchedness of the human condition (thereby exalting God’s power and perfection even more). Other main themes include: salvation of the just and destruction of the wicked, gratitude for divine insight, personal (?) accounts of exile/persecution (and God delivering the speaker from such plights). To use the last subject as an example, here is a quote from the text showing both how personal the language is and the thanks awarded to God for his mercy: “the wicked of the people rush against me with their afflictions, and all the day long they crush my soul. But You, O my God, turn the tempest to a whisper, and the life of the distressed You have brought to safety as a bird from the snare and as prey from the power of lions” (1QH, Col. 13 lines 17–19). There are several theories regarding how the Hodayot were used. Some believe they were daily prayers, or a moral instruction booklet or even war songs sung after a victory. Menahem Mansoor holds that The Thanksgiving scroll was a private psalter for a select group within a community that modeled the correct way to praise God for deliverance. The cave 1 Thanksgiving Hymns (1QHa and 1QHb) was among the 7 original scrolls recovered at Qumran Cave 1 by the Bedouin in the year 1947. There were two different groupings of textual evidence that were found. The first contained twelve columns of script with up to forty lines of text each. The second included six columns and sixty-six fragments that were found. The problem with this particular discovery is that the quality of the text and its legibility. The text on the materials is preserved with numerous lacunae and requires much evaluation in order to decipher the structure and meaning behind a number of the hymns in 1QHa. Scholars have debated the identity of specific sections of the hymns as it is unclear what the text signifies in terms of organization of the different
Thanksgiving Hymns
43337974
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 5101, designated by 2227 (in the Alfred Rahlfs numbering of koine Greek Septuagint manuscripts), or P.Oxy.77 (LXXVII) 5101, is a manuscript of the Greek Septuagint Psalms (an ancient translation of the Hebrew Bible Psalms), written on papyrus in roll form. It has survived in a very fragmentary condition. Using the study of comparative writings styles (palaeography), it has been dated to the middle of the first - middle of the second century CE. P.Oxy.77 5101 uses the Tetragrammaton (name of God in the Hebrew Bible) written in palaeo-Hebrew script instead of substituting it with the Greek title (kyrios / Lord), and is currently the earliest extant copy of the Septuagint Psalms. Description The manuscript was originally a papyrus roll, of which fragments from six columns have survived. The fragments contain Psalms 26:9-14; 44:4-8; 47:13-15; 48:6-21; 49:2-16; 63:6-64:5 according to the numbering of the Septuagint (the Hebrew Bible Psalms number them slightly differently). As noted by biblical scholar Larry Hurtado, "[t]his is probably the earliest extant copy of the Septuagint Psalms." The text was written by an inexperienced writer in uncial script characters. Greek text Transcription of two of the Psalm verses according to biblical scholar Anthony R. Meyer: In the above verse, the Masoretic Text reads אלהים (elohim) and the LXX (Greek Septuagint) reads ο θεος (ho theos) but P. Oxy. 5101 reads YHWH. Tetragrammaton The manuscript contains the tetragrammaton to represent the Divine Name of God (YHWH) written in the palaeo-Hebrew script (). This manuscript is not a recension and contains the name of God (YHWH) in Paleo-Hebrew letters, thus contradicting the argument that the presence of the tetragrammaton in Paleo-Hebrew letters is the product of a recension to the Hebrew text. According to Meyer, the Greek scribe was not familiar with the tetragram, so instead of changing the original reading, he simply copied it from another manuscript that already contained it; however it has also been argued that a blank space was left, and then the scribe himself decided to write YHWH in Paleo-Hebrew. Meyer states that "still, the evidence of P. Oxy 5101 is too fragmentary to give decisive evidence for the procedure of writing the Tetragrammaton. If P. Oxy 5101 follows the procedure of other Greek biblical texts that write the Tetragrammaton in the paleo-Hebrew script, then it would represent a one-stage writing system". He further comments: Meyer concludes that "on the whole, this line of argumentation to establish the Tetragrammaton as a secondary development based on recensional traits of Greek texts is flawed", and "the presence of ιαω does not decisively answer the question of the earliest OG rendering". He adds: "there is no proof that the reason for the Tetragrammaton is caused by or inherent to the textual character of early revisions of the Old Greek". Whilst speaking concerning the idea of "recension" in regards to another Greek Septuagint manuscript classed among the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal Hever, which is considered to be a kaige recension
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 5101
22289260
The Small House in Macon, Georgia, also known as Ralph Small House, Napier-Small House, or McMullan-Napier-Small House, is a "distinguished" example of high-style Greek Revival architecture that was built in 1846 by Skelton Napier. Among Greek Revival works, it has two extraordinary features. One is that the Doric columns of its portico are in antis, i.e. set in between square columns (antae), at the two front corners. There is no known precedent in original Greece or in the Greek Revival style, for columns used in antis for a "pro-style temple type portico". The four fluted Doric columns and the antae support the entablature of the portico. The second is that it has a low wooden parapet with carved acroteria above the entablature, serving as a gallery or corona, that is exceptionally well executed. This ornamentation is "a satisfying response to the theme set by the laurel wreaths of the frieze and at the same time a kind of counter-point to the baldness of the antae which terminate the colonade." It was built facing Vineville Avenue and was approached along a long driveway lined with cedar trees. However, when the area was broken up into smaller lots it was moved and turned and no longer has a spacious and stately setting. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971. Photos The house was photographically documented repeatedly in U.S. Federal Government projects, by Frances Benjamin Johnston, Carol Highsmith, and others. References External links - Real estate listing site from 2017 sale - video tour of house from 2017 sale Architectural diagram of facade - via Historic Macon Foundation on Flickr Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Georgia (U.S. state) Houses completed in 1846 Houses in Macon, Georgia National Register of Historic Places in Bibb County, Georgia Greek Revival houses in Georgia (U.S. state)
Small House (Macon, Georgia)
52179472
The Pataliputra capital is a monumental rectangular capital with volutes and Classical Greek designs, that was discovered in the palace ruins of the ancient Mauryan Empire capital city of Pataliputra (modern Patna, northeastern India). It is dated to the 3rd century BCE. Discovery The monumental capital was discovered in 1895 at the royal palace in Pataliputra, India, in the area of Bulandi Bagh in Patna, by archaeologist L.A. Waddell in 1895. It was found at a depth of around , and dated to the reign of Ashoka or soon after, to the 3rd century BCE. The discovery was first reported in Waddell's book "Report on the excavations at Pataliputra (Patna)". "The capital is currently on display in the Patna Museum. Construction The capital is made of unpolished buff sandstone. It is quite massive, with a length of , and a height of . It weighs approximately 1,800 lbs (900 kg). During the excavations it was found next to a thick ancient wall and a brick pavement. The Pataliputra capital is generally dated to the early Maurya Empire period, 3rd century BCE. This would correspond to the reign of Chandragupta, his son Bindusara or his grandson Ashoka, who are all known to have welcomed Greek ambassadors at their court (respectively Megasthenes, Deimachus and Dionysius), who may well have come to Pataliputra with presents and craftsmen as suggested by classical sources. The Indo-Greeks again possibly had a very direct presence in Pataliputra about a century later, circa 185 BCE, when they may have captured the city, although briefly, from the Sungas after the fall of the Maurya Empire. Design content The top is made of a band of rosettes, eleven in total for the fronts and four for the sides. Below that is a band of bead and reel pattern, then under it a band of waves, generally right-to-left, except for the back where they are left-to-right. Further below is a band of egg-and-dart pattern, with eleven "tongues" or "eggs" on the front, and only seven on the back. Below appears the main motif, a flame palmette, growing among pebbles. The front and the back of the Pataliputra capital are both highly decorated, although the back has a few differences and is slightly coarser in design. The waves on the back are left-to-right, that is reverse of the waves on the front. Also, the back only has seven "eggs" in the egg-and-dart band (4th decorative band from the top), compared to eleven for the front. Lastly, the bottom pebble design is simpler on the back, with less pebbles being shown, and a small plinth or band visually supports them. Influences Hellenistic style The capital is decorated with Classical Greek designs, such as the row of repeating rosettes, the ovolo, the bead and reel moulding, the wave-like scrolls as well as the central flame palmette and the volutes with central rosettes. It has been described as quasi-Ionic, displaying definite Near Eastern influence, or simply Greek in design and origin. The Archaeological Survey of
Pataliputra capital
24068656
The house at 322 Albany Avenue (NY 32), in Kingston, New York, United States, is a stone building dating to the early 19th century. In the 1840s it was renovated in the Greek Revival architectural style. Almost a century later it was renovated again, this time in the Colonial Revival style. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2002. Building The house occupies a large lot on the east side of Albany between Manor and Ten Broeck avenues, just opposite 313 Albany Avenue. The neighborhood is primarily residential. It is a two-story seven-by-two-bay building with a one-and-a-half-story frame rear wing topped by a gabled roof with a heavily molded, dentilled cornice pierced by a brick chimney. In the center of the first story on the west (front) facade is a one-bay porch. Its low hipped roof is supported by pairs of Ionic columns rising to a molded cornice and entablature. There is a projecting bay window on the south profile. The paneled main wooden door has leaded sidelights and top. It leads to a center hallway, with a large parlor on the south. This room has much Greek Revival-era decoration, such as its architraves, mantels and the newels and balusters on its staircase. The west parlor on the north side, currently used as the dining room, has similar finishes, and the northeast one has Colonial Revival elements. The upper floor and attic are also mostly original to their era of construction or renovation. In the rear of the lot are a swimming pool, work shed, and a former garage now used as an apartment. They are non-contributing to the National Register listing. History The house's structural origins are in the early 19th century, probably around 1820. The north gable is believed to be the most intact portion of the house from this time, due to the less refined and more weathered character of the stone there compared to the south. Due to subsequent expansions and renovations it is impossible to tell what its original plan was. In the 1840s, its then-owner expanded it in the then-popular Greek Revival style, a common occurrence with many small older houses at that time. Much of its interior decoration was added during that construction. Ninety years later, in the 1930s, another owner expanded the house, this time in the Colonial Revival style. The rear wing was added, new stonework was put in on the south and on the first floor a wall was removed to make a larger space of one of the parlors. The northeast parlor was also decorated in that style. The most visible Colonial Revival touch from that work is the front porch with its classically inspired columns and entablature. At that time, the city was encouraging the restoration and preservation of its remaining colonial architecture. One of those most involved in this effort was local architect Myron Teller. It is not known whether he had anything to do with the work at 322 Albany Avenue, but
House at 322 Albany Avenue
59814354
The architecture of Algeria encompasses a diverse history influenced by a number of internal and external forces, including the Roman Empire, Muslim conquest of the Maghreb, French colonization, and movements for Algerian independence. Ancient Carthage Ancient Carthage gained control of coastal Algeria by the 5th century BC. The empire's influence on Algerian architecture is visible in the adoption of hybridized styles that integrated Punic, Hellenistic, and Roman architecture into pre existing architectural traditions. Royal Numidian architecture Under the ancient Berber kingdoms of Numidia and Mauretania, Algeria saw increased urban development. "Numidian Royal Architecture" is the term coined for the monuments constructed by the Numidian kings, which comprise tombs, tumuli and sanctuaries. Urbanization is especially associated with the reigns of kings Masinissa (202 BC–148 BC) and Juba II (30 BC – 25 AD). Evidence of urban planning during the kingdom of Mauretania has been found in neighboring Morocco and Tunisia. Juba II and his wife, Cleopatra Selene, were clients of Rome and promoters of late Hellenistic culture. They used Iol (modern Cherchell) as their royal capital, renaming it Caesarea and developing it into a city with a regular grid plan and the kind of architecture associated with the Roman Augustan period. Some structures in Caesarea have been dated or tentatively dated to Juba's time, including the theater, the amphitheater, and the harbor. A number of large scale funerary monuments and tombs built during the era are the most well documented examples of Berber kingdom architecture. The monuments combine a number of different architectural styles introduced by the Carthaginians, frequently referencing Hellenistic and Punic motifs. The oldest of these is Medracen in present-day Algeria, believed to date from the time of Masinissa. Possibly influenced by Greek architecture further east, or built with the help of Greek craftsmen, the tomb consists of a large tumulus constructed in well-cut ashlar masonry and featuring sixty Doric columns and an Egyptian-style cornice. Another famous example is the Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania in western Algeria, which may date from the time of Juba II. This structure consists of a stone tumulus, decorative columns, and spiral pathways that lead to a single interior chamber. A number of "tower tombs" from the Numidian period can also be found in sites from Algeria to Libya. Despite their wide geographic range, they often share a similar style: usually a three-story structure topped by a convex pyramid. They may have initially been inspired by Greek monuments but they constitute an original type of structure associated with Numidian culture. Examples of these have been found at Siga and Soumaa d'el Khroub, as well as at Dougga (in present-day Tunisia) and Sabratha (in Libya). Roman era The Romans annexed eastern Numidia in 46 BC. After the death of Arabio, six years later, Western Numidia was annexed as well. The two provinces were later combined with Tripolitania to form the Roman province of Africa Proconsularis. The Romans built more than 500 towns and cities in what is now Algeria. When developing plans for their new
Architecture of Algeria
12016971
The Pig Scrolls (2004), by Paul Shipton, is a young adult comedy adventure novel about a talking pig (Gryllus) and his endeavours to save the world. The novel is set in Ancient Greece with many, often comical, references to ancient Greek mythology and life. The characters include all the major Ancient Greek gods, some minor deities, the young Homer and Sibyl, a prophetess in training at the temple of Apollo in Delphi. Plot After all the Olympian gods go missing, Sibyl has a premonition in which the sun god Apollo tells her to find "the talking pig". Sibyl then sets out looking for the talking pig, Gryllus. She finds him first at an auction where she buys him for 200 drachmas then Gryllus runs away and he winds up at Big Stavros's Kebab bar where he is forced to entertain customers and where Sibyl takes him back. Together they set off for the temple at Delphi. Apollo informs Sibyl that she and Gryllus must find a goatherd boy living on top of a mountain. Once Sibyl and Gryllus find the goatherd (who turns out to be the god Zeus), they set off once more for Apollo's temple at Delphi. It is there that Gryllus, the talking pig, must save the world from utter destruction. The author revealed about his work: "I got the idea for The Pig Scrolls when I was rereading Homer's Odyssey and found myself more interested in some of the non-heroic characters in the background. Working on the book gave me a chance to revisit a world I have always loved—that of ancient mythology and history. And, of course, in order to research the character of Gryllus fully, I was forced to eat a huge number of pies". The Pig Scrolls is set in Ancient Greece, and is about a pig named Gryllus. Gryllus, who was once a member of captain Odesseus’ famous crew, was transformed into a pig by the enchantress Circe. Gryllus, enjoying his quiet life in the woods is soon captured by local hunters when they realize he can talk, and is soon "rescued" by a junior prophetess in training (Sibyl). Sibyl informs Gryllus of a premonition showing her the end of the world. Gryllus believes her to have lost a couple of marbles and escapes, so Sibyl kidnaps him. On their journey to the temple in Delphi, they encounter monsters, gods, a strange goatherd and a scientist who has invented the awesome Atomos Device. Gryllus comes to realize that the entire universe is in the trotters of one talking pig, himself. Sequel The Pig Scrolls is followed by a sequel, The Pig Who Saved the World, which won a Nestle Bronze Award in the UK. Film By April 2010, DreamWorks Animation was developing an animated feature film based on The Pig Scrolls. As a possible directing job, Barry Sonnenfeld was tasked to develop the film, while Kirk DeMicco wrote the most recent script revision. DreamWorks Animation had also optioned rights for the book's
The Pig Scrolls
20184714
The Greenville Presbyterian Church is located on NY 32 just north of its intersection with NY 81 in Greenville, New York, United States. Its three buildings on two acres were listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in 1985. The church itself was established in 1790, the first non-Dutch church in the Catskill region. Its current building dates to 1860, and is a well-designed late example of the Greek Revival architectural style. The chapel and former school building, now part of the local library, were added in 1885 and 1906 respectively. Church complex There are three buildings considered contributing properties to the NRHP listing. All are located on a strip of land along the west side of Route 32 just north of the Route 81 intersection in the center of Greenville. To the immediate west is property owned by the Town of Greenville, and Greenville High School. Church The church itself is a one-and-a-half-story structure on a stone foundation sided in clapboard on all sides save the east-facing front, done in flush board. That facade has square pillars and a pediment topped by a three-story tower with a belfry and octagonal gold-colored spire with weathervane. The tower's three sections all feature corner pilasters and overhanging eaves. A small stained glass window looks out from the front of the base section. Behind the pillars is the main entrance, framed by pilasters supporting a full entablature with another stained glass window above. On either side the double doors have a fluted Ionic column in front of a small window. Paneled corner pilasters support the gabled roof and its cornice, with a full entablature. Both north and south profiles are fenestrated with four stained glass windows, with an additional smaller one on the north. The rear has cornice returns and a single double-hung sash window in the gable. A brick chimney rises from the south side of the roof. Inside, the vestibule is flanked by small rooms. In the nave, oak pews become curved toward the chancel. There, the dark oak pulpit is raised and flanked by similar balustrades on either side. Behind it is a large pedimented cornice with similar pilasters and columns to the entrance. The organ is located in the recess. At the rear of the church is a gallery and the stairs to the bell tower. The interior is lit with a chandelier over the pulpit and teardrop lights over the congregation. The ceiling is plaster with canted corners. On the side walls there is wainscoting and a molded entablature, with all the large windows having broad molded surrounds. Chapel The chapel building, built a quarter-century later, is similar to the church, on a smaller scale. It is a one-story clapboard building on a stone block foundation with a shallow gabled roof and smaller belltower with tent roof. Its facade shows some Italianate influence such as an overhanging cornice with full entablature. The chapel's double-doored entrance is itself topped by a projecting cornice with scroll-sawn brackets and
Greenville Presbyterian Church (New York)
55908221
4Q121 (according to the old system as: 4QLXXNumb gr, Rahlfs 803) is a Septuagint manuscript written on parchment (made of animal skin), dated to the 1st century BCE or CE. The scroll contains fragments of the biblical Book of Numbers 3:40-43; 4:5-16. It was found in Qumran in Cave 4. This fragment is also numbered 803 in the list of manuscripts of the Septuagint by Alfred Rahlfs. The manuscript has been assigned palaeographically between 30 BCE and 68 CE. Description This manuscript comprises 23 fragments and three columns. Version The text has affinity toward Hebrew Pentateuch, which, according to Robert J. Wilkinson, may be considered a kaige rescension of the Greek Scriptures. Treatment to the God's name P. W. Skehan claims that the "reconstruction, spacing would seem to allow either κυριος [Kyrios] or יהוה [YHWH], whereas ιαω as in pap4QLXXLevb and the (Christian) abbreviation ΚϹ [kappa-sigma] would be too short.” History The manuscript was published and described in 1992 by Patrick Skehan in Qumran cave 4.4 (Discoveries in the Judaean desert 9). The old sign of the scroll indicates that it was found in the cave 4, which is the manuscript of the LXX or Septuagint, containing the contents of the Book of Numbers. Actual location This manuscript is kept at the Rockefeller Museum in Jerusalem (Gr. 265 [4Q121]). See also List of the Dead Sea Scrolls References Bibliography External links Photos of fragment 4Q121 high resolution 1st-century BC biblical manuscripts Dead Sea Scrolls Old Testament
4Q121
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The flag of Rome (), the capital city of Italy, is a bicolour rectangle, divided into two equally-sized vertical stripes: red-violet on the left, and a ochre yellow on the right. Design The civil flag of Rome is divided into two vertical stripes of equal size, a red-violet on the left, and a ochre yellow on the right. The state flag of the city includes the coat of arms placed in the centre. It consists of the yellow (golden) Greek cross near the top left corner, and to its right, the yellow (golden) letters SPQR (an abbreviation for Senatus Populusque Romanus, which translates from Latin to The Roman Senate and People), placed diagonally, from top left to bottom right, across the red Heater-style escutcheon (shield) with square top and pointed base. On the top of the shield is placed a yellow (golden) open crown, crown with five flowers, and with red, white, and green jewels. History Since the Middle Ages the city of Rome used a red-violet banner with a yellow (golden) Greek cross near the top right corner, and to its right, the yellow (golden) letters SPQR (an abbreviation for Senatus Populusque Romanus, which translates from Latin to The Roman Senate and People), placed diagonally across the banner, from the top left to the bottom right corner. It is believed that the modern flag design, with the red and yellow vertical stripes, was introduced in 1870, the year when the city was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy. In 1884, the city officially introduced its coat of arms, which then began being displayed on the state flag variant. Its design was based on a wall carving dating back to the 14th century, which depicted the oldest representation of the city coat of arms. The colours were based on the flag. In the centre of the coat of arms was a red-violet oval, depicting the yellow (golden) Greek cross in the top left, and to its right, the yellow (golden) letters SPQR (an abbreviation for Senatus Populusque Romanus, which translates from Latin to The Roman Senate and People), placed diagonally, from top left to bottom right, across the oval. The oval was placed within a yellow (golden) Baroque-style escutcheon with scroll-eared top, and lobed base. Above it was placed a yellow (golden) open crown with five flowers and the crown jewels. Senatus Popolusque Romanus (SPQR) was officially adopted as the city motto on 26 August 1927. The coat of arms design was used from 1884 to 2004, when it was replaced with the current, simplified design, including the change to simplified red Heater-style escutcheon (shield) with square top and pointed base. Subsequently, the new design began being featured on the civil flag. The flag in use until 2004 had a Baroque-style coat of arms in the center, with a scroll frame and a floral crown, of rather variable shape. It was usually exhibited on the Palazzo Senatorio, the representative seat of the municipality of Rome in Piazza del Campidoglio. Flags
Flag of Rome
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Daphni or Dafni (Modern Greek: Δαφνί; Katharevousa: Δαφνίον, Daphnion) is an eleventh-century Byzantine monastery northwest of central Athens in the suburb of Chaidari, south of Athinon Avenue (GR-8A). It is situated near the forest of the same name, on the Sacred Way that led to Eleusis. The forest covers about , and surrounds a laurel grove. "Daphni" is the modern Greek name that means "laurel grove", derived from Daphneion (Lauretum). The Daphni Monastery, along with the famous monasteries of Hosios Loukas near Delphi and Nea Moni on the island of Chios, are designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites for their significant historical and architectural value. These monasteries are famed as masterpieces of middle Byzantine architecture, and are especially noted for their sumptuous interior gold-ground mosaics. History The Daphni Monastery was founded towards the end of the sixth century A.D. on the site of the Sanctuary of Apollo which had been desecrated by the Goths in 395. The Sanctuary of Apollo was built in the Ionic style using the thinnest and smallest columns. The columns stand on a base with an ornamental scroll at the top. A few of the columns of the temple have been preserved. One of the four Ionic columns of the ancient Sanctuary of Apollo remains at the site, as it was re-used in the Daphni Monastery. The other columns were removed and taken to London by Thomas Bruce, Earl of Elgin (best-known for taking the Parthenon Marbles). The columns, column bases, and column tops from the Sanctuary of Apollo are currently in the possession of the British Museum; they are currently not on display but can be seen on the museum’s website . The first monastery on the site was constructed in the style of a castle with a basilica in the middle. It was fortified with enclosing walls and small cells that were usually just inside the walls and used by monks or nuns. The walls were attached to the church rather than standing free around the perimeter of the property and one of the columns from Apollo was built into the southern wall of the church. Some of the rectangular blocks of porous stone were also salvaged and used in the western outer wall of the church. This first monastery fell into decline when Greece was severely damaged following invasions of barbarians from the North and the sea in the ninth and tenth Centuries A.D. During a period of renewed prosperity In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the Daphni Monastery was restored. A new octagonal church, a refectory and a chapel for the cemetery were built. The old basilica was completely demolished except for the enclosing walls and cells from the former church which were incorporated into the new church. Traces of old frescoes found on the walls show a person with bands, perhaps Emperor Basil II, holding a scroll. The craftsmanship used in the church construction suggests Basil II brought in workers from Constantinople. The Daphni Monastery fell into decline after it was sacked
Daphni Monastery
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Rosedown Plantation State Historic Site is an historic home and former plantation located in St. Francisville, Louisiana, United States. Built in 1835 by Daniel and Martha Turnbull, it is one of the most documented and intact plantation complexes in the Southern United States. It is known for its extensive formal gardens surrounding the house. House and grounds Architecture Sited on the highest point of the plantation at the edge of a bluff on Alexander Creek, Daniel Turnbull contracted with carpenter Wendell Wright to construct a house in the transitional Federal-Greek Revival– style designed by an unknown architect. Built of cypress and cedar milled primarily onsite, the westward facing five bay, two-story house features a two-story gallery with smooth Doric columns and a bulbous vase like balustrade, matching fluted pilasters and a Doric entablature. At the center of the house, both upstairs and down, is a Federal-style elliptical arch doorway with six horizontal panels, distinguished by boldly formed fluting, a layered entablature, a keystone, and leaded patterns superimposed on the glass. The fanlight features a series of loops in a radial design, while the side lights feature ovals and roundels. T.S. Williams added one-story brick side wings to the north and south of the building in 1845, with Greek-style end porticoes. The south elevation has a three-column Doric portico spanning its width, while the north wing, though larger of the two, has only a two-column portico. The columns at the end of both wings are fluted while the pilasters are smooth, and the Doric entablature and eave treatment match the main block. Each wing is topped by a balustrade with balusters similar in shape to those on the gallery, while the main block's side elevations feature a wooden fan design in the gable peaks. The eastern-facing rear elevation has a small room on each side of a porch set under a shed roof. Interiors Rosedown's floorplan is in the French or Early Louisiana design in contrast to the American scheme of a hall through the center of the house. The plan has a main entrance hall, decorated with block-printed wallpaper by Joseph Dufour et Cie of Paris, with an elliptical mahogany staircase to the second floor, a parlor to the right, music room to the left, and an office, butler's pantry and dining room in the rear that features a punkah. Upstairs are the family bedrooms. The north wing houses a guest bedroom with an en-suite bathroom that features an early form of a shower supplied with water from a cistern on the roof. The bedroom was built to house a suite of furniture that was originally to have been installed in the Lincoln Bedroom at the White House for the presidency of Henry Clay. Clay lost the election in 1844, and Daniel Turnbull, a Clay supporter, purchased the 13-foot-tall rosewood Gothic Revival bed. The bed was found in the room for over 150 years until the last private owner of Rosedown sold it to the Dallas Museum of Art for
Rosedown Plantation
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Irvington Town Hall is located on Main Street in the village of Irvington in the U.S. state of New York. In addition to being home to the village government, police department, and until 2000 the public library, it has a public reading room in keeping with the requirements of the original land deed. A 432-seat theatre, used for many local gatherings such as school graduations, was also built on the second story. The Town Hall was built in 1902 from a design by local architect Albert J. Manning, an early use of the Colonial Revival architectural style for a civic building. The inside also features glasswork and mosaics by Louis Comfort Tiffany, whose father, Charles Lewis Tiffany, had an estate in the village. These two factors led to its listing on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984, and has also been a contributing property to the Irvington Historic District since 2014. Building The two-story brick building is seven bays square on a raised basement of randomly coursed stone. The facade is trimmed in terra cotta and stone. The former is used for the window lintels and sills as well as an intermediate cornice; the latter for the water table. It is topped with a shallow hipped roof that has some of its original metal sheathing. At the second story of the front facade, there is a balustraded projecting portico three bays wide with freestanding engaged Ionic columns and Doric pilasters supporting a full entablature with denticulated pediment. It is in turn topped with a three-stage wooden clock tower with round-arched louvered openings, paired Corinthian columns supporting block entablatures and paired scroll brackets. The very top of Town Hall is the clock tower's domed roof. This feature has made the clock tower one of Irvington's most recognizable local landmarks. The main entrance uses an arched Gibbs-style surround. The building's trim materials show up in the form of solid stone balustrades that curl to form newel posts at the sidewalk, and terra cotta quoins. The rear facade is less detailed, with terra cotta used only for the coping of the stepped cornice; stone and brick are used everywhere else. Much of the interior is in paneled dark wood, with wainscoting in some rooms. In the library, the dark wood is used for ceiling beams with famous literary quotations inscribed in gold leaf. It is lit by chandeliers and lanterns designed by Louis Comfort Tiffany. Its plaster walls give way to a domed ceiling and display niches in the main area, with some open areas featuring decorative corbels. The theater features a complete orchestra and balcony section, with the private booths featuring round openings separated by Doric posts with Adamesque detail. The proscenium arch also includes heavy classical detailing. History The property where Town Hall now stands was first developed in 1869, when a local organization called the Mental and Moral Improvement Society built what it called the Atheneum, which housed a circulating library. During the last decades of the 19th
Irvington Town Hall
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Trajan's Column (, ) is a Roman triumphal column in Rome, Italy, that commemorates Roman emperor Trajan's victory in the Dacian Wars. It was probably constructed under the supervision of the architect Apollodorus of Damascus at the order of the Roman Senate. It is located in Trajan's Forum, north of the Roman Forum. Completed in AD 113, the freestanding column is most famous for its spiral bas relief, which depicts the wars between the Romans and Dacians (101–102 and 105–106). Its design has inspired numerous victory columns, both ancient and modern. The structure is about in height, including its large pedestal. The shaft is made from a series of 20 colossal Carrara marble drums, each weighing about 32 tons, with a diameter of . The frieze winds around the shaft 23 times. Inside the shaft, a spiral staircase of 185 steps provides access to a viewing deck at the top. The capital block of Trajan's Column weighs 53.3 tons, and had to be lifted to a height of about . Ancient coins indicate preliminary plans to top the column with a statue of a bird, probably an eagle. After construction, a statue of Trajan was put in place; this disappeared in the Middle Ages. On December 4, 1587, the top was crowned with a bronze figure of Saint Peter the Apostle by Pope Sixtus V, which remains to this day. Trajan's Column was originally flanked by two sections of the Ulpian Library, a Greek chamber and a Latin chamber, which faced each other and had walls lined with niches and wooden bookcases for scrolls. The Latin chamber likely contained Trajan's commentary on the Roman-Dacian Wars, the Dacica, which most scholars agree was intended to be echoed in the spiralling, sculpted narrative design of Trajan's Column. Frieze Design The column shows 2,662 figures and 155 scenes; Trajan himself appears on the column 58 times. The continuous helical frieze winds 25 times from base to capital and was an architectural innovation in its time. The design was adopted by later emperors such as Marcus Aurelius. The narrative band expands from about at the base of the column to at the top. The scenes unfold continuously. Often a variety of different perspectives are used in the same scene, so that more can be revealed (e.g., a different angle is used to show men working behind a wall). Historical content portrayed The relief portrays Trajan's two victorious military campaigns against the Dacians; the lower half illustrating the first (101–102), and the top half illustrating the second (105–106). These campaigns were contemporary to the time of the column's construction. The frieze repeats standardized scenes of imperial address (adlocutio), sacrifice (lustratio), and the army setting out on campaign (profectio). Scenes of battle are very much a minority on the column; instead it emphasizes images of orderly soldiers carrying out ceremony and construction. The aim of the Dacian campaigns was to incorporate and integrate Dacia into the Roman Empire as a province. On Trajan's Column, imagery related
Trajan's Column
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The Temple of Sangri is a Late Archaic Greek temple on the Cycladic island of Naxos in the area of Gyroulas, about 1.5 km south of . The temple was built around 530 BC and is one of the earliest Ionic temples. It was built completely from Naxian marble. History The temple was built around 530 BC. Based on the finds, the sanctuary was probably dedicated to Demeter or perhaps Kore. For this reason and because of its unusual shape, the temple is often referred to as a telesterion. There are also indications of a cult to Apollo on the site. If still in use by the 4th century AD, the temple would have been closed during the persecution of pagans under the Christian emperors. In the 6th century AD, the temple was largely demolished and a three-naved Christian basilica was built from the same stone on the same site. Structure The temple contains many unusual features. The ground plan is almost square (13.29 x 12.73 m), when Greek temples, especially in the archaic period are usually elongated. The facade was on the south side instead of the usual location on the east or (much more rarely) west side. The temple was built without a foundation platform (the Crepidoma), directly on top of the euthynteria, likewise there is no stylobate for the columns. The facade was formed of five columns in antis. The columns are in the Samian style, but unfluted. Very unusually, the columns show a slight contraction in width with increasing height, whereas Archaic and Classical Greek columns as a rule increase in thickness towards the top (entasis). The leafy wreathed capitals were not carved in the round, but were instead painted onto the double echinus of the capitals, while the abacus was decorated with a band. On the smooth architrave, hidden behind plates on the facade, were the ends of roof beams which supported the oldest known marble roof of ancient architecture, which covered the pronaos. Seven almost four meter long beams formed the purlins of this roof. The beams were curved upwards almost 2 cm, which affected all the structural elements of the roof above them, giving the roof a slight curvature. Two doors, placed in line with the second and fifth intercolumniation, led from the entrance area to the naos. The doorway was decorated with bands lined with a large bead and reel pattern. Above the door was a painted cymatium, which supported a smooth undecorated lintel. The naos was divided into two parts by a row of five columns which were in line with the columns of the facade. The columns in the centre of the room rise to a height of 5.4 to 6.46 metres, but despite the different heights they all have the same diameter at ground level (50 cm) – in violation of the norms of archaic rules of proportion. They do not narrow towards the top. Like the facade columns they stand atop smooth Samian bases, but these have no
Temple of Sangri
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The Great Synagogue is the main synagogue of the Jewish community in Copenhagen, Denmark. The synagogue is defined by its unique architecture around the Ark. During the first half of the 19th century, synagogues continued to be built in the classical tradition, but there began to be a revival of Greek and Roman architecture. The Great Synagogue in Copenhagen is one of a few synagogues of its period to use Egyptian elements in the columns, ceiling and cornice over the ark. History Arrival of Jews into Denmark Jews were first welcomed into Denmark in 1622 when they were invited into the country by Denmark's king. Although they were scattered around, many of the Jews settled in Copenhagen. Abraham Salomon became the first rabbi in the country in 1687. From 1766 until 1795, around 1,500 Jews worshipped in a small synagogue until it burned down. After the synagogue burned down, a division occurred between the orthodox and progressive members of the Jewish community. As a result, the building of a new synagogue was halted and many members resorted to worshipping in various homes. This division lasted for about 30 years until it was extinguished. The building of the Copenhagen Synagogue occurred after this. In 1814, Jews who were living in Denmark were given the same rights as other citizens as a result of the Royal Decree. Architecture of the Copenhagen Synagogue Construction of the Copenhagen Synagogue was completed in 1833. It was designed by Danish architect Gustav Friedrich Hetsch. The synagogue was designed with the neoclassical style in mind, which is demonstrated through the building's simplistic design. The interior of the building, however, has designs that are from the Egyptian Revival style. This style works to help give the synagogue a more Eastern European feel rather than the traditional Northern European feel. World War II During World War II, the Torah scrolls of the synagogue were hidden at the Trinitatis Church and were returned to the synagogue after the war. Terrorist attacks 1985 On 22 July 1985, the synagogue was struck by a bomb placed by Palestinian terrorists. While no people were injured in the attack on the synagogue, a second bomb placed by the same group destroyed the Copenhagen offices of the American Northwest Orient Airlines, killing one person and injuring 26. 4 individuals with links to Palestinian nationalist organizations, including Mohammed Abu Talb, were later convicted for these and several other terrorist attacks. 2015 A shooting occurred outside the synagogue on 15 February 2015, killing a Jewish community member, who had been providing security, and wounding two Danish Security and Intelligence Service police officers who were shot in the arms and legs. The shooting occurred a few hours after another shooting at a Denmark café. Swedish artist Lars Vilks is believed to be the main target of the café shooting. At the time of the shooting, a discussion was being held about cartoon portrayals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Vilks has received death threats in the past for his
Great Synagogue (Copenhagen)
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San Sebastián is a municipality in the San Vicente department of El Salvador. Church Of San Sebastián It's settled in the city of the same name, head of the district and municipality of San Sebastian 49 km away from San Salvador and at 660 meters above sea level. It is ignored who built it or when, but it is known that in 1770 San Sebastian was a Valley belonging to the rectory of San Vicente. Its style is composed by two bodies divided by very marked cornices. The inferior body is decorated with eight paired columns of ionic style and mounted on square basements. The main access has a form of arch of half point finished off by a decoration of classical style. The superior body is decorated with two Tuscan columns and an oval in the center of the combined body; it's finished off by cornices of classical style and two pinnacles to each side of the superior and inferior body. The superior body possesses a cross and it's finished off by scrolls. The interior of the church consists of a wing divided in three bodies by 14 columns and has two lateral accesses. It has three altars, the principal and two others embedded to the lateral walls. It has also a pulpit and the sacristy is located to a side of the presbytery. The principal altar receives illumination from two windows placed in the back side of the church. San Sebastian has belonged through the ages to Ilobasco, Cabañas until July 1836 on which it was incorporated again to the department of San Vicente. The Patron festivity is celebrated from January 15 to 31, in honor of San Sebastian. Municipalities of the San Vicente Department
San Sebastián, El Salvador
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Macclesfield Town Hall is a Georgian municipal building in the Market Place of Macclesfield, Cheshire, England. Dating originally from 1823–24, it was designed by Francis Goodwin in the Greek Revival style, and extended in 1869–71 by James Stevens and again in 1991–92. The building incorporates the former Borough Police Station. The town hall is listed at grade II*. History The first structure on this site was a medieval guildhall which dated back to at least the 13th century and which was connected to a bakehouse on the north side. The foundation stone for the current town hall was laid on 4 September 1823. It was designed by Francis Goodwin in the Greek Revival style and completed in 1824. It was extended between 1869 and 1871 to a design by James Stevens and again between 1991 and 1992. The Duke and Duchess of Gloucester attended a reception at the town hall, to celebrate the 750th anniversary of the granting of a charter to the town, on 19 July 2011. Location and description The town hall stands at on Churchside and Chestergate in Macclesfield's Market Place. The two-storey ashlar building is in Greek Revival style. The original design is similar to Francis Goodwin's previous design for the (now-demolished) Manchester Old Town Hall, and is modelled on the Erechtheion in Athens. The Churchside façade of 1823–24, which Clare Hartwell and co-authors describe as "a little constricted", has a large central portico with four plain (unfluted) Ionic columns topped with a pediment. The portico is flanked by single bays, with sash windows divided into three parts on the first floor. On the ground floor is a simple sash window to the left-hand side and a double doorway to the right. A wider west front on Chestergate in the same style was added in 1869–71 by James Stevens, a local architect from the town. It has nine bays, with a central portico that matches the Churchside one. The doorway, now the building's main entrance, is topped with an architrave of polished granite. Flanking the portico are three bays delineated by pilasters. The inner two bays have sash windows to both ground and first floors that are divided into three parts by pilasters. Stevens' design also included a steeple that was not built. The building incorporates the former Borough Police Station at what now forms the rear. Added by Stevens, it adjoins Goodwin's Churchside façade. The entrance is flanked by paired sash windows. Over the ground floor is carved "BOROUGH POLICE STATION". The extension of 1991–92, by Conder UK and HLM Architects, is a Georgian-style, two-storey office building, in red brick with faux stone dressings. The courtyard contains stones from the porch of Macclesfield Castle, dating from around 1398. Interior The Assembly Room on the first floor retains the original Goodwin decoration. It occupies the building's entire east side, with six columns matching the exterior portico running down each side, immediately adjacent to the walls. It has a large chandelier. Much of the remaining interior, including
Macclesfield Town Hall
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The Bibliotheca Ulpia ("Ulpian Library") was a Roman library founded by the Emperor Trajan in AD 114 in the Forum of Trajan, located in ancient Rome. It was considered one of the most prominent and famous libraries of antiquity and became a major library in the Western World upon the destruction of the Library of Alexandria in the 3rd century. It is the only Roman library known to have survived until the Fall of Rome in the mid-fifth century. History In 112 AD, the Emperor Trajan commissioned a library to be built in his Forum due north of the Roman Forum at the heart of the Roman Empire. Construction was completed in 114 AD. Upon its completion, the Ulpian Library was the premier library and scholarly center of Rome. “This library was also the Public Record Office of Rome” with over 20,000 scrolls containing records concerning the city’s population. The library was also equipped with presses for storage of both scrolls and books. During excavation, traces of these presses were discovered. The collection of books and scrolls not pertaining to public record, is thought to have been based on the private library of Epaphrodites of Cheronea which contained over 30,000 books and scrolls. Early in the 4th century, the contents of the Ulpian Library were moved to the Baths of Diocletian, possibly due to repairs as the contents were returned at a later date. Records show that in 455 AD a bust of Didonius Appollinarius was ordered there by the Emperor Avitus. Library layout The Ulpian Library continued in the tradition of Roman imperial libraries with Latin and Greek collections housed separately. In this library, they faced one another across a small colonnaded courtyard that enclosed the Column of Trajan. The library was a two level structure with high vaulted ceilings to take advantage of the natural lighting. The interior walls were divided into bays by columns "set opposite pilasters that framed the niches which held the books and scrolls. There were three steps between the columns that enabled "access to a walkway in front of the bookcases." At the other end of the hall were recesses for a statue on each level, presumably of Trajan and possibly of Minerva. The niches (seven total on each wall) containing recessed wooden bookcases located in both walls running the length of the library along with four others running across the back wall stored the scrolls. Estimates on the amount of scrolls held are "approximately ten thousand" for both Latin and Greek libraries. "In addition, there were archival materials, such as praetorian edicts and senatorial decrees, as well as Caesar's autobiography and Trajan's commentaries on the Dacian Wars, of which now only a few words survive." The space itself was designed to be aesthetically pleasing with desks (plutei) and the books out of sight on shelves and intending for reading, but was not designed with the growth of the collection in mind. Reconstruction There are reconstructions both digital and physical that show the
Ulpian Library
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The Doric order was one of the three orders of ancient Greek and later Roman architecture; the other two canonical orders were the Ionic and the Corinthian. The Doric is most easily recognized by the simple circular capitals at the top of the columns. Originating in the western Doric region of Greece, it is the earliest and, in its essence, the simplest of the orders, though still with complex details in the entablature above. The Greek Doric column was fluted, and had no base, dropping straight into the stylobate or platform on which the temple or other building stood. The capital was a simple circular form, with some mouldings, under a square cushion that is very wide in early versions, but later more restrained. Above a plain architrave, the complexity comes in the frieze, where the two features originally unique to the Doric, the triglyph and gutta, are skeuomorphic memories of the beams and retaining pegs of the wooden constructions that preceded stone Doric temples. In stone they are purely ornamental. The relatively uncommon Roman and Renaissance Doric retained these, and often introduced thin layers of moulding or further ornament, as well as often using plain columns. More often they used versions of the Tuscan order, elaborated for nationalistic reasons by Italian Renaissance writers, which is in effect a simplified Doric, with un-fluted columns and a simpler entablature with no triglyphs or guttae. The Doric order was much used in Greek Revival architecture from the 18th century onwards; often earlier Greek versions were used, with wider columns and no bases to them. The ancient architect and architectural historian Vitruvius associates the Doric with masculine proportions (the Ionic representing the feminine). It is also normally the cheapest of the orders to use. When the three orders are superposed, it is usual for the Doric to be at the bottom, with the Ionic and then the Corinthian above, and the Doric, as "strongest", is often used on the ground floor below another order in the storey above. History Greek In their original Greek version, Doric columns stood directly on the flat pavement (the stylobate) of a temple without a base. With a height only four to eight times their diameter, the columns were the most squat of all the classical orders; their vertical shafts were fluted with 20 parallel concave grooves, each rising to a sharp edge called an arris. They were topped by a smooth capital that flared from the column to meet a square abacus at the intersection with the horizontal beam (architrave) that they carried. The Parthenon has the Doric design columns. It was most popular in the Archaic Period (750–480 BC) in mainland Greece, and also found in Magna Graecia (southern Italy), as in the three temples at Paestum. These are in the Archaic Doric, where the capitals spread wide from the column compared to later Classical forms, as exemplified in the Parthenon. Pronounced features of both Greek and Roman versions of the Doric order are the alternating
Doric order
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Pleasant Grove, also known as Joseph Deyerle House, Deyerle Homeplace, and Glenvar is a historic home located near Salem in Roanoke County, Virginia. It was built in 1853, and is a two-story, three-bay, Greek Revival style brick dwelling. The front facade features a well-proportioned Ionic order portico with slender tapered, fluted columns. It also has an original sunroom measuring 7 feet by 14 feet. Also on the property are the contributing kitchen (now connected to the main house), spring house, smokehouse, servant's house, and privy. Much of the woodwork was done by a carpenter named Gustave A. Sedon, who worked closely with both Joseph and his half-brother, Benjamin Deyerle. "One of the most interesting things about Pleasant Grove is the fine architectural detail on the front which was put out on the house by Gustavus Sedon (sic), a German carpenter/handyman contractor. The house has interesting Ionic columns which Sedon carved and a cast iron balcony up on the top which Sedon or Joseph Deyerle, the owner of the house, ordered from Lynchburg, Virginia or maybe from Richmond. Someday I'll pursue this iron work but its interesting to know that the exact ironwork is on the Witherow house in Lexington, Virginia, on a house on Main Street in Lynchburg, Virginia, and another building in Richmond, Virginia." It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2003. References Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia Greek Revival houses in Virginia Houses completed in 1853 Houses in Roanoke County, Virginia National Register of Historic Places in Roanoke County, Virginia
Pleasant Grove (Salem, Virginia)