the hitchiti were a part of which confederacy
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The Mikasuki, Hitchiti-Mikasuki, or Hitchiti language is a language or a pair of dialects or closely related languages that belong to the Muskogean languages family. , Mikasuki was spoken by around 290 people in southern Florida. Along with the Cow Creek Seminole dialect of Muscogee, it is also known as Seminole. It is spoken by members of the Miccosukee tribe and of the Seminole Tribe of Florida. The extinct Hitchiti was a mutually intelligible dialect of or the ancestor of Mikasuki. Hitchiti was one of the many Muskogean languages spoken by peoples of what is now the southeastern United States, and is considered by many scholars to be the ancestor of the Mikasuki language. It was spoken in Georgia and eastern Alabama in the early historic period, with speakers moving into Florida during the 18th and 19th centuries. Hitchiti was the language of tribal towns such as Hitchiti, Chiaha, Oconee, Okmulgee, Sawokli, and Apalachicola. Based on the number of place names that have been derived from the language, scholars believe it could have spread over a much larger area than Georgia and Florida during colonial times. It was part of the Muskogean language family; it is often considered a dialect of the Mikasuki language with which it was mutually intelligible. The Hitchiti and the Mikasuki tribes were both part of the Creek confederacy. The Mikasuki language was historically one of the major languages of the Seminole people, who developed as a new ethnic group in Florida. It is still spoken by many Seminole and Miccosukee in Florida, but it has become extinct among the Oklahoma Seminole. Like Muscogee, Hitchiti had an ancient "female" dialect. The dialect was still remembered and sometimes spoken by the older people, and it used to be the language of the males as well. Their language with the "female" dialect was also known as the 'ancient language'. The language appears to have been used beyond the territorial limits of the tribe: it was spoken in Native American villages on the Chattahoochee River, such as Chiaha (Chehaw), Chiahudshi, Hitchiti, Oconee, Sawokli, Sawokliudshi, and Apalachicola, and in those on the Flint River, and also by the Miccosukee tribe of Florida. Traceable by local names in Hitchiti, the language was used by peoples over considerable portions of Georgia and Florida. Like Creek, this language has an archaic form called "women's talk", or female language. Scholars believe that the Yamasee also spoke Hitchiti, but the evidence is not conclusive. Other evidence points toward their speaking a different language, perhaps one related to Guale. Some sources list Hitchiti as an extant language in the 1990s. The Seminole and Miccosukee were made up of descendants of members of the Muscogee Confederacy, who had migrated to Florida under pressure from European-American encroachment. The Seminole formed by a process of ethnogenesis in the 18th century. American settlers began to enter Florida and came into conflict with the Seminole. The Seminole Wars of the 19th century greatly depleted the numbers of these tribes, especially the
Mikasuki language
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The Miccosukee Tribe of Indians (/ˌmɪkəˈsuki/, MIH-kə-SOO-kee) is a federally recognized Native American tribe in the U.S. state of Florida. Together with the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma and the Seminole Tribe of Florida, it is one of three federally recognized Seminole entities. The Miccosukee, along with the Florida Seminole, speak the Mikasuki language, also spelled Miccosukee. The language has been referred to as a descendant of Hitchiti, a dialect of Hitchiti, and another term for Hitchiti. By the late 18th century, the British recorded the name Miccosukee, or Mikasuki, as designating a Hitchiti-speaking group centered on the town of Miccosukee, a tribal town affiliated with the Creek Confederacy. The town spanned sections of present-day Alabama, southern Georgia, and northern Florida. Under pressure from European encroachment into their territory during the 18th century, the Miccosukee underwent a period of increasingly frequent migration to Spanish Florida. The Miccosukee were displaced during the Seminole Wars (1817–1858), a series of three military conflicts between the United States and the Seminole people. During this period, many Seminoles were forced to relocate west of the Mississippi River to Indian Territory, forming the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma. A group of 200 or fewer Seminoles would stay in Florida. Descendants of those who remained in Florida were concentrated in the central and southern parts of the state. In the 1920s and 1930s, many Miccosukee established communities along the Tamiami Trail, a roadway completed in 1928 that ran through the Everglades and connected the cities of Tampa and Miami. The Trail Indians, as they were called, generally kept more traditional practices. They were less interested in establishing formal relations with the federal government than the Cow Creek Seminoles to the north, who started moving to reservations around the same time. In 1953, the Florida Seminoles were identified for termination of federal status. The Seminole Tribe of Florida organized and gained federal recognition in 1957. Due to political differences, the Miccosukee would form a separate group, gaining federal recognition in 1962. The Traditionals, or Independents, are Indians living in Florida who are unaffiliated with either tribe. The Traditionals predominantly live in Big Cypress Swamp. History Pre-Twentieth Century Historically, the Miccosukees were a group that moved between present-day Georgia and northern Florida, with an extended range for hunting, fishing, and trading expeditions stretching from the Appalachian Mountains to the Florida Keys. By the late 1700s, Miccosukee-speaking villages had been built in the Everglades. According to scholarship published in collaboration with tribal elders, multiple groups of Indians joined together to form the core group that became the Miccosukee Tribe in northern Florida; these groups included elements of the Oconee, Hitchiti, Eufala, and Appalachicola tribal towns in southern Georgia and northern Florida. Under continuing encroachment from European, and later, American, settlers, many Miccosukee ancestors from different locations found themselves in northern Florida by the early 18th century. By the late 1830s, the dominant indigenous language in among Native Americans living in Florida as Miccosukees or Seminoles was Mikasuki or other variants of Hitchiti.
Miccosukee
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A tribal town (Muscogee talwa, Hitchiti okla) was a form of political and social organization of people in what is now the southeastern United States from at least the 16th century into the 19th century. It had aspects of both a town and a tribe, and was the basic unit of the Muscogee Confederacy (historically called the "Creek" Confederacy). Tribal towns were governed by a council of men (and, very rarely, women) of the town who were selected or had obtained recognized status as warriors. Tribal towns in the Muscogee Confederacy were classified as either "white" (peace) towns or "red" (war) towns. The men in each town were divided into white and red sides. Organization A tribal town had characteristics of a town and of a tribe. It consisted of a main settlement, centered on a ceremonial square, associated satellite settlements (Muscogee talofa) which did not have a ceremonial square, and individual farmsteads. The tribal town also included hunting grounds and agricultural fields. Lankford defines a tribal town as "a group of people united in having a single square ground and a single sacred fire kept in the middle of the square". People living in separate locations could be members of one tribal town based on one square ground with one sacred fire and a single governing council. People of the Muscogee Confederacy identified primarily as members of their tribal town, and only rarely as Muscogees. Whites often saw the tribal towns as tribes, using the terms "town", "tribe", and even "clan" interchangeably. The main settlement of a tribal town had a "square ground" or plaza, which was central to the social life of the tribal town. Four buildings surrounded the sacred fire in the middle of the square ground. Square or rectangular, the plaza was kept clean by sweeping, with the removed material often forming a berm around the plaza. When the men of a town were home, they spent much of the day at the plaza, socializing and playing games such as chunkey and "roll the bullet" (Muscogee thlechallitchcau). The plazas were also used for dancing and drinking. Adjacent to the rectangular buildings on the square-ground, tribal towns also had a rotunda or "hot house" (Muscogee tcokofa), a large round structure with wattle and daub walls and a central fireplace. The rotunda was used for town council meetings during cold weather, and as a communal sleeping space in the winter. The size of a town's rotunda varied, but could be up to across. Tribal towns had a dedicated field on the outskirts of the town where stickball games were played. White and red Many of the people of the southeast viewed parts of their world in terms of a duality. The two sides of the duality are often listed as "white" and "red" in sources, although Swanton noted that the people of the southeast rarely used color terms for the concept. Lankford cautions that the usage of the duality of "red" and "white" in Muscogee culture has changed
Tribal town
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Hitchiti ( ) was a tribal town in what is now the Southeast United States. It was one of several towns whose people spoke the Hitchiti language. It was first known as part of the Apalachicola Province, an association of tribal towns along the Chattahoochee River. Shortly after 1690, the towns of Apalachicola Province moved to the central part of present-day Georgia, with Hitchiti joining most of those towns along Ochese Creek (now named the Ocmulgee River). In 1715, most of the towns on Ochese Creek, including Hitchiti, moved back to the Chattahoochee River, where the town remained until its people were forced to move to Indian Territory as part of the Trail of Tears. Name The Spanish recorded the name of the town as "Achito", "Ahachito", "Euchitto", and, possibly, "Ayfitichi", while it was known to the English as "Echete", "Echeetes", and "Hitchiti". According to Gatschet and Swanton , "Hitchiti" was derived from Atcik-ha′ta or Ahi′tcita. Hitchiti was only one of several tribal towns whose members primarily spoke the Hitchiti language. Other Hitchiti-speaking towns included Apalachicola, Oconi, Osuchi, and Ocmulque, and possibly Chiacahuti, Talipaste, Ylapi, Tacusa, and Sabacola. The people of those towns were collectively referred to as "Hitchiti". Early history The tribal town of Hitchiti first appeared in Spanish reports (as Ahachito) in 1675 as part of the Apalachicola Province along the Chattahoochee River. In the first half of the 17th century, a number of towns were situated along of the Chattahoochee River in Alabama and Georgia, from the south of the falls at present-day Columbus to Barbour County, Alabama. Archaeological evidence indicates that the material culture of the 17th century lower Chattahoochee region had developed in place over several centuries. The ancestors of at least some of the people in the area may have been there as early as 12,000 years ago. A variant of the Lamar regional culture, with influences from the Fort Walton culture to the south, developed in the towns along the Chattahoochee between 1300 and 1400. A major change in ceramic types at sites along the Chattahoochee occurred between 1550 and 1650. There is also evidence of a large drop in the population in the area. The de Soto expedition in the 1540s did not enter the Chattahoochee Valley, but appears to have caused many deaths there due to epidemics of European and African diseases introduced by the Spaniards. Some archaeologists state that only two population centers survived along the Chattahoochee in the late 16th century, situated on opposite sides of the river south of the falls at Columbus. Both sites had large platform mounds, and may have served as ceremonial centers. While some archaeologists believe that some sites along the Chattahoochee remained stable population centers, and became sites of later population expansion, other archaeologists believe that there were significant influxes of other people into the Chattahoochee Valley, changing the material culture of the area. Muscogee language-speaking people from the Coosa and Tallapoosa areas in Alabama may have moved into the Chattahoochee valley during
Hitchiti
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This is a list of sites and peoples visited by the Hernando de Soto Expedition in the years 1539–1543. In May 1539, de Soto left Havana, Cuba, with nine ships, over 620 men and 220 surviving horses and landed at Charlotte Harbor, Florida. This began his three-year odyssey through the Southeastern North American continent, from which de Soto and a large portion of his men would not return. They met many varied Native American groups, most of them bands and chiefdoms related to the widespread Mississippian culture. Only a few of these ancestral cultures survived into the seventeenth century, or their descendants combined as historic tribes known to later Europeans. Others have been recorded only in the written historical accounts of de Soto's expedition. Florida Uzita Mocoso Urriparacoxi Timucua Ocale Acuera Potano Alachua culture Northern Utina Yustaga Uzachile Anhaica Apalachee Narváez expedition's "Bay of Horses" Georgia The peoples the expedition encountered in Georgia were speakers of Muskogean languages. The expedition made two journeys through Georgia - the first heading northeast to Cofitachequi in South Carolina, and the second heading southwest from Tennessee, at which point they visited the Coosa chiefdom. First Leg Capachequi Ichisi Ocute Hitchiti After leaving Ocute, the expedition crossed the "Wilderness of Ocute" (the modern-day Savannah River basin) to arrive in present-day South Carolina. Artifacts from the first leg have been found in Telfair County, Georgia. Second Leg All territory the expedition crossed through during this leg was under the control of Coosa, a paramount chiefdom with territory in Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee. Coosa chiefdom Little Egypt, the likely site of the Coosa capital Sixtoe Mound Bell Field Mound Site Talimachusi Etowah Indian Mounds (Itaba) South Carolina The primary destination of the expedition in South Carolina was the paramount chiefdom of Cofitachequi. The people of this chiefdom were likely the ancestors of the modern Cherokee and Catawba. Hymahi Cofitachequi, likely located at the present Mulberry Plantation Talimeco North Carolina Joara, near Morganton, North Carolina Cheraw (tribe) Chelaque Tennessee Chiska Chiaha Coste Tali Chalahume Satapo Alabama Parts of Coosa extended into Alabama. The other primary chiefdom encountered by the expedition was that of Tuscaluza. The peoples encountered in Alabama were likely the ancestors of the modern Creek, Alabama, and Choctaw. Abihka Chief Tuskaloosa Mabila Tali Mississippi Chicaza Quizquiz Walls phase Quigate Quigualtam Natchez people Arkansas Aquixo Casqui, believed by many archaeologists to be the same as the site of the Parkin Archeological State Park. Pacaha, believed by many archaeologists to be the Nodena site. Chaguate Coligua Tunica people Tula people Anilco, possibly the Menard complex in the southeastern corner of the state. Guachoya Quapaw Caddoans Aays Caddo confederacy. Naguatex Texas All the peoples which the expedition encountered in Texas were the ancestors of the modern Caddo, especially the Hasinai and Kadohadacho confederacies. Intentionally misled by their Caddo guides, the expedition wandered around Texas while only encountering a few major Caddo centers, though there were many that lay not far beyond where they traveled. Eventually they were forced to
List of sites and peoples visited by the Hernando de Soto Expedition
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The Alabama or Alibamu () are a Southeastern culture people of Native Americans, originally from Alabama. They were members of the Muscogee Creek Confederacy, a loose trade and military organization of autonomous towns; their home lands were on the upper Alabama River. The Alabama and closely allied Coushatta people migrated from Alabama and Mississippi to the area of Texas in the late 18th century and early 19th century, under pressure from European-American settlers to the east. They essentially merged and shared reservation land. Although the tribe was terminated in the 1950s, it achieved federal recognition in 1987 as the Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas. Its 1,137 members have about of reservation. The Alabama-Quassarte Tribal Town is a federally recognized tribe, headquartered in Wetumka, Oklahoma. Language The Alabama language is part of the Muskogean language family. Alabama is closely related to Koasati and distantly to Hitchiti, Chickasaw and Choctaw. Also known as Alibamu, an estimated 100 speakers, primarily from Texas, still speak the language. History The Alabama first encountered Europeans when Hernando de Soto arrived in 1540 and visited numerous places during his expedition. In the 18th century, the French arrived on the Gulf Coast and built a fort at what became Mobile, Alabama. The Alibamu and Koasati tribes were part of the Creek Confederacy. They had less contact with British colonists from the Thirteen Colonies than other Creek tribes did. They were the first to migrate away when British colonists began to settle in the region by the middle of the 18th century, after the land was ceded by the French following Britain's victory in the Seven Years' War (known in the colonies as the French and Indian War). Under pressure as well by Native American enemies, the Alabama and Coushatta tribes wanted to avoid the powerful Choctaw in present-day Mississippi. They moved into territories of future states, first into Louisiana and then into Texas. Alabama and Coushatta towns were divided into "red" and "white" towns. The "white" towns were responsible for keeping the peace and for providing refuge, while the "red" towns were responsible for conducting military campaigns. Though they had "red" and "white" towns, the Alabama-Coushattas thought of themselves as peace-loving people. In 1795, the Coushatta arrived in the Big Thicket area of East Texas. In 1805, nearly 1,000 Alabama came to Tyler County's Peach Tree Village in East Texas. The two tribes developed a strong friendship as they roamed and hunted their new land together. In the early 19th century, the Texas Congress granted each tribe two strips of land along the Trinity River. Their land was soon taken over by European-American settlers, leaving them homeless. Sam Houston, the governor of Texas, recommended that the state purchase for the Alabamas; although money was appropriated to buy for the Coushattas, the land was never bought. Either through marriage or special permission, many Coushatta went to live on the land given to the Alabama. Other Coushatta had stayed in an area in southern Louisiana near the Red River. Many of
Alabama people
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Muscogee mythology (previously referred to by its exonym "Creek") is related to a Muscogee tribe who are originally from the southeastern United States, also known by their original name Mvskoke (or Muskogee), the name they use to identify themselves today. Mvskoke is their name in traditional spelling. Modern Muscogees live primarily in Oklahoma, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida. Their language, Mvskoke, is a member of the Eastern branch of the Muskogean language family. The Seminole are close kin to the Mvskoke and speak an Eastern Muskogean language as well. The Muscogee were considered one of the Five Civilized Tribes. After the Creek War many of the Muscogee escaped to Florida to create the Seminole. History The early historic Muscogee were probably descendants of the Mississippian culture peoples who lived along the Tennessee River, in what is now modern Tennessee and Alabama, and possibly related to the Utinahica of southern Georgia. More of a loose confederacy than a single tribe, the Mvskoke lived in autonomous villages in river valleys throughout what are today the states of Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama also consisted of many ethnic groups speaking several distinct languages, such as the Hitchiti, Alabama, and Coushatta. Those who lived along the Ocmulgee River and the Oconee River were called "Creek Indians" by British traders from South Carolina; eventually the name was applied to all of the various natives of creek towns, becoming increasingly divided between the Lower Towns of the Georgia frontier on the Chattahoochee River (see Apalachicola Province), Ocmulgee River, and Flint River and the Upper Towns of the Alabama River Valley. The Lower Towns included Coweta, Cusseta (Kasihta, Cofitachequi), Upper Chehaw (Chiaha), Hitchiti, Oconee, Ocmulgee, Okawaigi, Apalachicola, Yamasee (Altamaha), Ocfuskee, Sawokli, and Tamali. The Upper Towns included Tuckabatchee, Abihka, Coosa (Kusa; the dominant people of East Tennessee and North Georgia during the Spanish explorations), Itawa (original inhabitants of the Etowah Indian Mounds), Hothliwahi (Ullibahali), Hilibi, Eufaula, Wakokai, Atasi, Alibamu, Coushatta (Koasati; they had absorbed the Kaski/Casqui and the Tali), and Tuskegee ("Napochi" in the de Luna chronicles). Cusseta (Kasihta) and Coweta are the two principal towns of the Muscogee Nation to this day. Traditionally the Cusseta and Coweta bands are considered to the earliest members of the Muscogee Nation. Creation The Muscogee believed that the world was originally entirely underwater. The only land was a hill called Nunne Chaha on which is the home of Hesaketvmese (meaning "master of breath"; pronounced Hisakita imisi), a solar deity also called Ibofanga ("the one who is sitting above (us)"). He created humanity from the clay on the hill. In the underworld, there was only chaos and odd creatures. Master of Breath created Brother Moon and Sister Sun, as well as the four directions to hold up the world. The Muscogee also venerated the Horned Serpent Sint Holo, who appeared to suitably wise young men. The first people were the offspring of Sister Sun and the Horned Serpent. These first two Muscogee were Lucky Hunter and Corn Woman, denoting their respective roles in
Creek mythology
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Ahaya (c. 1710 – 1783) was the first recorded chief of the Alachua band of the Seminole tribe. European-Americans called him Cowkeeper, as he held a very large herd of cattle. Ahaya was the chief of a town of Oconee people near the Chattahoochee River. Around 1750 he led his people into Florida where they settled around Payne's Prairie, part of what the Spanish called tierras de la chua, "Alachua Country" in English. The Spanish called Ahaya's people cimarones, which eventually became "Seminoles" in English. Ahaya fought the Spanish, and sought friendship with the British, allying with them after Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain in 1763, and staying loyal to them through the American Revolutionary War. He died shortly after Britain returned Florida to Spain in 1783. Names Ahaya The chief of the Alachua band of Seminoles was usually called "Cowkeeper" by the British while they ruled East Florida. William Bartram, who visited the Alachua Seminoles and has provided much of what we know about the man, refers to him only as "the Cowkeeper". John Richard Alden, in his 1944 book John Stuart and the southern frontier, gives Cowkeeper's Oconee name as "Ahaya". ("Ahaya" is a rare Seminole name.) Boyd and Harris also state that the leader of the Alachua Seminoles was known to the English as "Ahaya" or "Cowkeeper". Some sources state that the Oconees moved to Florida under a chief named "Secoffee", and that it was Secoffee who was called "Cowkeeper". Kenneth Porter argues that Cowkeeper and Secoffee were different people, and finds "nothing to support the claim [that Cowkeeper was Secoffee] and much to disprove it". Alachua The name "Alachua" derives from la Chua, the name of the largest ranch in 17th century Spanish Florida. The center of the hacienda de la Chua was located on a bluff overlooking a sinkhole, now called the "Alachua Sink", that drains Paynes Prairie. There is evidence that the Timucua word for "sinkhole" was , meaning that the ranch was named after the sinkhole. The Spanish called a large area in the interior of Florida west of the St. Johns River, tierras de la Chua. English-speakers who ventured into interior Florida called the area "the Alachua Country". Seminole The name "Seminole" likely is derived from the Spanish , meaning "wild or untamed", as opposed to the christianized natives who had previously lived in the mission villages of Spanish Florida. Some of the Hitchiti- or Mikasukee-speakers who had settled in Florida identified themselves to the British as "cimallon" (Muskogean languages have no "r" sound, replacing it with "l"). The British wrote the name as "Semallone", later "Seminole". The use of "cimallon" by bands in Florida to describe themselves may have been intended to distinguish themselves from the primarily Muskogee-speakers of the Upper Towns of the Muscogee Confederacy (called the "Creek Confederacy" by the British). The term "Seminole" was first applied to Ahaya's band in Alachua. After 1763, when they took over Florida from the Spanish, the British called all natives living
Ahaya
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Alabama, also known as Alibamu, () is a Native American language, spoken by the Alabama-Coushatta tribe of Texas. It was once spoken by the Alabama-Quassarte Tribal Town of Oklahoma, but there are no more Alabama speakers in Oklahoma. It is a Muskogean language, and is believed to have been related to the Muklasa and Tuskegee languages, which are no longer extant. Alabama is closely related to Koasati and Apalachee, and more distantly to other Muskogean languages like Hitchiti, Chickasaw and Choctaw. History The Alabama first encountered Europeans when Hernando de Soto arrived in 1540. (See here for other de Soto contactees) In the 18th century, the French arrived on the Gulf Coast and built a fort at what became Mobile, Alabama. The Alibamu and Koasati tribes were part of the Creek Confederacy. They had less contact with British settlers than other Creek tribes did. They were the first to leave when British settlers swarmed into the area by the middle of the 18th century, after the land was ceded by the French following the British victory in the French and Indian War. Under pressure as well by Native American enemies, the Alabama and Coushatta tribes wanted to avoid the powerful Choctaw in present-day Mississippi. They moved into territories of future states, first into Louisiana and then into Texas. In 1795, the Coushatta arrived in the Big Thicket area of East Texas. In 1805, nearly 1,000 Alabama came to Tyler County's Peach Tree Village in East Texas. The two tribes developed a strong friendship as they roamed and hunted their new land together. In the early 19th century, the Texas Congress granted each tribe two strips of land along the Trinity River. Their land was soon taken over by European-American settlers, leaving them homeless. Sam Houston, the governor of Texas, recommended that the state purchase for the Alabamas. Although money was appropriated to buy for the Coushatta, the land was never bought. Either through marriage or special permission, many Coushatta went to live on the land given to the Alabama. Other Coushatta had stayed in an area in southern Louisiana near the Red River. Many of their descendants are enrolled members of the federally recognized Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana. Alabama and Coushatta towns were divided into "red" and "white" towns. The "white" towns were responsible for keeping the peace and for providing refuge, while the "red" towns were responsible for conducting military campaigns. Though they had "red" and "white" towns, the Alabama-Coushatta thought of themselves as a peace-loving people. By 1820, there were three main Alabama towns and three large Coushatta towns in east Texas, in the region known as the Big Thicket. In 1854, the Alabama were given in Polk County. The following year, , also in Polk County, were given to the Coushattas. The Coushatta claim was disputed by white settlers in 1859. When the Coushatta lost the land claim, the Alabama invited them to live on their land claim. The federal government approved a large grant in 1928
Alabama language
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Muskogean (also Muskhogean, Muskogee) is a Native American language family spoken in different areas of the Southeastern United States. Though the debate concerning their interrelationships is ongoing, the Muskogean languages are generally divided into two branches, Eastern Muskogean and Western Muskogean. Typologically, Muskogean languages are agglutinative. One documented language, Apalachee, is extinct and the remaining languages are critically endangered. Genetic relationships Family division The Muskogean family consists of six languages that are still spoken: Alabama, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee (previously referred to as Creek), Koasati, and Mikasuki, as well as the now-extinct Apalachee, Houma, and Hitchiti (the last is generally considered a dialect of Mikasuki). "Seminole" is listed as one of the Muskogean languages in Hardy's list, but it is generally considered a dialect of Muscogee rather than a separate language, as she comments. The major subdivisions of the family have long been controversial, but the following lower-level groups are universally accepted: Choctaw–Chickasaw, Alabama–Koasati, Hitchiti–Mikasuki, and Muscogee. Because Apalachee is extinct, its precise relationship to the other languages is uncertain; Mary Haas and Pamela Munro both classify it with the Alabama–Koasati group. Haas's classification For connections among these groupings, the traditional classification is that of Mary Haas and her students, such as Karen Booker, in which "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw) is seen as one major branch, and "Eastern Muskogean" (Alabama-Koasati, Hitchiti-Mikasuki, and Muscogee) as another. Within Eastern Muskogean, Alabama-Koasati and Hitchiti-Mikasuki are generally thought to be more closely related to each other than to Muscogee. That classification is reflected in the list below: Muskogean Western Muskogean Chickasaw Choctaw (also called Chahta, Chacato) Eastern Muskogean Muscogee (also called Muskogee, Maskoke, Mvskoke, Seminole, and previously referred to as Creek) Hitchiti-Mikasuki (also called Miccosukee) Apalachee–Alabama–Koasati Apalachee Alabama (also called Alibamu) Koasati (also called Coushatta) Munro's classification A more recent and controversial classification has been proposed by Pamela Munro. In her classification, the languages are divided into a "Southern Muskogean" branch (Choctaw-Chickasaw, Alabama-Koasati, and Hitchiti-Mikasuki) and a "Northern Muskogean" one (Muscogee). Southern Muskogean is the subdivided into Hitchiti-Mikasuki and a "Southwestern Muskogean" branch containing Alabama-Koasati and "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw). The classification is reflected in the list below: Muskogean Northern Muskogean Muscogee Southern Muskogean Hitchiti-Mikasuki Southwestern Muskogean Apalachee Alabama–Koasati Alabama Koasati Western Muskogean Chickasaw Choctaw Kimball's classification A third proposed classification is that of Geoffrey Kimball, who envisions a threeway split among the languages, with "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw), "Eastern Muskogean" (Muscogee), and "Central Muskogean" (Alabama-Koasati and Hitchiti-Mikasuki). However, Kimball's classification has not received as much support as either Haas's or Munro's. Broader relationships Possible Muskogean languages Several sparsely attested languages have been claimed to be Muskogean languages. George Broadwell suggested that the languages of the Yamasee and Guale were Muskogean. However, William Sturtevant argued that the "Yamasee" and "Guale" data were Muscogee and that the language(s) spoken by the Yamasee and Guale people remain unknown. It is possible that the Yamasee were an amalgamation of several different ethnic groups and did not speak a single language. Chester B. DePratter describes the Yamasee as consisting mainly of speakers
Muskogean languages
32648294
Oketeyeconne was an unincorporated community in Clay County, Georgia, United States, which was located along the Chattahoochee River. Following legislation of the late 1940s, the United States Army Corps of Engineers constructed major dam and reservoir projects on the river. The manmade, 46,000-acre Walter F. George Lake was developed north of the dam by the same name. Its construction and flooding required the evacuation of Oketeyeconne and its residents were forced to relocate elsewhere. The lake opened for use in 1963. Geography Oketeyeconne's latitude is 31.6432225 and its longitude is -85.0804849. The town was flooded to create Walter F. George Lake. It now lies under 90+ feet of water. It can be found with a depth finder by boat. History Archeologists have found evidence that earlier cultures of indigenous peoples have lived along the river since 1000 BC. Oketeyeconne was known historically as a Hitchiti-speaking town of the Lower Creek tribe in the late 1700s. It was the most southern of major towns affiliated with the Lower Creek, who ranged to the north. To the south were the Sawokli, Tamathli, Apalachicola, Yamasee, Mikasuki, and Seminole peoples. In 1799 Benjamin Hawkins, the United States Superintendent for Indian Affairs south of the Ohio River, described the settlement as being "a nice town settled on good land with room for livestock". He was encouraging Native Americans of the Southeast to adopt European-American farming techniques, and lived among the Creek. Due to white settlers' encroaching on their territory, the Indian citizens of Oketeyeconne became disgruntled over food shortages and land seizure in the early 1800s. After the Creek Wars resulted in refugees coming into the area following defeat at Horseshoe Bend by Andrew Jackson of the United States Army, they appealed to the British for help in 1813. They had longstanding trading ties with the British dating to before the American Revolutionary War. The British tried to capitalize on Native American interests to attract allies during the War of 1812 with the United States. At this time, some whites believed that Native Americans of the area were acting as spies for British forces. The British considered the Chattahoochee to provide a possible invasion route, via the Apalachicola River, from Florida on the Gulf of Mexico. During the Civil War, the residents of Oketeyeconne were divided in their affiliations, siding with both the CSA and the Union. The majority of the town's residents were Native Americans, descendants of people who had evaded Indian Removal of the 1830s, or agreed to become state citizens in exchange for being allowed to stay. The Muskogee-speaking Creek Confederation citizens sided with the Union during the war. Descendants of Seminole and other tribes historically affected by the Seminole Wars tended to side with the Confederacy. The town remained unincorporated. During the mid-twentieth century, it was evacuated when the federal government took it over for development of water control and navigation projects on the river. Following legislation of the late 1940s, the United States Army Corps of Engineers constructed major dam
Oketeyeconne, Georgia
57076035
Neamathla (1750s–1841) was a leader of the Red Stick Creek. His name, in the Hitchiti (or Mikasuki) language, means "fat next to warrior", "fat" being a reference to great courage. The Hitchiti language had no written form, but modern scholars agree that Eneah Emathla is the "proper" spelling of his name in English; however, there were two other men also named Eneah Emathla, so the modern convention is to use the spelling Neamathla for the leader. He probably spent his childhood in or near Fowltown (Tutalosi Talofa), on the east bank of the lower Flint River (Georgia), where the Hitchiti were concentrated. They had supported the British during the American Revolution, although participation by Neamathla is not documented. When the British returned in the War of 1812, he was "among the first chiefs to answer their call". Leadership of the Red Stick Creeks The Creek (Muscogee) Indians were dividing into two factions at the beginning of the 19th century, a result of contact with westward-expanding European-Americans. They are commonly referred to as the "upper" and "lower" Creeks, names whose geographical meaning was soon lost as the Creeks were of necessity mobile. The larger group were the "upper" Creeks, also called Red Sticks, from the color of a symbolic wooden club that indicated readiness for war. "Lower" Creeks were relatively accommodating of the whites, especially Indian agent Benjamin Hawkins, and began to adapt the sedentary, farming lifestyle that he recommended. (To their surprise, after passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830, they too were required to abandon their farms and walk to their new territory in Oklahoma.) The Red Stick leader Francis the Prophet visited, seeking allies in his plan to resist white civilization, to avoid further land cessions to the whites, and to recover the immense tracts of land lost in the Treaty of New York (1790), the Forbes purchase (), and, later, the Treaty of Fort Jackson (). The Hitchiti were enthusiastic about the plan, begun by Tecumseh and joined by Neamathla, to create a pan-Indian confederation to prevent the whites from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. Neamathla and the Fowltown warriors, all Red Sticks, were defeated in the Battle of Uchee Creek (1813) by the "southern" Creeks. (See Creek War.) They might have won had they not run out of ammunition. When a supply party with ammunition was attacked on its return from Pensacola — a preemptive strike — by U.S. forces, the Red Sticks defeated them at the Battle of Burnt Corn. In response came an attack on Fort Mims (1813), led by William Weatherford and Peter McQueen (Neamathla was not present), in which the Red Sticks killed over 250 men, women, and children. This was followed two days later by the smaller Kimbell-James Massacre, led by Francis the Prophet. Now the war between the two Creek factions had turned into a war with the U.S. government. The Red Stick Creeks were decisively defeated in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814). Although the battle was
Neamathla
69966435
USS Hitchiti (ATF-103) was during the World War II, Korea and Vietnam. The ship was later sold to Mexico as ARM Chac (R-55). Her namesake is a tribe of Creek Indians who lived in Florida and Georgia. The word "Hitchiti" means "to look up the stream." Design and description The ship is displaced at standard load and at deep load The ships measured long overall with a beam of . They had a draft of . The ships' complement consisted of 85 officers and ratings. The ships had two General Motors 12-278A diesel engines, one shaft. The engines produced a total of and gave a maximum speed of . They carried a maximum of of fuel oil that gave them a range of at . The Abnaki class was armed with a 3"/50 caliber gun anti-aircraft gun, two single-mount Oerlikon 20 mm cannon and two twin-gun mounts for Bofors 40 mm gun. Construction and career The ship was built at the Charleston Shipbuilding & Drydock Co. at Charleston, South Carolina. She was laid down on 24 August 1943 and launched on 29 January 1944. The ship was commissioned on 27 May 1944. Service in the United States Navy 1944–1948 After shakedown in the Chesapeake Bay area, the fleet tug sailed for the Pacific, reaching Pearl Harbor with four tows 26 August 1944. Hitchiti was engaged in towing operations at Eniwetok and Ulithi until October, when she joined the support unit off the Philippine Islands during the momentous Battle of Leyte Gulf. She returned to Ulithi for further towing operations until 29 December when she joined the 3rd Fleet for the seizure of Luzon. Work off Okinawa alternated with operations in the Philippines that summer, and as the war ended, Hitchiti remained in the Pacific for salvage and towing operations. In 1946, she performed harbor duty in Japanese waters as well as at various Pacific island bases, returning to the United States in September for overhaul at Bremerton. After further harbor work at Pearl Harbor and Kwajalein, Hitchiti reached San Francisco on 26 December 1947 and decommissioned there 30 April 1948. 1948–1956 Recommissioned at Alameda, California on 3 January 1951, amid the Korean War. Hitchiti joined the fleet in Jananese waters on 21 April to participate in operations off the Korean coast. Escort duties alternated with salvage operations along the war-torn peninsula until she returned to Pearl Harbor on 5 February 1952. Hitchiti participated in towing and salvage work at Pearl Harbor and along the California coast until sailing for Alaskan waters on 23 March 1954. Her 7-month tour in the north was followed by further duty in Hawaii and off the West Coast until she returned for a brief tour in September 1955. Hitchiti sailed for Sasebo, Japan on 22 May 1956, to begin her first Western Pacific cruise. This and six subsequent cruises took her to Hong Kong, Guam, Okinawa, and the Philippines for towing and salvage as well as tactical training. 1956–1967 Hitchiti's Western Pacific deployments, interspersed with
USS Hitchiti
16935780
The Seminole Tribe of Florida is a federally recognized Seminole tribe based in the U.S. state of Florida. Together with the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma and the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida, it is one of three federally recognized Seminole entities. It received that status in 1957. Today, it has six Indian reservations in Florida. The Florida Seminole, along with the Miccosukee, speak the Mikasuki language, also spelled Miccosukee. The language has been referred to as a descendant of Hitchiti, a dialect of Hitchiti, and another term for Hitchiti. Additionally, some Florida Seminole communities speak a dialect of the Mvskoke language called Florida Seminole Creek. In 1975, the Tribe established tax-free smoke shops and a high-stakes bingo operation that became one of the first tribal gaming endeavors in the United States. These ventures, particularly the gaming operation, have generated significant revenues for education, welfare and economic development. A 2005 tribal audit said it took in $1.1 billion in revenues that year. The tribe requires members to have at least one-quarter Seminole blood quantum. History The Seminole emerged in a process of ethnogenesis from various Native American groups who settled in Florida in the 18th century, primarily Muscogee from what is now northern Florida, Georgia and Alabama. They distanced themselves increasingly from other Muscogee groups, and expanded and prospered owing to their thriving trade network during Florida's British and second Spanish periods (c. 1767–1821). These settlers joined with the survivors of Florida's original Native American communities (Tequesta, etc.) in the interior of south Florida. While some scholars have thought that the Calusa were also integrated into the Seminole tribes, there is no documentation to support that theory. During this period, the largely autonomous Native American villages developed alliances with African-American maroons, mostly self-emancipated former slaves from the South's Low Country and some free blacks from the Spanish period of rule. These people became known as Black Seminoles, establishing towns near Native American settlements. During the Seminole Wars against the United States in the 19th century, however, particularly after the second war, most Seminole and Black Seminole were forced by the US to relocate west of the Mississippi River to Indian Territory. A smaller group – possibly fewer than 500 – refused to leave Florida and moved deep into the Everglades, where they avoided settlers and thrived in pseudo-isolation. They fostered a culture of staunch independence. The modern Florida Seminole, about 17,233 at the 2010 census, Miccosukee and Traditionals descend from these survivors. The Florida Seminole re-established limited relations with the United States and Florida governments in the late 19th century, and by the early 20th century were concentrated in five camps in the Everglades. The portion who spoke more Muskogee consolidated in the northern part of the Everglades near the Cow Creek Camp, becoming known as the Cow Creek Seminole. The Miccosukee, who spoke the Mikasuki language, were located to the south, in an area cut through by completion of the Tamiami Trail in 1928. The Cow Creek Seminole eventually
Seminole Tribe of Florida
784723
The Ocmulgee River () is a western tributary of the Altamaha River, approximately 255 mi (410 km) long, in the U.S. state of Georgia. It is the westernmost major tributary of the Altamaha. It was formerly known by its Hitchiti name of Ocheese Creek, from which the Creek (Muscogee) people derived their name. The Ocmulgee River and its tributaries provide drainage for some 6,180 square miles in parts of 33 Georgia counties, a large section of the Piedmont and coastal plain of central Georgia. The Ocmulgee River basin has three river subbasins designated by the U.S. Geological Survey: the Upper Ocmulgee River subbasin (hydrologic unit code 03070103); the Lower Ocmulgee River Subbasin (03070104); and the Little Ocmulgee River Subbasin (03070105). The name of the river may have come from a Hitchiti words oki ("water") plus molki ("bubbling" or "boiling"), possibly meaning "where the water boils up." Description The river rises at a point in north central Georgia southeast of Atlanta, at the confluence of the Yellow, South, and Alcovy rivers. Since the construction of the Lloyd Shoals Dam in the early 20th century, these rivers join as arms of the Jackson Lake reservoir. The river's source is formed at an elevation of around 530 feet above sea level. The Ocmulgee River flows from the dam southeast past Macon, which was founded on the Fall Line. It joins the Oconee from the northwest (241 miles downstream from Jackson Lake) to form the Altamaha near Lumber City. The Ocmulgee River Water Trail begins from Macon's Amerson River Park to the confluence near Lumber city and Hazelhurst, encompassing approximately 200 miles. Human use Four power plants in the Ocmulgee basin that use the river's water, including the coal-fired Plant Scherer in Juliette, operated by the Georgia Power Company. Plant Scherer is the seventh-largest power plant in the United States by capacity , and the largest to be fueled exclusively by coal. Fish fauna A diverse array of fish—105 species in twenty-one families—inhabit the Ocmulgee River basin. The family with the largest representation in the river basin is Cyprinidae (carp and true minnows), with 27 species. It is followed by Centrarchidae (sunfish), which has 22 species. The Ocmulgee basin contains ten species in the family Ictaluridae (catfish) and eight species of in the family Catostomidae (suckers). The river basin is also inhabited by one State of Georgia-designated endangered fish species, the Altamaha shiner (Cyprinella xaenura) and two designated rare species, the goldstripe darter (Etheostoma parvipinne) and redeye chub (Notropis harperi). The Ocmulgee River is popular with anglers for its excellent fishing, particularly for redbreast sunfish, bluegill, redear sunfish, largemouth bass, black crappie, channel catfish, and flathead catfish. The world record for largest recorded catch of a largemouth bass was achieved in 1932 in Montgomery Lake, an oxbow lake off the Ocmulgee River in Telfair County. The record-setting fish, caught by farmer George Washington Perry, weighed 22 pounds, 4 ounces. The International Game Fish Association officially declared the world record for largemouth bass tied in
Ocmulgee River
18878860
The Treaty with Choctaws and Chickasaws was a treaty signed on July 12, 1861 between the Choctaw and Chickasaw (American Indian) and the Confederate States. At the beginning of the American Civil War, Albert Pike was appointed as Confederate envoy to Native Americans. In this capacity he negotiated several treaties, one of the most important being with Cherokee chief John Ross, which was concluded in 1861. The treaty was ratified and proclaimed on December 20, 1861 by the Confederacy. The Choctaw and Chickasaw also duly ratified the treaty. Some Choctaws identified with The Confederacy and a few owned slaves. In addition, they well remembered and resented the Indian removals from thirty years earlier and poor service they received from the federal government. The main reason the Choctaw Nation agreed to sign the treaty, however, was for protection from regional tribes. Terms The preamble begins with, The treaty had 64 terms. The following abbreviated terms of the treaty were: Perpetual peace and friendship Protection provided by the Confederacy Confederacy will not abandon or desert them Boundaries defined Boundaries defined continued Safe passage for Choctaws through Chickasaw district Choctaw and Chickasaw nations to give full assent to the provisions of the act of the Confederacy Confederacy solemnly guarantees the lands held by the Choctaws and Chickasaws forever Land never will be sold No state or territory laws of the Confederacy will be passed for the Choctaws and Chickasaws governments Confederacy renews leased area from the United States Indians in the leased area shall be subject to Confederacy laws until they are capable of self-government or subjected to Choctaw and Chickasaw laws. Confederacy waterways are free to Choctaw and Chickasaw nations. Choctaw and Chickasaw nations have unrestricted right of self-government Intruders in Choctaw or Chickasaw nations subjected to removal by the nations or the Confederacy Land tracts set aside for Confederacy agencies Confederacy forts in Choctaw and Chickasaw country Confederacy right of way for railroads, telegraph lines No Settlements or farms near forts, posts, or agencies Appointments for Confederacy agent and interpreter Protection from other domestic strife, white or Indian hostilities Legal assistance, intrusion prevention, and removal of dangerous or improper persons Property thief and recovery and payments for property not found Licensed traders approved by National Council and trading taxed United States laws removed that regulated Choctaw or Chickasaw selling Choctaws and Chickasaws can take, hold and pass, purchase or descent lands in any of the Confederate States Choctaws and Chickasaws are entitled to one representative in the House of Representatives of the Confederate States of America Choctaw and Chickasaw country may be admitted as a state when they elect to do so and become citizens in the Confederate States of America Land sales proceeds belong to members of the Choctaw and Chickasaw If Creek, Seminole, and Cherokee desire to become part of the Confederate States of America, then their countries maybe annexed to become part of the Choctaw and Chickasaw confederate state Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations may incorporate and determine who
Treaty with Choctaws and Chickasaws
1163981
Oconee may refer to: Places in the United States Oconee, Georgia Oconee, Illinois Oconee, Nebraska Oconee County, Georgia Oconee County, South Carolina Oconee River, Georgia Oconee Township, Shelby County, Illinois Oconee Township, Nebraska Lake Oconee, Georgia Other uses Oconee people, Hitchiti speakers that became part of the Seminole and Creek nations Oconee War, in Georgia, USA, 1780s–1790s Oconee Nuclear Generating Station, in South Carolina See also Oconi, a branch of the Timucua tribe in southeastern Georgia
Oconee
34602480
On the eve of the American Civil War in 1861, a significant number of Indigenous peoples of the Americas had been relocated from the Southeastern United States to Indian Territory, west of the Mississippi. The inhabitants of the eastern part of the Indian Territory, the Five Civilized Tribes, were suzerain nations with established tribal governments, well established cultures, and legal systems that allowed for slavery. Before European Contact these tribes were generally matriarchial societies, with agriculture being the primary economic pursuit. The bulk of the tribes lived in towns (some covering hundreds of acres and containing thousands of people) with planned streets, residential and public areas. The people were ruled by complex hereditary chiefdoms of varying size and complexity with high levels of military organization. By the middle of the 19th century, the United States Government had started leasing land from the Five Civilized Tribes (ex. Choctaw and Chickasaw) in the western, more arid, part of Indian Territory. These leased lands were used to resettle several Plains Indian tribes that tended to be nomadic in nature, embracing the Horse culture. At the extreme, the Comanche society was based on patrilinear and patrilocal extended family sharing a common language; they did not develop the political idea of forming a nation or tribe until their relocation to Indian Territory. At the beginning of the Civil War, the Union Army was withdrawn from Indian Territory exposing the Five Civilized Tribes to aggression from the Plains Indians. The Confederacy filled the vacuum. All of the Five Civilized Tribes as well as other surrounding tribes signed treaties with the Confederacy. As a part of reconstruction, the Southern Treaty Commission was created by Congress to write new treaties with the Tribes that sided with the Confederacy. An important consequence of the Reconstruction Treaties, signed in 1866, was the emancipation of 7,000 black slaves and the abolition of slavery. Civil War The Choctaw Nation and Chickasaw Nation in Indian Territory strongly support the Confederacy which signed the Treaty with Choctaws and Chickasaws. The Cherokee Nation, Muscogee (Creek) Nation and Seminole Nation had troops fighting on both sides. Other tribes such as Osage, Seneca, Seneca and Shawnee of the Neosho Agency, and Quapaw Tribes also signed treaties with the Confederacy. During the Civil War, the Union Congress passed a statute that gave the President the authority to suspend the appropriations of any tribe if the tribe is "in a state of actual hostility to the government of the United States… and, by proclamation, to declare all treaties with such tribe to be abrogated by such tribe"(25 U.S.C. Sec. 72). Reconstruction Era The term Reconstruction Era typically covers the transformation of the Southern United States in the decade after the Civil War. However, the reconstruction of the Indian Territory lasted significantly longer and fostered policy changes that impacted other tribes in the rest of the country. Southern Treaty Commission As a component of Reconstruction, a "grand council was called by the President of the United States, through the department
Reconstruction Treaties
58639901
The Tawasa Indian Tribe, also known as the Alibamu Indian Tribe, was located near the Alabama River, in Autauga County, Alabama. The population of the tribe was known to be around 330 members, all living in or near what were known as the Tawasa and Autauga Towns. The tribe existed around the late 1600s, early 1700s, however somewhat disappeared in the early 1700s, due to violence and flee. The tribe was split, with around 60 members joining the Alabama tribe, at Fort Toulouse. Some time later, the tribe at Fort Toulouse migrated south joining various tribes in Florida. For the remaining count, there is little evidence to show where they all went, however there is evidence to show that some ended up in Oklahoma, along with some Creeks who migrated there. History In the early 1500s, the nomadic Tawasa tribe was found by Hernando De Soto, near central Alabama. Almost two centuries later, the Tawasa were ambushed by other tribes, who enslaved and relocated some of them. As for those who were able to get away, many accepted the help of the French and sought freedom in southern Alabama, near Mobile. Around a decade later, the tribe relocated again, near their original location of settlement, in central Alabama. The Tawasa remained where they were for around a century that is, until the Treaty of Fort Jackson, in 1814. After the signing of the treaty, the tribe relocated again, this time northeast of their old establishment, near Wetumpka. The tribe broke apart at that point, with some members joining the Creeks, some joining the Seminoles, and others unaccounted for. Language The Indians had their own language known as Tawasa language, however there have been accounts of other tribes noticing only small differences between the Tawasa language and theirs. The Tawasa people were known to have spoken a very similar language to the Alabama tribe, however linguistic evidence has been shown that the Tawasa showed some of the same words and dialect choices resembled more of the Hitchiti tribe. The Account of Lamhatty The Account of Lamhatty refers to a document that lists remembrances from a Tawasan Indian known as Lamhatty, who was captured and enslaved by Creek Natives. The document was interpreted by historian Robert Beverly, who sat down with Lamhatty to learn about and document his travels and experiences with other tribes. The article includes descriptions of tribes encountered, and mappings of how and where the tribes made settlements. Lamhatty was originally a part of the Tawasa Tribe, however when he was captured he was sold to another tribe known as the Shawnee Indians. Lamhatty stayed with the Shawnee tribe, until he escaped to find refuge with the English, in Virginia. At this time, Lamhatty met Beverly, who then began to break down Lamhatty's travels. Similar Tribes Pawokti Alabama References Native American tribes in Alabama
Tawasa people
3530706
William Augustus Bowles ( – ) was an American-born military officer and adventurer. Born in Frederick County, Maryland, Bowles was commissioned into the Maryland Loyalists Battalion at the rank of ensign, seeing action during the American Revolutionary War, including the 1781 siege of Pensacola. He subsequently established an alliance with the Muscogee and founded the State of Muskogee. In 1803, Bowles was betrayed and handed over to the Spanish, who imprisoned him in Morro Castle, where he died two years later. Early life Some sources give his date of birth as 1764. Bowles was born in Frederick County, Maryland, and joined the Maryland Loyalist Battalion at the age of thirteen with the junior officer rank of ensign, travelling with the battalion when it was ordered to form part of the garrison of Pensacola, Florida. Upon arrival, Bowles resigned his commission, and left the fortification, where he was captured by Muscogee raiders and brought back to one of their settlements. While he was living with the Creek Tribe, a Spanish expeditionary force mustered and began to lay siege to British forts along the Gulf Coast. Bowles convinced the Creeks to support the British garrison stationed in Pensacola against the invading Spanish force, but the garrison surrendered when the powder magazine at the fortress was hit by artillery fire from a Spanish warship. The survivors of the garrison were taken as prisoners of war, but Bowles escaped into the wilderness with his Creek allies. This occurred May 9, 1781, when Bowles was either 16 or 17 years old. After this battle, he was reinstated in the British Army and went to the Bahamas. After a few months there, the Governor of the Bahamas, Lord Dunmore, sent Bowles back among the Muscogee with a mission to establish a trading house among them. Bowles established a trading post along the Chattahoochee River. He would marry two wives, one Cherokee and the other a daughter of the Hitchiti Muscogee chieftain, William Perryman, and used this union as the basis for his claim to exert political influence among the Muscogee, later styling himself "Director General of the Muskogee Nation". Interracial marriages were common among the Seminoles and Muscogee according to historian James Leitch Wright, but historian Kevin Mulroy disagrees strongly with Wright's contention. Later life and death After retiring from the army at half-pay, Bowles returned to the Floridas to live amongst the Creeks until he 1785, when he left for New Providence in the Bahamas. A trading firm in nearby Nassau, who sought to break the Panton, Leslie & Company's monopoly in Florida, decided to employ Bowles thanks to his knowledge of territory and his good standing with the tribes and, more specifically, the Creek leader Alexander McGillivray. In June 1788, Bowles was sent to Florida. However, by the end of the year, the men he had brought with him from New Providence had deserted and he found himself named a fugitive by the Spanish. Despite the massive failure of his mission, Bowles was not
William Augustus Bowles
2591041
The Coushatta () are a Muskogean-speaking Native American people now living primarily in the U.S. states of Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas. When the Coushatta first encountered Europeans, their Coushatta homelands where in present-day Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama. They have long been closely allied and intermarried with the Alabama people, also members of the Creek Confederacy. The Koasati language is related to the Alabama language and mutually intelligible to Mikasuki language. Under pressure from European colonization after 1763 and the French defeat in the Seven Years' War, the Coushatta began to move west into Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, which were then under Spanish rule. They settled in these areas by the early 19th century. Some of the Coushatta and Alabama people were removed west to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) in the 1830s under Indian Removal, together with other Muscogee peoples. Today, Coushatta people are enrolled in three federally recognized tribes: Alabama-Quassarte Tribal Town in Wetumka, Oklahoma Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana. Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas Language The Koasati language is part of the Apalachee-Alabama-Koasati branch of the Muskogean languages. An estimated 200 people spoke the language in 2000, most of whom lived in Louisiana. The language is written in the Latin script. History The Coushatta were historically farmers, growing a variety of maize, beans, and squash, and supplementing their diet by hunting game and fish. They are known for their skill at basketry. Nearly all the Spanish expeditions (including the 1539-1543 Hernando de Soto Expedition) into the interior of Spanish Florida recorded encountering the original town of the tribe. It was believed to be located in the Tennessee River Valley. The Spanish referred to the people as Coste, with their nearby neighbors being the Chiaha, Chiska, Yuchi, Tasquiqui, and Tali. In the 17th and 18th centuries, avoiding the encroachment by European settlers, the Coushatta migrated west into present-day Alabama. Along the way they established their town at Nickajack (Ani-Kusati-yi, or Koasati-place, in Cherokee) in the current Marion County, Tennessee. Later they founded a major settlement at the north end of Long Island, which is bisected by the present-day Tennessee–Alabama state line. By the time of the American Revolution, the Coushatta had moved many miles down the Tennessee River where their town is recorded as Coosada. In the 18th century, some of the Coushatta joined the emerging Muscogee (Creek) Confederacy, where they became a part of the "Upper Creeks". They were closely related to the Alabama Indians and often intermarried with them. Coushatta and Alabama who stayed in Alabama were part of the 1830s forcible removal to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. Today their descendants form the federally recognized Alabama-Quassarte Tribal Town in Wetumka, Oklahoma Some of the Coushatta tribe split from the Creek Confederacy and went to South Louisiana. Their descendants today make up the federally recognized Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana. Notable chiefs among the Coushatta-Alabama were Long King and his successor Colita (1838–1852). They led their people to settle in present-day Polk County, Texas, in the late 18th and
Coushatta
1788913
The Treaty of Canandaigua (or Konondaigua, as spelled in the treaty itself), also known as the Pickering Treaty and the Calico Treaty, is a treaty signed after the American Revolutionary War between the Grand Council of the Six Nations and President George Washington representing the United States of America. It was signed at Canandaigua, New York on November 11, 1794, by fifty sachems () and war chiefs representing the Grand Council of the Six Nations of the Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) Confederacy (including the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca and Tuscarora tribes), and by Timothy Pickering, official agent of President George Washington. Background of the treaty The Treaty of Canandaigua arose out of a combination of geo-political tensions. In the aftermath of its defeat in the American Revolutionary War, Great Britain was forced to relinquish its land east of the Mississippi River to the United States. However, Great Britain’s original rights to this territory were unclear, causing resentment among the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, to whom the land originally belonged. Moreover, some indigenous peoples on the western frontier of the United States remained loyal to the British after the American Revolutionary War and were hostile towards the United States. The United States faced resentment from the Haudenosaunee Confederacy over their acceptance of land in the Ohio Valley from Great Britain and faced the threat of another war on its western frontier. In order to avoid war, the United States government sought to define a solid boundary on its western frontier. It also recognized that peace with the Haudenosaunee Confederacy was critical at this point in case another war did break out. The United States attempted to make peace with the Haudenosaunee Confederacy with a series of conferences and treaties: the treaties of Fort Stanwix and Fort Harmar. However, both treaties were considered failures by the United States government because they resulted in increased tension with the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. United States Secretary of War Henry Knox began a military operation on the western frontier in September 1790 and appointed Indian commissioner Timothy Pickering to address the Haudenosaunee Confederacy’s grievances with the United States government. Pickering decided to follow a “strategy of conciliation and compromise”, beginning with a conference with the Seneca Nation to offer gifts and peace after the failed treaties of Fort Harmar and Fort Stanwix. A series of conferences followed, in which Pickering opened dialogue between the Haudenosaunee Confederacy and the United States regarding what was to become of the land that Great Britain had lost. In October 1791. Knox’s military efforts of the western frontier were failing, and he suggested enlisting the Haudenosaunee Confederacy to fight on behalf of the United States. The Haudenosaunee Confederacy, along with Pickering, were unimpressed by Knox’s request, and declined to participate in the war. In 1793, the military operation on the western frontier broke out into war, escalating the situation in the Ohio Valley. In June of 1794, the Haudenosaunee Confederacy proposed a conference at Buffalo Creek, in which the Haudenosaunee Confederacy rejected the Fort Harmar
Treaty of Canandaigua
18121698
During the American Civil War, most of what is now the U.S. state of Oklahoma was designated as the Indian Territory. It served as an unorganized region that had been set aside specifically for Native American tribes and was occupied mostly by tribes which had been removed from their ancestral lands in the Southeastern United States following the Indian Removal Act of 1830. As part of the Trans-Mississippi Theater, the Indian Territory was the scene of numerous skirmishes and seven officially recognized battles involving both Native American units allied with the Confederate States of America and Native Americans loyal to the United States government, as well as other Union and Confederate troops. Most tribal leaders in Indian Territory aligned with the Confederacy. A total of at least 7,860 Native Americans from the Indian Territory participated in the Confederate Army, as both officers and enlisted men; most came from the Five Civilized Tribes: the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole nations. The Union organized several regiments of the Indian Home Guard to serve in the Indian Territory and occasionally in adjacent areas of Kansas, Missouri, and Arkansas. Native American alliances Before the outbreak of war, the United States government relocated all soldiers in the Indian Territory to other key areas, leaving the territory unprotected from Texas and Arkansas, which had already joined the Confederacy. The Confederacy took an interest in the territory, seeking a possible source of food in the event of a Union blockade, a connection to western territories, and a buffer between Texas and the Union-held Kansas. At the onset of war, Confederate forces took possession of the U.S. army forts in the area. In June and July 1861, Confederate officers negotiated with Native American tribes for combat support. After refusing to allow Creek lands to be annexed by the Confederacy, the Creek Principal Chief Opothleyahola led the Creek supporters of the Union to Kansas, having to fight along the way. Leaders from each of the Five Civilized Tribes, acting without the consensus of their councils, agreed to be annexed by the Confederacy in exchange for certain rights, including protection and recognition of current tribal lands. After reaching Kansas and Missouri, Opothleyahola and Native Americans loyal to the Union formed three volunteer regiments known as the Indian Home Guard. It fought in the Indian Territory and Arkansas. The following Indian Nations not only had suffered forced migration at the hands of the American government but signed treaties of alliance with the CSA: Cherokee Nation Chickasaw Nation Choctaw Nation Creek Nation Seminole Nation Comanche Nation Osage Nation Quapaw Nation Seneca–Cayuga Nation Shawnee Nation Logistics After abandoning its forts in the Indian Territory early in the Civil War, the Union Army was unprepared for the logistical challenges of trying to regain control of the territory from the Confederate government. The area was largely undeveloped relative to its neighbors: roads were sparse and primitive, and railroads did not yet exist in the territory. Pro-Union Indians had abandoned their own farms because of
Indian Territory in the American Civil War
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The Northwestern Confederacy, or Northwestern Indian Confederacy, was a loose confederacy of Native Americans in the Great Lakes region of the United States created after the American Revolutionary War. Formally, the confederacy referred to itself as the United Indian Nations, at their Confederate Council. It was known infrequently as the Miami Confederacy since many contemporaneous federal officials overestimated the influence and numerical strength of the Miami tribes based on the size of their principal city, Kekionga. The confederacy, which had its roots in pan-tribal movements dating to the 1740s, formed in an attempt to resist the expansion of the United States and the encroachment of American settlers into the Northwest Territory after Great Britain ceded the region to the U.S. in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. American expansion resulted in the Northwest Indian War (1785–1795), in which the Confederacy won significant victories over the United States, but concluded with a U.S. victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. The Confederacy became fractured and agreed to peace with the United States, but the pan-tribal resistance was later rekindled by Tenskwatawa (known as the Prophet) and his brother, Tecumseh, resulting in the formation of Tecumseh's confederacy. Formation The area making up the Ohio Country and the Illinois Country had been contested for over a century, beginning with the Franco-Iroquois Beaver Wars in the 1600s. The Iroquois competed with local tribes for control of the region and the lucrative fur trade, as did the European powers. The French and Indian War proved to be the largest and final Anglo-French contest for control in North America, ending with a British victory. In the Treaty of Paris which ended the war, the French government ceded New France to Great Britain. That same year, a loose confederation of Native Americans united in Pontiac's War against British rule. The war ended with a peace treaty in 1766, but many of the participating Ohio and Great Lakes nations would later form the Northwestern Confederacy. Shortly after Pontiac's War, Great Britain negotiated the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix with its Iroquois allies. In the treaty, the Iroquois gave the British Crown control over the lands south of the Ohio River for settlement by American colonists. This legitimized the Iroquois claim to the territory, and created a land rush of settlers from the Thirteen Colonies in the east. The Shawnee responded by demanding money from settlers, and formed alliances with other tribes that inhabited the region to prevent subsequent territorial losses. Early formal ties leading to the formation of the Northwestern Confederacy were made in 1774, in response to the Yellow Creek massacre and Lord Dunmore's War. Commissioners from the Continental Congress met with representatives from the Iroquois, Shawnee, Lenape, Wyandot, and Odawa in 1775 at Fort Pitt, urging them to remain neutral in the growing conflict with Great Britain. In response, Guyasuta urged Pennsylvania and Virginia to resolve their own differences. When Guyasuta asserted that the Iroquois were "the head" of the assembled nations, however, White Eyes declared that
Northwestern Confederacy
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The Southern Independence Association is an association which brought together a number of pro-Confederacy organizations in 1864 in Manchester to organise British support for the Confederacy in the American Civil War. At its peak there were 47 branches in the UK. It had a membership of almost 900, including members of the House of Lords and House of Commons, clergymen, lawyers, magistrates, and merchants, prominent in all parts of the country, particularly Liverpool which had strong political and economic ties with the Confederate states. Its President was Edward Montagu-Stuart-Wortley-Mackenzie, 1st Earl of Wharncliffe a railway magnate who invested in trade with the Confederacy. It was not a pro-slavery organisation, and argued, as the Union itself did initially, that the war was not about slavery. It claimed that an independent Confederacy could be persuaded in time to ameliorate its slave system. Free trade was an important part of the Association's case for support of the Confederacy. The Union introduced the protectionist Morrill Tariff in 1861, whereas the Confederacy, heavily dependent on exports to the United Kingdom and on the import of manufactured goods supported free trade. Support for the South was also based on an awareness that a victorious, rapidly industrialising Union would become a threat to the global dominance of the British Empire. References 1864 establishments in the United Kingdom
Southern Independence Association
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The Council of Three Fires (in , also known as the People of the Three Fires; the Three Fires Confederacy; or the United Nations of Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi Indians) is a long-standing Anishinaabe alliance of the Ojibwe (or Chippewa), Odawa (or Ottawa), and Potawatomi North American Native tribes. History Originally one people, or a collection of closely related bands, the ethnic identities of Ojibwe, Odawa, and Potawatomi developed after the Anishinaabe reached Michilimackinac on their journey westward from the Atlantic coast. Using the Midewiwin scrolls, Potawatomi elder Shup-Shewana dated the formation of the Council of Three Fires to 796 AD at Michilimackinac. In this council, the Ojibwe were addressed as the "Older Brother," the Odawa as the "Middle Brother," and the Potawatomi as the "Younger Brother." Consequently, whenever the three Anishinaabe nations are mentioned in this specific and consecutive order of Ojibwe, Odawa, and Potawatomi, it is an indicator implying Council of Three Fires as well. In addition, the Ojibwe are the "keepers of the faith," the Odawa are the "keepers of trade," and the Potawatomi are the designated "keepers/maintainers of/for the fire" (boodawaadam), which became the basis for their name Boodewaadamii (Ojibwe spelling) or Bodéwadmi (Potawatomi spelling). Though the Three Fires had several meeting places, Michilimackinac became the preferred meeting place due to its central location. From this place, the Council met for military and political purposes. From this site, the Council maintained relations with fellow Anishinaabeg nations, the Shawanoe/Shawnoo (Shawnee), the Ozaagii (Sac), Odagaamii (Meskwaki), Omanoominii (Menominee), Wiinibiigoo (Ho-Chunk), Naadawe (Iroquois Confederacy), Nii'inaawi-Naadawe (Wyandot), and Naadawensiw (Sioux). Here, they also maintained relations with the Wemitigoozhi (Frenchmen), Zhaaganaashi (Englishmen) and the Gichi-mookomaanag (the Americans). Through the totem-system and promotion of trade, the Council generally had a peaceful existence with its neighbours. However, occasional unresolved disputes erupted into wars. Under these conditions, the Council notably fought against the Iroquois Confederacy and the Sioux. During the French and Indian War and Pontiac's War, the Council fought against Great Britain; and during the Northwest Indian War and the War of 1812, they fought against the United States. After the formation of the United States of America in 1776, the Council became the core member of the Western Lakes Confederacy (also known as "Great Lakes Confederacy"), joined with the Wyandots, Algonquins, Nipissing, Sacs, Meskwaki and others. Treaties With Great Britain Treaty of Fort Niagara (1764) – as part of the Western Lakes Confederacy. With the United States Treaty of Fort Harmar (1789) – implied Treaty of Greenville (1795) – implied Treaty of Fort Industry (1805) – not implied, though all 3 nations present Treaty of Detroit (1807) – not implied, though all 3 nations present Treaty of Brownstown (1808) – implied Treaty of Springwells (1815) – implied Treaty of St. Louis (1816) Treaty of Fort Meigs (1817) – not implied, though all 3 nations present Treaty of Chicago (1821) – not implied, though all 3 nations present First Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1825) – implied, as well as individually with the
Council of Three Fires
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Apalachicola ( ) is a city and the county seat of Franklin County, Florida, United States, on the shore of Apalachicola Bay, an inlet of the Gulf of Mexico. The population was 2,341 at the 2020 census. History The Apalachicola Province, after whom the river and, ultimately the city, are named, was located along the lower part of the Chattahoochee River in Alabama and Georgia in the 17th century, when the Spanish included the Chattahoochee as part of the Apalachicola River. The name is a combination of the Hitchiti words apalahchi, meaning "on the other side", and okli, meaning "people". In original reference to the settlement, it probably meant "people on the other side of the river". Between the years 1513 and 1763, the area that now includes the city of Apalachicola was under Spanish jurisdiction as part of Spanish Florida. While the Spanish established missions with the Apalachee people to the northeast of the city of Apalachicola (centered around Tallahassee), and with the Chatot people to the north in the upper Apalachicola River valley and the Chipola River valley, the Spanish did not establish any missions in the area of the lower Apalachicola River during the duration of Spain's first occupation of Florida. In the 1750s, during the French and Indian War, the British captured the Spanish colony of Cuba; however, because Cuba was a prized possession for the Spanish, and Florida was mostly unused backwater, the Spanish traded Florida to the British in return for regaining Cuba. Between the years 1763 and 1783, the area that is now Apalachicola fell under the jurisdiction of British West Florida. A British trading post called "Cottonton" was founded at this site on the mouth of the Apalachicola River. In 1783, British West Florida was transferred to Spain; however, the trading post (and its British inhabitants) remained and continued facilitating trade along the Apalachicola River (which was connected to the trading network along the Chattahoochee River). Gradually, after acquisition by the United States and related development in Alabama and Georgia, it attracted more permanent European-American residents. In 1827, the town was incorporated as "West Point". Apalachicola received its current name in 1831, by an act of the Legislative Council of the Territory of Florida. Trinity Episcopal Church was incorporated by an act of the Legislative Council of the Territory of Florida on February 11, 1837. The building was one of the earliest prefabricated buildings in the United States. The framework was shipped by schooner from New York City and assembled in Apalachicola with wooden pegs. In 1837, a newspaper at Apalachicola boasted that the town's business street along the waterfront "had of continuous brick stores, three stories high, deep, and all equipped with granite pillars." Botanist Alvan Wentworth Chapman settled in Apalachicola in 1847. In 1860, he published his major work, Flora of the Southern United States. An elementary school was later named in his honor. On April 3, 1862, during the American Civil War, the gunboat and the steamer (relieving the
Apalachicola, Florida
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The French invasion of Switzerland () occurred from January to May 1798 as part of the French Revolutionary Wars. The independent Old Swiss Confederacy collapsed from the invasion and simultaneous internal revolts called the "Helvetic Revolution". The Swiss ancien régime institutions were abolished and replaced by the centralised Helvetic Republic, one of the sister republics of the French First Republic. Background Before 1798, the modern canton of Vaud belonged to the canton of Bern, to which it had a subject status. Moreover, the majority of the Francophone Vaudois felt oppressed by German-speaking Bern. Several Vaudois patriots such as Frédéric-César de La Harpe advocated for independence. In 1795, La Harpe called on his compatriots to rise up against the Bernese aristocrats, but his appeal fell to deaf ears, and he had to flee to Revolutionary France, where he resumed his activism. In late 1797, French general Napoleon Bonaparte, who had just successfully conquered northern Italy and founded the Cisalpine Republic, pressed the French Directory to occupy Switzerland. France's main goal in the invasion was securing access to northern Italy via the Alpine passes, with supplying its war effort and using the military potential of Switzerland as secondary objectives. Due to internal political and social upheaval, the Confederacy could neither reach an arrangement with France nor organize resistance. In September 1797, Switzerland's situation was further aggravated by the removal from the Directory of François Barthélemy, who had defended a position favorable to the Confederacy. On 10 October 1797, Valtellina, Chiavenna and Bormio, dependencies of the Three Leagues, revolted and with French support seceded from the Confederacy to join the Cisalpine Republic. In December, the southern part of the Prince-Bishopric of Basel was occupied and annexed to France. Soon 10,000 French troops gathered near Geneva. The atmosphere inside Switzerland had changed significantly due to these developments, and many pro-French patriots hoped, and anti-French conservatives feared, that the Revolution would now spread to the rest of the Confederacy, with or without direct French military intervention. France used the dissatisfaction of the rural elites in the dependencies and the Enlightened citizenry in the cantons to stimulate revolutionary excitement. The first event of what would become known as the Helvetic Revolution happened with a patriot uprising in Liestal in the canton of Basel on 17 January 1798. The rebels demanded equality before the law, erected a liberty tree and burnt down three Vogtei castles by 23 January. On 24 January, the urban elite of Vaud proclaimed the Lemanic Republic () in Lausanne, which became its seat of government. Next, citizens and subjects in countless Swiss cities, cantons and their dependencies rebelled, and after the example of Vaud, more than 40 other short-lived republics were proclaimed in February, March and April throughout the country. Invasion At the invitation of the Lemanic Republic, 12,000 French troops under General invaded Vaud on 28 January. An incident on 25 January, in which two French hussars were killed by Swiss soldiers in Thierrens, was cited as a pretext. They occupied Vaud
French invasion of Switzerland
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Burebasaga is the largest of the three confederacies that make up Fiji's House of Chiefs, to which some of the Fijian chiefs belong. Composition of Burebasaga It consists of the provinces of Rewa Province, Nadroga, Serua, Kadavu off the coast of Suva, and parts of Ba and Namosi. Burebasaga covers the southern and western parts of the island of Viti Levu. The Western Division and the southern part of the Central Division belong to Burebasaga. Lomanikoro, in Rewa Province, is the capital of this confederacy. Chiefly titles The Roko Tui Dreketi is the Paramount Chief of the Burebasaga Confederacy. Unlike the Kubuna and Tovata confederacies, Burebasaga does not require its paramount chief to be a male. The present Roko Tui Dreketi is Ro Teimumu Vuikaba Kepa, who succeeded her late sister, Ro Lady Lala Mara, a former First Lady of Fiji, in 2004. Kepa was also Minister of Education in the Fijian Cabinet from 2000 to 2006. Another prominent Burebasaga chief is the Tui Vuda. The most recent holder of this title was Ratu Josefa Iloilo, who was the President of Fiji from 2000 to 2009, apart from a 29-day hiatus (5 December 2006 to 4 January 2007) after he was deposed in a military coup. The military returned the presidency to Iloilo. Former Prime Minister Ratu Tevita Momoedonu is also a Burebasaga chief. References Apologies To Thucydides: Understanding History as Culture and Vice Versa - Page 59, Page 286, by Marshall David Sahlins, reference to Title of Roko Tui Dreketi and Burebasaga International Studies - Page 22, by Indian School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University School of International Studies - 1959, reference to Burebasaga as a Confederacy When Is the Nation?: Towards an Understanding of Theories of Nationalism - Page 202, by Atsuko Ichijo, Gordana Uzelac - 2005, reference to Burebasaga Confederacy and its composition External links Sources: Maori News (Fiji Supplement); Roko Tui Dreketi Confederacies of Fiji Fijian chiefs Ba Province Kadavu Province Nadroga-Navosa Province Namosi Province Rewa Province Serua Province
Burebasaga
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Near the end of the American Civil War, the Ironclad Oath was an oath promoted by Radical Republicans that required federal employees, lawyers, and federal elected officials to swear upon entry of office that they had never supported the Confederacy. The first such law adopted by Congress was in 1862 which attempted to make the oath a requirement for the incoming members of the 38th United States Congress to take the oath. In 1863, President Abraham Lincoln proposed the Ten percent plan, which proposed that a state in rebellion could be reintegrated if a similar oath, with an additional pledge to abide by the nationwide abolition of slavery, was taken by 10% of its voters. Congress then attempted to raise this to 51% of voters in the Wade–Davis Bill of 1864, which Lincoln pocket vetoed on the grounds that it was too harsh. After the assassination of Lincoln in 1865, his successor, Andrew Johnson, opposed the oath altogether. Given the temporary disenfranchisement of the numerous Confederate veterans and local civic leaders, a new Republican biracial coalition came to power in the eleven Southern states during Reconstruction. Southern conservative Democrats were angered to have been disenfranchised. Text Reconstruction The oath was a key factor in removing many ex-Confederates from the political arena during the Reconstruction era of the late 1860s. To take the Ironclad Oath, a person had to swear he had never borne arms against the Union or supported the Confederacy: that is, he had "never voluntarily borne arms against the United States;" had "voluntarily" given "no aid, countenance, counsel or encouragement" to persons in rebellion; and had exercised or attempted to exercise the functions of no office under the Confederacy. A farmer who sold grain to the Confederate Army would be covered. The oath was detested by ex-Confederates, some of whom called it "The Damnesty Oath." Congress devised the oath in July 1862 for all federal employees, lawyers, and federal elected officials. Congress in turn made it voluntary for the incoming 38th United States Congress. In 1863, Lincoln proposed the Ten percent plan which proposed that this same oath apply to 10% Southern voters as part of Reconstruction. Congress then attempted to apply the oath to 51% Southern voters in the Wade–Davis Bill of 1864 but was pocket vetoed by President Abraham Lincoln. President Andrew Johnson opposed the oath altogether. Lincoln believed the Ironclad oath to be a essential part for reconstruction. In 1864 Congress made the oath mandatory, but overlooked perjury when it came to seating southern Republicans. The historian Harold Hyman says that in 1866, northern Representatives "described the oath as the last bulwark against the return of ex-rebels to power, the barrier behind which Southern Unionists and Negroes protected themselves." The first Supplemental Reconstruction Act (March 23, 1867) required an oath of past loyalty in order for any man in the South to vote. The local registrar had to swear that he had never held office under Confederacy, nor given aid or comfort to it. They
Ironclad Oath
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The Military Division of the James was an administrative division or formation of the United States Army which existed for ten weeks at the end of the American Civil War. This military division controlled military operations between April 19, 1865 and June 27, 1865 in parts of Virginia and North Carolina under control of two main Union armies, the Army of the Potomac and the Army of the James. Due to the surrender of the main Confederate armies in these areas of Virginia and North Carolina on April 9, 1865 and April 18, 1865 and the collapse of Confederate civilian authority, the Military Division of the James and its constituent military departments and military districts were responsible for maintaining order and keeping the peace in the areas of States under its control until civilian government in those States as members of the Union could be restored. A few small military actions occurred in North Carolina during the existence of this military division. Background The Confederate States Army was the military land force of the Confederate States of America (Confederacy) during the American Civil War (1861–1865) which fought in support of the effort of eleven Southern States to secede from the Union and establish the Confederate States of America as a separate nation. The Confederate States Army fought the United States Army forces organized as the Union Army, which fought to preserve the Union of all the States. The Union Army comprised the small Regular Army (United States) and the much larger temporary force of volunteers. About two percent of the soldiers of the volunteer force actually were conscripts. Another six percent of the soldiers were substitutes paid for by draftees. The Union Army and Confederate States Army were divided into several independent armies and departments operating in various geographic areas throughout the Confederacy and the "Border States". The main Confederate army in Virginia as the war in that State ended, the Army of Northern Virginia under the command of General Robert E. Lee, surrendered to Union Army commander Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant, who had headquarters with Major General George G. Meade's Army of the Potomac, on April 9, 1865 (officially April 12, 1865). The main Confederate army in North Carolina as the war in that State ended, the remnants of the Army of Tennessee and various other units under the command of General Joseph E. Johnston, surrendered to the Union Army of the Tennessee under the command of Major General William T. Sherman on April 18, 1865 (officially April 26, 1865). Other Confederate military land forces still in the field in other parts of the Confederacy surrendered to Union Army forces, or simply disbanded, between April 16, 1865 and June 28, 1865. Organization The Military Division of the James was organized under the command of Major General Henry W. Halleck on April 19, 1865, after the surrender of the main Confederate armies in Virginia and North Carolina. This military division included the Department of the Potomac (see Army of
Military Division of the James
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Pound Ridge is a town in Westchester County, New York, United States. The population was 5,082 at the 2010 census. The town is located toward the eastern end of the county, bordered to the north and east by the town of Lewisboro, by Stamford, Connecticut, and New Canaan, Connecticut, to the south, Bedford, New York, and North Castle to the west. History Native Americans In the early 17th century, Pound Ridge was inhabited by Native Americans who spoke the Munsee language and were members of the Wappinger Confederacy. The geographical boundaries of the tribes within the Confederacy are unclear. Pound Ridge has been variously listed as within the territory of the Kitchawong, Siwanoy, and Tankiteke bands. The Siwanoy are generally agreed to have lived along the north Long Island Sound Coast with a maximum range extending from Hell Gate to the Five Mile River separating today's Darien, Connecticut, from Rowayton to its east. The Tankiteke appear to have occupied easternmost Westchester County above the coast but extending further west in the northern part of the county and into southern and eastern Putnam County, and eastward in Fairfield County to the Saugatuck River in Westport. The territory of the Kitchawong is thought to have extended from the Croton River to Anthony's Nose along the Hudson and some distance east from the river. The Wappinger Confederacy participated in Kieft's War which began in 1640 as a result of escalating tensions over land use, livestock control, trade and taxation between the Dutch West India Company colony of New Netherland and neighboring native peoples. In March 1644, a Wappinger Confederacy village in present-day Pound Ridge was attacked by a mixed force of 130 New Netherland soldiers under the command of John Underhill. This event is now known as the Pound Ridge Massacre. The soldiers surrounded and burnt the village in a night attack killing between 500 and 700 Indians. The dead included 25 members of the Wappinger tribe, with the remainder being either Tankiteke or Siwanoy or both. The New Netherland force lost one man killed and 15 wounded. More casualties were suffered in this attack than in any other single incident in the war. Shortly after the battle, four Wappinger Confederacy sachems arrived in the New England settlement of Stamford to sue for peace. The territory of modern Pound Ridge was first permanently settled by Europeans in 1718 in the present-day Long Ridge Road area. Long Ridge Road was originally an Indian path and had been used by the first settlers of Bedford, New York, as they traveled to that destination from Stamford. Although the very first settlers were from Huntington on Long Island, most of the original settlers of Pound Ridge were from Stamford. A large portion of Pound Ridge was included in the town of North Castle when it was incorporated in 1721. Grants and patroons Three thousand acres in the northern part of present-day Pound Ridge were included within the more than Cortlandt Manor grant which extended from the Hudson
Pound Ridge, New York
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The Confederate Monument in Owensboro, Ky., was a 16-foot-tall, two-part object — a 7-foot-tall bronze sculpture atop a 9-foot-tall granite pedestal — located at the southwest corner of the Daviess County Courthouse lawn, at the intersection of Third and Frederica Streets, in Owensboro, Kentucky. Nearly 122 years after the monument was dedicated in September 1900, the monument was dismantled in 2022, beginning with the removal of the sculpture in May 2022; the sculpture was placed in storage, pending a decision on what to do with it. The pedestal was removed in August 2022 and given to the Kentucky United Daughters of the Confederacy, who relocated the pedestal to a Civil War battle site in Daviess County that they own. The sculpture was relocated to Owensboro's City Cemetery, a.k.a. Potter's Field, in November 2022, with ownership transferred to the Owensboro Museum of Science and History. Owensboro and the Confederacy In the summer of 1861, one of Kentucky's first Confederate companies was raised at Owensboro. The war hurt the city, as it disrupted river traffic that the city relied upon, and Confederate forces occasionally raided the city, including burning down the courthouse. A historical marker near the monument tells of three residents of Daviess County who received the Confederate Medal of Honor; one at the Battle of Murfreesboro, and two at the Battle of Chickamauga. Monument plans, dedication and description In 1891, the Daviess County Confederate Association began seeding its plans to raise a Confederate monument. Two years later, in April 1893, Daviess County Fiscal Court — the legislative body of the county government — passed a resolution giving the Association permission to place "a monument...in memory of the Confederate dead" on southwest corner the courthouse lawn. Under the terms of the resolution, such a monument could occupy a 10-foot-by-10-foot plot; and Union veterans, who did not have an active monument plan, were extended permission to raise a similar monument on the less-prominent southeast corner of the lawn. After several years of fund raising by a number of local Confederate groups, including the Association and its women's auxiliary — the latter of which in 1899 became John Cabell Breckinridge Chapter 306 of the United Daughters of the Confederacy (U.D.C.) — the monument was placed on the courthouse lawn on 21 September 1900. The monument consisted of two parts: a pedestal and a sculpture. The granite pedestal is nine feet tall. On the front of the pedestal is the inscription above the bas-relief logo of the United Daughters of the Confederacy — a wreath encircling the first national flag of the Confederate States of America ("Stars and Bars") and a figure of the interlocking letters "D" and "C." The Confederate national flag depicted is the 13-star version, adopted by the Confederacy on 28 November 1861 and in use until 1 May 1863. This flag — which added two stars to the 11-star version of the Confederate national flag that had been in use since 2 July 1861 — reflected the Confederacy's claim to
Confederate Monument in Owensboro, Ky. (former)
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Swiss Associates, also known as Associated Places, Zugewandte Orte (Facing Places), or Pays Alliés (Allied Countries), were associate states of the Old Swiss Confederacy, with some form of alliance agreement with either the entire Confederation or individual cantons. The associates were extremely heterogeneous. They had no institution that bound them together, other than their alliances with the Swiss Confederacy. Some had extremely close bonds with the Confederation, whereas others were only bound with one or two cantons. Generally, all nations that were related to the Confederation that were not subjects nor fully fledged cantons were considered associates. Whereas members of the Swiss Confederacy were not permitted to form alliances or tied with outside states without consent of all cantons, the associates were permitted to form their own alliances and conduct their own diplomacy. Grisons for example even had their own delegates at the Congress of Vienna. Following the creation of the Federal Diet, associate states were also permitted to send delegates as representatives in the diet. However, not all associate states were not granted the right vote. Over time, many associates were gradually absorbed into the cantons, or became cantons themselves. By 1815, the remaining associates would become part of the modern Swiss Confederacy. Etymology The origin of the German term Zugewandte Orte (literally meaning Facing Places) is unknown, but it was used in 15th century Swiss sources to refer to certain secular and ecclesiastical territories that were subject to contractual agreements with the Confederation without being a full member of the Confederation. Throughout the 16th century, multiple states would be described as being related to the Confederacy, such as the Bishopric of Constance. The French term, Pays Alliés (meaning Allied Countries), is a more modern representation of the term. Relationship with the Swiss Confederacy As mentioned before, each associate had different relations with the Confederacy when compared to others. Associates were allied with the confederation in terms of military aid, though on occasion such aid was asymmetrical, as was the norm with European diplomacy at the time due to the complex shifting of alliances. What was always ensured was the enactment of duties, trade, justice, and mediation in terms of conflicts, that latter of which generally enforced by the Federal Diet, in which most associates had representatives in. The associates themselves also differed in how close their relations were with the Swiss cantons. Some had excellent relations with all or most of the cantons, whereas others hardly had treaties at all. In the later years of the Confederacy, some associates even gained the ability to vote in the Federal Diet, which was not possible in the past. This privilege was only granted to the largest and most influential associates. The associates of St. Gallen and Biel were regular and officially authorized members of the diet from 1667, and Graubünden, Valais, Mulhouse and Rottweil all held sporadic spots in the diet as well. Not all associates had such benefits; The city and county of Neuchâtel, the city of Geneva and
Swiss Associates
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This is a list of Confederate monuments and memorials in Alabama that were established as public displays and symbols of the Confederate States of America (CSA), Confederate leaders, or Confederate soldiers of the American Civil War. Part of the commemoration of the American Civil War, these symbols include monuments and statues, flags, holidays and other observances, and the names of schools, roads, parks, bridges, counties, cities, lakes, dams, military bases, and other public works. This list does not include items which are largely historic in nature such as historic markers or battlefield parks if they were not established to honor the Confederacy. Nor does it include figures connected with the origins of the Civil War or white supremacy, but not with the Confederacy. Monuments and memorials , there are at least 122 public spaces with Confederate monuments in Alabama. The 2017 Alabama Memorial Preservation Act was passed to require local governments to obtain state permission before removing Confederate monuments and memorials. State capitol Confederate Memorial Monument, also known as the "Monument to Confederate Soldiers and Sailors" (1898). On June 24, 2015, in the wake of the Charleston church shooting on June 17, 2015, on the order of Governor Robert J. Bentley, the four Confederate flags, and their poles, were removed. Jefferson Davis Presidential Star, marble portico (1897). "Placed by the Sophie Bibb Chapter Daughters of the Confederacy on the Spot where Jefferson Davis Stood when Inaugurated President of the C.S.A. Feb. 18, 1861" Jefferson Davis (1940), by UDC John Allan Wyeth – M.D., L.L.D., marker. Fought in Confederate Army. State symbols Alabama Coat of Arms (1923) and the State Seal include the Confederate Battle Flag. Alabama State Flag (1895) The Alabama Department of Archives and History found in 1915 that the flag was meant to "preserve in permanent form some of the more distinctive features of the Confederate battle flag, particularly the St. Andrew's cross." According to historian John M. Coski, the adoption of Alabama's flag coincided with the rise of Jim Crow laws and segregation, as other former Confederate slave states, such as Mississippi and Florida, also adopted new state flags based on Confederate designs around the same time when those states instituted Jim Crow segregation laws themselves: The Governor's version of the State Flag includes St Andrew's Cross plus the State Coat of Arms with the Confederate Battle Flag inclusion and the military crest on the bottom. State holidays Robert E. Lee Day, celebrated together with Martin Luther King Jr. Day on the third Monday in January Confederate Memorial Day, celebrated the fourth Monday in April Jefferson Davis Day, Celebrated the first Monday in June Buildings Montgomery: First White House of the Confederacy Monuments Courthouse monuments Ashville: Confederate Soldiers of Ashville Monument, St. Clair County Courthouse (1923) by United Daughters of the Confederacy, (UDC) Ashville Chapter. Athens: Limestone County Confederate Soldiers Memorial, Limestone County Courthouse (1922) by United Confederate Veterans (UCV) and UDC. Butler: Confederate Monument, Choctaw County Courthouse (1936) by UDC, Choctaw Ruffin Dragoon Chapter. Carrollton: Confederate
List of Confederate monuments and memorials in Alabama
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The Nacono were a Native American tribe from eastern Texas. Today they are part of the Caddo Nation of Oklahoma, a federally recognized tribe in Oklahoma. History The Nacono were part of the Hasinai branch of the Caddo Confederacy. They historically lived in villages along the Neches and Angelina Rivers, near present-day Cherokee and Houston Counties. Their environment includes mixed woodlands and savannas. Early 18th century Spanish explorer Domingo Ramon recorded his observations of the Nocono in his 1716 Diary. He observed that the tribe lived near the San Francisco de los Neches Mission. Another Spanish explorer, Juan Antonio de la Pena wrote in 1721 that the Nacono village, that he called El Macono, was located five leagues below the Neches crossing. Together with 11 to 30 historical communities, including the Nadaco, the Hainai, and the Nacogdoche, the Nacono formed the Hasinai confederacy, which evolved into the greater Caddo confederacy. These confederacies are thought to have formed due to upheavals, depopulation, and migrations caused by European diseases and increased conflicts in the region in the 17th century. Names The tribe is also known as the Naconish, Macono, Naconome, and Nocono. The Lacane, Nacachau, Nacao (Nacau), Naconicho (Nacaniche), and Nakanawan peoples might have been divisions of the Nacono tribe. Notes References Bolton, Herbet E. The Hasinais: Southern Caddoans As Seen by the Earliest Europeans. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2002. . Early, Ann M. "The Caddoes of the Trans-Mississippi South." McEwan, Bonnie G., ed. Indians of the Great Southeast: Historical Archaeology and Ethnohistory. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000. Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Raymond D. Fogelson, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast. Volume 14. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004. . External links Nacono Indians, from Handbook of Texas Online Caddoan peoples Native American tribes in Texas Native American history of Texas
Nacono
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The Confederate Monument in Lawrenceburg, Kentucky is an carved granite figure on a granite pedestal which was built in 1894 by the Kentucky Women's Monumental Association, a predecessor of the United Daughters of the Confederacy, an organization founded in that year. Its governing body is the government of Lawrenceburg. It shows a Confederate soldier dressed in a winter coat with a rifle held vertically before him. Around the pedestal of the monument may be found the names of the Confederate regiments raised in Anderson County and a list of those men wounded or killed during the war. There were a few Civil War skirmishes at Lawrenceburg, The Battle of Lawrenceburg and the Battle of Dog Walk, just before the Battle of Perryville in October 1862. In particular, the Union Ninth Kentucky Cavalry fought the Confederate cavalry under Colonel Scott on October 6, 1862. Confederate troops that would control Frankfort had marched through the town. In later years, the local area saw guerrilla warfare, which force the creation of a Union Home Guard unit in the town. On July 17, 1997, the Lawrenceburg Confederate Monument was one of sixty different monuments related to the Civil War in Kentucky placed on the National Register of Historic Places, as part of the Civil War Monuments of Kentucky Multiple Property Submission. It is one of ten monuments of soldiers in the Multiple Property Submission on a courthouse lawn The Kentucky Women's Monumental Association was a predecessor of the United Daughters of the Confederacy, an organization founded in 1894. The Kentucky association was one of a number formed to honor "the dead of those who fought for the Southern cause", addressing "the specter of death hung over the South." The United Daughters of the Confederacy, a unified association that was a successor, actually was named National Association of the Daughters of the Confederacy from 1894 to 1895. It is directly credited with 15 monuments now listed on the U.S. National Register. In recent years, the UDC has been in the news for winning a court case with Vanderbilt University over continued use of Confederate Memorial Hall as the name of a building financed by the UDC. Gallery References 1894 sculptures Civil War Monuments of Kentucky MPS National Register of Historic Places in Anderson County, Kentucky Outdoor sculptures in Kentucky United Daughters of the Confederacy monuments and memorials in Kentucky 1894 establishments in Kentucky
Confederate Monument in Lawrenceburg
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The Haudenosaunee (also known as The Iroquois Confederacy) was formed around the Great Law of Peace Kaianere'kó:wa, a constitution detailing a shared value system which informs the policy and economics of their society. Historically, the Haudenosaunee economy was based on communal production and combined elements of both horticulture and hunter-gatherer systems. Some have described the Iroquois economy as primitive communism. The tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy and other Northern Huron had their traditional territory in what is now New York State and the southern areas bordering the Great Lakes. The confederacy was originally composed of five tribes; the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca, who had created an alliance long before European contact. The Tuscarora were added as a sixth nation in the early eighteenth century after they migrated from North Carolina. The Huron peoples, located mostly in what is now Canada, were also Iroquoian-speaking and shared some culture, but were never part of the Iroquois. The Iroquoian people were predominantly agricultural, harvesting the "Three Sisters" commonly grown by Native American groups: corn, beans, and squash. They developed certain cultural customs. Among these developments were ideas concerning the nature and management of property. The Iroquois developed a system very different from the now-dominant Western variety. This system was characterized by such components as common ownership of land, division of labor by gender, and trade mostly based on gift economy. Contact with Europeans in the early 17th century had a profound impact on the economy of the Iroquoians. At first, they became important trading partners, but the expansion of European settlement upset the balance of the Iroquois economy. By 1800, following the American Revolutionary War, in which most of the nations supported the British and had to share their defeat, the Iroquois were reduced to reservations, primarily in New York in the United States, and Quebec and Ontario in Canada. They had to adapt their traditional economic system to dramatic changes. In the 20th century, some of the Iroquois nations in the United States have benefited from their sovereign status by founding gambling and recreation facilities, which have yielded greater revenues than some other enterprises. Individually, Iroquois has also become part of the larger economies in cities off the reservation. Land ownership The Iroquois had an essentially communal system of land ownership. The French Catholic missionary Gabriel Sagard described the fundamentals. The Huron had "as much land as they need[ed]." As a result, the Huron could give families their own land and still have a large amount of excess land owned communally. Any Huron was free to clear the land and farm on the basis of usufruct. He maintained possession of the land as long as he continued to actively cultivate and tend the fields. Once he abandoned the land, it reverted to communal ownership, and anyone could take it up for themselves. While the Huron did seem to have lands designated for the individual, the significance of this possession may be of little relevance; the placement of corn storage vessels
Economy of the Iroquois
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The Neutral Confederacy (also Neutral Nation, Neutral people, or ) was a tribal confederation of Iroquoian peoples. Its heartland was in the floodplain of the Grand River in what is now Ontario, Canada. At its height, its wider territory extended toward the shores of lakes Erie, Huron, and Ontario, as well as the Niagara River in the east. To the northeast were the neighbouring territories of Huronia and the Petun Country, which were inhabited by other Iroquoian confederacies from which the term Neutrals was derived. The five-nation Iroquois Confederacy was across Lake Ontario to the southeast. Like others of Iroquoian language and culture, the tribes would raid and feud with fellow Iroquoian tribes. They were generally wary of rival Algonquian-speaking peoples, such as those who inhabited Canada to the East, along the St. Lawrence Valley basin. Iroquoian tribes were later known to historians for the fierce ways in which they waged war. A largely agrarian society, the Neutral Confederacy developed farmsteads that were admired and marveled over by European leaders writing reports to their sponsors. The Neutral Confederacy were primarily engaged in hunting; they traded with others through furs and animal skins. The largest group identified as Chonnonton ('keepers of the deer'), partly because of their practice of herding deer into pens, a strategy used while hunting. Another group, the Onguiaahra ('near the big waters' or possibly 'the strait' – or something else, see ), populated the more southern Niagara Peninsula and allegedly account for the origin of the word "Niagara". The Chonnonton territory contained large deposits of flint, which was a valuable resource for sharp tools, fire-starting and, eventually, firearms, which, as a primary resource, allowed them to trade simultaneously with often-warring Huron and Iroquois tribes. Since they were not at war with the Huron or the Iroquois in 1600, Jesuits travelling in the area of what is now Hamilton, the lower Grand Valley and Niagara, called them the Neutrals. However, the confederacy had feuds with an Algonkian people called the Mascouten or "Fire Nation", who were believed to live in what is present-day Michigan. In 1616, the Neutral Confederacy had an estimated 40 villages and 4,000 warriors. In 1641, after a serious epidemic, the Jesuits counted 40 Neutral villages, with about 12,000 people. The nation was unable to survive the changes. In the 1650s, after the Iroquois Wars, they dispersed. One source indicates that the reasons included "wars, diseases and famine". The remaining members became a part of various other Iroquoian nations. Historical records kept by the French do not discuss the Neutrals as a nation or confederacy after 1672. Names The Neutrals' name for themselves was Chonnonton, or 'people of the deer', or, more precisely, 'the people who tend or manage deer'. They were called Attawandaron by the Huron, meaning 'people whose speech is awry or a little different'. The Iroquois called them Atirhagenrat (Atirhaguenrek) and Rhagenratka. Some of the tribes of the Neutral confederacy included the Aondironon, the Wenrehronon, and the Ongniaahraronon. They spoke Iroquoian languages
Neutral Confederacy
1202008
The Confederate States Congress was both the provisional and permanent legislative assembly of the Confederate States of America that existed from 1861 to 1865. Its actions were, for the most part, concerned with measures to establish a new national government for the Southern proto-state, and to prosecute a war that had to be sustained throughout the existence of the Confederacy. At first, it met as a provisional congress both in Montgomery, Alabama, and Richmond, Virginia. As was the case for the provisional Congress after it moved to Richmond, the permanent Congress met in the existing Virginia State Capitol, a building which it shared with the secessionist Virginia General Assembly. The precursor to the permanent legislature was the Provisional Congress of the Confederate States, which helped establish the Confederacy as a state. Following elections held in states, refugee colonies, and army camps in November 1861, the 1st Confederate Congress met in four sessions. The 1863 midterm elections led to many former Democrats losing to former Whigs. The 2nd Confederate Congress met in two sessions following an intersession during the military campaign season beginning November 7, 1864, and ending on March 18, 1865, shortly before the downfall of the Confederacy. All legislative considerations of the Confederate Congress were secondary to winning the American Civil War. These included debates whether to pass President Jefferson Davis's war measures and deliberations on alternatives to administration proposals, both of which were often denounced as discordant, regardless of the outcome. Congress was often held in low regard regardless of what it did. Amidst early battlefield victories, few sacrifices were asked of those who resided in the Confederacy, and the Confederate Congress and Davis were in essential agreement. During the second half of the war, the Davis administration's program became more demanding, and the Confederate Congress responded by becoming more assertive in the law-making process even before the 1863 elections. It began to modify administration proposals, substitute its own measures, and sometimes it refused to act at all. While it initiated few major policies, it often concerned itself with details of executive administration. Despite its devotion to Confederate independence, it was criticized by supporters of Davis for occasional independence, and censured in the dissenting press for not asserting itself more often. Provisional Congress The Confederate Congress first met provisionally on February 4, 1861, in Montgomery, Alabama, to form a unified national government among states whose secessionist conventions had resolved to leave their union with the United States. Most Deep South residents and many in the border states believed the new nation about to be born in a revolution to perpetuate slavery was the logical result of defeats in sectional contests. Meeting at Montgomery The 1859 raid at Harpers Ferry by John Brown to free slaves in Virginia was hailed in the North by abolitionists, who proclaimed that it was a noble martyrdom, while many in the South saw Brown as a provocateur seeking to incite servile insurrection. The North seemed unwilling to accept the Supreme Court ruling in
Confederate States Congress
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The Apalachee were an Indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands, specifically an Indigenous people of Florida, who lived in the Florida Panhandle until the early 18th century. They lived between the Aucilla River and Ochlockonee River, at the head of Apalachee Bay, an area known as the Apalachee Province. They spoke a Muskogean language called Apalachee, which is now extinct. The Apalachee occupied the site of Velda Mound starting about 1450 CE, but they had mostly abandoned it when Spanish started settlements in the 17th century. They first encountered Spanish explorers in 1528, when the Narváez expedition arrived. Their tribal enemies, European diseases, and European encroachment severely reduced their population. Warfare from 1701 to 1704 devastated the Apalachee, and they abandoned their homelands by 1704, fleeing north to the Carolinas, Georgia, and Alabama. Language The Apalachee language was a Muskogean language, about which little more is known. It went extinct in the late 18th century. The only surviving Apalachee document is a 1688 letter written by Apalachee chiefs to the Spanish king. Name Ethnographer John Reed Swanton wrote that Apalachee may have come from the Hitchiti language term for "people on the other side" or the Choctaw language word apelachi meaning "a helper." Culture The Apalachee are thought to be part of Fort Walton Culture, a Florida culture influenced by the Mississippian culture. The Apalachee were horticulturalists with stratified chiefdoms and sedentary towns and villages. Like many other Southeastern tribes, they have an alternating dual governmental system with a war chief and a peace chief. Leadership was hereditary and matrilinear. At the time of Hernando de Soto's visit in 1539 and 1540, the Apalachee capital was Anhaica (present-day Tallahassee, Florida). The Apalachee lived in villages of various sizes, or on individual farmsteads of or so. Smaller settlements might have a single earthwork mound and a few houses. Larger towns (50 to 100 houses) were chiefdoms. They were organized around earthwork mounds built over decades for ceremonial, religious and burial purposes. Villages and towns were often situated by lakes, as the Native people hunted fish and used the water for domestic needs and transport. The largest Apalachee community was at Lake Jackson, just north of present-day Tallahassee. This regional center had several mounds and 200 or more houses. Some of the surviving mounds are protected in Lake Jackson Mounds Archaeological State Park. The Apalachee cultivated maize, beans, and squash, as well as amaranth and sunflowers. They also harvested wild plants including persimmons, maypops, acorns, walnuts, hickory nuts, persimmons, sassafras, yaupon holly, cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto), and saw palmetto (Serenoa). They hunted deer, black bears, rabbits, opossums, squirrels, geese, wild turkeys, and mountain lions. The Apalachee were part of an expansive trade network that extended from the Gulf Coast to the Great Lakes, and westward to what is now Oklahoma. The Apalachee acquired copper artifacts, sheets of mica, greenstone, and galena from distant locations through this trade. The Apalachee probably paid for such imports with shells, pearls, shark teeth, preserved fish and
Apalachee
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A Confederate state was a U.S. state that declared secession and joined the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. The Confederacy recognized them as constituent entities that shared their sovereignty with the Confederate government. Confederates were recognized as citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they resided, due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the Confederate government. Virginia was admitted into the Confederacy as a commonwealth rather than a state. The Confederacy recognized 13 states, but Kentucky and Missouri were southern border states while falling under varying degrees of Confederate control early in the war were represented by governments-in-exile once they were defeated; their pre-war state legislatures never voted to secede, but the Confederacy recognized pro-South provisional governments there as legitimate. States were the primary subdivisions of the Confederate States and possessed a number of powers and rights under the Constitution of the Confederate States, such as regulating intrastate commerce, running elections, creating local governments, and ratifying constitutional amendments. Each state had its own constitution grounded in republican principles, and government consisting of executive, legislative, and judicial branches. All states and their citizens were represented in the Confederate States Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state was represented by two senators, while Representatives were distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census. Additionally, each state was entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elected the President of the Confederate States, equal to the total of Representatives and Senators in Congress from that state. Every new state was admitted pursuant to Article I, Section 6 of the Confederacy's Provisional Constitution which required a simple majority vote in the Provisional Congress. After the establishment of the Confederate States in 1861, the number of states expanded from the original seven to 13. Each new state had been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states. Under Article IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the permanent Constitution Congress had the authority to admit additional states into the Confederacy, but unlike the United States and Provisional Confederate Constitutions which required a simple majority vote admission of new states to the Confederacy required a two-thirds vote in each House with the senators from each state voting jointly. The following table is a list of all 13 states and their respective dates of statehood. The first seven became states in February and March 1861 upon agreeing to the Provisional Constitution of the Confederate States, and each joined the permanent Confederation of states between March 12 and April 22, 1861, upon ratifying the Constitution of the Confederate States, its permanent constitution (a separate table is included below showing Provisional Constitution of the Confederate States adoption dates). These seven states are presented in the order in which each ratified the permanent Constitution, thus joining the permanent government. The date of admission listed for Virginia, Arkansas,
List of Confederate states by date of admission to the Confederacy
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Confederacy or confederate may refer to: States or communities Confederate state or confederation, a union of sovereign groups or communities Confederate States of America, a confederation of secessionist American states that existed between 1861 and 1865 Military forces of the Confederate States, the Army, Marine Corps, and Navy of the Confederacy Confederate Ireland, a period of Irish self-government during the Eleven Years' War Canadian Confederation, the 1867 union of three British provinces (United Canada, split into Ontario and Quebec; Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick) as "one dominion under the name of Canada." Today, there are 10 provinces and three territories, and Canada (since 1982) is no longer a dominion. Confederation of the Rhine, a group of French client states that existed during the Napoleonic Wars Catalan-Aragonese Confederation, a group of Spanish states that were governed by one king Gaya confederacy, an ancient grouping of territorial polities in southern Korea German Confederation, an association of German-speaking states prior to German Unification Iroquois Confederacy, group of united Native American nations in present-day Canada and the United States Maratha Confederacy, a group of Indian states in the 1700s Muscogee Confederacy, Native American nation in Southern United States North German Confederation, a federation in northern Germany from 1867 to 1870 Peru–Bolivian Confederation, a federation of several states in present day Peru and Bolivia that existed between 1836 and 1839 Powhatan Confederacy, a group of Native American tribes on the Atlantic coast governed by a single chief Sikh Confederacy, a group of states confederated during the 18th century in the Punjab region Swiss Confederation or Switzerland, a federal republic in Europe Old Swiss Confederacy, a confederation that was the predecessor of the current Swiss state Three Confederate States of Gojoseon, states thought to have existed in present day Korea during the Bronze Age Northwestern Confederacy, a group of Native American tribes in the Great Lakes region that united after the American revolution Fictional confederacies Breen Confederacy, a political entity in the Star Trek universe Capellan Confederation, a political entity in the Battletech universe Galactic Confederacy, part of the Scientology mythos Terran Confederacy, a political entity in the StarCraft universe Terran Confederation (Wing Commander), a political entity in the Wing Commander universe Confederacy of Independent Systems, a secessionist political entity in the Star Wars universe Other uses Confederacy (British political group), a society within the British Conservative Party during the early twentieth century Confederates (novel), a novel by Thomas Keneally Confederate (TV series), a cancelled HBO television program See also Confederation (disambiguation) A Confederacy of Dunces, a novel written by John Kennedy Toole, published in 1980 Condica confederata or the confederate, a moth in the family Noctuidae Confederate Motors, an American manufacturer of motorcycles Battle of the Confederates, a battle in early Muslim history Chevrolet Series BA Confederate, an automobile manufactured in 1932 Federacy, where one or several states or regions enjoy considerably more independence than the majority Federation, a union comprising a number of partially self-governing states or regions united by a central government Baro
Confederacy
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Ocute, later known as Altamaha or La Tama and sometimes known conventionally as the Oconee province, was a Native American paramount chiefdom in the Piedmont region of the U.S. state of Georgia in the 16th and 17th centuries. Centered in the Oconee River valley, the main chiefdom of Ocute held sway over the nearby chiefdoms of Altamaha, Cofaqui, and possibly others. The Oconee valley area was populated for thousands of years, and the core chiefdoms of Ocute emerged following the rise of the Mississippian culture around 1100. Ocute was invaded by the expedition of the Spanish conquistador Hernando de Soto in 1539. At that time, Ocute was locked in a longstanding war with the rival paramount chiefdom of Cofitachequi in present-day South Carolina. The chiefdom remained a significant regional power into the 17th century, although Altamaha eclipsed Ocute as the primary center, leading the Spanish to refer to the paramountcy as La Tama. In the 1660s the chiefdom fragmented due to slave raids by the English-allied Westo people, though several of its towns relocated to Spanish Florida and formed part of the Yamasee confederacy. Description and location Ocute was a sizable paramount chiefdom, a political organization in which multiple chiefdoms are subsumed under one political order. The core area comprised three chiefdoms located in the Oconee River valley in the Georgia Piedmont: Ocute, Altamaha, and Cofaqui. Each included a main town and mounds along with various associated settlements, with the chief of Ocute being paramount. Charles M. Hudson and his colleagues locate the main town of Ocute at the Shoulderbone mound site, northwest of Sparta, Georgia. However, subsequent archaeological research has found that this site's population had declined by the mid-16th century, weakening its identification with Ocute, but it remains the best fit of the currently known sites. Altamaha was located downstream to the south at the Shinholser site. Cofaqui was to the north, evidently at the Dyar site near Greensboro. The people of Ocute spoke a language later known as Yamasee, apparently a Muskogean tongue that may have been similar to Hitchiti. Another chiefdom possibly associated with Ocute, Ichisi, was located to the southwest, along the Ocmulgee River at the Lamar Mounds and Village Site. Further southeast were smaller chiefdoms including Toa and Capachequi. The Guale lived on the Georgia coast to the southeast, downstream from Ocute. Northwest of Ocute was the much larger paramount chiefdom of Coosa; also to the north was a chiefdom at the Savannah River headwaters whose name is unknown. To the east lay a vast uninhabited area on both sides of the Savannah River which Spanish chroniclers referred to as the "desert of Ocute" or the "wilderness of Ocute". Beyond the wilderness were Ocute's great enemies, the chiefdom of Cofitachequi in present-day eastern South Carolina. In earlier times the Savannah River area had been densely populated and home to sizable chiefdoms, but it was entirely abandoned by about 1450, apparently due to the conflict between Ocute and Cofitachequi. Judging by the organization of other
Ocute
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The Iron Confederacy or Iron Confederation (also known as Cree-Assiniboine in English or in Cree) was a political and military alliance of Plains Indians of what is now Western Canada and the northern United States. This confederacy included various individual bands that formed political, hunting and military alliances in defense against common enemies. The ethnic groups that made up the Confederacy were the branches of the Cree that moved onto the Great Plains around 1740 (the southern half of this movement eventually became the "Plains Cree" and the northern half the "Woods Cree"), the Saulteaux (Plains Ojibwa), the Nakoda or Stoney people also called Pwat or Assiniboine, and the Métis and Haudenosaunee (who had come west with the fur trade). The Confederacy rose to predominance on the northern Plains during the height of the North American fur trade when they operated as middlemen controlling the flow of European goods, particularly guns and ammunition, to other Indigenous nations (the "Indian Trade"), and the flow of furs to the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) and North West Company (NWC) trading posts. Its peoples later also played a major part in the bison (buffalo) hunt, and the pemmican trade. The decline of the fur trade and the collapse of the bison herds sapped the power of the Confederacy after the 1860s, and it could no longer act as a barrier to U.S. and Canadian expansion. Origins The Assiniboine are believed to have originated on the southern edge of the Laurentian Shield in present-day Minnesota. They became a separate people from their closest linguistic cousins, the Yanktonai Dakota, sometime prior to 1640 when they are first mentioned by Europeans in the Jesuit Relation. They were not a member of the "Seven Fires Council" of the Great Sioux Nation by this time and were referred to by other Sioux speakers as the Hohe or "rebels". By 1806, the historical evidence definitively locates them in the Assiniboine River valley in present-day Saskatchewan and Manitoba. The Cree had been in contact with Europeans since around 1611 when Henry Hudson reached their ancestral homeland around Hudson and James Bays. The traditional view of historians, based on the accounts of European traders, is that once the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) began to establish itself in the Hudson Bay region, two branches of the Cree began moving west and south to act as middlemen traders. They denied other plains peoples access to the HBC, except for the Assiniboine, in exchange for peaceful relations. A more recent view, based on oral history and linguistic evidence, suggests that the Cree were already established west of Lake Winnipeg when the HBC arrived, and were likely present as far west as the Peace River Region of present-day Alberta. When the Hudson's Bay Company opened its first bayside posts in 1668 and 1688, the Cree became their main customers and resellers. Prior to this the Cree had been at the northwestern edge of a trade system linked to the French, from which they received only the
Iron Confederacy
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Louisiana was a dominant population center in the southwest of the Confederate States of America, controlling the wealthy trade center of New Orleans, and contributing the French Creole and Cajun populations to the demographic composition of a predominantly Anglo-American country. In the antebellum period, Louisiana was a slave state, where enslaved African Americans had comprised the majority of the population during the eighteenth-century French and Spanish dominations. By the time the United States acquired the territory (1803) and Louisiana became a state (1812), the institution of slavery was entrenched. By 1860, 47% of the state's population were enslaved, though the state also had one of the largest free black populations in the United States. Much of the white population, particularly in the cities, supported slavery, while pockets of support for the U.S. and its government existed in the more rural areas. Louisiana declared that it had seceded from the Union on January 26, 1861. Civil-War era New Orleans, the largest city in the South, was strategically important as a port city due to its southernmost location on the Mississippi River and its access to the Gulf of Mexico. The U.S. War Department early on planned for its capture. The city was taken by U.S. Army forces on April 25, 1862. Because a large part of the population had Union sympathies (or compatible commercial interests), the U.S. government took the unusual step of designating the areas of Louisiana then under U.S. control as a state within the Union, with its own elected representatives to the U.S. Congress. For the latter part of the war, both the U.S. and the Confederacy recognized their own distinct Louisiana governors. Similarly, New Orleans and 13 named parishes of the state were exempted from the Emancipation Proclamation, which applied exclusively to states in rebellion against the Union. Politics and strategy in Louisiana Secession On January 8, 1861, Louisiana Governor Thomas Overton Moore ordered the Louisiana militia to occupy the U.S. arsenal at Baton Rouge and the U.S. forts guarding New Orleans, Fort Jackson and Fort St. Philip. A wealthy planter and slave holder, Moore acted aggressively to engineer the secession of Louisiana from the Union by a convention on January 23. Only five percent of the public were represented in the convention, and the state's military actions were ordered before secession had been established—in defiance of the state constitution, which called for a popular referendum to establish a convention. Moore attempted to justify these actions, saying: "I do not think it comports with the honor and self-respect of Louisiana as a slave-holding state to live under the government of a Black Republican president", using an epithet for Republicans used by many Democrats at the time. The strategies advanced to defend Louisiana and the other Gulf states of the Confederacy were first, the idea of King Cotton; that an unofficial embargo of cotton to Europe would force Britain to use its navy to intervene in protecting the new Confederacy. The second was a privateer fleet established by
Louisiana in the American Civil War
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The Ochlockonee River ( ) is a fast running river, except where it has been dammed to form Lake Talquin in Florida, originating in Georgia and flowing for before terminating in Florida. Background The name is from the Hitchiti language words for yellow river. The Ochlockonee originates south of the town of Sylvester in Worth County in southwest Georgia and empties into Ochlockonee Bay and then Apalachee Bay in Florida. The river forms the western boundaries of Leon County and Wakulla County and eastern boundaries of Gadsden County, Liberty County, and Franklin County in Florida. It flows through the Red Hills, the Jackson Bluff Dam, Talquin State Forest, Lake Talquin State Park and the Apalachicola National Forest, and past Ochlockonee River State Park, where it is tidally influenced and a mixture of fresh, brackish, and salt water, on the way to its terminus in Ochlockonee Bay, which then empties into Apalachee Bay, with tidal influences extending upstream over from the river's mouth. History When the Spanish arrived in northern Florida, the Ochlockonee River formed the western boundary of their Apalachee Province. Late 17th-century Spanish documents refer to the river as Claraquachine and Amarillo (Spanish for "yellow"). A 1716 Spanish document called it Rio de Lagna (lagna is probably Apalachee for "yellow"). An English map from 1720 identifies it as the Yellow River. A 1778 map spells the river's name "Okalockney", while one from 1856 has it as "Oklokonee". The modern name probably derives from the Hitchiti/Mikasuki Oki (water) and Lagana (yellow). From 1839 to 1842, Fort Virginia Braden was established on the river located at Fort Braden in Florida. The fort was named after the commander's wife who died of yellow fever. The Civil War The Ochlockonee River saw action during the Civil War. On 15 July 1863, the screw steamer gunboat USS Stars and Stripes and wooden side-wheel steam ferryboat USS Somerset attacked the salt works at Mashes Sands. On 29 December 1863, Stars and Stripes sank the blockade-running schooner Caroline Gertrude, aground on the sandbar at the mouth of the Ochlockonee. Stars and Stripes also captured the blockade-running steamer Laura off the Ochlockonee on 18 January 1864. On 19 and 20 October 1864, Stars and Stripes destroyed an extensive Confederate fishery at Mashes Island and captured the troops stationed there as guards. Jackson Bluff Dam In 1927 the Jackson Bluff Dam was constructed on the Ochlockonee River to produce hydroelectric power. The waters held back by the dam formed Lake Talquin. Importance The Ochlockonee River corridor is home to many threatened fish, wildlife and plant species. It has been designated under the State of Florida's Outstanding Florida Waters program and has been identified by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission as a Strategic Habitat Conservation Area. Rare animals that can be found along the Ochlockonee include red-cockaded woodpecker, least tern, and the Apalachicola dusky salamander. The river is especially rich in rare freshwater mussels (Unionidae), including three federally listed endangered species: the Ochlockonee moccasinshell, the Shinyrayed pocketbook,
Ochlockonee River
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The history of Virginia Beach, Virginia, goes back to the Native Americans who lived in the area for thousands of years before the English colonists landed at Cape Henry in April 1607 and established their first permanent settlement at Jamestown a few weeks later. The Colonial Virginia period extended until 1776 and the American Revolution, and the area has been part of the Commonwealth of Virginia ever since. Since 1634, area known today as Virginia Beach has been part of the same unit of local government, except for 11 years. In 1952, when resort Town of Virginia Beach became an independent city, followed by the rest of Princess Anne County which whom it was reunited and politically consolidated by mutual approval of residents to form a new independent city in 1963. Selecting the better-known name of the oceanfront strip area, Virginia Beach has since grown to become the most populated city in Hampton Roads, which are each linked by the Hampton Roads Beltway which crosses the harbor of Hampton Roads through two large bridge-tunnels. Native Americans Chesepians were the Native American (American Indian) inhabitants of the area now known as South Hampton Roads in Virginia during the Woodland Period and later prior to the arrival of the English settlers in 1607. They occupied an area which is now the Norfolk, Portsmouth, Chesapeake and Virginia Beach areas. They were divided into five provinces or kingdoms: Weapemiooc, Chawanook, Secotan, Pomouic and Newsiooc, each ruled by a king or chief. To their west were the members of the Nansemond tribe. The main village of the Chesepians was called Skicoak, located in the present independent city of Norfolk. The Chesepians also had two other towns (or villages), Apasus and Chesepioc, both near the Chesapeake Bay in what is now Virginia Beach. Of these, it is known that Chesepioc was located in the present Great Neck area. Archaeologists and other persons have found numerous Native American artifacts, such as arrowheads, stone axes, pottery, beads, and skeletons in Great Neck Point. Politically, the area was dominated by the Virginia Peninsula-based Powhatan Confederacy. Although the Chesepians belonged to the same eastern-Algonquian speaking linguistic group as members of the Powhatan Confederacy across Hampton Roads, the archaeological evidence suggests that the original Chesepians belonged to another group, the Carolina Algonquian. Powhatan, whose real name was Wahunsunacock, was the most powerful chieftain in the Chesapeake Bay area, dominating more than 30 Algonquin-speaking tribes. The Chesepians did not belong to Powhatan's alliance, but instead defied him. By 1607, around the time the first permanent English settlement was founded, the Chesaspeakes had united to fight the Powhatan Confederacy, suffering heavy losses. The last time the Chesaspeakes were mentioned in historical documents was in 1627. The Chesaspeakes have no pure descendants. Their tribe, totally defeated by Powhatan, was wiped out completely during this time frame by disease and attrition. According to William Strachey's The Historie of Travaile into Virginia Britanica (1612), the Chesepians were wiped out by Powhatan because Powhatan's priests had warned
History of Virginia Beach, Virginia
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The American state of Virginia became a prominent part of the Confederacy when it joined during the American Civil War. As a Southern slave-holding state, Virginia held the state convention to deal with the secession crisis and voted against secession on April 4, 1861. Opinion shifted after the Battle of Fort Sumter on April 12, and April 15, when U.S. President Abraham Lincoln called for troops from all states still in the Union to put down the rebellion. For all practical purposes, Virginia joined the Confederacy on April 17, though secession was not officially ratified until May 23. A Unionist government was established in Wheeling and the new state of West Virginia was created by an act of Congress from 50 counties of western Virginia, making it the only state to lose territory as a consequence of the war. Unionism was indeed strong also in other parts of the State, and during the war the Restored Government of Virginia was created as rival to the Confederate Government of Virginia, making it one of the states to have 2 governments during the Civil War. In May, it was decided to move the Confederate capital from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond, Virginia, in large part because regardless of the Virginian capital's political status its defense was deemed vital to the Confederacy's survival. On May 24, 1861, the U.S. Army moved into northern Virginia and captured Alexandria without a fight. Most of the battles in the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War took place in Virginia because the Confederacy had to defend its national capital at Richmond, and public opinion in the North demanded that the Union move "On to Richmond!" The successes of Robert E. Lee in defending Richmond are a central theme of the military history of the war. The White House of the Confederacy, located a few blocks north of the State Capitol, became home to the family of Confederate leader, former Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis. Origins On October 16, 1859, the radical abolitionist John Brown led a group of 22 men in a raid on the Federal Arsenal in Harpers Ferry, Virginia. U.S. troops, led by Robert E. Lee, responded and quelled the raid. Subsequently, Brown was tried and executed by hanging in Charles Town on December 2, 1859. In 1860 the Democratic Party split into northern and southern factions over the issue of slavery in the territories and Stephen Douglas' support for popular sovereignty: after failing in both Charleston and Baltimore to nominate a single candidate acceptable to the South, Southern Democrats held their convention in Richmond, Virginia, on June 26, 1860, and nominated John C. Breckinridge as their party candidate for U.S. president. When Republican Abraham Lincoln was elected as president, Virginians were concerned about the implications for their state. While a majority of the state would look for compromises to the sectional differences, most people also opposed any restrictions on slaveholders' rights. As the state watched to see what South Carolina would do, many Unionists felt
Virginia in the American Civil War
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John Brockenbrough (1775–1852) was a business man and civic leader in Richmond, Virginia. He was an "intimate friend" and frequent correspondent of John Randolph of Roanoke. He was president of the Bank of Virginia. His home in Richmond's Court End District later served as the White House of the Confederacy. Career Brockenbrough received his M.D. from the University of Edinburgh in Scotland in 1795. He returned to his native Virginia in April 1797 and married Gabriella Harvie Randolph, the widow of Thomas Mann Randolph Sr. Brockenbrough did not actively practice medicine but was involved in civic and business enterprises. Correspondence between Brockenbrough and Thomas Jefferson, largely on business matters, has been preserved by the National Archives in the Jefferson Papers. In 1835, Brockenbrough was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society. Brockenbrough House, White House of the Confederacy In 1818, John Brockenbrough commissioned the building of a large residence. The house was built on two adjoining lots overlooking the Shockoe Valley. It is typically attributed to Robert Mills, a prominent American neo-classical architect and acquaintance of John Brockenbrough. The home, typical of Richmond's finer early nineteenth-century dwellings, was two stories tall with a slate flat roof. The principal floor featured a parlor, drawing room and dining room, while the bedrooms were upstairs. A kitchen and servants’ residence were located in an adjoining outbuilding. A garden was built. In 1861, the Brockenbrough House, as it was then known, became the Executive Mansion of the Confederate States of America, which became known as the White House of the Confederacy. It was the official residence of President Jefferson Davis, his wife Varina and their children, the house was also the social, political and military center of the Confederacy during the American Civil War (1861–1865). After use for a number of years as a school, the Confederate Museum opened on February 22, 1896 in the former White House of the Confederacy. Today, the gray stuccoed Brockenbrough House has been preserved as a National Historical Landmark and is part of the Museum of the Confederacy complex 3 blocks north of the Virginia State Capitol in Richmond. References 1775 births 1852 deaths Businesspeople from Richmond, Virginia Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Brockenbrough family of Virginia
John Brockenbrough