when was the monarchy abolished and france declared a republic
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The Kingdom of France (the remnant of the preceding absolutist Kingdom of France) was a constitutional monarchy from 3 September 1791 until 21 September 1792, when it was succeeded by the French First Republic. On 3 September 1791, the National Constituent Assembly forced King Louis XVI to accept the French Constitution of 1791, thus turning the absolute monarchy into a constitutional monarchy. After the 10 August 1792 Storming of the Tuileries Palace, the Legislative Assembly on 11 August 1792 suspended this constitutional monarchy. The freshly elected National Convention abolished the monarchy on 21 September 1792, ending 203 years of consecutive Bourbon rule over France. Background Since 1789, France had been undergoing a revolution in its government and social orders. A National Assembly declared itself into being and promulgated their intention to provide France with a fair and liberal constitution. Louis XVI moved to Paris in October of that year, but grew to detest Paris, and organised an escape plot in 1791. The plot, known as the Flight to Varennes, ultimately failed to materialise and severely damaged any positive public opinion for the monarchy. Louis XVI's brothers-in-exile in Koblenz rallied for an invasion of France. Austria and Prussia responded to the royal brothers' appeals and released the Declaration of Pillnitz in August. The declaration stated that Prussia and Austria wished to restore Louis XVI to absolute power but would only attempt to do so with the assistance of the other European powers. Constitution Louis XVI was forced to submit to the Constitution of 1791 by the National Assembly in the aftermath of his Flight to Varennes. The Constitution of 1791, which established the Kingdom of the French, was revolutionary in its content. It abolished the nobility of France and declared all men to be equal before the law. Louis XVI had the ability to veto legislation that he did not approve of, as legislation still needed Royal Assent to come into force. Republic Louis XVI reluctantly declared war on Austria on 20 April 1792, bowing to the Assembly's wishes. Prussia allied with Austria and therefore France was at war with Prussia as well. The Duke of Brunswick, Commander of the Austrian and Prussian military, issued the Brunswick Manifesto in 1792; it brought about the Storming of the Tuileries on the 10th of August. The manifesto explicitly threatened the people of Paris with dire repercussions if they in any way harmed Louis XVI or his family. The Legislative Assembly was inundated with requests for the monarchy's demise. The President of the National Assembly responded by suspending the monarchy on 11 August, pending the outcome of elections for another assembly. The newly elected National Convention, elected under universal male suffrage, abolished the monarchy on 21 September 1792 and proclaimed a republic. Louis was executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793. !bgcolor="#000000" colspan="6"| |- |- |- |- |- See also Louis XVI and the Legislative Assembly Citations References Fraser, Antonia: "Marie Antoinette: the Journey", Orion Books, London, 2001, Hibbert, Christopher: "The French Revolution", Penguin
Kingdom of France (1791–92)
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In the history of France, the First Republic (), sometimes referred to in historiography as Revolutionary France, and officially the French Republic (), was founded on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. The First Republic lasted until the declaration of the First Empire on 18 May 1804 under Napoléon Bonaparte, although the form of government changed several times. This period was characterised by the downfall and abolition of the French monarchy, the establishment of the National Convention and the Reign of Terror, the Thermidorian Reaction and the founding of the Directory, and, finally, the creation of the Consulate and Napoleon's rise to power. End of the monarchy in France Under the Legislative Assembly, which was in power before the proclamation of the First Republic, France was engaged in war with Prussia and Austria. In July 1792, the Duke of Brunswick, commanding general of the Austro–Prussian Army, issued his Brunswick Manifesto, threatening the destruction of Paris should any harm come to King Louis XVI of France. This foreign threat exacerbated France's political turmoil amid the French Revolution and deepened the passion and sense of urgency among the various factions. In the insurrection of 10 August 1792, citizens stormed the Tuileries Palace, killing six hundred of the King's Swiss guards and insisting on the removal of the king. A renewed fear of counterrevolutionary action prompted further violence, and in the first week of September 1792, mobs of Parisians broke into the city's prisons. They killed over half of the prisoners, including nobles, clergymen, and political prisoners, but also common criminals, such as prostitutes and petty thieves. Many victims were murdered in their cells: raped, stabbed, and/or slashed to death. This became known as the September Massacres. National Convention (1792–1795) As a result of the spike in public violence and the political instability of the constitutional monarchy, a party of six members of France's Legislative Assembly was assigned the task of overseeing elections. The resulting Convention was founded with the dual purpose of abolishing the monarchy and drafting a new constitution. The convention's first act was to establish the French First Republic and officially strip the king of all political powers. Louis XVI, by then a private citizen bearing his family name of Capet, was subsequently put on trial for crimes of high treason starting in December 1792. On 16 January 1793 he was convicted, and on 21 January, he was executed. Throughout the winter of 1792 and spring of 1793, Paris was plagued by food riots and mass hunger. The new Convention did little to remedy the problem until late spring of 1793, occupied instead with matters of war. Finally, on 6 April 1793, the Convention created the Committee of Public Safety, and was given a monumental task: "To deal with the radical movements of the Enragés, food shortages and riots, the revolt in the Vendée and in Brittany, recent defeats of its armies, and the desertion of its commanding general." Most notably, the Committee of Public Safety instated a policy
French First Republic
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The King of Nepal (traditionally known as the Mahārājdhirāja i.e. Great King of Kings; it can also be translated as "Sovereign Emperor" () was Nepal's head of state and monarch from 1768 to 2008. He served as the head of the Nepalese monarchy—Shah Dynasty. The monarchy was abolished on 28 May 2008 by the 1st Constituent Assembly. The subnational monarchies in Mustang, Bajhang, Salyan, and Jajarkot were abolished in October of the same year. History The Kingdom of Nepal was founded on 25 September 1768 by Prithvi Narayan Shah, a Gorkha king who succeeded in unifying the kingdoms of Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur into a single state under his Shah dynasty. The Kingdom of Nepal was de jure an absolute monarchy for most of its history. However, from 1846 until the 1951 revolution, the country was de facto ruled by the hereditary prime ministers from the Rana dynasty, reducing the role of the Shah monarch to that of a figurehead. In November 1990, after the Jana Andolan movement, a new constitution was adopted and the country became a constitutional monarchy. Nepalese Civil War On 13 February 1996, the Nepalese Civil War was launched by the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist), with the aim of overthrowing the kingdom and establishing a "People's Republic". Nepalese royal massacre On 1 June 2001, nine members of the royal family, including King Birendra and Queen Aishwarya, were killed in a mass shooting at the royal residence. Crown Prince Dipendra was implicated in an official investigation. There is a huge controversy concerning this, as there was no practical investigation on that which proves his involvement. Many Nepali people believe that there might be many other people involved in the massacre. Immediately after the massacre, Dipendra was proclaimed king while in a coma, but he died on 4 June 2001, after a three-day reign. His uncle, Prince Gyanendra, was appointed regent for the three days, then ascended the throne himself after Dipendra died. Post-massacre On 1 February 2005, as the security situation deteriorated in the civil war, King Gyanendra staged a coup d'état, declared a state of emergency, suspended the constitution and assumed direct control over the country. On 24 April 2006, after the Loktantra Andolan movement, the king agreed to give up absolute power and to reinstate the dissolved House of Representatives. On 21 November 2006, the civil war was ended with the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Accord. On 15 January 2007, the King was suspended from exercising his duties by the newly formed interim legislature. Finally, on 28 May 2008, the kingdom was officially abolished by the 1st Constituent Assembly and Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal was declared. The subnational monarchies in Mustang, Bajhang, Salyan, and Jajarkot were also abolished in October 2008. Note Prithvi Narayan Shah was the first ruler of "unified" Nepal. However, prior to 1768, the modern-day Nepal consisted of various small kingdoms, among which Shah Kings continued to rule in a few of them (notably in Gorkha). So the actual
King of Nepal
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Jean-Baptiste Belley (c. July 1746 – 6 August 1805) was a Saint Dominican and French politician. A native of Senegal and formerly enslaved in the colony of Saint-Domingue, in the French West Indies, he was an elected member of the Estates General, the National Convention, and the Council of Five Hundred during the French First Republic. He was also known as Mars. Life Belley was said to have been born on 1 July 1746 or 1747 on the island of Gorée, Senegal, but the precise dates of his birth and death are uncertain. At the age of two, he was sold to slavers sailing for the French colony of Saint-Domingue. With his savings, he later bought his freedom. In 1791, Saint Dominican Creoles began the French Revolution in Saint-Domingue; they incited a slave rebellion, aimed at the overthrow of the Bourbon Regime. As their fellow revolutionaries in France thought the Declaration of the Rights of Man of 1789, they began to see that slavery would need to be abolished. In 1793, Belley was a captain of infantry, fought against the Bourbon forces of Saint-Domingue and was six times wounded. On 24 September 1793, he was one of three members (deputés) elected to the French National Convention by the northern region of Saint-Domingue, together with Jean-Baptiste Mills, of mixed race, and Louis-Pierre Dufaÿ, a European, thus becoming the first black deputy to take a seat in the convention. On 3 February 1794, he spoke in a debate in the Convention when it decided unanimously to abolish slavery. However, the formal abolition of slavery did not disarm the Bourbon Government supporters, and the war continued. Although he was recognized as a full citizen of the Republic, Belley was an active spokesman for black people. When Benoît Gouly, a pro-slavery deputy from Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, called for special laws for the French colonies, Belley denounced a pressure group of colonists meeting at the Hôtel Massiac called Club de l'hôtel de Massiac in a speech published under the title Le Bout d'oreille des colons, ou le système de l’Hôtel Massiac mis à jour par Gouly. He succeeded for a time in maintaining the Republican principle of equality between people in France and in its colonies, whatever their colour. In a declaration of age and marital status for the representatives of Saint-Domingue in the convention, Belley says that he was born at Gorée, is forty-eight years old, has never left the territory of the republic, and has lived forty six years at Cap-Français. In a 'declaration of fortune' dated at Paris on 10 Vendémiaire, Year 4 of the Republic (viz., 1 October 1795), Belley declares that from the Republic he has only his 'emoluments', that he has bought no property, and that he owns only the contents of his room. Belley remained as a Convention member until 1797, when he lost his seat. He returned to Saint-Domingue with Charles Leclerc's expedition of 1802 as an officer of gendarmes, but he was arrested, sent
Jean-Baptiste Belley
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"Pheng Xat Lao" ( , "Song of the Lao People") is the national anthem of the Lao People's Democratic Republic. It was written and composed in 1941 by Thongdy Sounthonevichit. It was adopted as the national anthem of the Kingdom of Laos in 1945. The original lyrics were revised after the Communists triumphed in the Laotian Civil War and established the Lao People's Democratic Republic in 1975, with the new lyrics written by Sisana Sisane. History Long a tributary state of Siam, in 1893 Laos became a protectorate of France within its colonial empire. The French claimed their annexation was to protect Laos from "hostile neighbors" such as China and especially Siam, which had been militarily forced to cede Laos to the European colonial power. In reality, France simply ruled Laos as a colony, even bringing in many Vietnamese to work in its governing. The transferring of control from one master to another meant that nationalist sentiment did not develop as it did in formerly independent Vietnam. However, the outbreak of the Second World War soon saw the fall of France to Nazi Germany. The new right-wing government in Siam saw this as a possible opportunity to regain formerly Thai territory lost to France, especially the land located on the Thai side of the Mekong River. To counteract this, the French colonial government began promoting Lao nationalism. Because of this liberalization, many patriotic songs were now composed, each one emphasizing Lao "uniqueness". "Pheng Xat Lao" was one of them, having been composed by Thongdy Sounthonevichit in 1941 with lyrics written by Maha Phoumi under the name "Lao Hak Xat" (the patriotic Laos). It was chosen as the national anthem in 1945, when the king was forced by the Japanese occupiers to declare Laos independent from French rule. This new freedom was short-lived, since France quickly regained control of French Indochina after Japan's surrender in 1945. In 1947, France granted limited autonomy to Laos within the French Union, and "Pheng Xat Lao" again became the national anthem. When the Pathet Lao emerged victorious in the Laotian Civil War in 1975, thanks to major North Vietnamese assistance, the new Communist government abolished the monarchy and changed the lyrics to reflect the ideology of the Marxist government. As a result, the anthem became all-encompassing, mentioning all ethnic groups in Laos, instead of focussing on the Lao race and Buddhism. However, the melody was retained. Lyrics Current lyrics Original lyrics (1947–1975) Notes References External links Michael Sauser and Gilbert Greeve - Sauser and Greeve sing the anthem on their CD "Hymnen der Welt: Asien" "Pheng Xat Lao" at empas.com Dookola Swiata - This travel website has an instrumental version of the Anthem, as an .asx file. Music of Laos National anthems National symbols of Laos 1941 songs Asian anthems Compositions in F major Communist songs
Pheng Xat Lao
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The prime minister of Yugoslavia () was the head of government of the Yugoslav state, from the creation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in 1918 until the breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1992. History Kingdom of Yugoslavia The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was created by the unification of the Kingdom of Serbia (Montenegro had united with Serbia five days previously, while the regions of Kosovo and Metohija, Baranya, Syrmia, Banat, Bačka and Vardar Macedonia were parts of Serbia prior to the unification) and the provisional State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (itself formed from territories of the former Austria-Hungary) on 1 December 1918. Until 6 January 1929, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was a parliamentary monarchy. On that day, King Alexander I abolished the Vidovdan Constitution (adopted in 1921), prorogued the National Assembly and introduced a personal dictatorship (so-called 6 January Dictatorship). He renamed the country Kingdom of Yugoslavia on 3 October 1929, and although introduced the 1931 Constitution, he continued to rule as a de facto absolute monarch until his assassination on 9 October 1934, during a state visit to France. After his assassination, parliamentary monarchy was put back in place. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was defeated and occupied on 17 April 1941 after the German invasion. The monarchy was formally abolished and the republic proclaimed on 29 November 1945. SFR Yugoslavia After the German invasion and fragmentation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the Partisan resistance in occupied Yugoslavia formed a deliberative council, the Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ) in 1942. On 29 November 1943 the AVNOJ proclaimed the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia, and appointed the National Committee for the Liberation of Yugoslavia (NKOJ), led by Prime Minister Josip Broz Tito, as its government. Josip Broz Tito was quickly recognized by the Allies at the Tehran Conference, and the royalist government-in-exile in London was pressured into agreeing on a merge with the NKOJ. In order to facilitate this, Ivan Šubašić was appointed by the King to head the London government. For a period, Yugoslavia had two recognized prime ministers and governments (which both agreed to formally merge as soon as possible): Josip Broz Tito leading the NKOJ in occupied Yugoslavia, and Ivan Šubašić leading the King's government-in-exile in London. With the Tito-Šubašić Agreement in 1944, the two prime ministers agreed that the new joint government would be led by Tito. After the liberation of Yugoslavia's capital Belgrade in October 1944, the joint government was officially formed on 2 November 1944, with Josip Broz Tito as the prime minister. After the war, elections were held ending in an overwhelming victory for Tito's People's Front. The new parliament deposed King Peter II on 29 November 1945, and declared a Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (in 1963, the state was renamed Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia). The government was first headed by a prime minister up to 14 January 1953, when major decentralization reforms reorganized the government into the
Prime Minister of Yugoslavia
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Events from the year 1870 in France. Incumbents Monarch – Napoleon III (abdicates 4 September, monarchy abolished) Events February - Denis Vrain-Lucas is sentenced to 2 years in prison for multiple forgery, in Paris. 20 April - Constitutional referendum reaffirms the status of the Second French Empire. 14 July - Ems Dispatch published, serving as a casus belli for war between France and Prussia. 15 July - French army mobilizes. 16 July - Corps législatif votes to declare war on Prussia. 19 July - France declares war on Prussia: opening of the Franco-Prussian War. 4 August - Battle of Wissembourg: Prussian forces overwhelm the French garrison at Wissembourg. 6 August Battle of Spicheren, near Saarbrücken: Prussian victory. Battle of Wörth: decisive Prussian victory. 14 August - Battle of Borny-Colombey: Prussian victory; French retreat upon Metz. 15 August - Siege of Strasbourg begins. 16 August - Battle of Mars-la-Tour: Prussian victory. 18 August - Battle of Gravelotte: Prussian victory. 30 August - Battle of Beaumont: Prussian victory. 31 August - Battle of Noiseville: Prussian victory. 1–2 September - Battle of Sedan: decisive Prussian victory. Napoleon III surrenders himself and the entire Army of Châlons and declares the Second Empire dissolved. 3 September - Siege of Metz begins with French forces besieged. 4 September - Third Republic declared in Paris. Government of National Defense established. Empress Eugenie flees to England with her son. 19 September - Siege of Paris begins. 27–30 September - Battle of Le Bourget, part of the siege of Paris: Prussian victory. 28 September - Siege of Strasbourg ends with French surrender. 30 September - Battle of Chevilly, part of the siege of Paris: Prussian victory. 8 October - Leon Michel Gambetta escapes besieged Paris in a hot-air balloon. 18 October - Battle of Bellevue, near Metz: Prussian victory. 23 October - Siege of Metz ends with French surrender. 3 November - Siege of Belfort begins with French troops besieged. 9 November - Battle of Coulmiers: French victory over Bavarian forces. 11 November - French retake Orléans. 27 November - Battle of Amiens: Prussian victory. 28 November - Battle of Beaune-la-Rolande: Prussian victory. 29 November - Battle of Villiers, largest of the French sorties from besieged Paris, begins. 2 December - Battle of Loigny-Poupry, Prussian victory. 3 December - Battle of Villiers ends with Prussian victory. 3–4 December - Second Battle of Orléans: Prussians recapture Orléans. 23–24 December - Battle of Hallue results in stalemate. Arts and literature February - Sculptor Aimé Millet is appointed professor at the École des Arts décoratifs. 25 May - Léo Delibes' ballet Coppélia debuts at the Théâtre Impérial de l'Opéra at the Salle Le Peletier in Paris. 28 June - Claude Monet marries his mistress and model Camille Doncieux in Paris; Gustave Courbet is a witness. Births 25 January - Henry Bordeaux, writer and lawyer (died 1963) 28 April - Frédéric Justin Collet, pathologist and otolaryngologist (died 1966) 20 June - Georges Dufrénoy, post-impressionist painter (died 1943) 27 July - Hilaire Belloc, French-born
1870 in France
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In the European history, monarchy was the prevalent form of government throughout the Middle Ages, only occasionally competing with communalism, notably in the case of the maritime republics and the Swiss Confederacy. In the early modern period (1500 - 1800 CE), Republicanism became more prevalent, but monarchy still remained predominant in Europe until the end of the 19th century. After World War I, however, most European monarchies were abolished. There remain, as of 2024, twelve sovereign monarchies in Europe. Seven are kingdoms: Denmark, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom, Spain, the Netherlands, and Belgium. Three are principalities: Andorra, Liechtenstein, and Monaco. Finally, Luxembourg is a grand duchy and Vatican City is a theocratic, elective monarchy ruled by the pope. The monarchies can be divided into two broad classes: premodern states and those that gained their independence during or immediately after the Napoleonic Wars. Denmark, Norway, Sweden, the UK, Spain, and Andorra are the successors to premodern monarchies. Liechtenstein, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg were established or gained independence through various methods during the Napoleonic Wars. The State of the Vatican City was recognized as a sovereign state administered by the Holy See in 1929. Ten of these monarchies are hereditary, and two are elective: Vatican City (the pope, elected at the papal conclave), and Andorra (technically a semi-elective diarchy, the joint heads of state being the elected president of France and the Bishop of Urgell, appointed by the pope). Most of the monarchies in Europe are constitutional monarchies, which means that the monarch does not influence the politics of the state: either the monarch is legally prohibited from doing so, or the monarch does not utilize the political powers vested in the office by convention. The exceptions are Liechtenstein and Monaco, which are usually considered semi-constitutional monarchies due to the large influence the princes still have on politics, and Vatican City, which is an absolute monarchy. There is currently no major campaign to abolish the monarchy (see monarchism and republicanism) in any of the twelve states, although there is at least a small minority of republicans in many of them (e.g. the political organisation Republic in the United Kingdom). Currently six of the twelve monarchies are members of the European Union: Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Spain and Sweden. At the start of the 20th century, France, Switzerland and San Marino were the only European nations to have a republican form of government. The ascent of republicanism to the political mainstream started only at the beginning of the 20th century, facilitated by the toppling of various European monarchies after the end of World War I; as at the beginning of the 21st century, most of the states in Europe are republics with either a directly or indirectly elected head of state. The latest European state to abolish monarchy was the State of Malta which became a republic in December 1974. History Origins The notion of kingship in Europe ultimately originates in systems of tribal kingship in prehistoric Europe. The Minoan (
Monarchies in Europe
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The first laws to emancipate Jews in France were enacted during the French Revolution, establishing them as citizens equal to other Frenchmen. In countries that Napoleon Bonaparte's ensuing Consulate and French Empire conquered during the Napoleonic Wars, he emancipated the Jews and introduced other ideas of liberty. He overrode old laws restricting Jews to reside in ghettos, removed the forced identification of Jews by their wearing the Star of David. In Malta, he ended the enslavement of Jews and permitted the construction of a synagogue there. He also lifted laws that limited Jews' rights to property, worship, and certain occupations. In anticipation of a victory in the Holy Land that failed to come about, he wrote a proclamation published in April 1799 for a Jewish homeland there. In an effort to promote Jewish integration into French society, however, Napoleon also implemented several policies that eroded Jewish separateness. He restricted the practice of Jews lending money, in the Decree on Jews and Usury (1806), restricted the regions to which Jews were allowed to migrate, and required Jews to adopt formal names. He also implemented a series of consistories, which served as an effective channel utilised by the French government to regulate Jewish religious life. Historians have disagreed about Napoleon's intentions in these actions, as well as his personal and political feelings about the Jewish community. Some have said he had political reasons but did not have sympathy for the Jews. His actions were generally opposed by the leaders of monarchies in other countries. After his defeat by the Coalition against France, a counter-revolution swept many of these countries and restored discriminatory measures against the Jews. Napoleon's laws and the Jews The French Revolution abolished religious persecution that had existed under the monarchy. The 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen guaranteed freedom of religion and free exercise of worship, provided that it did not contradict public order. At that time, most other European countries implemented measures of religious persecution towards religious minorities. Many Catholic countries were intolerant and had established religious Inquisitions, sanctioning Jews and Protestants. In the tolerant Protestant-ruled Dutch Republic, Jews and Catholics did not have equal rights until it came under French dominance. In the early 19th century, through his conquests in Europe, Napoleon spread the modernist liberal ideas of revolutionary France: equality before the law and the rule of law. Napoleon's attitudes towards the Jews have been interpreted in various ways by historians. He made statements both in support of and in opposition to Jews as a group and had that changed. In 1990, Orthodox Rabbi Berel Wein claimed that Napoleon was interested primarily in seeing the Jews assimilate, rather than prosper as a distinct community: "Napoleon's outward tolerance and fairness toward Jews was actually based upon his grand plan to have them disappear entirely by means of total assimilation, intermarriage, and conversion." Napoleon was concerned about the role of Jews as money lenders, wanting to end that. The treatment of the Alsace
Napoleon and the Jews
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The Serb-Catholic movement in Dubrovnik () was a cultural and political movement of people from Dubrovnik who, while Catholic, declared themselves Serbs, while Dubrovnik was part of the Habsburg-ruled Kingdom of Dalmatia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Initially spearheaded by intellectuals who espoused strong pro-Serbian sentiments, there were two prominent incarnations of the movement: an early pan-Slavic phase under Matija Ban and Medo Pucić that corresponded to the Illyrian movement, and a later, more Serbian nationalist group that was active between the 1880s and 1908, including a large number of Dubrovnik intellectuals at the time. The movement, whose adherents are known as Serb-Catholics () or Catholic Serbs (), largely disappeared with the creation of Yugoslavia. Background Ragusa was founded in the 7th century by refugees from Epidaurum, a Roman city situated some 15 km to the south, when that city was destroyed by Slavs fighting with the Avars. During its first centuries the city was under the rule of the Byzantine Empire. It was one of the Dalmatian city-states. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Dubrovnik grew into an oligarchic republic, and benefited greatly by becoming a commercial outpost for the rising and prosperous Serbian state. After the Crusades, Dubrovnik came under the sovereignty of Venice (1205–1358), which would give its institutions to the Dalmatian city. By the Peace Treaty of Zadar in 1358, Dubrovnik achieved relative independence as a vassal-state of the Kingdom of Hungary. Between the 14th century and 1808, Dubrovnik ruled itself as a free state, although it was a tributary from 1382 to 1804 of the Ottoman Empire and paid an annual tribute to its sultan. On 27 May 1806, the forces of the Empire of France occupied the neutral Republic of Ragusa. In 1808 Marshal Marmont issued a proclamation abolishing the Republic of Ragusa and amalgamating its territory into the French Empire's client state, the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy. At the Congress of Vienna, Ragusa and the territories of the former Republic were made part of the crown land of the Kingdom of Dalmatia, ruled by the Habsburg monarchy, which became known as Austria-Hungary in 1867, which it remained a part of until 1918. The use of the Croatian language in everyday speech increased in late 13th century, and in literary works in mid-15th century. At the end of the 14th century, inhabitants of the republic were mostly native speakers of Croatian, referred to by them as Croatian, Slavic, or Illyrian at the time. Most sources from the later medieval and early modern period simply refer to Dubrovnik's Slavic inhabitants generically as "Slav" and their language as "Slavic." A number of writers from the 16th to the 19th century (before the Age of Romantic National Awakenings) were explicit in declaring themselves as Croats and their language as Croatian. In the coming decades, Dubrovnik became a cradle of Croatian literature. Originally, Latin was used in official documents of the Republic. Italian came into use in the 1420s. Both languages were used in official correspondence
Serb-Catholic movement in Dubrovnik
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This is a chronological list of political systems in France, from Clovis () to modern times. A series of different monarchies spanned 1300 years from the Early Middle Ages to the French Revolution in 1789. The Revolution was followed by five periods of republicanism alternating with periods of imperial monarchy and one bout with authoritarianism during the Second World War. The Fifth Republic began in 1958 and is the political system in France as of . Introduction A political system (), also known as a "form of government" is a way of organizing a state. Some different political systems are: democracy, totalitarianism, authoritarianism, theocracy, feudalism, monarchism, republicanism, and various hybrid systems. Each of these may be further subdivided, for example: absolute monarchy, constitutional monarchy, and feudal monarchy, all of which have been present in France. Many of these forms of government were known in Classical antiquity, and pre-date the existence of France. Classical usually regards Clovis I () as the first king of France, however historians today consider that such a kingdom didn't begin until the establishment of West Francia in 843. For the purposes of this article, all political systems from Clovis on are considered to be in scope. Historical context The Franks were a group of Romanized Germanic dynasties within the collapsing Western Roman Empire, who eventually commanded the region between the rivers Loire and Rhine. Clovis I established a single kingdom uniting the core Frankish territories, and was crowned King of the Franks in 496. He and his descendants ruled the Merovingian dynasty until 751, when it was replaced by the Carolingians (751-843). After the coronation of Charlemagne in 800, the Carolingian Empire (800–888) gradually came to be seen in the West as a continuation of the ancient Roman Empire. After the Treaty of Verdun in 843, the Kingdom of the Franks ("Francia") was divided into three separate kingdoms, merging into two: West Francia and East Francia. The latter became the Holy Roman Empire, and West Francia eventually became the core of the Kingdom of France, which was structured as a feudal monarchy and lasted for eight centuries (987–1792). During the French Revolution, the last pre-revolutionary monarch, Louis XVI, was forced to accept the French Constitution of 1791, thus turning the absolute monarchy into a constitutional monarchy. This lasted a year, before the monarchy was abolished entirely in September 1792 and replaced by the First French Republic, marking the beginning of republicanism in France. For roughly the next eighty years, there was an alternating series of empires, republics, and a kingdom, until the 1870 establishment of the Third Republic. From that point on, it was republics down to the present day, with the exception of the authoritarian Vichy regime during World War II. The Fifth Republic, established as a semi-presidential system in 1958, remains the political system in France as of 2022. List Timeline diagram See also Constitutional Cabinet of Louis XVI Constitutionalism Constitution of France Constitutions of France Family tree of French monarchs (simplified) France in
List of political systems in France
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The vice president of Nepal (, Nēpālako uparāṣṭrapati) is the deputy to the head of state of Nepal. The position was created when the Nepalese monarchy was abolished in May 2008. The current vice-president of Nepal is Ram Sahaya Yadav. The vice president is to be formally addressed as 'His Excellency'. History Under the interim constitution adopted in January 2007, all powers of governance were removed from the King of Nepal, and the Nepalese Constituent Assembly elected in the 2008 Nepalese Constituent Assembly election was to decide in its first meeting whether to continue the monarchy or to declare a republic. On 28 May 2008 the Assembly had voted to abolish the monarchy. The Fifth Amendment to the Interim Constitution established that the president, vice-president, prime minister and Constituent Assembly chairman and vice-chairman would all be elected on the basis of a "political understanding". However, if one were not forthcoming, they could be elected by a simple majority. The first election was the 2008 Nepalese presidential election. The parties failed to agree on candidates for president or vice president, so an election took place. Parmananda Jha of the Madhesi Janadhikar Forum was elected with the support of the Nepali Congress and the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) List of vice presidents See also President of Nepal List of current vice presidents References Nepal Government of Nepal Politics of Nepal 2008 establishments in Nepal History of Nepal (2008–present)
Vice President of Nepal
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The Pōmare dynasty was the reigning family of the Kingdom of Tahiti between the unification of the islands by Pōmare I in 1788 and Pōmare V's cession of the kingdom to France in 1880. Their influence once spanned most of the Society Islands, the Austral Islands and the Tuamotu Archipelago. The scientific name Pomarea of the Polynesian monarch flycatchers was established in honour of this dynasty. It was first used for the species from Tahiti by René Lesson and Prosper Garnot, and subsequently for the entire genus. History The ancestors of the family ultimately descended from an individual named Tu from the island of Fakarava in the Tuamotus who was adopted as heir by Mauaihiti, Ari'i of Pare. Settling in Tahiti, the dynasty became the district chieftains or ari'i rahi of Porionuʻu (including the smaller districts of Pare and Arue) and intermarried with the Tamatoa family from the island of Raiatea. With foreign weapons, chief Tu gradually took over control of the other parts of the island of Tahiti, and then brought the islands of Moorea, Mehetia, and Tetiaroa into a single entity. Chief Tu later adopted the name Pōmare. Pō-mare means 'night cougher', a nickname he took, as was common in that time, in honor of his daughter Teriinavahoroa who died from tuberculosis in 1792. Through subsequent inheritance, adoptions, and marriage alliances, the dynasty at its peak included all the Society Islands with a member of the family ruling in Tahiti, Raiatea and Bora Bora. Tahiti also controlled some of the outlying islands of the Austral Islands and the Tuamotu Archipelago. Tahiti and its dependencies were made a French protectorate in 1842, and largely annexed as a colony of France in 1880. The monarchy was abolished by France and Tahiti annexed in 1880. The last reigning monarch of the dynasty was Teriimaevarua III, Queen of Bora Bora, who abdicated in 1895. There are still pretenders and many Tahitians still wish for a return of the monarchy, some of whom claim that the act of abolishing the monarchy was either outright illegal, or outside of certain jurisdictions. Pōmare Monarchs Pōmare I, Tu Vairaatoa Taina (1791–1803) Pōmare II, Tu Tunuieaiteatua (1803–1815) Pōmare III, Teriitaria (1821–1827) Pōmare IV, Aimata (1827–1877) Pōmare V, Teriitaria Teratane (1877–1880) Current status Until his death in 2013, Tauatomo Mairau claimed to be the heir to the Tahitian throne, and had attempted to re-assert the status of the monarchy in court. His claims were not recognised by France. On 28 May 2009, Joinville Pomare, an adopted member of the Pomare family, declared himself King Pomare XI, during a ceremony attended by descendants of leading chiefs but spurned by members of his own family. Other members of the family recognise his uncle, Léopold Pomare, as heir to the throne. Another claimant, Athanase Teiri, claims descent from Pomare V and sovereignty over French Polynesian sea, land, and airspace. He and his associates had received some attention in politics in the Tuamotu beforehand. He and associates assembled 100 people for a
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The French Revolution was a period of political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789, and ended with the coup of 18 Brumaire in November 1799 and the formation of the French Consulate. Many of its ideas are considered fundamental principles of liberal democracy, while its values and institutions remain central to modern French political discourse. Its causes are generally agreed to be a combination of social, political and economic factors, which the Ancien Régime proved unable to manage. A financial crisis and widespread social distress led in May 1789 to the convocation of the Estates General, which was converted into a National Assembly in June. The Storming of the Bastille on 14 July led to a series of radical measures by the Assembly, among them the abolition of feudalism, state control over the Catholic Church in France, and a declaration of rights. The next three years were dominated by the struggle for political control, exacerbated by economic depression. Military defeats following the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in April 1792 resulted in the insurrection of 10 August 1792. The monarchy was abolished and replaced by the French First Republic in September, while Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. After another revolt in June 1793, the constitution was suspended and effective political power passed from the National Convention to the Committee of Public Safety. About 16,000 people were executed in a Reign of Terror, which ended in July 1794. Weakened by external threats and internal opposition, the Republic was replaced in 1795 by the Directory. Four years later in 1799, the Consulate seized power in a military coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte. This is generally seen as marking the end of the Revolutionary period. Causes The Revolution was the result of multiple long-term and short-term factors that culminated in a social, economic, financial and political crisis in the late 1780s. Combined with resistance to reform by the ruling elite, and indecisive policy by Louis XVI and his ministers, the state was unable to manage the crisis. Between 1715 and 1789, the French population grew from an estimated 21 to 28 million. The proportion of the population living in towns increased to 20%, and Paris alone had over 600,000 inhabitants. Peasants comprised about 80% of the population, but the middle classes tripled over the century, reaching almost 10% of the population by 1789. Although the 18th century was a period of increasing prosperity, the benefits were distributed unevenly across regions and social groups. Those whose income derived from agriculture, rents, interest and trade in goods from France's slave colonies benefited most, while the living standards of wage labourers and farmers on rented land fell. Increasing inequality led to more social conflict. Economic recession from 1785 and bad harvests in 1787 and 1788 led to high unemployment and food prices which coincided with a financial and political crisis for the monarchy. While the state also experienced a debt crisis, the level of debt itself
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Iranian monarchism is the advocacy of restoring the monarchy in Iran, which was abolished after the 1979 Revolution. Historical background Iran first became a constitutional monarchy in 1906 under the Qajar dynasty, but underwent a period of autocracy during the years 1925–1941 during the rule of Reza Shah, who, after staging a coup d'état that led to the founding of the Pahlavi dynasty, imposed self-rule. Parliament became a rubber stamp, the press was censored and the Communist Party and trade unions banned. After Reza Shah's abdication in 1941, the Iranian National Assembly was restored to power. During the years 1941 to 1953, Iran remained a constitutional monarchy and active parliamentary democracy with Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi retaining extensive legal executive powers. On March 15, 1951, the National Assembly, led by Prime Minister Hossein Ala, unanimously voted to nationalize the oil industry, which at the time was dominated by the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (now BP). In 1953, the British MI6 and American CIA orchestrated a coup against Mohammed Mossadegh's government. Agents fueled rumors that the republican-minded Mossadegh was planning on abolishing the monarchy and declaring himself president of a new Republic of Iran, leading to a pro-monarchist backlash from the public and leading to a successful result in the coup against the prime minister. The Shah, who had gone into exile during the coup, returned to Iran and named General Fazlollah Zahedi as the new prime minister. Many contemporary sources attribute the coup, or counter coup, entirely to the U.S. American CIA (CIA Coup) and agents of the British MI6 who are reported to have organized and paid for it. These sources point to many other coups in which the CIA was instrumental, such as that in Chile in 1973. Monarchists, however, argue that the counter-coup was in fact a popular uprising, and that the foreign intelligence agencies' undeniable involvement was peripheral. At least some historians argue the coup could not have taken place without both CIA organizing and Iranian support. Afterwards, the era of constitutional monarchy gradually came to an end as the Shah increasingly exercised his executive powers unilaterally, thus leading towards the development of autocracy. By the early 1970s, with most political parties having been banned, Iran had effectively become a one-party state under Rastakhiz. National Front leaders like Karim Sanjabi and moderate traditional Islamic leaders like Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari continued to espouse a constitutional monarchy. Under increasing international pressure, particularly from President Jimmy Carter of the United States, the Shah pushed forward major democratic reforms in the late 1970s, designed to gradually restore the constitutional monarchy as it had originally been. However, several uprisings in 1978 and 1979 culminated in the Shah, who had been diagnosed with terminal cancer and had kept the fact secret, to leave the country with his family to seek treatment overseas. Within a few weeks the Shah's government had effectively collapsed and the Second Revolution had begun. The new provisional revolutionary government officially abolished the monarchy and declared Iran to be a
Monarchism in Iran
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The first written records for the history of France appeared in the Iron Age. What is now France made up the bulk of the region known to the Romans as Gaul. Greek writers noted the presence of three main ethno-linguistic groups in the area: the Gauls, Aquitani and Belgae. The Gauls, the largest group, were Celtic people speaking Gaulish. Over the first millennium BC the Greeks, Romans and Carthaginians established colonies on the Mediterranean coast and offshore islands. The Roman Republic annexed southern Gaul in the late 2nd century BC, and legions under Julius Caesar conquered the rest of Gaul in the Gallic Wars of 58–51 BC. A Gallo-Roman culture emerged and Gaul was increasingly integrated into the Roman Empire. In the later stages of the Roman Empire, Gaul was subject to barbarian raids and migration, most importantly by the Germanic Franks. The Frankish king Clovis I united most of Gaul in the late 5th century, setting the stage for Frankish dominance for hundreds of years. Frankish power reached its fullest extent under Charlemagne. The medieval Kingdom of France emerged from the western part of Charlemagne's Carolingian Empire, known as West Francia, and achieved increasing prominence under the rule of the House of Capet, founded in 987. A succession crisis in 1328 led to the Hundred Years' War between the House of Valois and the House of Plantagenet. The war began in 1337 following Philip VI's attempt to seize the Duchy of Aquitaine from its hereditary holder, Edward III of England, the Plantagenet claimant to the French throne. Despite early Plantagenet victories, fortunes turned in favor of the Valois. A notable figure of the war was Joan of Arc, a French peasant girl who led forces against the English, establishing herself as a national heroine. The war ended with a Valois victory in 1453. Victory had the effect of strengthening French nationalism and increasing the power and reach of the French monarchy. During the Ancien Régime over the next centuries, France transformed into a centralized absolute monarchy through the Renaissance and Reformation. At the height of the French Wars of Religion, France became embroiled in another succession crisis, as the last Valois king, Henry III, fought against factions the House of Bourbon and House of Guise. Henry, the Bourbon King of Navarre, won and established the Bourbon dynasty. A burgeoning worldwide colonial empire was established in the 16th century. The French monarchy's power reached a zenith under the rule of Louis XIV, "The Sun King". In the late 18th century the monarchy and associated institutions were overthrown in the French Revolution. The Revolutionary Tribunal executed political opponents by guillotine, instituting the Reign of Terror (1793–94). The country was governed as a Republic, until Napoleon's French Empire was declared in 1804. Following his defeat in the Napoleonic Wars, France went through regime changes, being ruled as a monarchy, then Second Republic, then Second Empire, until a more lasting French Third Republic was established in 1870. France was one of the Triple
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The first Nepalese Constituent Assembly was a unicameral body of 601 members that served from May 28, 2008, to May 28, 2012. It was formed as a result of the first Constituent Assembly election held on April 10, 2008. The Constituent Assembly (CA) was tasked with writing a new constitution, and acting as the interim legislature for a term of two years. 240 members were elected in single-seat constituencies, 335 were elected through proportional representation, and the remaining 26 seats were reserved for nominated members. The Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) [CPN (M)]—now re-formed as the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre)—was the largest party in the Constituent Assembly, having won half of the constituency seats and about 30% of proportional representation seats. The CA declared a republic at its first meeting on May 28, 2008, abolishing the monarchy. In late June 2008, the parties agreed to divide the 26 nominated seats in the CA between nine parties: the CPN (M) was to receive nine of these seats, while the Nepali Congress (NC) and the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) [CPN (UML)] (which respectively placed second and third in the election) would each receive five, the Madhesi Janadhikar Forum would receive two, and the Sadbhavana Party, the Nepal Workers and Peasants Party, Janamorcha Nepal, and the Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist) [CPN(M-L)] would each receive one nominated seat. Due to its failure in drafting a new constitution, the CA was dissolved on May 28, 2012, after its original and extended total tenure of four years. The next Nepalese Constituent Assembly elections initially slated for November 22, 2012 were held a year later on November 19, 2013, after being postponed several times. Opening of the Constituent Assembly, declaration of the Republic The official and final list of members elected under the proportional representation (PR) system was released on 8 May 2008; this meant the first meeting of the CA (which has to be held within 21 days of the publication of the final result) would be held before the end of May 2008. On 12 May 2008, it was announced that the first session of the CA would be held on 28 May 2008. The members of the CA were sworn in on 27 May 2008. The composition of Constituent Assembly looked like this: At the first session of the Constituent Assembly (CA) on 28 May, it voted to declare Nepal a federal democratic republic, thereby abolishing the monarchy. When the CA voted on this motion, of 564 members, 560 voted in favor and four opposed. Of all the parties represented in the CA, only the Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal (RPP-Nepal) opposed the motion. Koirala said that Nepal was entering a new era and that "the nation's dream has come true", while celebrations took place in Kathmandu; May 29 and May 30 were declared to be public holidays by the government. The CA also decided that Gyanendra should leave the Narayanhity Palace within 15 days. Earlier on 28 May, the
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The War of the First Coalition () was a set of wars that several European powers fought between 1792 and 1797, initially against the constitutional Kingdom of France and then the French Republic that succeeded it. They were only loosely allied and fought without much apparent coordination or agreement; each power had its eye on a different part of France it wanted to appropriate after a French defeat, which never occurred. Relations between the French revolutionaries and neighbouring monarchies had deteriorated following the Declaration of Pillnitz in August 1791. Eight months later, following a vote of the revolutionary-led Legislative Assembly, France declared war on Austria on 20 April 1792; Prussia, having allied with Austria in February, declared war on France in June 1792. In July 1792, an army under the Duke of Brunswick and composed mostly of Prussians joined the Austrian side and invaded France. The capture of Verdun (2 September 1792) triggered the September massacres in Paris. France counterattacked with victory at Valmy (20 September) and two days later the Legislative Assembly proclaimed the French Republic. Subsequently, these powers made several invasions of France by land and sea, in association with Prussia and Austria attacking from the Austrian Netherlands and the Rhine, and Great Britain supporting revolts in provincial France and laying siege to Toulon in October 1793. France suffered reverses (Battle of Neerwinden, 18 March 1793) and internal strife (War in the Vendée) and responded with draconian measures. The Committee of Public Safety was formed (6 April 1793) and the levée en masse drafted all potential soldiers aged 18 to 25 (August 1793). The new French armies counterattacked, repelled the invaders, and advanced beyond France. The French established the Batavian Republic as a sister republic (May 1795) and gained Prussian recognition of French control of the Left Bank of the Rhine by the first Peace of Basel. With the Treaty of Campo Formio, Austria ceded the Austrian Netherlands to France and Northern Italy was turned into several French sister republics. Spain made a separate peace accord with France (Second Treaty of Basel) and the French Directory annexed more of the Holy Roman Empire. North of the Alps, Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen redressed the situation in 1796, but Napoleon Bonaparte carried all before him against Sardinia and Austria in northern Italy (1796–1797) near the Po Valley, culminating in the Peace of Leoben and the Treaty of Campo Formio (October 1797). The First Coalition collapsed, leaving only Britain in the field fighting against France. Background Revolution in France As early as 1791, other monarchies in Europe were watching the developments in France with alarm, and considered intervening, either in support of Louis XVI or to take advantage of the chaos in France. The key figure, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, brother of the French Queen Marie Antoinette, had initially looked on the Revolution calmly. He became increasingly concerned as the Revolution grew more radical, although he still hoped to avoid war. On 27 August 1791, Leopold and King
War of the First Coalition
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Elizabeth II was Queen of Malawi from 1964 to 1966, when Malawi was an independent sovereign state and a constitutional monarchy within the Commonwealth of Nations. She was also the sovereign of the other Commonwealth realms, including the United Kingdom. The 1964 Constitution of Malawi vested executive power in the monarch as head of state, though her constitutional roles were delegated to her representative, the Governor-General, Sir Glyn Smallwood Jones, who was also the last Governor of Nyasaland. History Malawi was granted independence by the Parliament of the United Kingdom's Malawi Independence Act 1964, which transformed the Protectorate of Nyasaland into an independent sovereign state called Malawi. The roles of the monarch and the governor-general in Malawi were abolished on 6 July 1966, when Malawi became a republic within the Commonwealth, with the president of Malawi as executive head of state and head of government. Hastings Banda, the former Prime Minister of Malawi declared himself the first President of the republic. Queen Elizabeth II visited Malawi from 22 to 25 July 1979. The Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital in Blantyre was opened in 1958 and is the largest hospital in Malawi. Styles Queen Elizabeth II had the following styles in her role as the monarch of Malawi: 6 July 1964 – 1964: Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith 1964 – 6 July 1966: Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God Queen of Malawi and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth Gallery References Further reading Government of Malawi Politics of Malawi Malawi Heads of state of Malawi 1964 establishments in Malawi 1966 disestablishments in Malawi Malawi Former monarchies of Africa History of Malawi Malawi and the Commonwealth of Nations Titles held only by one person
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Our Republic is a political campaign for a Scottish republic calling for the abolition of the monarchy. It was founded in 2021. History The organisation was formed in 2021 by activists from a mix of Scottish political parties from members with roots in Scotland, England, Ireland, Canada, the United States, and Lithuania. The following year it was revealed by polling that Scottish support for the monarchy stood at 45%. Activities Our Republic is a political campaign for a Scottish republic calling for the abolition of the monarchy. Reign of Elizabeth II The organisation launched a petition to call for the political oaths sworn by Members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs) to be made to the Scottish people rather than the monarchy, after several MSPs said that they were taking the oath under protest. The petition was backed by MSP Emma Roddick and Scottish Greens leader Patrick Harvie. Our Republic expressed solidarity with calls in Jamaica for the United Kingdom to apologise for the monarchy's historic role in the slave trade, and for Jamaica's plans to abolish the monarchy and become a republic. The organisation planned an anti-monarchy rally to coincide with Elizabeth II's Platinum Jubilee on 4 June 2022 on Calton Hill, Edinburgh, with MP Tommy Sheppard speaking. Reign of Charles III Ahead of the Accession declaration of Charles III at Mercat cross in Edinburgh on 11 September 2022, the organisation stated: "We encourage those with objections to these proclamations to make those clear". The members voiced their opposition to the new King through booing, turning their backs and shouting "no consent", and holding up anti-monarchy slogans during the Lord Lyon King of Arms's declaration. The protest made global headlines. They were briefly detained by Police Scotland before being released. One protester was later again arrested and charged under "Breach of the Peace". Our Republic raised concerns of freedom of expression in response to the charges. In February 2023, Charles offered to allow people who "cannot afford to heat their homes" to use two of his Scottish properties—Dumfries House in Ayrshire and the Castle of Mey in Caithness—to keep warm for one day a week. Our Republic convener Tristan Gray responded by saying: "A cynical person may see this as little more than a token PR stunt instead of any sort of genuine attempt to help people who are suffering at this time, especially coming on the heels of both he and his son visiting a food bank without bringing food, despite being more than able to and especially when he has demanded a flamboyantly golden coronation he may wish to try and deflect criticism from." Our Republic protested against Charles III's coronation on 6 May 2023, with a rally on Calton Hill in Edinburgh. Speakers at the rally included politicians Tommy Sheppard, Maggie Chapman and Lorna Slater as well as several activists from social and political groups such as the Scottish Socialist Party. During the service of thanksgiving organised in Edinburgh for Charles III on 5 July 2023 Our
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The monarchy of Barbados was a system of government in which a hereditary monarch was the sovereign and head of state of Barbados from 1966 to 2021. Barbados shared the sovereign with the other Commonwealth realms, with the country's monarchy being separate and legally distinct. The monarch's operational and ceremonial duties were mostly delegated to her representative, the governor-general of Barbados. The Barbados Independence Act 1966 transformed the colony of Barbados into the sovereign state of Barbados, with Elizabeth II as head of state. She was the only monarch from the independence of Barbados to the monarchy's abolition. As such, she was officially titled Queen of Barbados. The Barbadian Crown primarily functioned as a guarantor of continuous and stable governance and a nonpartisan safeguard against the abuse of power. In September 2020, the Governor-General announced in the Throne Speech that Barbados would transition from a constitutional monarchy to a republic by the end of November 2021. The monarchy was abolished on 30 November 2021, when Barbados became a republic within the Commonwealth, with a president as its head of state. Origins Monarchy in Barbados can trace its origins to the country's foundation as a colony, first of England, then as part of the British Empire. Barbados was claimed under King James I of England in 1625, though not colonised until 1627, when, in the name of King Charles I, Governor Charles Wolferstone established the first settlement on the island. By the 18th century, Barbados became one of the main seats of British authority in the British West Indies. Due to the economic burden of duties and trade restrictions, some Barbadians, including the Clerk of the General Assembly, attempted to declare in 1727 that the Act of Settlement 1701 had expired in the colony, since the Governor, Henry Worsley, had not received a new commission from King George II upon his accession to the throne. Thus, Barbadians refused to pay their taxes to a governor they recognised as having no authority. The Attorney and Solicitor General of Great Britain confirmed that Worsley was entitled to collect the dues owed. But, Worsley resigned his post before the directive arrived in Barbados. After attempting in 1958 a federation with other West Indian colonies, Barbados continued as a self-governing colony under the Colonial Office until independence came with by Queen Elizabeth II signing the Barbados Independence Order in 1966. The Barbados Independence Act 1966, passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, transformed the Colony of Barbados into a sovereign state with an independent constitutional monarchy. The Queen's cousin, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, represented her at the independence celebrations. On Independence Day, the Prince opened the second session of the first parliament, on behalf of the Queen. The Barbadian Crown and its aspects Since Barbadian independence, the country's Crown had had both a shared and a separate character, as the sovereign was equally shared with the other Commonwealth realms, while the sovereign's role as monarch of Barbados—represented by a viceroy, the governor-general of
Monarchy of Barbados
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The Republic of Venice was dissolved and dismembered by the French general Napoleon Bonaparte and the Habsburg Monarchy on 12 May 1797. In 1796, the young general Napoleon had been sent by the newly formed French Republic to confront Austria, as part of the French Revolutionary Wars. He chose to go through Venice, which was officially neutral. Reluctantly, the Venetians allowed the formidable French army to enter their country so that it might confront Austria. However, the French covertly began supporting Jacobin revolutionaries within Venice, and the Venetian senate began quiet preparations for war. The Venetian armed forces were depleted and hardly a match for the battle-tested French or even a local uprising. After the capture of Mantua on 2 February 1797, the French dropped any pretext and overtly called for revolution among the territories of Venice. By 13 March, there was open revolt, with Brescia and Bergamo breaking away. However, pro-Venetian sentiment remained high, and France was forced to reveal its true goals after it provided military support to the underperforming revolutionaries. On 25 April, Napoleon openly threatened to declare war on Venice unless it democratised. The Venetian Senate acceded to numerous demands, but facing increasing rebellion and the threat of foreign invasion, it abdicated in favor of a transitional government of Jacobins (and thus the French). On 12 May, Ludovico Manin, the last doge of Venice, formally abolished the Most Serene Republic of Venice after 1,100 years of existence. The French and the Austrians had secretly agreed on 17 April in the Treaty of Leoben that in exchange for providing Venice to Austria, France would receive Austria's holdings in the Netherlands. France provided an opportunity for the population to vote on accepting the now public terms of the treaty that yielded them to Austria. On 28 October, Venice voted to accept the terms. The preference for Austria over France was well founded: the French proceeded to thoroughly loot Venice. They further stole or sank the entire Venetian Navy and destroyed much of the Venetian Arsenal, a humiliating end for what had once been one of the most powerful navies in Europe. On 18 January 1798, the Austrians took control of Venice and ended the plunder. Austria's control was short-lived, however, as Venice would be back under French control by 1805. It then returned to Austrian hands in 1815 as the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia until its incorporation into the Kingdom of Italy in 1866. Background The fall of the ancient Republic of Venice was the result of a sequence of events that followed the French Revolution (Fall of the Bastille, 14 July 1789), and the subsequent French Revolutionary Wars that pitted the First French Republic against the monarchic powers of Europe, allied in the First Coalition (1792), particularly following the execution of Louis XVI of France on 21 January 1793, which spurred the monarchies of Europe to common cause against Revolutionary France. The pretender to the French throne, Louis Stanislas Xavier (the future Louis XVIII), spent a period of
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From becoming queen on 6 February 1952, Elizabeth II was head of state of 32 independent states; at the time of her death, there were 15 states, called Commonwealth realms. Within the Westminster system in each realm, the Queen's government was headed by a prime minister. Appointment and dismissal of prime ministers were common reserve powers that could be exercised by Elizabeth or her governors-general. Elizabeth had 179 individuals serve as her realms' prime ministers throughout her reign, the first new appointment being Dudley Senanayake as Prime Minister of Ceylon and the final being Liz Truss as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, whom she appointed only two days before her death; some of these individuals served multiple non-consecutive terms in office (within the same state) as prime minister. Several of her prime ministers from various realms were appointed for life to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom. This list does not cover Commonwealth nations that were not Commonwealth realms at any point during Elizabeth's reign, nor holders of offices of prime minister in colonies or sub-national entities such as states or provinces. List of prime ministers Antigua and Barbuda Antigua and Barbuda became independent on 1 November 1981 with Vere Bird as the first prime minister. Bird had previously been Premier of Antigua. Reference Australia Robert Menzies was the incumbent prime minister when Elizabeth became queen. Reference The Bahamas The Bahamas became independent on 10 July 1973 with Lynden Pindling as the first prime minister. Pindling had previously been the prime minister of the self-governing Commonwealth of the Bahama Islands. Reference Barbados Barbados became independent on 30 November 1966 with Errol Barrow as the first prime minister. Barrow had previously been Premier of Barbados. Reference Barbados abolished the monarchy on 30 November 2021. Mottley remained in office as the republic's first prime minister. Belize Belize became independent on 21 September 1981 with George Cadle Price as the first prime minister. Price had previously been Premier of Belize. Reference Canada Louis St. Laurent was the incumbent prime minister when Elizabeth became queen. Reference Ceylon D. S. Senanayake was the incumbent prime minister of Ceylon when Elizabeth became queen. Reference Ceylon abolished the monarchy on 22 May 1972 and became the Republic of Sri Lanka. Bandaranaike remained in office as the republic's first prime minister until 23 July 1977. Fiji Fiji became independent on 10 October 1970 with Kamisese Mara as the first prime minister. Mara had previously been Chief Minister of Fiji. Reference Following the 1987 Fijian coups d'état (which resulted in a vacancy in the premiership until December 1987), on 7 October 1987, the new ruling regime declared the nation to have become the Republic of Fiji. Fiji's relationship with the monarchy after this transition is complex (see Monarchy of Fiji). Gambia The Gambia became independent on 18 February 1965 with Dawda Jawara as the first prime minister. Jawara had previously been prime minister of the self-governing Gambia. Reference The Gambia abolished the monarchy on 24 April 1970,
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Events from the year 1792 in France. Incumbents Monarch: Louis XVI (until 21 September; monarchy abolished) The Legislative Assembly (until 21 September) The National Convention (from 21 September) Events March 25 March – The Legislative Assembly agrees that the guillotine should be used for judicial executions. April 20 April – The Legislative Assembly declares war against Austria, starting the French Revolutionary Wars and War of the First Coalition. 25 April Highwayman Nicolas Pelletier becomes the first person executed by guillotine in France, in what becomes the Place de l'Hôtel de Ville in Paris. La Marseillaise, the French national anthem, is composed by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle in Strasbourg. June 13 June – Prussia declares war against France. 20 June – Demonstration of 20 June 1792. August 10 August – French Revolution: Insurrection of 10 August 1792 – The Tuileries Palace is stormed and Louis XVI of France is arrested and taken into custody. 20 August – War of the First Coalition: Battle of Verdun – Prussia defeats France, opening a route to Paris. 21 August – Royalist Louis Collenot d'Angremont becomes the first person executed by guillotine for political reasons, in the Place du Carrousel in Paris. September 2–19 September – 1792 French National Convention election. 2–7 September – French Revolution: September Massacres – Rampaging mobs in Paris slaughter three Roman Catholic bishops and more than 200 priests, together with at least 1,000 criminals. 9 September – 9 September massacres at Versailles. 11 September – Six men steal some of the former French Crown Jewels from a warehouse, where the revolutionary government has stored them. 14 September – Radical antimonarchist Thomas Paine flees from England to France, after being indicted for treason. He is tried in absentia during December and outlawed. 20 September – French Revolutionary Wars: Battle of Valmy – The French revolutionary army defeats the Prussians under the Duke of Brunswick after a 7-hour artillery duel. 21 September – French Revolution: A Proclamation of the abolition of the monarchy by the French Convention goes into effect, and the French First Republic is established, effective the following day. 22 September – French Revolution: The Era of the historical French Republican Calendar begins. November 6 November – War of the First Coalition: Battle of Jemappes – Austrian armies under the command of Duke Albert of Saxe-Teschen are defeated in Belgium (at this time part of the Austrian Netherlands) by the French Army led by General Charles François Dumouriez. 19 November – The National Convention passes a resolution pledging French support for the overthrow of the governments of other nations. December 26 December – The trial of Louis XVI of France begins. Ongoing French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars War of the First Coalition Full date unknown Claude Chappe successfully demonstrates the first semaphore line, between Paris and Lille. Barthélemy Catherine Joubert, future general, becomes sub-lieutenant. Births 21 May – Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis, engineer, scientist 1 August – Pierre Solomon Ségalas d'Etchépare, physician 9 August – Charles-François Lebœuf, sculptor 25 August –
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In 1789 is made the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, set by France's National Constituent Assembly. In 1791, the enslaved Africans of Saint-Domingue began the Haitian Revolution, aimed at the overthrow of the colonial reign. Background Arawak and Taino people inhabited for more than one thousand years what was later known as Hispaniola. Christopher Columbus arrived to the island on December 5, 1492. The name Haiti (or Hayti) comes from the indigenous Taíno language which was the native name given to the entire island of Hispaniola to mean, "land of high mountains." Saint-Domingue () became a French colony from 1659 to 1804 on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. Early attempts were made by slaves in order to recover their freedom, among them can be named the uprising in Saint-Domingue made by Padrejean in 1676, and the uprising of François Mackandal in 1757 In France was taking place the French Revolution, on 21 June 1791, King Louis XVI attempted to flee secretly with his family but his plan failed due to a series of misadventures, delays, misinterpretations, and poor judgments. Louis was officially arrested on 13 August 1792 and sent to the Temple, an ancient fortress in Paris that was used as a prison. On 21 September, the National Assembly declared France to be a republic, and abolished the monarchy. Louis was stripped of all of his titles and honors, and from this date was known as Citoyen Louis Capet. 1791 slave rebellion News of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen were received by the Hispaniola citizens and prompted the reclamation of their rights. On the night of August 14, 1791, representative slaves from nearby plantations of Le Cap gathered to participate in a secret ceremony conducted in the woods in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, during the ceremony Dutty Boukman and priestess Cécile Fatiman prophesied that Georges Biassou, Jeannot, Jean-François Papillon would lead the revolution, months later they killed the plantation owners to whom they were enslaved. Haitian Revolution Many generals fought in the Haitian revolution, some of they were Macaya, François Capois, Jean-Baptiste Belley, Magloire Ambroise, Nicolas Geffrard (general) , and Étienne Élie Gerin, some of the battles of the revolution were: Battle of Croix-des-Bouquets (22 March 1792), Siege of Port-au-Prince (12–14 April 1793), Battle of Cap-Français (1793) (20–22 June 1793), Battle of the Acul (19 February 1794), Battle of Saint-Raphaël (20–21 March 1794), Battle of Gonaïves (29 April–5 May 1794), War of Knives (1799 to 1800): A civil war from June 1799 to July 1800 between the Haitian revolutionary Toussaint Louverture, and André Rigaud, Battle of Ravine-à-Couleuvres (23 February 1802), Battle of Crête-à-Pierrot (4–24 March 1802), Blockade of Saint-Domingue (18 June – 6 December 1803), Action of 28 June 1803, Battle of Vertières (18 November 1803) Haitian Declaration of Independence The Haitian Declaration of Independence was proclaimed on 1 January 1804 in the port city of Gonaïves by Jean-Jacques Dessalines, marking the end of 13-year long Haitian
Independence of Haiti
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This is a list of monarchs of the Netherlands (Dutch: Koningen der Nederlanden). By practical extension, the list includes the stadtholders of the House of Orange Nassau since 1556. However, they were voted into office by, and were civil servants and generals of, the semi-independent provinces of the Dutch Republic and cannot be seen as monarchs. From William IV they were the direct male line ancestors of later monarchs when the monarchy was established in 1813 (first as a Sovereign Principality, but in 1815 as a Kingdom). Dutch Republic (1581–1795) The origin of the Dutch monarchy can be traced back to the appointment of William I, Prince of Orange as stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht in 1559 by Philip II of Spain. However, he was removed from office and became the leader of the Dutch Revolt. Consequently, the States-General appointed him as stadtholder of both rebelling provinces, Holland and Zeeland, in 1572. During the Dutch Revolt, most of the Dutch provinces declared their independence with the Act of Abjuration, signed on 26 July 1581 in The Hague in conformation with the decision made by the States-General. The representative function of the stadtholder became obsolete in the rebellious northern Netherlands – the feudal Lord himself having been abolished – but the office nevertheless continued in these provinces who now united themselves into the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. All stadtholders after William I were drawn from his descendants or the descendants of his brother, who were also the descendants of his granddaughter Albertina Agnes of Nassau-Orange. In 1795 the Republic was overthrown by the French Republic and replaced with the Batavian Republic. In 1806 Napoleon abolished the new republic and made his brother King of Holland. However, in 1810 Napoleon invaded the Netherlands and annexed them to France. In 1813, Allied forces drove out the French. The Dutch called back William Frederick, the son of the last stadtholder, to head the new government. He was proclaimed "sovereign prince". In 1815, he raised the Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself King William I. The kingdom was enlarged with the Southern Netherlands, now Belgium and Luxembourg, soon after. Stadtholderate under the House of Orange-Nassau When William III died childless, the patrilineal ancestry of Orange-Nassau became extinct. In contrast to other provinces of the Dutch Republic, Friesland, Groningen and Drenthe had mostly drawn its stadtholders from the House of Nassau, that starting with John VI, the brother of William of Orange, and comprises in addition a matrilineal ancestry with the house of Orange-Nassau. Stadtholderate under the House of Nassau Kingdom of Holland (1806–1810) Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands (1813–1815) Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–present) See also Style of the Dutch sovereign Regalia of the Netherlands Royal Standard of the Netherlands Line of succession to the Dutch throne List of heirs to the Dutch throne List of rulers of the Netherlands Inauguration of the Dutch monarch List of Dutch royal consorts References Netherlands Netherlands Monarchs of the Netherlands
List of monarchs of the Netherlands
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The following is a list of the heads of state of Nepal, from the unification of the country and the founding of the Kingdom of Nepal in 1768, to the establishment of the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal in 2008. The King of Nepal was the country's head of state from the unification and the establishment of the kingdom in 1768 to 2008. Since 2008, the head of state has been the President of Nepal after the abolition of monarchy and the establishment of a republic. Kingdom of Nepal (1768–2008) Nepal was ruled by monarchs of the Shah dynasty from 1768 till the abolition of monarchy in 2008. However, from 1846 until the 1951 revolution, the country was de facto ruled by the hereditary prime ministers of the Rana dynasty, reducing the role of the Shah monarch to that of a figurehead. The monarchy was abolished on 28 May 2008 by the 1st Constituent Assembly. Transitional period (State of Nepal, 2007–2008) Under the interim constitution adopted in January 2007, all powers of governance were removed from the king, and the Constituent Assembly elected in 2008 was to decide in its first meeting whether to continue the monarchy or to declare a republic. During the suspension of the monarchy, Girija Prasad Koirala, then Prime Minister of Nepal, acted as the Head of State. On 28 May 2008, the Assembly voted to abolish the monarchy. Ram Baran Yadav was elected by the Constituent Assembly, and was sworn in as the nation's first president on 23 July 2008. Status: Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal (2008–present) Timeline See also History of Nepal King of Nepal President of Nepal Notes References External links List of Nepali heads of state and government World Statesmen - Nepal Nepal heads of state
List of heads of state of Nepal
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The Low Countries theatre of the War of the First Coalition, in British historiography better known as the Flanders campaign, was a series of campaigns in the Low Countries conducted from 20 April 1792 to 7 June 1795 during the first years of the War of the First Coalition. As the French Revolution radicalised, the revolutionary National Convention and its predecessors broke the Catholic Church's power (1790), abolished the monarchy (1792) and even executed the deposed king Louis XVI of France (1793), vying to spread the Revolution beyond the new French Republic's borders, by violent means if necessary. The First Coalition, an alliance of reactionary states representing the Ancien Régime in Central and Western Europe – Habsburg Austria (including the Southern Netherlands), Prussia, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic (the Northern Netherlands), Hanover and Hesse-Kassel – mobilised military forces along all the French frontiers, threatening to invade Revolutionary France and violently restore the monarchy. The subsequent combat operations along the French borders with the Low Countries and Germany became the primary theatre of the War of the First Coalition until March 1796, when Napoleon took over French command on the Italian front. The April–June 1792 French incursions into the Austrian Netherlands were a disaster, eventually leading frustrated radical revolutionaries to depose the king in August. An unexpected French success in the Battle of Jemappes in November 1792 was followed by a major Coalition victory at Neerwinden in March 1793. After this initial stage, the largest of these forces assembled on the Franco-Flemish border. In this theatre a combined army of Anglo-Hanoverian, Dutch, Hessian, Imperial Austrian and (south of the river Sambre) Prussian troops faced the republican Armée du Nord, and (further to the south) two smaller forces, the Armée des Ardennes and the Armée de la Moselle. The Allies enjoyed several early victories, but were unable to advance beyond the French border fortresses. Coalition forces were eventually forced to withdraw by a series of French counter-offensives, and the May 1794 Austrian decision to redeploy any troops in Poland. The Allies established a new front in the south of the Netherlands and Germany, but with failing supplies and the Prussians pulling out, they were forced to continue their retreat through the arduous winter of 1794/5. The Austrians pulled back to the lower Rhine and the British to Hanover from where they were eventually evacuated. The victorious French were aided in their conquest by Patriots from the Northern and Southern Netherlands, who had previously been forced to flee to France after their own revolutions in the north in 1787 and in the south in 1789/91 had failed. These Patriots now returned under French banners as "Batavians" and "Belgians" to 'liberate' their countries. The republican armies pushed on to Amsterdam and early in 1795 replaced the Dutch Republic with a client state, the Batavian Republic, whilst the Austrian Netherlands and the Prince-Bishopric of Liège were annexed by the French Republic. Prussia and Hesse-Kassel would recognise the French victory and territorial gains with the Peace
Low Countries theatre of the War of the First Coalition
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Simeon Borisov Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (, ; born 16 June 1937) is a Bulgarian politician who reigned as the last tsar of the Kingdom of Bulgaria as Simeon II from 1943 until 1946. He was six years old when his father Boris III of Bulgaria died in 1943. Royal power was exercised on his behalf by a regency council led by Simeon's uncle Kiril, Prince of Preslav, General Nikola Mihov and prime minister, Bogdan Filov. In 1946 the monarchy was abolished by referendum, and Simeon was forced into exile. He returned to his home country in 1996, formed the political party National Movement for Stability and Progress (NMSP) and was elected Prime Minister of the Republic of Bulgaria from July 2001 until August 2005. In the next elections, as a leader of NMSP, he took part in a coalition government with the Bulgarian Socialist Party. In 2009, after NMSP failed to win any seats in Parliament, he left politics. He is, along with the 14th Dalai Lama, one of only two living people who were heads of state from the time of World War II, although both held mostly symbolic roles in their government's position. Royal history Simeon was born to Boris III of Bulgaria and Giovanna of Italy. Following his birth, Boris III sent an air force officer to the Jordan River to obtain water for Simeon's baptism in the Orthodox faith. He was pointed to accede to the throne on 28 August 1943 upon the death of his father, who had just returned to Bulgaria from a meeting with Adolf Hitler. Since Simeon was only six years old, his uncle Prince Kiril, Prime Minister Bogdan Filov, and Lt. General Nikola Mihov of the Bulgarian Army were appointed regents. Under his father, Bulgaria joined the Axis powers in World War II but managed to preserve diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union. Still, on 5 September 1944 Stalin declared war on Bulgaria and three days later, the Red Army entered the country without encountering resistance. On the next day, 9 September 1944, Prince Kyril and the other regents were deposed by a Soviet-backed coup and arrested. The three regents, all members of the last three governments, Parliament deputies, heads of the army and eminent journalists were executed by the Communists in February 1947. Towards exile The royal family — Queen Giovanna, Simeon, and his sister Maria-Louisa — remained at Vrana Palace, near Sofia, while three new regents were appointed, all Communists (Todor Pavlov, Venelin Ganev and Tsvetko Boboshevski). On 15 September 1946, a referendum was held in the presence of the Soviet army. It proposed abolishing the monarchy and declaring a republic. Official figures showed a 95.6% approval for ending 68 years of monarchy. This referendum actually violated the Tarnovo Constitution, which held that any change in the form of the state could only be implemented by a Grand National Assembly convened by the tsar. On 16 September 1946, the royal family was exiled from Bulgaria while given a way to take
Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
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The Treasons Act 1649 or Act declaring what offences shall be adjudged Treason was passed on 17 July 1649 by the Rump Parliament during the Commonwealth of England. It superseded the Act declaring what offences shall be adjudged Treason passed about two months earlier on 14 May 1649. The Act was deemed necessary because the Commonwealth was a republic, so treason against the person of the king had no meaning. There were certain threats that faced the Commonwealth, which this law helped to address. However, all acts and ordinances passed by Parliament during the Civil War and Interregnum did not have royal assent, so they were deemed to be null and void following the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660. Legislation and political events King Charles I of England was beheaded on 30 January 1649. Shortly after his death the Rump Parliament passed a series of acts which established the Commonwealth (see High Court of Justice for the trial of Charles I). The execution of Charles I was delayed until later in the day on 30 January than had originally been planned, so that the House of Commons could pass an emergency act, the "Act prohibiting the proclaiming any person to be King of England or Ireland, or the Dominions thereof", that made it an offence to proclaim a new King, and to declare the representatives of the people, the House of Commons, as the source of all just power. Parliament voted to abolish the House of Lords on 6 February and to abolish the monarchy on 7 February; an act abolishing the kingship was formally passed by Parliament on 17 March, followed by an act to abolish the House of Lords on 19 March. The establishment of a Council of State was approved on 14 February as was an Act declaring what offences shall be adjudged Treason, and on 19 May An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth was passed. On 17 July 1649 the second Act declaring what offences shall be adjudged Treason was passed and it became treason to say that the House of Commons (without the Lords or the King) was not the supreme authority of the land. Content The Act purported to make the following things treason: to say in writing or verbally that "the [Commonwealth] government is tyrannical, usurped, or unlawful, or that the commons in parliament assembled are not the supreme authority of this nation", to "plot, contrive, or endeavour to stir up or raise force against the present government, or for the subversion or alteration of the same", to attempt or incite the subversion of the government, or insurrection against the government, to counterfeit the Commonwealth version of the great seal of England, or to counterfeit or clip coins, or import counterfeit coins (whether they were Commonwealth coins or foreign coins current within England). It was also declared treason for any person who was not a member of the New Model Army: to plot or incite a mutiny, to "withdraw any
Treasons Act 1649
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The Kingdom of Tunisia (; ) was a short-lived country established as a monarchy on 20 March 1956 after Tunisian independence and the end of the French protectorate period. It lasted for a period of one year and five months between 20 March 1956, the day of the independence, until 25 July 1957, the day of the declaration of the republic. Its sole monarch, titled Bey of Tunis, was Muhammad VIII al-Amin (also known as Lamine Bey) who appointed the Prime Ministers Tahar Ben Ammar and Habib Bourguiba. On 25 July 1957, the monarchy was abolished with Tunisia reorganizing as a republic. The National Constituent Assembly, the country's legislature, appointed Bourguiba as head of state until the 1959 general elections, which Bourguiba won. History An independence movement lasting many decades eventually prevailed, leading to the end of the French protectorate (commenced in 1881). In 1954 the Tunisian struggle and consequent civil disturbances resulted in the start of negotiations for autonomy between France and the Neo Destour political party (essentially under Habib Bourguiba) supported by the Tunisian labor unions and by the Arab League. The agreed Convention of April, 1955, stated that France would retain control of the army and foreign affairs while granting autonomy, which was to begin the following year. Bourguiba was released from prison by the French to a tumultuous welcome. This compromise, however, split the Neo Destour; eventually it led to suppression of its left wing, and expulsion of its radical, pan-Arab leader Salah ben Youssef, who later fled to Egypt. This resolution of intra-party strife signalled that Neo Destour would pursue a moderate path. The French then terminated their protectorate over Morocco, in order to concentrate their forces in Algeria. In reaction, and following the strong public opinion voiced by Tunisians, Bourguiba pressed for independence. The French, overcoming the heated objections of the French settlers, eventually acceded and protocols were drafted. On 20 March 1956, Tunisia achieved its full sovereignty. In July Tunisia's application for membership in the United Nations was accepted. Independence The French conceived an independent Tunisia as a constitutional monarchy ruled by the Bey of Tunis, Muhammad VIII al-Amin. The prior Bey Muhammad VII al-Munsif had been a popular nationalist, but Amin Bey was both considered by some to be compromised by the French, by others to be a youssefist, or follower of Ben Youssef. Already scheduled elections were held on 25 March 1956; due to secret arrangements negotiated by Bourguiba with the Bey the voters choose only party lists, not candidates. This arrangement made it easier for the Neo Destour party to keep out any youssefist or other dissidents, and to maintain party discipline. The elections were then swept by the Neo Destour party, whose leader Habib Bourguiba became prime minister. Government The Kingdom of Tunisia was a constitutional and hereditary monarchy with legislative power being exercised by the Parliament. King The King is considered the leader of the Husainid dynasty that reigned over Tunisia since 1705. He is the head of
Kingdom of Tunisia
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The following lists events that happened during 2008 in Nepal. Incumbents Monarch: Gyanendra (until May 28) - monarchy abolished President: Ram Baran Yadav (starting 23 July) Prime Minister: Girija Prasad Koirala (starting 25 May and ending 18 August), Prachanda (starting 18 August) Vice President: Parmanand Jha (starting 23 July) Chief Justice: Kedar Prasad Giri Events May May 26 - Nepalese authorities ban rallies and mass meetings in Kathmandu prior to the first meeting of the Nepalese Constituent Assembly which is expected to declare Nepal a republic. May 28 - The Nepalese Constituent Assembly meets for the first time after the 2008 Nepalese Constituent Assembly election and votes to abolish the monarchy and establish a republic. June June 11 - The last King of Nepal Gyanendra departs from Narayanhiti Palace for the last time after Nepal is declared to be a republic. July July 21 - Nepal's presidential election concludes with Ram Baran Yadav winning with a majority. August August 15 - The Nepalese Constituent Assembly elects former Maoist rebel Prachanda as the first Prime Minister of Nepal as a republic. Deaths Edmund Hillary - First person to reach top of Everest. References Nepal 2000s in Nepal Years of the 21st century in Nepal Nepal
2008 in Nepal
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The Decree on the system of government of Russia was a basis of the new constitution declared in 1918 in Russia during the Russian Revolution of 1917, during the five-month interregnum between the downfall of the Alexander Kerensky government and the official declaration of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. It was formally declared on 18 January 1918 when the democratically elected Russian Constituent Assembly drafted and adopted the "Resolution on the form of government of Russia", declaring Russia to be a democratic federal republic called the "Russian Democratic Federative Republic". However, the Assembly was dissolved on the same day by the Bolshevik-controlled All-Russian Central Executive Committee, meaning the declaration was not carried out as it was considered to be without legal force. Governmental structure According to the constitution, Russia was to be declared a democratic federal republic. The fundamental basis of the state was representative democracy and federation of both national and territorial autonomous oblasts. This was in contrast to the Decembrist constitution project, which proposed a federal constitutional monarchy on an economic basis. For the first time, the unitary structure of Russia would have been officially abolished and the country declared a federation, marking the start of the federalist period in Russian history. Civil rights and duties The Constitution granted universal suffrage for all citizens of the Republic aged 20 or older. This would have been five years lower than in the former Russian Empire. Most civil duties, such as conscription and taxes, were inherited from the legislation of the Russian Empire. Head of state The head of state would have been the President of the Russian Democratic Federative Republic, elected for a one-year term by a majority vote in parliament involving the deputies of both chambers. Presidential powers were nearly identical to those of the Emperor: Appointment of several government officials and their removal of office; Commander-in-chief of the Russian Army; Decisions on the foreign policy of Russia; Right to propose laws; Control over governmental structures member and functioning; Control over law enforcement; Exercising and overseeing management in Russia. The President would have been responsible for his work before the parliament. A similar approach to presidential power, there termed Ersatzkaiser, was later used in the German constitution of 1919. Due to the cancellation of the Constitution, no person was ever elected to this office. Legislation According to the final draft of the Constitution, adopted in Paris on 20 January 1920, legislative power was to be held by a bicameral parliament. The State Council of the Russian Democratic Federative Republic would form the upper house, elected by regional legislatures (sejms), while the State Duma of the Russian Democratic Federative Republic would form the lower house, directly elected by citizens of the Republic. Constituent powers to create a new constitution and change the type of government were allocated to the Russian Constituent Assembly. See also Soviet Russia Constitution of 1918 Notes References 1918 documents 1918 in law 1918 in Russia Constitutions of Russia Former republics January 1918 events Russian
Decree on the system of government of Russia (1918)
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The Republic of Bouillon was perhaps a short-lived French client republic, around the city of Bouillon in present-day Belgium, based on the Duchy of Bouillon, which had existed between France and the Austrian Netherlands since the 15th century. Reforms, sponsored by the duke, abolishing manorialism and feudalism and establishing a constitutional basis for the monarchy did not prevent what many sources describe as the proclamation of a republic in April 1794. The claimed republic was short-lived, however, as the territory was annexed by the French First Republic 18 months later. However, there is no clear source about the existence of this republic. In 1815, after the Napoleonic Wars, the duchy was absorbed into the promoted Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, becoming a part of Belgium when that nation was founded in the 1830s. Influence of the French Revolution Godefroy III (b. 1728, r. 1771, d. 1792), duke of Bouillon and prince of Turenne, favourable to the French Revolution, committed his duchy to the path of reform by an edict of 24 February 1790 and supported his assemblée générale (parliament) when it voted to abolish manorial and feudal rights on 26 May 1790. On 23 March or 1 May 1792, the duchy became a constitutional monarchy, becoming occupied by the French Revolutionary Army the following 19 November. Duke Jacques Léopold, who had succeeded his father in December 1792 but lived at the Château de Navarre, near Évreux (the last dukes of Bouillon did not reside in their duchy), was arrested and imprisoned in France under The Terror on 7 February 1794; like his father, he was a French citizen, as well as prince of a sovereign state. Proclamation of the Republic Noting that contact with the sovereign duke was temporarily impossible, on 24 April 1794 the assemblée générale convened a Special Meeting of the Representatives of the People (), which may have proclaimed a republic. Some sources believe, however, that the assemblée générale did not proclaim the end of the ducal monarchy, but only reaffirmed the "essential democratic and popular" state and the transfer of executive authority to an ad hoc Council of State, meaning the ducal monarchy would not have really ended. Subsequent official documents cease to refer to the duke, possibly due to his imprisonment in France. The territory was annexed to the French First Republic on 26 October 1795 (4 Brumaire, year IV in the French Revolutionary Calendar). Its land was divided between the départements of Forêts, Ardennes and Sambre-et-Meuse, but not before the assemblée générale publicly denounced the annexation. From 10 December 1793 (10 Frimaire II) the duke had been deprived of rents from his estates under French decree. A decree of 22 March 1800 (1 Germinal VIII), after Napoléon's accession to the French throne, ended the sequester of the ducal estates and allowed him to regain possession. However, he was still obliged to pay the 25% of assessed value he had offered to pay, and woods larger than were returned to him only on a provisional basis.
Republic of Bouillon
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The Second Hellenic Republic is a modern historiographical term used to refer to the Greek state during a period of republican governance between 1924 and 1935. To its contemporaries it was known officially as the Hellenic Republic ( ) or more commonly as Greece ( , Hellas). It occupied virtually the coterminous territory of modern Greece (with the exception of the Dodecanese) and bordered Albania, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Turkey and the Italian Aegean Islands. The term Second Republic is used to differentiate it from the First and Third republics. The fall of the monarchy was proclaimed by the country's parliament on 25 March 1924. A relatively small country with a population of 6.2 million in 1928, it covered a total area of . Over its eleven-year history, the Second Republic saw some of the most important historical events in modern Greek history emerge; from Greece's first military dictatorship, to the short-lived democratic form of governance that followed, the normalisation of Greco-Turkish relations which lasted until the 1950s, and to the first successful efforts to significantly industrialise the nation. The Second Hellenic Republic was abolished on 10 October 1935, and its abolition was confirmed by referendum on 3 November of the same year which is widely accepted as having been mired with electoral fraud. The fall of the Republic eventually paved the way for Greece to become a totalitarian single-party state, when Ioannis Metaxas established the 4th of August Regime in 1936, lasting until the Axis occupation of Greece in 1941. Name When the Republic was proclaimed on 25 March 1924, the official name adopted for the country was Hellenic State (). However, the name was changed to Hellenic Republic () on 24 May 1924 by vote of the Parliament. Accordingly, the title of the country's head of state was changed from Governor () to President of the Republic (). This was done to avoid any confusion as to the meaning of the terms. The word Δημοκρατία (dimokratía), used in the official name to mean Republic, translates as "democracy" as well. In everyday speech the country was simply known as Greece. In the official variant of Greek that was the language of state, known as Katharevousa, this was Ἑλλάς (). In Demotic, or 'popular Greek', it was Ἑλλάδα (). Sometimes, the name Hellas was used in English as well. History National Schism and the republican question The collapse of the Hellenic Army in Asia Minor was quickly followed by the collapse of the government. Public outrage at the Asia Minor disaster, as Greece's defeat in the war became known, was partially reflected in the military coup which followed it. The coup, orchestrated by army officers, took the name The Revolution. Although The Revolution itself did not abolish the monarchy, one of its first acts was to shut down all the royalist newspapers as well as use the Armed Forces to prosecute known royalists (including Ioannis Metaxas, who was forced to flee abroad). The decision whether or not to abolish the monarchy is
Second Hellenic Republic
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The Kingdom of Greece was ruled by the House of Wittelsbach from 1832 to 1862 and by the House of Glücksburg from 1863 to 1924 and, after being temporarily abolished in favor of the Second Hellenic Republic, again from 1935 to 1973, when it was once more abolished and replaced by the Third Hellenic Republic. Only the first king, Otto, was actually styled King of Greece (). His successor, George I, was styled King of the Hellenes (), as were all other modern Greek monarchs. The Greek monarchy was definitively abolished weeks before the referendum in 1973 conducted under the auspices of the then-ruling military regime, which confirmed the abolishment. It was re-confirmed by a second referendum in 1974, after the restoration of democratic rule. House of Wittelsbach The London Conference of 1832 was an international conference convened to establish a stable government in Greece. Negotiations between the three Great Powers (United Kingdom, France and Russia) resulted in the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece under a Bavarian Prince. The decisions were ratified in the Treaty of Constantinople later that year. The convention offered the throne to the Bavarian Prince, Otto. They also established the line of succession which would pass the crown to Otto's descendants, or his younger brothers should he have no issue. It was also decided that in no case would there be a personal union of the crowns of Greece and Bavaria. House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg In October 1862, King Otto was deposed in a popular revolt, but while the Greek people rejected Otto, they did not seem averse to the concept of monarchy per se. Many Greeks, seeking closer ties to the pre-eminent world power, the United Kingdom, rallied around the idea that Prince Alfred, the second son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, could become the next king. British Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston believed that the Greeks were "panting for increase in territory", hoping that the election of Alfred as king would also result in the incorporation of the Ionian Islands, which were then a British protectorate, into an enlarged Greek state. The London Conference of 1832, however, had prohibited any of the Great Powers' ruling families from accepting the crown of Greece, and in any event, Queen Victoria was adamantly opposed to the idea. Nevertheless, the Greeks insisted on holding a referendum on the issue of the head of state in November 1862. It was the first referendum ever held in Greece. Prince Alfred turned down the kingship and Prince William of Denmark, the second son of Prince Christian of Denmark (the Danish heir-presumptive), was elected by the National Assembly to become King George I of the Hellenes. The monarchy was abolished in 1924 and replaced by the Second Hellenic Republic. Second Hellenic Republic The Hellenic Republic was proclaimed on 25 March 1924, in the aftermath of Greece's defeat by Turkey in the Asia Minor Campaign, which was widely blamed on the royalist government. During its brief existence, the Second Republic proved unstable. Greek
List of kings of Greece
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The Supreme Executive Power () was the provisional government of Mexico that governed between the fall of the First Mexican Empire in April 1823 and the election of the first Mexican president, Guadalupe Victoria, in October 1824. After Emperor Iturbide abdicated, the sovereignty of the nation passed over to Congress, which appointed a triumvirate, made up of Guadalupe Victoria, Pedro Celestino Negrete, and Nicolas Bravo, to serve as the executive, while a new constitution was being written. During this period the government oversaw the transition of the nation from monarchy to a republic, abolishing all titles of nobility, changing the national symbols, and removing from power the remnants of the imperial government. Iturbide himself and his family were exiled to Europe, and when he attempted to return in July 1824, he was captured and executed. A major challenge proved to be the multiple military revolts that flared up in the provinces, and in one case in the capital itself. The causes varied, ranging from agitation in favor of establishing a federation, anti-Spanish sentiment, and even efforts aiming at restoring the empire. Elections for a new congress were held in October 1824, and the new legislature proceeded in the task of writing a new constitution, debates over the matter mainly being concerned with whether the new republic should take the form of a federation, or a centralized republic. The former faction triumphed, and the result was the 1824 Constitution of Mexico, and the Supreme Executive Power was replaced by the First Mexican Republic. Background Independent Mexico was originally a monarchy: "constitutional and moderate" according to the Treaty of Córdoba. The new country adopted the name of the Mexican Empire. The Plan of Iguala had provided for a Bourbon monarch to be placed on the Mexican throne, but when the offer was refused, a barracks revolt in the capital declared Agustín de Iturbide as emperor; congress, in search of stability and surrounded by Iturbide's military partisans, acquiesced. Iturbide was officially proclaimed Emperor of Mexico on May 18, 1822. However, the Constitutional Empire soon found itself being torn by conflicts between the emperor and Congress. Deputies were imprisoned simply for expressing their disagreements with Iturbide and finally, Iturbide decided to abolish the Congress, establishing instead a National Junta subservient to him. The lack of a congress, the arbitrary nature of the emperor and the absence of solutions to the serious problems that the country was facing increased conspiracies to change the imperial system. Antonio López de Santa Anna proclaimed the Plan of Casa Mata, and was later joined by Vicente Guerrero and Nicolás Bravo. Iturbide then was forced to reestablish the Congress and in a vain attempt to save the order and keep the situation favorable to his supporters, he abdicated the crown of the empire on March 19, 1823. The transition from a monarchy to a republic On March 31, 1823, Congress officially abolished the executive as it had functioned under the empire since May 19, 1822. In its place, was established
Provisional Government of Mexico
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Monarchism in France is the advocacy of restoring the monarchy (mostly constitutional monarchy) in France, which was abolished after the 1870 defeat by Prussia, arguably before that in 1848 with the establishment of the French Second Republic. The French monarchist movements are roughly divided today in three groups: The Legitimists for the royal House of Bourbon, the Orléanists for the cadet branch of the House of Orléans, and the Bonapartists for the imperial House of Bonaparte History In France, Louis Philippe abdicated on 24 February, 1848, opening way to the Second Republic (1848–1852), which lasted until Napoleon III's 2 December, 1851 coup d'état and the establishment of the Second Empire (1852–1870). The monarchist movement came back into force only after the 1870 defeat by Prussia and the crushing of the 1871 Paris Commune by Orléanist Adolphe Thiers. Legitimists and Orléanists controlled the majority of the Assemblies, and supported Patrice de MacMahon, Duke of Magenta, as president of the Ordre moral government. But the intransigence of the Count of Chambord, who refused to abandon the white flag and its fleur-de-lis against the republican tricolore, and the 16 May 1877 crisis forced the legitimists to abandon the political arena, while some of the more liberal Orléanists "rallied" throughout years to the Third Republic (1870–1940). However, since the monarchy and Catholicism were long entangled ("the alliance of the Throne and the Altar"), republican ideas were often tinged with anti-clericalism, which led to some turmoil during Radical Émile Combes' cabinet in the beginning of the 20th century. Concerns about monarchists caused the French government to bury the Unknown Soldier of World War I at the Arc de Triomphe, because the Panthéon was associated with the Republic. The Action Française, founded in 1898 during the Dreyfus affair, remained an influential far right movement throughout the 1930s, taking part in the 6 February 1934 riots. Some monarchists, such as Georges Valois who founded the Faisceau, became involved in fascism after the 1926 Papal condemnation of the Action Française by Pius XI. Monarchists were then active under the Vichy regime, with the leader of the Action Française Charles Maurras qualifying as "divine surprise" the overthrow of the Republic and the arrival to power of Marshal Pétain. A few of them, such as Henri d'Astier de la Vigerie, took part in the Resistance out of patriotic concerns. The Action Française was then dissolved after the war, but Maurice Pujo founded it again in 1947. Some legitimists had become involved in the traditionalist Catholic movement which arose in the aftermath of the Second Vatican Council and some ultimately followed the 1970 foundation of the traditionalist Catholic Society of Saint Pius X by Marcel Lefebvre. Bertrand Renouvin made a breakaway movement from the Action Française in 1971, the Nouvelle Action Française which became the Nouvelle Action Royaliste, while some legitimists joined Jean-Marie Le Pen's Front National, founded in 1972. Current pretenders The most recognised pretenders to the French throne are Prince Jean, Count of Paris for the Orléanists; Prince Louis,
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This is a list of the heads of state of the modern Greek state, from its establishment during the Greek Revolution to the present day. First Hellenic Republic (1822–1832) "First Hellenic Republic" is a historiographical term used by academics the actual name of the government was the Provisional Administration of Greece and was established at the beginning of the greek revolution and later renamed as the Hellenic state. There was no separation between head of state and head of government. Provisional Administration of Greece (Presidents of the Executive, 1822–1827) Hellenic State (1827–1832) Kingdom of Greece (1832–1924) House of Wittelsbach (1832–1862) The London Conference of 1832 was an international conference convened to establish a stable government in Greece. Negotiations between the three Great powers (United Kingdom, France and Russia) resulted in the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece under a Bavarian prince. The decisions were ratified in the Treaty of Constantinople later that year. The convention offered the throne to Prince Otto of Bavaria. They also established the line of succession which would pass the crown to Otto's descendants, or his younger brothers should he have no issue. It was also decided that in no case there would be a personal union of the crowns of Greece and Bavaria. Otto went on to rule Greece until he was exiled in the 23 October 1862 Revolution. House of Glücksburg (1863–1924) In October 1862, King Otto was deposed in a popular revolt, but while the Greek people rejected Otto, they did not seem averse to the concept of monarchy per se. Many Greeks, seeking closer ties to the pre-eminent world power, Great Britain, rallied around the idea that Prince Alfred, the second son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, could become the next King. British Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston believed that the Greeks were "panting for increase in territory", hoping that the election of Alfred as King would also result in the incorporation of the Ionian Islands, which were then a British protectorate, into an enlarged Greek state. The London Conference of 1832, however, had prohibited any of the Great powers' ruling families from accepting the crown of Greece, and in any event, Queen Victoria was adamantly opposed to the idea. Nevertheless, the Greeks insisted on holding a referendum on the issue of the head of state in November 1862. It was the first referendum ever held in Greece. Prince Alfred turned down the Kingship and Prince William of Denmark, son of Prince Christian of Denmark, was elected by the National Assembly to become King George I of the Hellenes. Second Hellenic Republic (1924–1935) The Second Hellenic Republic was a parliamentary republic which was proclaimed on 25 March 1924 and a referendum was held to abolish the Monarchy. The Second Republic was abolished after the 1935 monarchy referendum. The President of the Republic had a symbolic role as head of the state. Status Kingdom of Greece (1935–1973) House of Glücksburg (1935–1973) Republic under the Greek junta (1973–1974) On 1 June 1973 the junta
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The Greek Constitution of 1973 () was an amended version of the Greek Constitution of 1968 (which was never fully enacted) by Greek dictator Georgios Papadopoulos, with the aim of abolishing the Greek monarchy. Papadopoulos's rewrite of the 1968 constitution replaced the terms "parliamentary monarchy" and "king" with "republican democracy" and "president of Greece". The constitution was enacted as part of Papadopoulos's failed attempt at liberalisation of his regime, but, like its 1968 predecessor, never fully implemented. Background In early 1973, the Papadopoulos regime experienced for the first time organised protests against its dictatorial government. In February 1973, the Law School student uprising started when law students occupied the Athens Law School protesting against the dictators and was a precursor to the Athens Polytechnic uprising. The public unrest against the regime was followed by an attempted coup against Papadopoulos organised by the Greek Navy. The dictators strongly suspected that King Constantine II, who was already in exile due to an earlier coup attempt against them in December 1967, was also behind the second navy coup attempt. The dictator used the navy coup attempt as a pretext to strengthen his position by removing the king, whom he considered his last major, non-junta related, antagonist for power. A month later, in June 1973, Papadopoulos proceeded to abolish the monarchy and declare Greece a presidential republic, simultaneously appointing himself to the new position as Greece's head of state. Not wasting any time, the regime proceeded in July of the same year to hold a rigged referendum which ratified the new constitution with 21.56% supporting the monarchy and 78.44% against it. Papadopoulos's attempt at engineering a new political system in Greece ultimately failed and the new constitution was never enacted. Analysis The 1973 constitution is the second constitution in modern Greek history, after its predecessor constitution of 1968, to have resulted from a failed coup attempt by the Greek Navy. The 1973 constitution contravenes article 137 paragraph 1 of its predecessor 1968 constitution which states "The fundamental provisions of the Constitution as well as those that designate the form of government as a Crowned Democracy can never be revised". Due to this contravention of article 137 of its predecessor, the 1973 constitution has been characterised as "revolutionary". The 1973 constitution was replaced by the current Greek constitution in 1975, during the metapolitefsi period. The timing of the constitution's passage after a royalist coup attempt is especially evident by the fact that, on the one hand, it explicitly called for the confiscation by law of all royal property to which the usual requirement of a fair compensation would not apply, and on the other hand, it prohibited members of the former royal family from holding elective office. Powers of the president Under the 1973 constitution, the president had direct and exclusive executive power in matters of public order, foreign affairs and national defence. While a similar practice would arise 13 years later as the presidential prerogative in a state of cohabitation under the constitution of
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The State President of the Republic of South Africa () was the head of state of South Africa from 1961 to 1994. The office was established when the country became a republic on 31 May 1961, outside the Commonwealth of Nations, and Queen Elizabeth II ceased to be Queen of South Africa. The position of Governor-General of South Africa was accordingly abolished. From 1961 to 1984, the post was largely ceremonial. After constitutional reforms enacted in 1983 and taking effect in 1984, the State President became an executive post, and its holder was both head of state and head of government. The State President was appointed by both Houses of the Parliament of South Africa (Senate of South Africa and the House of Assembly of South Africa) meeting jointly in the form of an electoral college for this purpose. The office was abolished in 1994, with the end of Apartheid and the transition to democratic majority rule. Since then, the head of state and head of government is known simply as the President of South Africa. Prior to 1981, the President of the Senate of South Africa had a dormant commission to act as State President whenever the State Presidency was vacant. This was often the case from 1967 to 1979. Ceremonial post Republicanism had long been a plank in the platform of the ruling National Party. However, it was not until 1960, 12 years after it took power, that it was able to hold a referendum on the issue. A narrow majority — 52 percent — of the minority white electorate voted in favour of abolishing the monarchy and declaring South Africa a republic. The Republic of South Africa was proclaimed on 31 May 1961. Charles Robberts Swart, the last Governor-General, was sworn in as the first State President. The title 'State President' was originally used for the head of state of the Boer Republics, and like them, the holder of the office wore a sash with the Republic's coat of arms. He was elected to a single seven-year term by the Parliament of South Africa, and was not eligible for re-election. The National Party decided against having an executive presidency, instead adopting a minimalist approach as a conciliatory gesture to those in the English-speaking community who were opposed to a republic. As such, the State President performed mostly ceremonial duties, and was bound by convention to act on the advice of the Prime Minister and the cabinet. In practice, the post of State President was a sinecure for retired National Party ministers, as the Governor-General's post had been since 1948. Consequently, all State Presidents from 1961 to 1984 were white, Afrikaner, male, and over 60. The powers of the State President from 1961 to 1984 was essentially the same as that of the Governor-General of South Africa. Executive post Following constitutional reforms, in 1984, the office of State President became an executive post, as in the United States. The Prime Minister's post was abolished, and its powers were
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Republicanism in the Netherlands is a movement that strives to abolish the Dutch monarchy and replace it with a republic. The popularity of the organised republican movement that seeks to abolish the monarchy in its entirety has been suggested to be a minority among the people of the Netherlands, according to opinion polls (according to one 2023 poll, 37%). Terminology In discussions on forms of government, it is common to refer to certain 'models', based on how other countries are constituted: Spanish model: a constitutional monarchy in which the monarch at least nominally has limited political power. Swedish model: a constitutional monarchy in which the monarch has an entirely ceremonial role in law as well as in fact. German model: a parliamentary republic in which Parliament elects the President who serves as head of state and who has little to no power. American model: a presidential republic in which the President is elected by the people and serves as head of state and head of government. French model: a semi-presidential republic in which the President is directly elected by the population and shares power with a Prime Minister. Historical development 1581–1795: Dutch Republic Establishment of the Republic The Netherlands emerged as a state during the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), declaring their independence from the Spanish Empire in 1581. After futile attempts to find a hereditary head of state, the Dutch Republic was proclaimed in 1588. However, the war initially had neither the achievement of political independence nor the establishment of a republic as its ultimate goal, nor were the Southern Netherlands excluded from it on purpose. Rather, the inability of the Habsburg regime to adequately address religious, social and political unrest (that was originally most pressing in Flanders and Brabant), led to an irreconcilable situation. An independent Calvinist-dominated republic in the Northern Netherlands, opposed to the continuously Spanish Catholic-dominated royalist Southern Netherlands, was the unintended, improvised result. As the war progressed however, the House of Orange-Nassau played an increasingly important role, finally accumulating all stadtholderates and military leadership positions within the Dutch Republic by 1590. Struggles between the House of Orange, which gradually built up a dynasty with monarchical aspirations, and the Dutch States Party, a loose coalition of factions that favoured a republican, in most cases more or less oligarchical form of government, continued throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. Loevesteiners and Enlightenment In 1610, lawyer Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) wrote On the Antiquity of the Batavian Republic, which attempted to show the States of Holland had always been sovereign (even since the Batavians), and could appoint or depose a prince whenever they so desired. The works' main purpose was to justify the Revolt against the Spanish Empire, and the independent existence of the emergent Dutch Republic. Modern historians agree that ever since the stadtholderate of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange (1625–1647), the Princes of Orange had sought to turn the Dutch Republic into a monarchy under their rule. The 1650 imprisonment of several pro-States regenten and a failed coup
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Free state is a term occasionally used in the official titles of some states throughout the world with varying meanings depending on the context. In principle, the title asserts and emphasises a particular freedom of the state in question, but this is not always reflected in practice. Some states use the title to assert sovereignty or independence from foreign domination, while others have used it to assert autonomy within a larger nation-state. Sometimes "free state" is used as a synonym for "republic". The republican sense of the term derives from libera res publica (literally, "the free public thing/affair"), a term used by Latin historians for the period of the Roman Republic, though not all "free states" have been republics. The historical German free states and the Orange Free State of Southern Africa were republican in form, however the Congo Free State and Irish Free State were governed under forms of monarchy. Overview Republican England English Parliament, in the act forming the Commonwealth of England of 1649 to 1660, declared that "England is confirmed to be a Commonwealth and Free State and shall from henceforth be Governed as a Commonwealth and Free State." The Commonwealth had a republican constitution. Germany In Germany, the term free state (in German, Freistaat ) comes from the 19th century as a German word for republic. After the German Revolution of November 1918, when Imperial Germany became a democratic republic, most of the German states within the German Reich called themselves a Free State. Others used expressions like Republik or Volksstaat (people's state) – though unpopular, as that term was associated with the enemy France. According to the Versailles Treaty, Danzig was split off from Germany in 1919, becoming the Free City of Danzig. After the Nazis came to power, they abolished the concept of a federal republic and all the states and re-organized Germany into Gaue, with appointed leadership. The states were re-established within the reduced German borders after World War II; however, from 1952 only Bavaria (successor (but not de jure) to the Kingdom of Bavaria) still called itself a Free State and that made Freistaat a synonym for Bavaria. After the reunification, the reestablished Saxony (successor (but not de jure) to the Kingdom of Saxony) used the name again in 1992 and Thuringia began to use it for the first time in 1993. Free Cities Historically, Germany had Imperial Free Cities, who were subject only to the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1871 Germany knew three Free Cities, Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck; the last lost its status in 1937. Since 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany has Hamburg (Freie und Hansestadt, Free and Hanseatic City) and Bremen (Freie Hansestadt), as well as Berlin, as a city which is also a state. Like the Free States these three cities have no special rights in the federation. Africa In South Africa, the term free state was used in the title of the nineteenth century Orange Free State (Oranje Vrystaat in Afrikaans) and is
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Prince of Orléans-Bragança was a nobiliarchic title informally attributed to all direct and legitimate varony descendants of Louis Philippe Gaston de Orléans, count d'Eu and Imperial Prince Consort of Brazil, as consort of the last Imperial Princess of Brazil, Isabel of Braganza. The Royal House of France, of which the Count d'Eu was a member by birth until he renounced his French dynastic rights in 1864 after marrying Isabel de Braganza, Imperial Princess of Brazil, specified that the title Prince of Orléans-Braganza was not part of the noble titles of French royalty but recognized, informally, as the monarchy had been abolished in France since 1848, along with all noble titles, and as a non-reigning house it did not possess any powers for formal recognition - such a title as part of a house distinct from the Royal House of France (the House of Orléans), as well as that the princes of Orléans-Braganza would have the same honours as the princes of the Royal House of France and be addressed as "Royal Highness". Origins When Gaston de Orléans, Count d'Eu, married Isabel de Bragança in 1864, he did not want to preserve his French dynastic rights, and therefore his place and his descendants' place in the line of Orleanist succession to the French throne, against the express will of his father. As a result, years after the proclamation of the Brazilian Republic and, consequently, the extinction of the Empire of Brazil, Gastão de Orléans tried to recover his place and that of his descendants in the French line of succession, as well as he sought the creation of the title of Prince of Orléans-Bragança - as a title of French royalty - obtaining several negative answers from the Royal House of France, which by then no longer reigned in the country. A dynastic pact was then made between the Count d'Eu and the Royal House of France, the so-called Brussels Declaration or Pact of Brussels, in which the Royal House of France recognized the title of Prince of Orléans-Braganza as part of a house distinct from the House of Orléans, which made up the Royal House of France; and that the Count d'Eu and his descendants would have the same honours as the princes of the Royal House of France. In the agreement, it was also established that the Count d'Eu and his descendants could only claim the French throne if all the branches of the Royal House of France were extinct. Gaston de Orléans, Count d'Eu, was the first-born son of Louis Charles Philippe Raphaël de Orléans, Duke of Nemours, who in turn was the second son of Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans and King of the French from 1830 to 1848, when he was deposed by the Revolution of 1848. Despite the fact that the throne passed to Napoleon III after the end of the second French republic, Orléans began to defend the right of succession of the House of Orléans to the throne. Although Gaston de Orléans' father
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The Charter of 1830 () instigated the July Monarchy in France. It was considered a compromise between constitutional monarchists and republicans. History After three days of protests in July 1830 – the July Revolution, also called the "Three Glorious Days" () – by the merchant , who were outraged to be ousted from the limited voters list by the July Ordinances, Charles X was forced to abdicate. Charles X's chosen successor was his young grandson, Henri, comte de Chambord, but Henri never ascended to the throne. The line of natural hereditary succession was abolished and a member of the cadet Orléans line of the Bourbon family was chosen: Louis Philippe I. On August 7, the Charter of 1814 was revised, and its preamble evoking the was eliminated. When voted on in the Chamber, it was passed by 219 votes to 33. The new charter was imposed on the king by the nation and not promulgated by the king. On 9 August 1830, Louis-Philippe d'Orléans swore to uphold the Charter and was crowned "King of the French" () rather than "King of France" (). The July Monarchy lasted until 24 February 1848 when the Second Republic was established. Constitutional provisions The Charter of 1830 removed from the king the power to make ordinances for the security of the state; royal ordinances were henceforth to concern only the application of laws. Hereditary peerage was eliminated, but not the institution of peerage. The initiation of the laws was no longer exclusive of the king, and members of both chambers could propose bills. The census suffrage system was modified and the poll tax () was reduced to 200 francs permitting individuals 25 years old or older to vote, and to 500 francs for individuals 30 years old or older to be elected to the Chamber of Deputies. The law of the Double vote was abolished, and the number of electors was thus doubled, without nevertheless significantly increasing the size or characteristics of the electoral body: 1 out of 170 Frenchmen participated in the elections with the electorate at 170,000 which increased to 240,000 by 1846. Catholicism was no longer the state religion, but only the "religion professed by the majority of the French", censorship of the press was abolished, and the French tricolor flag was reinstated. See also Constitution of France Politics of France History of France External links Charter of 1830 on Encyclopædia Universalis Constitutions of France July Monarchy Legal history of France 1830 in law 1830 in France 1830 documents Louis Philippe I
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Réunion, officially Department of Réunion, is an island in the Indian Ocean that is an overseas department and region of France. Part of the Mascarene Islands, it is located approximately east of the island of Madagascar and southwest of the island of Mauritius. , it had a population of 885,700. Its capital and largest city is Saint-Denis. Réunion was uninhabited until French immigrants and colonial subjects settled the island in the 17th century. Its tropical climate led to the development of a plantation economy focused primarily on sugar; slaves from East Africa were imported as fieldworkers, followed by Malays, Vietnamese, Chinese, and Indians as indentured laborers. Today, the greatest proportion of the population is of mixed descent, while the predominant language is Réunion Creole, though French remains the sole official language. Since 1946, Réunion has been governed as a French region and thus has a similar status to its counterparts in Metropolitan France. Consequently, it is one of the outermost regions of the European Union and part of the eurozone; it is, along with the French overseas department of Mayotte, one of the two eurozone areas in the Southern Hemisphere. Owing to its strategic location, France maintains a large military presence. Name France took possession of the island in the 17th century, naming it Bourbon, after the dynasty that then ruled France. To break with this name, which was too attached to the Ancien Régime, the National Convention decided on 23 March 1793 to rename the territory Réunion Island. ("Réunion", in French, usually means "meeting" or "assembly" rather than "reunion". This name was presumably chosen in homage to the meeting of the fédérés of Marseilles and the Paris National Guards that preceded the insurrection of 10 August 1792. No document establishes this and the use of the word "meeting" could have been purely symbolic.) The island changed its name again in the 19th century: in 1806, under the First Empire, General Decaen named it Île Bonaparte (after Napoleon), and in 1810 it became Île Bourbon again. It was eventually renamed Réunion after the fall of the July monarchy by a decree of the provisional government on 7 March 1848. In accordance with the original spelling and the classical spelling and typographical rules, "la Réunion" was written with a lower case in the article, but during the end of the 20th century, the spelling "La Réunion" with a capital letter was developed in many writings to emphasize the integration of the article in the name. This last spelling corresponds to the recommendations of the Commission nationale de toponymie and appears in the current Constitution of the French Republic in articles 72-3 and 73. History The island has been inhabited since the 17th century, when people from France and Madagascar settled there. Slavery was abolished on 20 December 1848 (a date celebrated yearly on the island), when the Second Republic abolished slavery in the French colonies. However, indentured workers continued to be brought to Réunion from South India, among other places. The
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The War of the Second Coalition () (1798/9 – 1801/2, depending on periodisation) was the second war targeting revolutionary France by many European monarchies, led by Britain, Austria, and Russia and including the Ottoman Empire, Portugal, Naples and various German monarchies. Prussia did not join the coalition, while Spain supported France. The overall goal of Britain and Russia was to contain the expansion of the French Republic and to restore the monarchy in France, while Austria —weakened and in deep financial debt from the War of the First Coalition—sought primarily to recover its position and come out of the war stronger than when it had entered. In large part because of the difference in strategy among the three major allied powers, the Second Coalition failed to overthrow the revolutionary government, and French territorial gains since 1793 were confirmed. In the Franco–Austrian Treaty of Lunéville in February 1801, France held all of its previous gains and obtained new lands in Tuscany in Italy. Austria was granted Venetia and the former Venetian Dalmatia. Most other allies also signed separate peace treaties with the French Republic in 1801. Britain and France signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802, followed by the Ottomans in June 1802, which brought an interval of peace in Europe that lasted several months until Britain declared war on France again in May 1803. The renewed hostilities culminated in the War of the Third Coalition. Background On 20 April 1792, the French Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria. In the War of the First Coalition (1792–97), France fought against most of the states with which it shared a border, as well as Great Britain, Portugal and Prussia. The Coalition forces achieved several victories at the outset of the war, but were ultimately repulsed from French territory and then lost significant territories to the French, who began to set up client republics in their occupied territories. Napoleon Bonaparte's efforts in the northern Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars pushed Austrian forces back and resulted in the negotiation of the Treaty of Leoben (18 April 1797) and the Treaty of Campo Formio (October 1797), leaving Britain to fight on alone against France, Spain and the Netherlands. Peace interrupted From October 1797 until March 1799, France and Austria, the signatories of the Treaty of Campo Formio, avoided armed conflict but remained skeptical of each other, and several diplomatic incidents undermined the agreement. The French demanded additional territory not mentioned in the Treaty. The Habsburgs were reluctant to hand over designated territories, much less additional ones. The Congress at Rastatt proved inept at orchestrating the transfer of territories to compensate the German princes for their losses. Republicans in the Swiss Cantons, supported by the French Revolutionary Army, overthrew the central government in Bern and established the Helvetic Republic. Other factors contributed to the rising tensions. In the summer of 1798, Napoleon led an expedition to Egypt and Syria. On his way to Egypt, he had stopped at the heavily fortified port city
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The coronation of Bokassa I and Catherine as the Emperor and Empress of Central Africa took place on 4 December 1977 at a sports stadium in Bangui, the capital of the Central African Empire. It was the only coronation in the history of the Empire—a short-lived one-party state and self-proclaimed monarchy—which was established in 1976 by Jean-Bédel Bokassa, military dictator and president for life of the Central African Republic. The coronation—which was almost an exact copy of the coronation of Napoleon as Emperor of the French in 1804—and related events were marked by luxury and pomp. Despite substantial material support from France, expenses amounted to over US$20 million ($ million today) and caused serious damage to the state, leading to a huge outcry in Africa and around the world. After the coronation, Bokassa stayed in power for less than two years. In September 1979, in his absence he was deposed through Operation Caban. As a result, the monarchy was abolished and the country became a republic again. Background In the spring of 1976, during a visit by the French president, Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, Bokassa told him about his plans to proclaim the Central African Republic an empire and celebrate the occasion. According to Bokassa, the creation of a monarchy would help Central Africa improve its standing vis-à-vis the rest of the continent and increase its authority in the international arena. The French leader proposed to hold a modest coronation ceremony in the traditional African style, avoiding high costs because the Central African Republic was one of the poorest countries in Africa, and an opulent ceremony could have negative economic and social consequences. Bokassa persistently asked Giscard d'Estaing for France's assistance in organizing the event. The French President agreed for several reasons: first, the refusal could jeopardize the continuation of the profitable French role in the country's mining industry—mostly of uranium and diamonds—and secondly, France was interested in maintaining its influence in the country, which, along with Gabon and Zaire, was part of the triangle on which French policy in the region rested. Anxiety on the part of France was heightened after Bokassa attempted to draw closer to Libyan Leader Muammar Gaddafi, who had strained relations with France and pro–French Chad (because of a territorial dispute). This forced Giscard d'Estaing to promise material assistance to the Central African President in exchange for cutting ties with Gaddafi. On 4 December 1976, at the extraordinary congress of the ruling MESAN party, Bokassa announced the renaming of the Central African Republic to the Central African Empire and proclaimed himself Emperor. At the congress, a pre-prepared constitution of the empire was adopted, according to which the Emperor was the head of the executive power, and the monarchy was declared to be hereditary, transferred down a male line in the event that the Emperor himself did not appoint a future successor. His full title was "Emperor of Central Africa by the will of the Central African people, united within the national political party, the MESAN." Shortly
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This article lists the heads of state of Yugoslavia from the creation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Kingdom of Yugoslavia) in 1918 until the breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1992. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was a hereditary monarchy ruled by the House of Karađorđević from 1918 up until World War II. After the war, SFR Yugoslavia was headed first by Ivan Ribar, the President of the Presidency of the National Assembly (the parliamentary speaker), and then by President Josip Broz Tito from 1953 up until his death in 1980. Afterwards, the Presidency of Yugoslavia assumed the role of a collective head of state, with the title of President of the Presidency of Yugoslavia rotating among the representatives of the republics and autonomous provinces that composed the Presidency. However, until 1990 the position of President of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia was usually the most powerful position, most often coinciding with the President of the Presidency. With the introduction of multi-party system in 1990, individual republics elected their own heads of state, but the country's head of state continued to rotate among appointed representatives of republics and autonomous provinces until the country dissolved two years later. Kingdom of Yugoslavia The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was created by the unification of the Kingdom of Serbia (the Kingdom of Montenegro had united with Serbia five days previously, while the regions of Kosovo, Vojvodina and Vardar Macedonia were parts of Serbia prior to the unification) and the provisional State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (itself formed from territories of the former Austria-Hungary) on 1 December 1918. Until 6 January 1929, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was a parliamentary monarchy. On that day, King Alexander abolished the Vidovdan Constitution (adopted in 1921), prorogued the National Assembly and introduced a personal dictatorship (so-called 6 January Dictatorship). He officially renamed the country Kingdom of Yugoslavia on 3 October 1929 and, although granted the 1931 Constitution, continued to rule as a de facto absolute monarch until his assassination on 9 October 1934, during a state visit to France. After his assassination, parliamentary monarchy was put back in place. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was defeated and occupied on 17 April 1941 after the German invasion. The monarchy was formally abolished and a republic proclaimed on 29 November 1945. All monarchs were members of the Karađorđević dynasty. Peter I, previously King of Serbia (since the May Coup in 1903 against the Obrenović dynasty), was proclaimed King by representatives of South Slav states. The royal family continued through his son (Alexander I) and his grandson (Peter II). List SFR Yugoslavia After the German invasion and fragmentation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, partisans formed the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ) in 1942. On 29 November 1943 an AVNOJ conference proclaimed the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia, while negotiations with the royal government in exile continued. After the liberation of Belgrade on 20 October 1944, the Communist-led government on
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This is a list of countries by date of their last transition from a monarchy to a republican form of government. There were two periods in recent history when many such transitions took place: during or within five years after World War I (1914–1923) – marked in green; during or within five years after World War II (1939–1950) – marked in pink. Some of the countries on this list were part of larger, now extinct, states (such as the Russian Empire or Yugoslavia) when the transition to a republic took place. Countries that have always had non-republican forms of government (such as absolute monarchy, theocracy, etc.) are not included in this list. Some were also independent states that shared their head of state with other countries (such as Denmark or the United Kingdom) before abolishing the link with the shared monarchy. Countries marked in yellow have since ceased to be republics in favour of another form of government. List of countries/Regions Legend See also Abolition of monarchy List of countries by system of government List of political systems in France Notes References Sources Transition to republican system of government Republicanism
List of countries by date of transition to a republican system of government