what is the highest mountain in the andes
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A cordillera is an extensive chain and/or network system of mountain ranges, such as those in the west coast of the Americas. The term is borrowed from Spanish, where the word comes from , a diminutive of ('rope'). The term is most commonly used in physical geography and is particularly applied to the various large mountain systems of the American Cordillera, such as the Andes of South America, and less frequently to other mountain ranges in the "ridge" that rims the Pacific Ocean. In Colombia and Venezuela, cordilleras are named according to their position: Cordillera Occidental, Central, and Oriental. Various local names are used for the cordilleras in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. Such mountain systems have a complex structure, which is usually the result of folding and faulting accompanied by volcanic activity. In South America, the ranges include numerous volcanic peaks. The Andes cordillera has Ojos del Salado, the highest active volcano in the world and second-highest point in the Western Hemisphere (though not itself a volcano, Argentina's Aconcagua, at , is the highest point in the Western Hemisphere). Some of the volcanoes have been active in historical times. Aside from the volcanic peaks, the cordilleran crests include many narrow ridges, some of which reach into the zone of permanent snow. Between the ranges are numerous inhabited valleys, basins and low plateaus, with a wide range of elevations. Notable cordilleras Alborz Cordillera, northern Iran (also written as Elburz) American Cordillera, the mountain ranges forming the western backbone of North America and South America North American Cordillera (also called Pacific Cordillera or Western Cordillera of North America), comprising the mountain ranges of western North America Cordillera Central, Costa Rica Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic on the island of Hispaniola Cordillera Central, Puerto Rico Cordillera Neovolcánica, an active volcanic belt in Mexico Mexican Cordillera, consisting of the Juarez Segment, the Huayacocotla Segment, the Victoria Segment, and the Nuevoleones Cordillera Cordillera de los Andes (also called the Andes Mountains or South American Cordillera), comprising the mountain ranges of western South America Cordillera Blanca, in Peru Cordillera de Mérida, in Venezuela Cordillera Central, Andes (Spanish: "central mountains"), several mountain ranges share the name, such as the one in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru Cordillera Occidental ("western mountains"), several mountain ranges share the name, such as the one in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru Cordillera Oriental ("eastern mountains"), several mountain ranges share the name, such as the one in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru Cordillera de la Costa ("coastal mountains") of Chile Cordillera Paine, in Torres del Paine National Park in Chilean Patagonia Cordillera de la Costa of Venezuela Annamese Cordillera (Annamite Range), in Laos and Vietnam Arctic Cordillera, the mountain ranges along the northeastern edge of the Arctic Archipelago and the northeasternmost part of the Labrador Peninsula in Labrador and Quebec, Canada Central Cordillera of New Guinea Cordillera Central of Luzon and Southern Pacific Cordillera of Mindanao in the Philippines Cordilleras Béticas, Central and Cantábrica (including the Picos de Europa) in Spain East
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Ed Darack is an American author and photographer. He is the author of The Final Mission of Extortion 17, about the August 6, 2011 downing of Extortion 17, Victory Point: Operations Red Wings and Whalers – The Marine Corps' Battle for Freedom in Afghanistan, about Operation Red Wings and Operation Whalers, two American military operations that took place in 2005 in eastern Afghanistan's Kunar Province. He is the author of three other books in addition to Victory Point, including 6194: Denali Solo and Wind - Water - Sun: A Solo Kayak Journey Along Baja California's Desert Coastline. Darack is also an author of magazine articles about a range of subjects, a photographer published in media throughout the world, and a cartographer. Books Victory Point Victory Point: Operations Red Wings and Whalers – The Marine Corps' Battle for Freedom in Afghanistan is a nonfiction contemporary military history work published in 2009 in hardcover and as an E-book, and then in paperback in 2010 by The Berkley Publishing Group, an imprint of The Penguin Publishing Group. Victory Point documents Operation Red Wings and Operation Whalers, two American military operations that took place in the summer of 2005 in the Hindu Kush Mountains in Afghanistan's eastern Kunar Province. Darack spent two months on the ground in Afghanistan with U.S. Marines for the book's field research. The book was noted for its detail and was chosen as one of the best books of 2009 by the United States Naval Institute. Victory Point was endorsed by Bing West, former Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs for the Reagan Administration, a former Delta Force commander and New York Times Best Selling author who uses the pen name Dalton Fury, and others. Victory Point, in conjunction with Darack's article entitled "Operation Red Wings: What Really Happened?" (Published in print on page 62 of the January, 2011 issue of the Marine Corps Gazette (available here)) has been referenced and cited by a number of media outlets, journalists, and authors regarding the accuracy of various portrayals of Operation Red Wings including by New York Times best-selling author and Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist Thomas E. Ricks in Foreign Policy, Jake Tapper on CNN, Slate Magazine, About.com, 60 Minutes, and others. Wild Winds Wild Winds: Adventures in the Highest Andes, an adventure travel narrative, chronicles Darack's ascents of and travels throughout the highest peaks of the Andes of South America through narrative, photographs, and maps. Ascents include those of Aconcagua, the highest mountain in South America, Argentina, the Western Hemisphere, and the Southern Hemisphere (and one of the Seven Summits), Ojos del Salado, the world's highest volcano and highest mountain in Chile, Nevado Sajama, the highest mountain in Bolivia, and also Monte Pissis and Llullaillaco. Published by AlpenBooks on November 1, 2001, Wild Winds was cited by The New York Times on the subject of the "Death Zone." Wind - Water - Sun Wind - Water - Sun: A Solo Kayak Journey Along Baja California's Desert Coastline, an adventure travel
Ed Darack
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The Cordillera de la Ramada (Spanish for "Range of the Shelter", also called Cordón de la Ramada, in which cordón means 'ribbon' or 'rope', is a mountain range in the San Juan province of Argentina, forming part of the Andes. Its highest peak is Mercedario at . The first ascents of several peaks in the range were achieved by a Polish expedition of 1934 organized by the Tatra Society and led by Konstanty Jodko-Narkiewicz, whose party consisted of S. W. Daszynski, J. K. Dorawski, A. Karpinski, S. Osiecki, and W. Ostrowski. They climbed Mercedario, Alma Negra, Pico Polaco, La Mesa, and Cerro Ramada. The range is clearly visible from the better-known Aconcagua, the highest mountain in the Americas at , which is 100 km south of Mercedario, with the result that some of the many climbers who frequent Aconcagua move on to this range, although the area is less easy to access. Thanks to heavy cloud cover, the whole range has formed large glaciers which come to their lower ends at about . La Mesa, at , has especially huge glaciers and is not often climbed. Long ridge traverses are necessary to climb it. Temperatures can be extreme in summer and winter, but the climate is stable in the autumn and the spring. The best time of year for climbing in the range is from mid-December to the end of February. In the lower country beneath the range there are substantial mining industries, producing limestone, dolomite, bentonite, marble, aggregates, calcite and feldspar, as well as silver and gold. Paleontologists have found fossils here of some of the earliest dinosaurs, including the Herrerasaurus and Eoraptor lunensis. Local wildlife includes condors, rheas, guanacos and vicuña. Mountains Mercedario, , the eighth highest mountain of the Andes, known in Chile as El Ligua. Ramada Norte, Cerro del Nacimiento, Alma Negra, Cerro Ramada, Argentina and Chile, La Mesa, Pico Polaco, Notes See also List of mountains in the Andes Mountain ranges of the Andes Mountain ranges of Argentina
Cordillera de la Ramada
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Nevado Ojos del Salado is a dormant complex volcano in the Andes on the Argentina–Chile border. It is the highest volcano on Earth and the highest peak in Chile. The upper reaches of Ojos del Salado consist of several overlapping lava domes, lava flows and volcanic craters, with sparse ice cover. The complex extends over an area of and its highest summit reaches an altitude of above sea level. Numerous other volcanoes rise around Ojos del Salado. Being close to the Arid Diagonal of South America, the mountain has extremely dry conditions, which prevent the formation of substantial glaciers and a permanent snow cover. Despite the arid climate, there is a permanent crater lake about in diameter at an elevation of - within the summit crater and east of the main summit. This is the highest lake of any kind in the world. Owing to its altitude and the desiccated climate, the mountain lacks vegetation. Ojos del Salado was volcanically active during the Pleistocene and Holocene, during which it mainly produced lava flows. Activity was in two phases and a depression or caldera formed in the course of its growth. The volcano was also impacted by eruptions of its neighbour to the west, Nevado Tres Cruces. The last eruption occurred around 750 CE; steam emissions observed in November 1993 may have constituted another eruptive event. An international highway between Argentina and Chile crosses north of the mountain. Ojos del Salado can be ascended from both countries; the first ascent was made in 1937 by Jan Alfred Szczepański and , members of a Polish expedition in the Andes. During the middle of the 20th century there was a debate on whether Ojos del Salado or Aconcagua was the highest mountain in South America which was eventually resolved in favour of Aconcagua. Name The name refers to a river, Río Salado ("Salty River"), that a 1937 Polish expedition used to reach the mountain. It is unclear whether the name was already used before by a Chile-Argentina boundary commission. Another theory posits that the name means "salty eyes" or "salty springs", referring to mineral deposits on its flanks. The mountain is often referred to as Ojos del Salado and Ojos del Salado; the former is a common term for "mountain" in Chile and the latter means "snowy", referring to snow-covered mountains. There are two summits, known as the eastern or Argentine and western or Chilean summit; both lie along the international boundary and get their names after the country from which they can be more easily reached. Geography and geomorphology Ojos del Salado is part of the High Andes and rises from the southern end of the Puna de Atacama, a high plateau next to the Atacama Desert with an average elevation of . The border between Argentina and Chile runs across the summit of the mountain in east-west direction. The Argentine part is within Catamarca Province and the Chilean in Copiapo Province of the Atacama Region. The highway runs between the city
Ojos del Salado
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Tupungato, one of the highest mountains in the Americas, is a massive Andean lava dome dating to Pleistocene times. It lies on the Argentina–Chile border, between the Chilean Metropolitan Region (near a major international highway about east of Santiago) and the Argentine province of Mendoza, about south of Aconcagua, the highest peak of both the Southern and Western hemispheres. Immediately to its southwest is the active Tupungatito volcano (literally, little Tupungato), which last erupted in 1987. Tupungato Department, an important Argentine wine-producing region in Mendoza province, is named for the volcano. Recent Chilean mapping indicates it has a height of 6635m. 1947 plane crash On 2 August 1947, the airliner Star Dust, an Avro Lancastrian carrying six passengers and five crew over the Andes range, crashed into a steep glacier high on the Argentine side of Tupungato. The plane was quickly buried in the resulting avalanche and heavy snowfall that was taking place at the time. The plane lay undetected deep beneath the snow and glacial ice for over 50 years. Its remnants finally re-emerged at the glacier terminus in 2000. Shortly thereafter, an Argentine army expedition discovered the scattered debris and wreckage, collecting some of the evidence for investigation. See also Incapillo List of volcanoes in Argentina List of volcanoes in Chile List of mountains in the Andes List of Ultras of South America Notes References Citations Bibliography External links Andeshandbook: complete description, history, place name and routes of Tupungato Pictures of Mount Tupungato "Cerro Tupungato, Argentina/Chile" on Peakbagger Star Dust Plane Crash Mystery Andes Mountains (Spanish) Volcanoes of Mendoza Province Volcanoes of Santiago Metropolitan Region South Volcanic Zone Mountains of Argentina Mountains of Chile Polygenetic volcanoes Pleistocene lava domes Pleistocene South America Andean Volcanic Belt Six-thousanders of the Andes Principal Cordillera
Tupungato
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Cerro Mercedario is the highest peak of the Cordillera de la Ramada range and the eighth-highest mountain of the Andes. It is located 100 km to the north of Aconcagua, in the Argentine province of San Juan. Ascent history It was first ascended on January 18, 1934, by and , members of a Polish andinist expedition led by Konstanty Jodko-Narkiewicz. The Polish party erected a cairn on the summit. In 1968, after several attempts by some of the strongest Argentine climbers, a Japanese group led by Saburo Yoshida accomplished the first ascension of the south side. In 1971 an Austrian expedition led by Fritz Moravec and Othmar Kucera, climbed the north side. In 1972, Italians Sergio Job Gino and Antonio Beorchia Nigris climbed the Mercedario through the normal route and discovered some Inca ruins just below the summit. In January 1975 an Italian expedition led by Antonio Mastellaro managed to climb the east side. In 1983 a small expedition from Gorizia was able to traverse the south-west ridge, which is considered the most difficult trail of the mountain, and one of the last mountaineering issues in the Andes. On January 27 Mauro Collini, Sergio Figel, Mario Tavagnutti and Rudi Vittori reached the top. Photo gallery See also List of Ultras of South America List of peaks by prominence References External links Mercedario on SummitPost Mountains of Argentina Volcanoes of Argentina Subduction volcanoes Landforms of San Juan Province, Argentina Six-thousanders of the Andes
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Christian Stangl (; born July 10, 1966, in Landl, Austria) is an Austrian alpine style mountaineer and mountain guide. He has become known as Skyrunner by numerous exceptionally fast ascents of high mountains. His major success was in 2013, when he became the first person to ascend the three highest mountains on all seven continents, the so-called Triple Seven Summits. On January 15, 2013, he was the first person to ascent the Seven Second Summits, the second highest peaks of all seven continents. On August 23, 2013, after climbing Shkhara (5193m), he became the first person to have reached the third highest peaks on all seven continents. Because of measurement and definition issues Stangl climbed 30 peaks instead of only 21 to avoid any inaccuracy and misconception. On September 17, 2013, his achievement was certified by Guinness World Records in London. Early career Christian Stangl was born in 1966 in Landl (Styria), in the east of the Gesäuse National Park. After finishing school, he completed his education as an electrical engineer in a Higher Technical Institute. When he was 16, he began climbing and ventured into solo climbing, speed climbing, enchainment and winter climbing in the Alps. In 1990, he began high-altitude mountaineering in the Andes and the Himalaya. In 1991, during an attempt to climb a new route in the south wall of the 7285m high Baintha Brakk, he was seriously injured in an avalanche. In 1998, Stangl reached the Shishapangma, his first 8000er via the southwest face, the so-called "British Route". In 1995, Stangl started speed climbing ("skyrunning") the high Andes peaks. In the following years he succeeded in his first series of skyruns, reaching nine 6000ers within 18 days. Over the next few years, he successfully completed several other challenges in the Andes: Ten 6000ers within 7 days (2005), three 6000ers within one day (2006), and four 6000ers within one day (2008). Seven summits speed climbing In 2001, he succeeded in a solo climb of Cho Oyu. At 7000m his new route meets the 1954 Tichy-Route. In 2005 he did ABC (Tibet) to the top in 16 hours and 42 minutes in 2005, in league with the fastest times for this type of route. In 2008, Stangl became famous after completing his speed climbing series of the Seven Summits. For reaching all seven summits it took him 58 hours and 45 minutes. Specific times for single ascents: Mount Everest: 16:42 Aconcagua: 4:25 Denali: 16:45 Elbrus: 5:18 Kilimanjaro: 5:36 Mount Vinson: 9:10 Carstensz Pyramid: 0:49 At the same time, he set new records for climbing Aconcagua, Elbrus, Mount Vinson and Carstensz Pyramid. The film The Skyrunner (2007) deals with Stangl's 49-minute record ascent of the Carstensz Pyramid. Second Seven Summits As a continuation of the Seven Summits speed-project Stangl pursued the goal of skyrunning up the second highest peaks of each continent, the so-called Seven Second Summits, with the vision of being the first person to complete the Seven Summits as well as the Seven Second Summits. In
Christian Stangl
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The American Cordillera ( ) is a chain of mountain ranges (cordilleras) that consists of an almost continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western "backbone" of the Americas. Aconcagua is the highest peak of the chain. It is also the backbone of the volcanic arc that forms the eastern half of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Description North America The ranges of the Cordillera from Mexico northward are collectively called the North American Cordillera. From north to south, this sequence of overlapping and parallel ranges begins with the Alaska Range and the Brooks Range in Alaska and runs through the Yukon into British Columbia. The main belt of the Rocky Mountains along with the parallel Columbia Mountains and Coast Ranges of mountains and islands continue through British Columbia and Vancouver Island. In the United States, the Cordillera branches include the Rockies, the Sierra Nevada, the Cascades, and various small Pacific coastal ranges. In Mexico, the Cordillera continues through the Sierra Madre Occidental and Sierra Madre Oriental, as well as the backbone mountains of the Baja California peninsula. The Cordillera continues on through the mountain ranges of Central America in Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama, and becomes the Andes Mountains of South America. South America and Antarctica The Cordillera, having continued through Central America, continues through South America and even to the Antarctic. In South America, the Cordillera is known as the Andes Mountains. The Andes with their parallel chains and the island chains off the coast of Chile continue through Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile to the southernmost tip of South America at Tierra del Fuego. The Cordillera continues along the Scotia Arc before reaching the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula. References Further reading Silberling, N.J. et al. (1992). Lithotectonic terrane map of the North American Cordillera [Miscellaneous Investigations Series I-2176]. Reston, Va.: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. Mountain ranges of North America Mountain ranges of Central America Mountain ranges of South America Mountain ranges of Antarctica North American Cordillera
American Cordillera
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Cerro El Plata is a mountain summit in Argentina. Description Cerro El Plata is the highest peak of the Cordón del Plata which is a subrange of the Andes. The mountain is located southeast of Aconcagua and west of the provincial capital, the city of Mendoza. Precipitation runoff from the mountains drains into the Mendoza River watershed. Topographic relief is significant as the west slope rises 2,170 meters (7,120 feet) in four kilometers (2.5 miles). The Spanish toponym "Cerro El Plata" translates to Silver Peak. The first ascent of the summit was made by Hans Stepanek on January 21, 1925. Climate According to the Köppen climate classification system, Cerro El Plata is located in a Tundra climate zone with cold, snowy winters, and cool summers. The months of October through February offer the most favorable weather for climbing the mountain. References External links Weather forecast: Cerro El Plata Mountains of Mendoza Province Five-thousanders of the Andes Principal Cordillera Mountains of Argentina
Cerro El Plata
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Huascarán () (Quechua: Waskaran), Nevado Huascarán or Mataraju is a mountain located in Yungay Province, Department of Ancash, Peru. It is situated in the Cordillera Blanca range of the western Andes. The southern summit of Huascarán (Huascarán Sur), which reaches , is the highest point in Peru, the northern Andes (north of Lake Titicaca), and in all of the earth's Tropics. Huascarán is the 4th highest mountain in South America after Aconcagua, Ojos del Salado, and Monte Pissis. Huascarán is ranked 25th by topographic isolation. Name Until the 20th century, the mountain lacked a single commonly accepted name but it was rather known by different names within the surrounding towns and villages. The first recorded mention of the name Huascaran appeared in 1850 as Huascan, name given by the local people likely because the mountain rises above the village of Huashco, Huashco getting its name from the Quechua word for rope (waska). At the beginning of the 20th century, the name appeared as Huascarán, a form which has not since changed. It seems that the name Huascarán is merely a contraction of Huashco-Urán. When the mountain was mentioned, it was thought of in connection with the village and was called Huashco-Urán or “Beyond and down from the village of Huashco.” Other names given to the mountain were Matarao and Mataraju, Mataraju being the name by which the local indigenous inhabitants prefer to call the mountain, from Ancash Quechua mata (twin) and rahu (snow peak), meaning 'twin snow peaks'. Myth Huascarán was a noble man who lived in a certain place in Áncash, while Huandoy was a woman who lived in a small town very close to where this mountain is now. Huascarán was enormously in love with the girl, so they always saw each other secretly. One day Huascarán's father found out that he was in love with the little woman, so he asked the Sun God for help. Seeing that he could not separate the two lovers, he decided to turn them into mountains, but the divinity decided to bring them together so that despite their being mountains continued with their love. Geography The mountain has two distinct summits, the higher being the south one (Huascarán Sur) with an elevation of . The north summit (Huascarán Norte) has an elevation of . The two summits are separated by a saddle (called 'Garganta'). The core of Huascarán, like much of the Cordillera Blanca, consists of Cenozoic granite. Huascarán gives its name to Huascarán National Park which surrounds it, and is a popular location for trekking and mountaineering. The Huascarán summit is one of the points on the Earth's surface farthest from the Earth's center, closely behind the farthest point, Chimborazo in Ecuador. The summit of Huascarán is the place on Earth with the smallest gravitational force, with an estimated acceleration of 9.76392 m/s2. Climbing Huascarán is normally climbed from the village of Musho to the west via a high camp in the col that separates the two summits, known as
Huascarán
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The world's longest above-water mountain range is the Andes, about long. The range stretches from north to south through seven countries in South America, along the west coast of the continent: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. Aconcagua is the highest peak, at about . This list does not include submarine mountain ranges. If submarine mountains are included, the longest is the global mid-ocean ridge system which extends for about . Formation Mountain chains are typically formed by the process of plate tectonics. Tectonic plates slide very slowly over the Earth's mantle, a lower place of rock that is heated from the Earth's interior. Several huge sections of the Earth's crust are impelled by heat currents in the mantle, producing tremendous forces that can buckle the material at the edges of the plates to form mountains. Usually one plate is forced underneath the other, and the lower plate is slowly absorbed by the mantle. Where the two plates pass one another, heated rock from the mantle can burst through the crust to form volcanoes. The movement of the plates against one another can also cause earthquakes. List See also List of mountain ranges Lists of mountains Continent References External links Longest mountain range in the world The Andes - Introduction Arranging Ranges: Mountain Ranges of the World Longest chains Longest chains Mountain chains in the world Mountain chains, Longest in the world Mountain chains, Longest in the world Mountain chains
List of longest mountain chains on Earth
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The Paso Internacional Los Libertadores, also called Cristo Redentor, is a mountain pass in the Andes between Argentina and Chile. It is the main transport route out of the Chilean capital city Santiago into Mendoza Province in Argentina and so carries quite heavy traffic. Overview From the Argentine side the route to the pass is a slow, gentle incline until entering a tunnel at approximately elevation. On the Chilean side the slope has a far higher grade, and the road descends down a long series of switchbacks to make the descent. Opened in 1980, the Tunnel of Christ the Redeemer (Spanish: Túnel Cristo Redentor) is long, and serves as an important land crossing between Chile and Argentina. At the middle of the tunnel is the national border, which is the termini of Chile Route 60 and Argentina Route 7. The path can be closed during winter because of heavy snows blocking both ends and the threat of rockfall. Its name comes from the four-ton Christ the Redeemer of the Andes (Cristo Redentor de los Andes) statue placed in 1904 near the Uspallata Pass at an elevation of . The pass was the highest point of the road before the opening of the tunnel lowered the maximum elevation by , eliminated 65 switchbacks and shortened the route by . On 19 September 2013, nearly 15,000 Chileans got stranded on the Argentine side, when the pass had to be closed for 10 hours because of freezing temperatures and between 40 and 50 centimeters of snow. Alternative proposed tunnels In order to ease the dependence on the only tunnel in the area and to permit year-round crossing, two lower tunnels have been proposed. One of them is the Túnel Juan Pablo II ("John Paul II Tunnel"), which would be constructed at an altitude of between , long, to join the towns of Horcones, Argentina and Juncal, Chile. Another proposed tunnel, named Paso Las Leñas ("Las Leñas Pass"), at an elevation of and of length, would connect El Sosneado in Argentina (near San Rafael) and Machalí, Chile. The Aconcagua Bi-Oceanic railway is a proposal for a railway base tunnel under this pass. See also Transandine Railway References External links Official site of Cristo Redentor by Argentine National Gendarmerie Tunnels in Argentina Cristo Redentor Statue Updated state of different tunnels and crossings in Argentina Paso Las Leñas at UTN Facultad de San Rafael, Mendoza. Argentina–Chile border crossings Landforms of Mendoza Province Landforms of Valparaíso Region Mountain passes of Chile Mountain passes of Argentina Mountain passes of the Andes Tunnels in Chile Tunnels in Argentina Tunnels completed in 1980 Principal Cordillera Road tunnels 1980 establishments in Argentina 1980 establishments in Chile de:Túnel del Cristo Redentor pl:Tunel Chrystusa Zbawiciela
Paso Internacional Los Libertadores
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Edward Arthur FitzGerald (10 May 1871 – 2 January 1931) was an American-born mountaineer and soldier of British descent, best known for leading the expedition which made the first ascent of Aconcagua, the highest mountain in the American Continent, in 1897. Background and education FitzGerald was born in 1871 at Litchfield, Connecticut, and was the third son of William John FitzGerald, barrister, a British subject, and Mary, daughter of Eli White, of New York. He was educated at St Paul's School, Concord, New Hampshire, and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he matriculated in 1890 but did not graduate. His elder brother was Augustine (called Austin), a painter, and his elder sister was Caroline, a poet. Mountaineering He joined the Himalayan explorer Martin Conway for a walk across the Alps in 1894, where he met the Swiss guide Matthias Zurbriggen. Sufficiently impressed, FitzGerald decided to hire Zurbriggen as his guide for the next five years. In 1894/95 FitzGerald travelled to New Zealand, intending to make the first ascent of Mount Cook, but local climbers, alarmed their highest mountain might first be climbed by foreigners, climbed it a few days after FitzGerald's arrival. He and Zurbriggen made the first ascent of Mount Sefton, and with the New Zealander Jack Clarke (who had made the first ascent of Mount Cook), made first ascents of Mount Sealy, Silberhorn, Mount Tasman and Mount Haidinger. Aconcagua expedition In 1896/97 FitzGerald personally financed and led a large expedition to South America to complete scientific surveys and make first ascents of some of the highest peaks in the Andes. The expedition included a geologist, surveyor, engineer, and naturalist, and six alpine guides led by Zurbriggen. After reconnoitering the Vacas valley approach to Aconcagua, FitzGerald made a base camp at around in the Horcones Valley, where several attempts were made to reach the summit via what is now known as the Normal Route. Five attempts were made over six weeks before Zurbriggen reached the summit alone on 14 January 1897. FitzGerald had been with Zurbriggen during the ascent, but on all attempts became nauseous at around . Eventually, fearing he would never reach the summit and the first ascent of Aconcagua would not be made, he sent Zurbriggen on alone. A period of heavy snow followed Zurbriggen's ascent, during which no further attempts could be made, but FitzGerald continued the siege a month later. Again he became ill during the ascent, but on 13 February 1897, the Englishman Stuart Vines and Italian guide Nicola Lanti also reached the summit. Later in the expedition Vines and Zurbriggen also made the first ascent of Tupungato. Career and personal life after Aconcagua In 1900 FitzGerald joined the imperial yeomanry to fight in the South African War, where he received a commission as second lieutenant in the 5th dragoon guards, and first lieutenant in 1901. He was later transferred to the 6th (Inniskilling) Dragoons, and was promoted captain in 1906, and major in 1912. He was employed in the War Office from 1914
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The Chilean Coastal Range () is a mountain range that runs from north to south along the Pacific coast of South America parallel to the Andean Mountains, extending from Morro de Arica in the north to Taitao Peninsula, where it ends at the Chile Triple Junction, in the south. The range has a strong influence on the climate of Chile since it produces a rain shadow to the east. Because of this the vegetation growing on the seaward slopes is much more exuberant than in the interior. Compared to the coastal lowlands and the Intermediate Depression, it is sparsely populated with land use varying from protected areas to grazing and silviculture. The range is present in all Chilean regions, except for Coquimbo Region and Magallanes Region. Geography Like the Andes, the coastal range becomes progressively lower with increasing latitude. The range begins at Morro de Arica in the north and reaches its highest point, of 3114 m, in Sierra Vicuña Mackenna in the Antofagasta Region. Between Copiapó and Aconcagua rivers, in the so-called Norte Chico region, the range fuses with the Andes. Just north of Santiago the range separates from the Andes but comes close to it again near Paine, a southern suburb of Santiago, and San Fernando. From Santiago south the range loses height until reaching the Bío-Bío River, beyond which the Nahuelbuta range emerges which reaches about 1500 m in its central parts. South of Nahuelbuta Range, in the Araucanía Region, the coastal range is replaced by a flatland area. South of Toltén River the range rises again as the Cordillera de Mahuidanchi. Beyond the heights of Corral this range changes into Cordillera Pelada. From Chacao Channel south the range is penetrated by the sea creating islands and peninsulas. Chiloé Island, the largest of these, has two ranges: Cordillera del Piuchén from Chacao Channel to Cucao Lake and Pirulil Range in the southern half. South of Chiloé the portions of the range above sea level form the Guaitecas and the Chonos Archipelagos. The southern extreme of the range forms the Taitao Peninsula and its sub-peninsula Tres Montes. The range can be divided in several minor ranges. Some of these ranges and their boundaries are: Sierra Vicuña Mackenna (24–25° S) Vizcachas Mountains (33° S) Cordillera de Nahuelbuta (37–38° S) Imperial-Toltén River lowland Cordillera de Queule (39°) Cordillera de Mitropulli (39°) Lingue River Loncoche Massif Cordillera de Troltrolhue Cerro Llecué Cordillera de Oncol (39° S) Valdivia River Altos de Valdivia (40° S) Chaihuín River Cordillera Pelada (40° S) Cordillera El Sarao (41° S) Cordillera del Piuchén (42° S) Cucao and Huillinco Lake Pirulil Range (42–43° S) Geology The range has no single structural or lithological origin but is the result of the alignment of horst, forearc highs and upthrusted blocks along Chile's coast. The range was separated from the Andes during the Tertiary rise of the Andes due to the subsidence of the Intermediate Depression. The range is made of different lithological units. From Valparaíso Region to Lanalhue Fault the
Chilean Coast Range
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Las Heras is a department located in the north west of Mendoza Province in Argentina. The provincial subdivision has a population of about 183,000 inhabitants in an area of , and its capital city is Las Heras, which is located around from the Capital federal. The province's international airport, Governor Francisco Gabrielli International Airport is located within this subdivision. Name The Partido and its capital are named after General Juan Gregorio de las Heras (1780-1866), a military leader during the Argentine War of Independence. Districts Cieneguita El Algarrobal El Borbollón El Challao El Pastal El Plumerillo El Resguardo El Zapallar Las Cuevas Las Heras Panquehua Punta de Vacas Uspallata Geography The mountains of the Andes act as a natural border between Argentina and Chile, the mountain range forms much of the western part of the department of Las heras. Mount Aconcagua is located in Las Heras Department, at 6,962 metres above sea level it holds many records, including: The highest mountain in South America. The Highest Mountain in all of the Americas. The highest mountain in the Southern Hemisphere. The highest mountain outside of the continent of Asia. The people of Las Heras are proud to have such an important mountain in their department, and as one of the Seven Summits it brings a great number of mountaineers and sightseers to the region. External links Municipal Site Tourist Information (Spanish) 1871 establishments in Argentina Departments of Mendoza Province
Las Heras Department
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Pino Hachado Pass () is a mountain pass through the Andes, joining Chile and Argentina. It is one of the principal passes of the southern Andes, connecting Argentina's route RN-242 and Chile's Route 181-CH. Transit must pass through Las Raíces Tunnel, on the Chilean side. At its highest peak, Pino Hachado Pass is 1884 meters high. The climate is cold and dry, with summer temperatures recorded at 25 °C/77 °F, and winter temperatures recorded at -15 °C/5 °F. The closest inhabited locations are Las Lajas in Argentina, with approximately 5,000 inhabitants, and Liucura in Chile, with approximately 700 inhabitants. Both Las Lajas and Liucura communities have organized a project called El Corredor de los Niños (The Children's Corridor). This program is focused on uniting school children from both communities and teaching them the value of protecting the route, both environmentally and in the control of transports. In order to pass Pino Hachado, travelers must stop at both the Chilean and Argentinian customs and immigration services. References Mountain passes of Chile Mountain passes of Argentina Mountain passes of the Andes Argentina–Chile border crossings Landforms of Araucanía Region Landforms of Neuquén Province Transport in Araucanía Region
Pino Hachado Pass
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Incahuasi (; possibly from Quechua: inka Inca, wasi house) is a volcanic mountain in the Andes of South America. It lies on the border of the Catamarca Province of Argentina and the Atacama Region of Chile. Incahuasi has a summit elevation of above sea level. The volcano consists of a caldera and two stratovolcanoes. Four pyroclastic cones located to the northeast have produced basalt-andesite lava flows that cover an area of . Geography and geology Incahuasi lies on the border between Argentina and Chile, close to Paso San Francisco. A major road crosses the border there. Regional Incahuasi is part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, together with about 110 other Quaternary volcanoes, and lies in the southern sector of this zone; other volcanic zones in the Andes are the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone, and the Austral Volcanic Zone. The history of volcanic activity of most of these volcanoes is poorly understood owing to the lack of dating; only a few historical eruptions have been recorded, such as an eruption at Ojos del Salado in 1993. Incahuasi is located northeast of Ojos del Salado, the highest volcano in the world. Both volcanoes are found at the southern end of the Central Volcanic Zone. Together with El Fraile, Cerro El Muerto, Nevado Tres Cruces, and El Solo, they form a volcanic chain. The area is dominated by volcanoes that were active after 1.5 million years ago. Also located close to Incahuasi are Falso Azufre and Nevado San Francisco, as well as the Miocene Cerro Morocho and Cerro Ojo de Las Lozas volcanoes. It has been suggested that a perpendicular chain of volcanoes including Ojos del Salado may be the consequence of the Juan Fernández Ridge subducting in the Peru–Chile Trench. Geological evidence suggests that volcanism in the area dates back to the Oligocene and Miocene, when the main volcanic arc was located west in the Maricunga Belt. Between 9 and 6 million years ago, volcanic activity in the Maricunga Belt decreased and eventually ceased. Simultaneously, the back-arc experienced increased volcanic activity. Beginning 8.3 million years ago, there was a change in tectonic regime from an east-west compression to a north-south stretching, which led to a change in the alignments of the volcanoes. Local Incahuasi is formed by a caldera wide. Two coalesced stratovolcanoes formed within the caldera and have a diameter of . A lava dome is located on the eastern flank. The volcano has a volume of about and covers a surface area of about . With a height of , Incahuasi is the 12th-highest mountain in South America and one of the world's highest volcanoes. Incahuasi has two craters, a summit crater and an arcuate crater on the eastern slope that contains a lava dome. The summit crater has dimensions of and is embedded within a summit plateau. Subsidiary vents conversely are associated with fissure vents. The edifice appears to consist of two overlapping volcanoes. The western and southwestern slopes of Incahuasi are dotted
Incahuasi
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The geology of Chile is a characterized by processes linked to subduction, such as volcanism, earthquakes, and orogeny. The building blocks of Chile's geology were assembled during the Paleozoic Era when Chile was the southwestern margin of the supercontinent Gondwana. In the Jurassic, Gondwana began to split, and the ongoing period of crustal deformation and mountain building known as the Andean orogeny began. In the Late Cenozoic, Chile definitely separated from Antarctica, and the Andes experienced a significant rise accompanied by a cooling climate and the onset of glaciations. The subduction interactions shaped four main morphostructures of Chile: the Andes, the Intermediate Depression, the Coast Range, and the Peru–Chile Trench off the coast. Since Chile is on an active continental margin, it has many volcanoes. Almost the entire country is subject to earthquakes arising from strains in the Nazca and Antarctic Plates or shallow strike-slip faults. Northern Chilean mineral resources are a major economic resource, and the country is the leading producer of copper, lithium and molybdenum. Most of these mineral deposits were created from magmatic hydrothermal activity, and the water required to form those deposits derived from the subducted slab of the oceanic crust beneath the Andes. The Chilean Easter Island and Juan Fernández Archipelago are volcanic hotspot islands in the eastward-moving Nazca plate. The geology of the Chilean Antarctic Territory has various commonalities with that of mainland Chile. General characteristics The three primary morphological features derived from the Andes are the Andes Mountains proper, the Chilean Coast Range and the Chilean Central Valley, also known as the Intermediate Depression and the Longitudinal Valley. The mountains run parallel in a north-south direction from Morro de Arica to Taitao Peninsula, making up most of Chile's land surface. South of Taitao, only the Andes Mountains are present. North of the Taitao Peninsula, the Peru–Chile Trench subduction zone is the boundary between the South American and Nazca Plates. At Taitao, the Chile Triple Junction and the Nazca Plate subduct the South American Plate. The Andes In Norte Grande the mountains form a series of plateaus, such as Puna de Atacama and the Altiplano. At a south latitude of 27 degrees, Chile's highest mountain (Ojos del Salado) reaches a height of . Below 42 degrees south, the Andes split into a fjord landscape and the highest mountain is Monte San Valentin at at north of Northern Patagonian Ice Field. As the mountains ebb, the snow line lowers; in the Llanquihue it is at , and in the Magallanes. Intermediate Depression The Intermediate Depression, a series of faults running north to south, separates the Andes from the Coast Range with a steady decrease in altitude as the latitude increases. In Norte Grande the Intermediate Depression is partially covered by a series of salt flats, and has the world's largest potassium nitrate deposits. In Norte Chico, the depression disappears briefly before reappearing in a narrow valley at Santiago. From the narrows southward the valley widens until it is interrupted near Loncoche by the Bahía Mansa
Geology of Chile
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The San Francisco Pass is a pass over the Andes mountains which connects Argentina and Chile. The highest point of this pass is at AMSL. Location The pass is located at and connects the Argentine province of Catamarca with the Atacama Region in Chile. In the Argentine side, route N 60 ascends from Fiambala at AMSL in a deep valley formed by mountains. In the last sinuous , the route climbs from about in Las grutas to more than at the border. On the Chilean side the route CH-31 connects Copiapó with the ChileanArgentine border. On the way it passes next to Maricunga's salt flat on the Nevado Tres Cruces National Park and Laguna Verde. The area is surrounded by volcanoes and high peaks as the Cerro Falso Azufre (), the volcano San Francisco (), the Incahuasi () and highest volcano in the world, Nevado Ojos del Salado (), among others. Gallery See also Cerro Torta Laguna Verde (Chile) References Argentina–Chile border crossings Mountain passes of Chile Mountain passes of Argentina Mountain passes of the Andes Landforms of Atacama Region Landforms of Catamarca Province
San Francisco Pass
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The Sierra Nevada de Mérida is the highest mountain range in the largest massif in Venezuela, the Cordillera de Mérida, which in turn is part of the northern extent of the Cordillera de los Andes (Andes Mountains). The Sierra Nevada de Mérida includes the highest peaks in Venezuela, Pico Bolívar, which has an elevation of , Pico Humboldt, Pico Bonpland and others. The Sierra Nevada National Park is a protected area within the range. The Cordillera de Mérida is a series of mountain ranges, or massif, in northwestern Venezuela. The Cordillera de Mérida is a northeastern extension of the Andes Mountains. The ranges run southwest–northeast between the Venezuelan-Colombian border and the Venezuelan coastal range. The Táchira depression separates the Cordillera de Mérida from the Cordillera Oriental, which forms the Colombia-Venezuela border. The ranges runs from southwest to northeast and parts lie within each of the following states: Táchira, Mérida, Barinas, Trujillo, Portuguesa and Lara. The southeastern slopes are drained by tributaries of the Orinoco River, while the streams that drain the northwestern slopes empty into Lake Maracaibo. At the northeast tip of the massif lies the town of Barquisimeto and the headwaters of the River Cojedes. In the centre of the massif is the city of Mérida. Two ranges of peaks lie on either side of the city, the Sierra de la Culata to the north and Sierra Nevada de Mérida to the south. Pico Bolívar, at 4,981 meters elevation (16,342 feet), is the highest peak in Venezuela. Most of the ranges are covered by Venezuelan Andes montane forests, although the highest elevations (above 3,100 meters) are above tree line. These ranges are home to the Cordillera de Mérida páramo, an enclave of the páramo (tropical alpine grasslands) of the northern Andes. Protected areas in the massif include Sierra Nevada National Park. Glaciers In 1991 the mountain range had five glaciers situated near its peaks. However, as of 2017, only one glacier (10% of its size 30 years earlier) remained near Pico Humboldt. It was then predicted this last glacier would disappear within the next ten or twenty years, but already in May 2024, the Humboldt Glacier was officially downgraded to an ice field and thus no longer considered a glacier. The snowy season is between July–August. The snows cover the mountains above 4.200 meters, and sometimes above 3.800 meters.[2] Gallery See also Sierra Nevada National Park (Venezuela) Sierra La Culata Merida glaciation References External links Schubert, Carlos (1998) "Glaciers of Venezuela" United States Geological Survey (USGS P 1386-I) Mountain ranges of the Andes Mountain ranges of Venezuela Glaciers of Venezuela Geography of Mérida (state) Geography of Barinas (state) Sierra Nevada National Park (Venezuela)
Sierra Nevada de Mérida
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The Northern Andean páramo (NT1006) is an ecoregion containing páramo vegetation above the treeline in the Andes of Colombia and Ecuador. In the past, when the climate was cooler, the treeline and the páramo units were lower and the units were connected. During the present warmer Holocene epoch the páramos have migrated uphill, shrinking and becoming isolated. They contain many rare or endangered species, some of them restricted to a narrow area of one mountain or mountain range. The ecoregion is relatively well preserved, but faces threats from over-grazing and farming. Geography Location The Northern Andean páramo surrounds the highest peaks of the Andes between the treeline and the snowline from north central Colombia along the cordilleras south to central Ecuador. It has an area of . The páramo is found at elevations from to the snow line at , islands of grasslands and shrubs surrounded by a sea of cloud forest lower down. Areas of the ecoregion are found within or adjoining the Apure–Villavicencio dry forests, Cordillera Oriental montane forests, Magdalena Valley montane forests, Magdalena Valley dry forests, Northwestern Andean montane forests and Eastern Cordillera Real montane forests. Soils There are many types of soil due to the diverse geology of the Andes, but most are fairly young. They include andosols, inceptisols, histosols, entisols and mollisols. At the lowest levels, the subpáramo, soils are dark, low in acid, low in calcium and free phosphorus, fairly high in potassium and nitrogen, with more than 10% organic matter in the top layer. At the middle levels, the grass páramo, soils are fairly deep and are dark in color, acidic, moist or saturated with water, rich in organic matter and peat-like. At the highest levels, known as the superpáramo, soils are shallow and coarse, with much rock and sand and little organic matter. They do not retain water and are highly infertile. Climate The Köppen climate classification is "Cfb": warm temperate; fully humid; warm summer. The páramos of Colombia and the north of Ecuador are generally humid throughout the year with moisture delivered in the form of rain, clouds and fog as air masses are lifted up over the mountains. Annual rainfall ranges from . This differs from the Costa Rican páramo, Santa Marta páramo and Venezuelan páramo, where the northeast trade winds create a distinct dry season. It also differs from the páramos in the south of Ecuador and north of Peru, which are drier. The Northern Andean páramos experience temperatures that may drop below freezing at night and rise to during the day. Rain, snow and fog may alternative with sunny skies and high temperatures in the course of a day. Ecology The Northern Andean páramo ecoregion is in the neotropical realm, in the montane grasslands and shrublands biome. The ecoregion is part of the Northern Andean Paramo global ecoregion, which also includes the Cordillera Central páramo, Santa Marta páramo and Cordillera de Merida páramo terrestrial ecoregions. The plants and animals are adapted to the cold, dry conditions of the
Northern Andean páramo
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The Tamá Massif () is a group of mountains on the border between Colombia and Venezuela to the south of Lake Maracaibo. It contains evergreen rainforest and cloud forest at the lower levels, and páramos (high moors) at the highest levels. Location The Tamá is a prolongation of the Cordillera Oriental of the Colombian Andes. It is separated from the Cordillera de Mérida in the Venezuelan Andes by the Táchira depression, which more than 50 million years ago was a strait that connected Lake Maracaibo with the Orinoco basin. Elevations range from . Average annual temperature is . Average annual rainfall is . The Tamá National Natural Park in Colombia and the El Tamá National Park in Venezuela protect parts of the Tamá Massif. The two parks together form a protected area of . Geography The Tamá massif is a set of folded mountain ranges with extremely steep topography. It contains the El Tamá páramos (high moors) at an elevation of , Cerro El Cobre at and Cerro Judío at . The mountains are mainly of limestone or sandstone rock, typical of the Guiana Shield. The Tamá National Natural Park contains an waterfall one of the world's highest. The páramos give rise to rivers such as the Carapo, Chiquito, Quinimarí, Quite, Burguita, Burga, Nula, Nulital, Sarare, Cutufí, Oirá, Frío and Negro, which drain into the Orinoco basin or into Lake Maracaibo. The Táchira River, which drains into Lake Maracaibo, forms part of the border between Colombia and Venezuela. Environment Tamá has four types of natural environments: tropical rainforest, sub-Andean forest, Andean forest and páramo. The forests are included in the Venezuelan Andes montane forests ecoregion, which also covers the Venezuelan Andean cordillera. The vegetation between is dense evergreen rainforest of medium height with two or three arboreal strata. There is a well-developed understory and many epiphytes. Forest species include the colorful Lagenanthus princeps. In the páramos the plant species are of the genera Jamesonia, Oreobulus, Castilleja, Gentiana, Halenia, Pinguicula, Utricularia, Castratella and Vaccinium. Mammals include the spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus), tapir, lowland paca (Cuniculus paca), anteater and ocelot (Leopardus pardalis). The endemic wood sprite gracile opossum (Gracilinanus dryas) and Luis Manuel's tailless bat (Anoura luismanueli) are found in both the Andean Cordillera and the Tamá Massif. Restricted range bird species in the Tamá massif include Táchira antpitta (Grallaria chthonia), hooded antpitta (Grallaricula cucullata) and Venezuelan wood quail (Odontophorus columbianus). Tamá harlequin frog and Helena's marsupial frog are endemic to the Páramo de Tamá. Notes Sources Mountain ranges of the Andes Mountain ranges of Venezuela Mountain ranges of Colombia
Tamá Massif
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Pico da Neblina (, Mist Peak) is the highest peak in Brazil, above sea level, in the Serra da Neblina, part of the Serra do Imeri, a section of the Guiana Highlands on the Brazil-Venezuela border. As determined by a border survey expedition in 1962, its summit lies just within Brazilian territory, at a horizontal distance of only from the Venezuelan border at Pico 31 de Março. It is a common misconception to refer to this mountain as the highest point in South America outside the Andes while ignoring the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in Colombia. As the peak's name suggests, it is shrouded in dense clouds most of the time. It was first ascended in 1965 by members of a Brazilian Army expedition. Location Officially, Pico da Neblina is located in the municipality of Santa Isabel do Rio Negro, state of Amazonas. However, the mountain is not directly accessible from the urban seat of the municipality, which is about away, and federal authority over the national park, the Yanomami reservation and the border security area supersedes municipal authority in all practical respects. The nearest city is actually São Gabriel da Cachoeira, about in a straight line, from where virtually all climbing expeditions depart. The mountain is contained in the Brazilian Pico da Neblina National Park; its northern slopes are also protected in Venezuela's Serranía de la Neblina National Park. The twin parks, together with the neighbouring Parima Tapirapecó National Park (Venezuela), form a protected area complex of about 80,000 km², possibly the largest national park system in tropical rainforests in the world. Pico da Neblina is also located within the territory of the Yanomami people's reservation. Common misconceptions Pico da Neblina is often mentioned as being on the exact border between Brazil and Venezuela. This is true for its massif as a whole, but the main summit is wholly in Brazil, 687 metres from the actual border. It is also sometimes mentioned as being the highest point in South America outside of the Andes, but this is not correct either: the title belongs to Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in Colombia, which is almost twice the height of Pico da Neblina and completely detached from the Andes. However, Pico da Neblina is indeed the highest point east of the Andes range, and therefore of a large portion of the continent. Neighbouring Pico 31 de Março, which is on the precise international border, is also the highest point in Venezuela outside of the Andes. Elevation measurements For 39 years, based on an uncontested measurement performed in 1965 by topographer José Ambrósio de Miranda Pombo, using a theodolite, the elevation of Pico da Neblina was thought to be , but a much more accurate measurement performed in 2004 with state-of-the-art GPS equipment by cartographer Marco Aurélio de Almeida Lima, a member of a Brazilian Army expedition, put it at . This was then officially recognised by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), the federal government's official geographic survey
Pico da Neblina
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The Shipton–Tilman Nanda Devi expeditions took place in the 1930s. Nanda Devi is a Himalayan mountain in what was then the Garhwal District in northern India, just west of Nepal, and at one time it was thought to be the highest mountain in the world. Nanda Devi is surrounded by a ring of mountains enclosing the Sanctuary which, despite decades of attempts, no one had been able to enter. In 1934 Eric Shipton, Bill Tilman and their three accomplished Sherpas succeeded in finding a climbing route into the Sanctuary via the Rishi Ganga gorge. Then in 1936 Tilman and Noel Odell, as part of an American–British team, climbed to the summit making Nanda Devi the highest mountain ever to have been climbed at that time. It was only in 1950 that a higher summit was reached when Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal climbed Annapurna. Nanda Devi itself was climbed for the second time in 1964. Summary Except for the Rishi Ganga gorge to the west, Nanda Devi is encircled by a ring of mountains with no col lower than . This mountain chain surrounds and completely encloses the Nanda Devi Sanctuary. Tom Longstaff had reached an eastern col in 1905 and had been able to see into the Sanctuary but he did not try the formidable descent. The immensely deep and narrow gorge by which the Rishi Ganga river drains the Sanctuary had never been ascended despite many attempts. However, before the 1934 monsoon, Shipton and Tilman along with three Sherpas who they regarded as co-climbers – Ang Tharkay, Pasang and Kusang – became the first people to find a way through the gorge and to set foot in the Sanctuary in what has been described as "the most exciting story in the whole saga of mountain discovery". During their retreat from the Sanctuary for the duration of the monsoon, the 1934 expedition continued exploring by crossing the Badrinath–Kedarnath watershed for the first time, a feat that was not repeated until 1998. After the monsoon they again ascended the Rishi Ganga gorge and climbed part way up Nanda Devi's southeast ridge thereby discovering the route to the summit that was to be used in 1936. They left the Sanctuary by traversing a col to the south and making a descent that had previously been thought impossible. In 1936 Nanda Devi became the highest mountain ever to have been climbed when a jointly-led American expedition, which eventually passed the leadership to Bill Tilman, reached its summit by climbing the southeast ridge. Tilman had chosen Charlie Houston and Noel Odell for the summit attempt but mischance led to Tilman rather than Houston partnering Odell to the top. Nanda Devi and Garhwal 19th-century mapping At the beginning of the 19th century geographers generally believed the Andes, thought to be reaching up to about , were the highest mountains in the world. Some Himalayan peaks were measured to be higher although measurements of those in Tibet and Nepal were over very great distances from
Shipton–Tilman Nanda Devi expeditions
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Pichu Pichu is an inactive eroded volcano in the Andes of Peru, with seven summits; the highest reaches a height of . It lies east of the city Arequipa and together with its neighbours Misti and Chachani is part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes. Pichu Pichu was active many millions of years ago, producing ignimbrites and lava flows with andesitic composition. During the last two million years, a gigantic landslide descended the western side of the volcano and left a large scar that runs north to south. Pichu Pichu bore glaciers during the last glacial maximum, which left moraines and other glacial landforms after they retreated. Presently, the mountain is covered with snow only during the summer months, when the monsoon brings precipitation from the Amazon; the last permanent ice disappeared during the last decades. Pichu Pichu is an important source of water for its surroundings. Parts of its flanks are forested, and numerous mammal species have been identified on the mountain. The Inca built a path on to the mountain and offered human sacrifices, capacochas, on Pichu Pichu. Three mummies, two girls and one boy, were discovered between 1960 and 1996 under a platform close to the summit of the volcano. The mountain was considered to be the seat of a deity, and offerings continue to be made to it. Name and climbing The name possibly stems from Quechua , meaning "summit". The duplication indicates that there are multiple summits. Another etymology relates it to , "wooly tuft", reflecting the appearance of the debris pile surrounding the mountain. Thor Heyerdahl linked the word pikopiko to the name Pichu Pichu. An older name of the mountain is "Tunupa". Ascents usually take place in the months between April and November. The easiest to reach summit has an elevation of above sea level. From there, one can see the Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve and the city of Arequipa. Part of the mountain is in the nature reserve. Geography and geomorphology Pichu Pichu is east of and above Arequipa, and the town Chiguata is on its foot, while the town of Chilita and the salt flat Laguna Salinas lie east of the volcano. The frontier between the Arequipa and Moquegua Departments runs over the mountain. The roads between Arequipa and Juliaca and between Arequipa and Matalaque pass around the northern and eastern feet of the volcano, respectively. Together with its neighbours Chachani and Misti, it is part of the Cordillera Occidental at the edge of the Altiplano, and rises abruptly from the surrounding terrain. The volcano consists of a long northnorthwest-southsoutheast trending ridge with seven summits. The highest point () has an altitude of above sea level and a summit cross was placed on it before 1966. It lies at the top of a near-vertical drop. Other summits are (at the northern end of the edifice), (central portion of the ridge) and (southern end of the ridge) high. One of the summits is known as or ; in
Pichu Pichu
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Mount Darwin () is a peak in Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego forming part of the Cordillera Darwin, the southernmost range of the Andes, just to the north of the Beagle Channel. It is 2,438 m (7,999 ft) high. Monte Darwin was for a long time considered as the highest peak in Tierra del Fuego, but that distinction corresponds to a nearby mountain unofficially named Monte Shipton (also somewhat confusingly referred to as Darwin or Agostini-Darwin), which is about high and is located at . Both peaks are best climbed in late December, January, February and March. Monte Shipton was first climbed in 1962 by Eric Shipton, E. Garcia, F. Vivanco and C. Marangunic. Mount Darwin was given its name during the voyage of the Beagle by HMS Beagle's captain Robert FitzRoy to celebrate Charles Darwin's 25th birthday on 12 February 1834. A year earlier FitzRoy had named an expanse of water to the southwest of the mountain the Darwin Sound to commemorate Darwin's quick wit and courage in saving them from being marooned when waves from a mass of ice splitting off a glacier threatened their boats. The mountain is part of Alberto de Agostini National Park. It is formed of crystalline schists and has massive glaciers down its steep southern slopes. References Adrian Desmond and James Moore, Darwin (London: Michael Joseph, the Penguin Group, 1991). External links Mount Darwin, a climbers challenge and the highest peak in Tierra del Fuego Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego Mountains of Chile Mountains of Magallanes Region
Mount Darwin (Andes)
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Nevado Tres Cruces is a massif of volcanic origin in the Andes Mountains on the border of Argentina and Chile. It has two main summits, Tres Cruces Sur at and Tres Cruces Centro at and a third minor summit, Tres Cruces Norte . Tres Cruces Sur is the sixth highest mountain in the Andes. The volcano has an extended history of activity, going back at least 1.5 million years. A number of lava domes surround the complex and a number of craters lie on its summits. The main volcano is of rhyodacitic composition and has generated two major ignimbritic eruptions, one 1.5 million years ago and a second 67,000 years ago. The last eruption was 28,000 years ago, but the volcano is a candidate source for a Holocene eruption and could erupt again in the future. Geography and geomorphology Nevado Tres Cruces is located in the High Andes of Copiapo and straddles the boundary between Chile (Atacama Region) and Argentina (Catamarca Province). The Salar de Maricunga is located west of Nevado Tres Cruces, the Almagro valley north and its tributary the Barrancas Blancas valley northeast of it. The international road between Chile and Argentina from Paso de San Francisco passes north of Nevado Tres Cruces; an unpaved road runs through the Barrancas Blancas valley. The Rio Lomas and Rio Salado originate from its southwestern and southeastern flanks, respectively. The volcano is massive, covering an area of about , and consists of a long and wide north-south trending chain made up of at least three overlapping volcanoes. These volcanoes have diameters of and rise about above the surrounding terrain. The highest summit, and sixth-highest summit of South America, of Nevado Tres Cruces is the high southern summit, which is also the least eroded of the three volcanoes that make up Nevado Tres Cruces. The southern summit consists of two overlapping cones, the western and older one of which has two explosion craters while the eastern one is capped by a summit lava dome. The central volcano reaches an elevation of , has the steepest slopes and is tilted to the west. The northern volcano has a summit elevation of and is capped by a glacially eroded, wide crater. There are two even more minor summits at the north end of the massif, Punta Torre and Punta Atacama . The volcanoes are formed by explosion craters, lava domes including couleés, lava flows, tephra, and base surge and pyroclastic flow deposits. Fallout of explosive eruptions cover the slopes of the southern summit and deposits of a large Plinian eruption and its eruption column cover much of Nevado Tres Cruces and its surroundings. Normal faults cut across the volcanic structures and a north-northwest trending fault system appears to have directed the development of the three volcanoes. Domo del Indio on the southeastern flank is wide and high. Between it and Nevado Tres Cruces lies a wide and deep explosion crater that contains the La Espinilla dome, which is high and wide. Another lava dome
Nevado Tres Cruces
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The Agua Negra Pass (Spanish: Paso de Agua Negra) is a pass over the Andes mountains which connects Argentina and Chile. The highest point of this pass is at AMSL. Agua Negra Tunnel To improve trade between Chile and Argentina, a 14 km, three-bore vehicular tunnel (two for traffic and one for ventilation) below the pass is planned, which will allow year-round traffic. (The pass is closed for much of the winter.) In March 2015, Argentina officially approved the project. It is awaiting ratification from Chile. In 2018, the bidding contest for the tunnel project between construction companies took place. The whole project was budgeted at 1.5 billion dollars. Also planned for the deepest part of the tunnel is the Agua Negra Deep Experiment Site (ANDES) (ANDES): an underground laboratory. Because all currently operating deep underground laboratories are located in the Northern Hemisphere, a Southern Hemisphere site would have some unique benefits: Combined with existing neutrino detectors, a longer baseline would allow more accurate localization of sources in neutrino astronomy, and When searching for dark matter, there is expected to be a seasonal variation due to the Earth's motion around the Sun. But such a signal could also be an error, caused by some subtle seasonal effect. Confirmation from a location with opposite seasons would rule out such an error. ANDES is not expected to be ready before 2027. Gallery See also Elqui Province, Chile San Juan Province, Argentina References Argentina–Chile border crossings Mountain passes of Chile Mountain passes of Argentina Mountain passes of the Andes Landforms of Atacama Region Landforms of Catamarca Province
Agua Negra Pass
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The Antarctandes (Antartandes in Spanish), also known as the Antarctic Peninsula cordillera, is the mountain range that is located on the northern Antarctic Peninsula, in the Graham Land and Palmer Land regions of Antarctica and may also be considered to extend across the continent. Geology Some geologists consider the Antarctandes a southernmost continuation of the Andes Range System on Antarctica. According to this theory the Andes start at the border between Colombia and Venezuela; run along western South America; submerge into the Atlantic Ocean to the east of Tierra del Fuego to form the underwater Scotia Arc mountain range; resurface periodically in the Shag Rocs, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, South Orkney Islands and South Shetland Islands; and finally resurface on the northern Antarctic Peninsula. Chile calls the peninsula Tierra de O'Higgins, and Argentina Tierra de San Martín. Geography The highest mountain of the Peninsular Antarctandes is Mount Hope (3,239 m) in the Eternity Range in Palmer Land. To the southwest, the Antarctandes continue as the Ellsworth Mountains, the highest mountain range in Antarctica and much-covered by glaciers in Palmer Land; then through the Whitmore Mountains to the Queen Maud Mountains. From there, the Antarctandes follow the western coast of the Ross Sea to Cape Adare. The major transcontinental Transantarctic Mountains System shares the Cape Adare to Queen Maud ranges with the Antarctandes but then veers east along the eastern coast of the Weddell Sea. To the southeast of the Antarctic Peninsula, the Antarctic Plateau extends to the South Pole. The Antarctandes thus form a serpentine arc, over 5,000 kilometres long, along the southern rim of the Pacific Ring of Fire. The Peninsular Antarctandes range is claimed by Argentina for Argentine Antarctica, Chile for Chilean Antarctic Territory, and the United Kingdom for the British Antarctic Territory. All these claims are frozen by Article 4 of the 1960s Antarctic Treaty System. See also References Mountain ranges of Graham Land Mountain ranges of Palmer Land Antarctic Peninsula
Antarctandes
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Carirriñe Pass is an international mountain pass in the Andes between Chile and Argentina. The pass connects Coñaripe and Liquiñe in Chile with Junín de los Andes in Argentina. At the site of the pass some of the southernmost Araucaria trees grows. The road is not paved and the pass may be closed most of the year due to snowfalls, minor landslides and rehabilitation. At the highest point the pass reaches . References External links Unidad de Pasos Fronterizos - Gobierno de Chile Gendamería Nacional Argentina - Paso Carirriñe Argentina–Chile border crossings Landforms of Los Ríos Region Landforms of Neuquén Province Mountain passes of the Andes Mountain passes of Argentina Mountain passes of Chile Transport in Los Ríos Region
Carirriñe Pass
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The Cordillera de Mérida is a series of mountain ranges, or massif, in northwestern Venezuela. The Cordillera de Mérida is a northeastern extension of the Andes Mountains and the most important branch of the Venezuelan Andes. The ranges run southwest–northeast between the Venezuelan-Colombian border and the Venezuelan Coastal Ranges. The Táchira depression separates the Cordillera de Mérida from the Cordillera Oriental, which forms the Colombia-Venezuela border. The ranges run from southwest to northeast and parts lie within each of the following states: Táchira, Mérida, Barinas, Trujillo, Portuguesa and Lara. The southeastern slopes are drained by tributaries of the Orinoco River, while the streams that drain the northwestern slopes empty into Lake Maracaibo. At the northeast tip of the massif lies the town of Barquisimeto and the headwaters of the River Cojedes. In the centre of the massif is the city of Mérida. Two ranges of peaks lie on either side of the city, the Sierra de la Culata to the north and Sierra Nevada de Mérida to the south. Pico Bolívar, at 4,981 meters elevation (16,342 feet), is the highest peak in Venezuela. Most of the ranges are covered by Venezuelan Andes montane forests, although the highest elevations (above 3,100 meters) are above tree line. These ranges are home to the Cordillera de Mérida páramo, an enclave of the páramo (tropical alpine grasslands) of the northern Andes. Protected areas in the massif include Sierra Nevada National Park and Sierra La Culata National Park. One glacier, the Humboldt glacier, is located in this mountain range, in which the snowy season is July–August. Snow typically covers the mountains above 4,200 meters, and sometimes above 3,800 meters. External links References Mountain ranges of the Andes Merida Geography of Táchira Geography of Mérida (state) Geography of Barinas (state) Geography of Trujillo (state) Geography of Portuguesa (state) Geography of Lara (state) Páramos Cordilleras
Cordillera de Mérida
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The Andes of Ecuador is an 1855 oil painting by Frederic Edwin Church, the premier American landscape painter of the time. It is the most significant result of his 1853 trip to South America, where he would travel again in 1857. It is Church's first major painting, his largest work to date, and "an early masterpiece of Luminism", according to the Reynolda House Museum of American Art in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, which holds the painting. Background and description The painting is a composite image of different climate zones, from snowy mountains in the distance to grasslands in the mid-ground and tropical flora in the foreground. Church's approach to landscape painting was influenced by Prussian naturalist Alexander von Humboldt, who wrote of his travels in South America and exhorted painters to capture the beauty of the New World. Around the Chota Valley, Humboldt marvelled at the Andes' "symmetrical disposition in two lines from north to south", and noted that a plateau rather than a valley separated them. Thus the mountains in The Andes of Ecuador—probably Tungurahua at left and Cotopaxi at right—are arranged along two lines that would converge near the painting's center. The plateau is a strong horizontal line just beneath that point. Humboldt encouraged painters to make sketches in the field, a practice not then common, and this painting shows the influence of Church's sketches in northern Ecuador and southern Colombia. In 1859, after his second trip south, Church painted his monumental The Heart of the Andes, another composite of South American landscapes and a re-interpretation of Humboldt's aesthetic ideas. The Andes of Ecuador depicted little tropical flora and its details were subdued by the strong light. (A contemporary critic in Harper's Weekly commented that "all detail, all shape [is] lost in the vastness of the gorges".) It excluded Chimborazo, the Ecuadorian mountain then thought to be the world's highest. In the 1859 painting, Church more clearly cataloged the diversity of plants and topography, culminating in Chimborazo, and used a more naturalistic lighting. The Andes of Ecuador retains some of the influence of Church's teacher, Thomas Cole. Cole believed that details should be limited in the search for a general, sublime effect. Although the painting is highly detailed throughout, the strong light of the Sun subordinates these details, providing the overall effect that Cole espoused. (This would not be the case in The Heart of the Andes, which is given over to detail.) The sunlight casts the whole image in its radiance, making the distant mountains faint and creating shadows on the small foreground details like the grazing llamas. The painting of the Sun is noticeably built up in oils of white and yellow, in contrast to the smoothness of the other areas. Any criticism of the painting likely opined that the lighting was too strong. Themes Church, like Cole, continued to evoke Christian themes in his landscapes. Two small staffage figures visit a stone cross near the palm trees at bottom left, and a red-roofed Spanish mission appears
The Andes of Ecuador
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Huascarán National Park () is a Peruvian national park that comprises most of the mountain range known as Cordillera Blanca (the world's highest tropical mountain range) which is part of the central Andes, in the region of Ancash. The park covers an area of and is managed by the Peruvian Network of Protected Natural Areas, or SERNANP (Servicio Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas). It was designated as a World Heritage Site in 1985 by UNESCO, is also a well-known mountaineering spot, and harbors a unique biodiversity with plant species such as the Queen of the Andes, trees of the genera Polylepis and Buddleja, and animals such as spectacled bears, condors, vicunas, and tarucas. The park is approximately long from north to south and averages about in width. The western slope of the Cordillera Blanca drains to the Pacific Ocean via the Santa River and the eastern slopes drain to the Marañón River and ultimately to the Amazon River and the Atlantic Ocean. History Official efforts to protect this area started in 1960, when Senator Augusto Guzmán Robles presented a bill to the Peruvian Congress for the creation of Huascarán National Park. In 1963, the Forestry and Hunting Service (Servicio Forestal y de Caza) presented a preliminary project for the delimitation of the Cordillera Blanca National Park, covering an area of . On 18 February 1966, a government resolution prohibiting the logging and hunting of native species in the area of the Cordillera Blanca was issued. Later that year, the Patronage of Huascarán National Park was formed in Yungay. In 1967, Curry Slaymaker and Joel Albrecht, Peace Corps volunteers, formulated delimitation proposal on an area of ; and simultaneously, the Forest Regional Service of Huaraz established the vicuña and queen-of the-Andes surveillance zone for an area of approximately . Finally, on 1 July 1975, Huascarán National Park was created by decree No. 0622-75-AG, with an extension of . Definite delimitation of Huascarán National Park was possible through the reversion of land to state control by means of compensated land expropriation. The park's boundaries avoided the inclusion of settlements when possible, but several communities continue to raise livestock, although park authorities try to regulate the practice. In 1977, UNESCO recognized Huascarán National Park as a Biosphere Reserve, which covers the Santa River valley, well beyond the park's boundaries, encompassing many villages and towns. In 1985 the park was declared a World Heritage Site. Geography Huascarán National Park protects the Cordillera Blanca, which is the world's highest tropical mountain range. Located in the central Peruvian Andes, the park's cover an elevational range from around to the several snow-capped peaks above . Among those peaks are Huascarán (Peru's highest at ), Huandoy, Copa, Huantsán and many others. Other geographical features inside the park include: U-shaped valleys, 660 tropical glaciers (the largest glaciated area in the tropics), 300 glacial lakes and high plateaus intersected by ravines with torrential creeks. Climate The climate in the park has two well defined seasons: a rainy season from December
Huascarán National Park
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The puna grassland ecoregion, of the montane grasslands and shrublands biome, is found in the central Andes Mountains of South America. It is considered one of the eight Natural Regions in Peru, but extends south, across Chile, Bolivia, and western northwest Argentina. The term puna encompasses diverse ecosystems of the high Central Andes above 3200–3400 m. Location The puna is found above the treeline at 3200–3500 m elevation, and below the permanent snow line above 4500–5000 m elevation. It extends from central Peru in the north, across the Altiplano plateau of Peru, Chile and Bolivia, and south along the spine of the Andes into northwest Argentina. Other sources claim that it goes on Suni (high plateaus and cliffs, some agriculture) and from 4000 m to the snow line (permafrost and alpine desert) of puna grassland (mountain tops and slopes, much colder). Ecoregions The puna is a diverse ecosystem that comprises varied ecoregions labeled wet/moist puna, dry puna and desert puna. Wet/moist puna (Central Andean wet puna) This ecoregion is a high elevation, wet, montane grassland in the southern high Andes, occurring from northern Peru to northern Bolivia. The wet puna shares its border on the west with the Sechura desert and the east with the wet Peruvian Yungas. The characteristically mountainous landscape contains high lakes, mountain valleys, snow-covered mountains, and plateaux. The high elevation of the wet puna (4200 to 5000 m) causes the area to have large temperature differences between night and day. The average annual temperature is low, ranging from 5 to 7 °C; with night frost periods from March to October. Temperatures shift from characteristic summer highs in the day and drop to winter lows at night. This extreme temperature shift has caused selective adaptation to occur and many endemic plants such as the Culcitium, Perezia, and Polylepis center their diversity in the wet puna. The ecoregion contains snow-capped peaks, glacial lakes, and several rivers that originate in the Cordilleras. The biggest lake in the ecoregion is Lake Titicaca, which is the highest navigable lake in the world, at an elevation of 3800 m (above sea level). The Suches and Tiwanacu rivers in Bolivia are the lakes tributaries. The areas in the north surrounding Lake Titicaca have eight wet months, and the areas in the south have one to two wet months. The average precipitation in this region ranges from 400 to 2000 mm. Dry puna (Central Andean dry puna) This ecoregion is a very dry, high elevation montane grassland of the southern high Andes. It extends into northern Chile and northwest Argentina and east into western Bolivia occurring above 3500 m between the tree and permanent snow lines. The vegetation of the dry puna consists of tropical alpine herbs with dwarf shrubs. Within the dry puna are salt flats, high plateaus, snow-covered peaks and volcanoes. Dry puna is distinguished from the other types of puna by its diminished annual rainfall. The dry puna has an 8-month long dry season and receives less than 400 mm of
Puna grassland
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Sierra Nevada, also known as Sierra Nevada de Lagunas Bravas, is a major ignimbrite-lava dome complex which lies in both Chile and Argentina in one of the most remote parts of the Central Andes. Activity in the complex started in Argentina and formed two stratovolcanoes. Later, 12 or more vents formed, some with craters up to wide. Lava flows up to long with flow ridges are also found. It covers a total area of 225 km2. Radiometric dating has yielded ages of 1.7 ± 0.4 to 0.431 ± 0.012 million years ago, a lava flow from the neighbouring Azufrera Los Cuyanos volcano that is sometimes considered part of Sierra Nevada is 140,000 years old. Together with Cerro el Condor and Peinado it forms the Culampaja line, a line of volcanoes that reaches Cerro Blanco. Strong seismic attenuation is observed beneath Sierra Nevada. Hydrothermally altered rocks in Sierra Nevada may be the source of sulfate and arsenic in the Juncalito and Negro rivers, and heat sources for regional hot springs. The snowline in the area lies at altitude at Cumbre del Laudo. First Ascent Sierra Nevada's main summit was one of the last 6000 metre peaks climbed in the Andes. It was thought that its secondary summit, , which sits on the border, was the highest. New measurements however show that the main summit is entirely in Argentina, 2.6 kilometres east. The complex has 9 main summits. See also List of volcanoes in Argentina List of volcanoes in Chile Notes References Sources (in Spanish; also includes volcanoes of Argentina, Bolivia, and Peru) Volcanoes of Atacama Region Stratovolcanoes of Chile Complex volcanoes Subduction volcanoes Volcanoes of Argentina Mountains of Chile Mountains of Argentina Polygenetic volcanoes Argentina–Chile border International mountains of South America Landforms of Catamarca Province Six-thousanders of the Andes
Sierra Nevada de Lagunas Bravas
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The Venezuelan Andes (Spanish: Andes Venezolanos) also simply known as the Andes (Spanish: Los Andes) in Venezuela, are a mountain system that form the northernmost extension of the Andes. They are fully identified, both by their geological origin as by the components of the relief, the constituent rocks and the geological structure. The Venezuelan Andean system represents the terminal bifurcation of the Cordillera Oriental de Colombia, which in Venezuelan territory consists of two mountainous branches: the Sierra de Perijá, smaller, slightly displaced from southwest to northeast with 7,500 km2 in Venezuela; and a larger, frankly oriented Southwest to northeast with about 40,000 km2, the Cordillera de Mérida, commonly known as the proper Venezuelan Andes. The highest point in Venezuela is located in this natural region. It covers around 5.2% of the national territory, being the 4th largest natural region in Venezuela. Geography Venezuelan Andes can be divided in two sections: Cordillera de Mérida: covering almost all the territory of Táchira, Mérida and Trujillo states, the southern area of Lara, and portions of higher areas on the western side of Barinas, Apure and Portuguesa states. It can be divided in three subregions: Western Venezuelan Andes (Macizo del Tamá, Páramos Batallón y La Negra). Central Venezuelan Andes (Macizo del Sur, Sierra Nevada de Mérida, Sierra de la Culata, Sierra de Santo Domingo). North-Eastern Venezuelan Andes (Sierra de Trujillo, Sierra de Portuguesa, Lara Andes) Sierra de Perijá: located at the western extreme of Venezuela in Zulia state, bordering Colombia. Geology They have a common geological origin, which dates back to the Eocene period of the early Tertiary era, about 40-50 million years ago, coincides with the beginning of the contact of the three tectonic plates (Nazca, Caribbean and South American) that began their orographic rise. Before the rise of the current Venezuelan Andes, between the Cambrian and Silurian periods, the so-called primitive Andes emerged, which already for the Triassic period (Mesozoic era) had been almost completely flattened because of the intense erosive process to which were subjected. Quaternary tectonics It's characterized by the interaction of the three most important lithospheric plates in the region: Nazca, Caribbean and South American. A northwest-southwest oriented direction of compression produces vertical and horizontal deformation components, with the formation of thrusts align the Andean borders, and strike-slip faults. The split of Venezuelan Andes apparently began in the Late Eocene, and its present height was probably attained before the Quaternary. During the Quaternary. the main active structures are the strike-slip faults. the principal one being the Boconó Fault Zone, with a measured dextral displacement of several millimeters per year. In the field this displacement is shown by the existence of fault trenches, fault depressions, sag ponds, offset ridges and lateral moraines. Glacial geology Like all tropical mountain ranges with altitudes above 3,000 m, the Venezuelan Andes were affected by Pleistocene glaciations. Late Pleistocene glaciation Two morainic complexes have been recognized in the Cordillera de Mérida: one between 2,600 and 2,800 m altitude, and another one between 2,900 and 3,500
Venezuelan Andes
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A mountain range or hill range is a series of mountains or hills arranged in a line and connected by high ground. A mountain system or mountain belt is a group of mountain ranges with similarity in form, structure, and alignment that have arisen from the same cause, usually an orogeny. Mountain ranges are formed by a variety of geological processes, but most of the significant ones on Earth are the result of plate tectonics. Mountain ranges are also found on many planetary mass objects in the Solar System and are likely a feature of most terrestrial planets. Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys. Individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology. They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes, for example thrust sheets, uplifted blocks, fold mountains, and volcanic landforms resulting in a variety of rock types. Major ranges Most geologically young mountain ranges on the Earth's land surface are associated with either the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide belt. The Pacific Ring of Fire includes the Andes of South America, extends through the North American Cordillera, the Aleutian Range, on through Kamchatka Peninsula, Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, to New Zealand. The Andes is long and is often considered the world's longest mountain system. The Alpide belt stretches 15,000 km across southern Eurasia, from Java in Maritime Southeast Asia to the Iberian Peninsula in Western Europe, including the ranges of the Himalayas, Karakoram, Hindu Kush, Alborz, Caucasus, and the Alps. The Himalayas contain the highest mountains in the world, including Mount Everest, which is high. Mountain ranges outside these two systems include the Arctic Cordillera, Appalachians, Great Dividing Range, East Siberians, Altais, Scandinavians, Qinling, Western Ghats, Vindhyas, Byrrangas, and the Annamite Range. If the definition of a mountain range is stretched to include underwater mountains, then the Ocean Ridge forms the longest continuous mountain system on Earth, with a length of . Climate The position of mountain ranges influences climate, such as rain or snow. When air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools, producing orographic precipitation (rain or snow). As the air descends on the leeward side, it warms again (following the adiabatic lapse rate) and is drier, having been stripped of much of its moisture. Often, a rain shadow will affect the leeward side of a range. As a consequence, large mountain ranges, such as the Andes, compartmentalize continents into distinct climate regions. Erosion Mountain ranges are constantly subjected to erosional forces which work to tear them down. The basins adjacent to an eroding mountain range are then filled with sediments that are buried and turned into sedimentary rock. Erosion is at work while the mountains are being uplifted until the mountains are reduced to low hills and plains. The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example. As the uplift was occurring some of mostly Mesozoic sedimentary
Mountain range
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The Sierras de Córdoba is a mountain range in central Argentina, located between the Pampas to the east and south and the Chaco to the north and east. Most of the range is located in Córdoba Province, except for the southwestern margin which is in San Luis Province. The Sierras de Córdoba are part of the Sierras Pampeanas, a group of mountain ranges which extend north and south on the eastern side of the Andes. The Sierras de Córdoba are covered in dry forests, grasslands, woodlands, and shrublands, and are home to rare and endemic species of plants and animals. Parts of the Sierras have long been used for extensive cattle grazing, which has transformed the mountains' ecology. Other economic activities include tourism and winegrowing. Geography The Sierras de Cordoba extend about 430 km from south to north, from 29º S to 33º 30’ S. They consist of four sub-ranges, the Sierras del Norte, Sierras Chicas, Sierras Grandes, and Cumbres de Gaspar. The range has a largely rounded contour. The highest peak in the Sierras de Córdoba is Mount Champaquí (2880 m) in the Sierras Grandes. The northern part, known as the Sierras del Norte, is considerably lower and less rugged. The Sierras Chicas extend along the east, rising above the eastern plains and the city of Córdoba. The Sierras Grandes lie west of the Sierras Chicas, and include the highest peaks. The Cumbres de Gaspar lie west of the Sierras Chicas and north of the Sierras Grandes. The Sierras de Comechingones are a southern extension of the Sierras Grandes. A dry plateau lies to the west, between the Sierras and the Andes. There are numerous springs and streams along the range. Most drain into salt lakes, including Mar Chiquita to the northeast and Salinas Grandes and Salinas de Ambargasta on the plateau to the west. The Quinto River drains the southern portion of the Sierras. The Tercero River originates on the eastern slope of the central Sierras, and drains eastwards through the Espinal to empty into the Paraná River. Geology The Sierras de Córdoba are much older than the Andes, having been formed in the Paleozoic and extensively eroded. The mountains, when first built, formed the boundary between Gondwana and the then-expanding Pacific Ocean. They consist chiefly of metamorphic rocks such as quartzite, which were formed when large quantities of marine sediment were subject to enormous heat and pressure. In the Ordovician, there was extremely intense volcanism over the region, almost all of which is now completely eroded. The Sierras de Córdoba where the effects of the ancient Pampean orogeny can be observed, owes it modern uplift and relief to the Andean orogeny in the Tertiary. Climate At lower elevations, the Sierra de Córdoba has a warm temperate climate (Köppen Cwa), with hot, wet summers with frequent thunderstorms and mild, dry winters. Average annual rainfall at Córdoba is about 715mm (28 inches) but is highly variable. On the eastern side of the Sierra, rainfall can be as high as
Sierras de Córdoba
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Polylepis is a genus comprising 28 recognised shrub and tree species, that are endemic to the mid- and high-elevation regions of the tropical Andes. This group is unique in the rose family in that it is predominantly wind-pollinated. They are usually gnarled in shape, but in certain areas some trees are 15–20 m tall and have 2 m-thick trunks. The foliage is evergreen, with dense small leaves, and often having large amounts of dead twigs hanging down from the underside of the canopy. The name Polylepis is, in fact, derived from the Greek words poly (many) plus letis (layers), referring to the shredding, multi-layered bark that is common to all species of the genus. The bark is thick and rough and densely layered for protection against low temperatures. Some species of Polylepis form woodlands growing well above normal tree line within grass and scrub associations at elevations over 5000 m; which makes Polylepis appear to be the highest naturally occurring arboraceous angiosperm genus in the world. Classification/taxonomy The genus Polylepis contains about twenty species that are distributed across the Andes. It is in the rose family, Rosaceae. The genus belongs to the tribe Sanguisorbeae, which mainly comprises herbs and small shrubs. Although the relationship of Polylepis to other genera of Sanguisorbeae is largely unknown, the analysis of Torsten Eriksson et al. (2003) showed evidence of a close relationship between Polylepis and Acaena, which shows tendencies towards having fused stipular sheaths, reddish, flaking-off bark, and axillary, somewhat pendant inflorescences, features otherwise characteristic of Polylepis. There are several characteristics that are important taxonomically to distinguish between species of Polylepis, for example: 1) The amount of leaf congestion, 2) presence or absence of spurs and their size and vestiture, 3) presence or absence and type of trichomes, (4) size, shape, thickness and vestiture of leaflets. The most important taxonomic character, however, is the leaflets. Studies suggest that repeated fragmentation and reconnection of páramo vegetation, caused by the Pleistocene climatic fluctuations, had a strong influence on the evolution and speed of speciation in the genus Polylepis as well as the páramo biota as a whole. Species Habitat and distribution Tree species in the genus Polylepis are confined to the high tropical South American Andes Mountains, with the most abundant concentrations of Polylepis ranging from northern Venezuela to northern Chile and adjacent Argentina. One known group of extra-tropical populations of Polylepis is distributed in the mountains of Northwestern Argentina. Most species of Polylepis grow best at high elevations between 3500 and 5000 meters. However, there are occurrences of species at altitudes as low as 1800 meters. These low altitude species are mixed with montane forest which indicates that components of the genus could have been present in western South America during the Miocene Period or even earlier. It is extremely rare for tree species to live at such altitudes, making Polylepis one of the highest naturally occurring trees along with the conifers of the Himalayan Mountains. Polylepis racemosa grows as shrubby trees on steep, rocky
Polylepis
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The Nupe is a small river in the Huánuco Region in Peru. It rises in the Cordillera Huayhuash and joins the Lauricocha River forming what is then called the Marañón River, one of the two largest upstream contributors to the Amazon River. The headwaters of the Nupe have been proposed as one of the sources of the Amazon. The source of the Nupe River is Quesillococha lake () at an elevation of . The lake is at the foot of the Saropo Este glacier on the lower slopes of Siula Grande mountain, elevation , one of the highest peaks in the Cordillera Huayhuash of the Andes. Upstream tributaries of the Nupe also flow from the glaciers below Yerupajá, elevation, the second-highest mountain in Peru. The Nupe has a length of before joining the Lauricocha River near the village of Rondos. The elevation at the junction of the rivers is . The headwaters of the Marañon, especially Lauricocha Lake and river, were long considered the source of the Amazon. However, in the late 19th century, an Italian-born Peruvian geographer and scientist Antonio Raimondi proposed that the Nupe River, which he said was longer and more voluminous than the Lauricocha River, is the main head stream. Other sources at the headwaters of the Apurimac and Mantaro rivers have since been proposed as the source of the Amazon. Several villages are located along the course of the Nupe River, the largest being Queropalca with a population of 779 in 2017 and Baños with a population of 975 in 2017. Rondos, near the junction of the Nupe and Lauricocha, had a population of 709 in 2017. The major north-south Inca road, the Qhapaq Ňan, which ran from Cuzco to Quito, Ecuador, crossed the Nupe River on a bridge, no longer in existence, north of the town of Baños. The remnants of the road and a hot spring, enclosed by a rock wall built during the Inca period, are near the crossing. References Rivers of Peru Rivers of Huánuco Region Upper Amazon
Nupe River
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Chimborazo () is an inactive stratovolcano situated in the Cordillera Occidental range of the Andes. Its last known eruption is believed to have occurred around 550 A.D. Although not the tallest mountain in the Andes or on Earth relative to sea level, its summit is the farthest point on Earth's surface from the Earth's center, due to its location along the planet's equatorial bulge. Chimborazo's height is 6,263 m (20,548 ft), well below that of Mount Everest (8,849 m). Chimborazo is the highest mountain in Ecuador and the 39th highest peak in the entire Andes. It is a popular destination for mountaineering due to its challenging climbing routes, which involve traversing snow, ice, and rocky terrain. Etymology Several theories regarding the origin of the name Chimborazo exist. In many dialects of Quechua, "chimba" means "on the other side" as in "on the other side of the river" or "on the opposite bank." Other dialects pronounce this word "chimpa." Also, "razu" means "ice" or "snow." Local Quichua speakers say that Chimborazo is a Hispanicized pronunciation of "chimbarazu", meaning "the snow on the other side." Another theory suggests it is a combination of the Cayapa Schingbu for Women and the Colorado/Quichua Razo for Ice/Snow resulting in Women of Ice. According to another, Chimbo is Jívaro for Throne of Master/God resulting in Icethrone of God. The locals also used to call the mountain Urcurazu, with the Quichua Urcu for Mountain resulting in Mountain of Ice. In local indigenous mysticism, Chimborazo represents Taita (Father) whereas neighbouring Tungurahua is seen as Mama, and Guagua (Child) for Pichincha hence Taita Chimborazo, Mama Tungurahua and Guagua Pichincha. Geography Location Chimborazo is in the Chimborazo Province of Ecuador, south-southwest of the city of Quito, Ecuador. It is a neighbor to high Carihuairazo. Chimborazo's summit rises above the surrounding highlands (~) with a ≈ wide base. Under clear conditions, the summit of Chimborazo can be seen from the coastal city Guayaquil, nearly away. The nearest cities are Riobamba (~30 km to the southeast), Ambato (~30 km to the northeast) and Guaranda (~25 km to the southwest). Chimborazo is surrounded by the Reserva de Producción Faunistica Chimborazo, which forms a protected ecosystem to preserve the habitat for the Andes native camelids of vicuña, llama and alpaca. Chimborazo is at the main end of the Ecuadorian Volcanic Arc, north west of the town of Riobamba. Chimborazo is in la Avenida de los Volcanes (the Avenue of Volcanoes) west of the Sanancajas mountain chain. Carihuairazo, Tungurahua, Tulabug, and El Altar are all mountains that neighbor Chimborazo. The closest mountain peak, Carihuairazo, is from Chimborazo. There are many microclimates near Chimborazo, varying from desert in the Arenal to the humid mountains in the Abraspungo valley. Glaciers The top of Chimborazo is completely covered by glaciers, with some north-eastern glacier arms flowing down to 4,600 m. Its glacier is the source of water for the population of the Bolivar and Chimborazo provinces of Ecuador. Chimborazo glacier's ice mass has decreased over the past decades,
Chimborazo
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Hua Hum Pass ( ) is an international mountain pass in the Andes between Chile and Argentina. The pass takes its name from the Hua Hum River that flows from Argentina into Chile at the site of the border crossing. Even though the pass does not go through the continental divide, it crosses the highest peaks of the cordillera. Geography The Hua Hum Pass is one of the lowest passes of the southern Andes at 685 meters above sea level, which means that unlike other nearby Chile-Argentina passes it never closes due to snow fall and is open year-round. The pass is used primarily for tourism as the Chilean 203-CH road is interrupted by Pirihueico Lake. A ferry equipped to transport vehicles as well as people may be taken to Puerto Fuy, on the other side of Pirihueico Lake. The ferry ride lasts approximately 2 hours. It is the main pass of the Chilean Los Ríos Region to Neuquén Province in Argentina. The main cities on both sides of the pass are Panguipulli in Chile and San Martín de los Andes (45 km from the pass in Argentina). External links Official site of Hua Hum Pass by Argentine National Gendarmerie Mountain passes of Chile Mountain passes of Argentina Mountain passes of the Andes Landforms of Los Ríos Region Landforms of Neuquén Province Argentina–Chile border crossings Transport in Los Ríos Region
Hua Hum Pass
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Salcantay, Salkantay or Sallqantay (in Quechua) is the highest peak in the Vilcabamba mountain range, part of the Peruvian Andes. It is located in the Cusco Region, about west-northwest of the city of Cusco. It is the 38th-highest peak in the Andes and the twelfth-highest in Peru. However, as a range highpoint in deeply incised terrain, it is the second most topographically prominent peak in the country, after Huascarán. Salcantay's proximity to Machu Picchu makes trekking around it an alternative to the oversubscribed Inca Trail; this is known as the Salkantay trek. History The name Salkantay is from sallqa, a Quechua word meaning wild, uncivilized, savage, or invincible, and was recorded as early as 1583. The name is thus often translated as "Savage Mountain". Directly to the north of Salkantay lies Machu Picchu, which is at the end of a ridge that extends down from this mountain. Viewed from Machu Picchu's main sundial, the Southern Cross is above Salkantay's summit when at its highest point in the sky during the rainy season. The Incas associated this alignment with concepts of rain and fertility, and considered Salkantay to be one of the principal deities controlling weather and fertility in the region west of Cuzco. Mountaineering Salcantay is a large, steep peak with great vertical relief, particularly above the low valleys to the north, which are tributaries of the Amazon River. The standard route on the mountain is the Northeast ridge. Accessing the route typically involves three days of travel from Cusco. The climb involves about of vertical gain, on glaciers, snow, ice, and some rock. Mountaineering history Salcantay was first climbed in 1952 by a French-American expedition comprising Fred D. Ayres, David Michael Jr., John C. Oberlin, W. V. Graham Matthews, Austen F. Riggs, George Irving Bell, Claude Kogan, M. Bernard Pierre, and Jean Guillemin. All except Oberlin, Riggs, and Guillemin reached the summit. Two years later Fritz Kasparek fell through a cornice near the summit on the NE ridge. On June 17, 2013, Nathan Heald (USA), Thomas Ryan (USA), and Luis Crispin (Peru) made the summit at 10:30 am after nine hours of climbing from a high camp at 5,500 m. on the NE ridge. This makes Crispin the first Peruvian climber to summit the mountain. The team took a reading of 6,279 m, S 13° 20.027’, W 72° 32.596’, on a GPS device. On July 31, 2013 a second team led by Nathan Heald (USA), consisting of James Lissy (USA) and Edwin Espinoza Sotelo (Peru) made the summit by the NE ridge. This makes Heald the only person to have summited the mountain twice. Due to glacial retreat, the route is now calculated to be graded D on the French adjectival scale. See also Padreyoc or Quishuar List of mountains in Peru, all peaks above 6,000 metres References Further reading – Also stored at List of mountains in Peru. Mountains of Peru Mountains of Cusco Region Six-thousanders of the Andes
Salcantay
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Chachani is a volcanic group in southern Peru, northwest of the city of Arequipa. Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, it is above sea level. It consists of several lava domes and individual volcanoes such as Nocarane, along with lava shields such as the Airport Domes. Underneath Chachani lies a caldera. During the Pliocene and early Pleistocene, the volcanic group produced large ignimbrites such as the La Joya, Arequipa Airport and Yura Tuff ignimbrites; afterwards the volcanic group proper grew in the caldera until about 56,500 years ago. There have not been any eruptions during historical time, but the volcano is considered to be only dormant and due to its closeness to the city of Arequipa is considered high risk. Name The name means "brave" in Aymara or "mountain of man"/"mountain of male"; alternative spellings "Cacheni" and "Charchani" are also known. Geography and geomorphology The volcano lies in the Andes of southern Peru, northwest of Arequipa and north of the Arequipa Airport; the city of Arequipa is situated on the foot of Chachani and El Misti volcanoes. The road from Arequipa to Chivay runs along the southeastern foot of Chachani, and a dirt road reaches to an elevation of . It is considered to be one of the most easily climbed mountains between 6,000 - 7,000 m high, although acclimatization and good physical health are required to ascend it. In the late 19th century, the good sight from Chachani was remarked upon. Politically, it lies in the Cayma, Yura and Cerro Colorado districts. Volcanoes in the southern part of Peru include from north to south Auquihuato, Firura, Coropuna, Andagua volcanic field, Sabancaya, Ampato, Chachani, El Misti, Pichu Pichu, Ubinas which has erupted intermittently since 1954, Huaynaputina where a large eruption occurred in 1600, Ticsani, Tutupaca, Yucamane and Casiri. Some of these volcanoes are among the highest in the world, and on average, there is one eruption of a Peruvian volcano every 13 years. The Peruvian volcanoes are part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, one of three separate volcanic belts in that mountain chain; the Central Volcanic Zone contains 44 named stratovolcanoes. Chachani is an about high and wide complex of lava domes, stratovolcanoes and volcanic cones; the highest summit is high, making Chachani the 84th highest peak in the Andes. The Chachani complex has an arcuate shape encompassing both the main Chachani volcano and the high Nocarane to the north of Chachani, while the high La Horqueta together with El Rodado to its west and Chachani proper to its east forms an east–west trending ridge. La Horqueta has a young appearance and resembles an ash cone with a crater. Additional peaks are the northerly high los Ángeles and the southeasterly high Trigo. In total, Chachani is made up of more than 12 edifices. The Colorado lava domes which are also known as Cerro Penones in turn are located northwest from Nocarane. To the south of Chachani lie the Airport Domes, a wide lava shield
Chachani
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The Tropical Andes is northern of the three climate-delineated parts of the Andes, the others being the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes. The Tropical Andes' area spans . Geography and ecology The Tropical Andes are located in South America following the path of the Andes. They run, mainly, through five countries, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. The land initially was roughly but has decreased to , leaving 25% of the original land. Due to the massive amount of area the landscape is diverse. Diverse landscapes lead to diverse habitats and the ability to provide needed resources for many species. The diverse landscape includes snow-topped mountains down to canyons and valleys. The different vegetation as elevation changes includes tropical rainforests at , cloud forests ranging from , and the highest elevations of contain grasslands up to snow. The most diverse cloud forests found in Peru and Bolivia covers . Dry forests and woodlands are also found throughout the Tropical Andes. The range is also home to the deepest gorge in Peru at deep and Lake Titicaca, the highest navigable water with an elevation of . Biodiversity The Tropical Andes are a biodiversity hotspot named the "global epicentre of biodiversity" according to the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund. The Tropical Andes is an area of rich biodiversity. This location contains about 45,000 plant species of which 20,000 are endemic. There are over 3,000 vertebrate species with about 1,500 endemics. Besides plants and vertebrates, 1,666 bird species, 479 reptile species, and 830 amphibian species reside in the Tropical Andes. All hotspots are important for conservation biology, but especially the tropical Andes with so many endemic species. The biodiversity within the Tropical Andes is dwindling in numbers due to threats. The diversity of vegetation at different elevations was further studied in Colombia. Chengyu Weng studied how pollen diversity is affected by different temperatures due to changing elevation. The team studied different vegetation, the subandean forest, Andean forest, subparamo, and grass paramo located in the Andes. There was more plant diversity as elevation increased throughout the vegetations. Pollen diversity positively correlated with more diversity at lower elevation. With these findings, they were able to see changes in plant diversity in the past 430000 years. During hot temperatures, pollen diversity increased at higher elevations, from plant species moving up. Cooler temperatures saw pollen diversity in lower elevations. The study explains how temperature influences plant diversity. Ecoregions The ecoregions in the hotspot include: Cordillera de la Costa montane forests (Venezuela) Venezuelan Andes montane forests (Venezuela) Cordillera Oriental montane forests (Colombia, Venezuela) Santa Marta páramo (Colombia) Santa Marta montane forests (Colombia) Northern Andean páramo (Colombia, Ecuador) Magdalena Valley montane forests (Colombia) Northwestern Andean montane forests (Colombia, Ecuador) Cauca Valley montane forests (Colombia) Cauca Valley dry forests (Colombia) Magdalena Valley dry forests (Colombia) Patía Valley dry forests (Colombia) Eastern Cordillera Real montane forests (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru) Marañón dry forests (Peru) Peruvian Yungas (Peru) Cordillera Central páramo (Peru) Central Andean wet puna (Bolivia, Peru) Central Andean puna (Bolivia, Peru)
Tropical Andes
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Tourism in Bolivia is one of the economic sectors of the country. According to data from the National Institute of Statistics of Bolivia (INE), there were over 1.24 million tourists that visited the country in 2020, making Bolivia the ninth most visited country in South America. the Bolivia is a country with great tourism potential, with many attractions, due to its diverse culture, geographic regions, rich history and food. In particular, the salt flats at Uyuni are a major attraction. World Heritage Site In the country there are six World Heritages declared by the UNESCO: The ruins of the city of Tiwanaku, capital of the 6th-century empire that ruled the southern Andes The city of Potosí, historic city known for its religious and civic monuments and Cerro Rico The Amazon, a large rainforest and sanctuary for wildlife. Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, representative place of the Amazon and its immense biodiversity, located on a large plateau, covered by vast forests and magnificent waterfalls. Madidi National Park, the most diverse place in Bolivia, declared by National Geographic to be one of the 20 best places to visit in the world. Toro Toro National Park, where found paleontological wealth (thousands of dinosaurs footprints), caves, waterfalls, rock paintings and other places of interest are. The Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos, the only active missions of all of South America. The Fort Samaipata, the big rock carved by the Incas in the foothills of the Andes as the limit of his empire. The Carnival of Oruro,a festival in which Catholicism is mixed with paganism. Destination Lake Titicaca, the world's highest navigable lake. The Isla del Sol, the sacred place of the Incas and birthplace of the founders of the Inca Empire, Manco Cápac and Mama Ocllo The Isla de la Luna, another sacred place of the Incas near the Isla del Sol. Copacabana, a small town on the shores of Titicaca, home to the Virgin of Copacabana, crowned queen of Bolivia. The Andes, the longest mountain range in the world, spanning the entire continent, and has exceptionally attractive regions: The ski slope containing the highest restaurant in the world, called Chacaltaya. The highest mountain in the country: Nevado Sajama, with the highest forest in the world. The salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa, the largest salt flats in the world. Bolivia also is the only country in the world in having the only hotel totally fabricated of salt, found in the Uyuni. The lakes Green lake and Red Lagoon, the sanctuary of the Andean flamingos with one of the largest active volcanoes in the world, the Licancabur. The historic cities of: Potosí with its Cerro Rico, formerly the largest deposit of silver in the world. Sucre, the constitutional capital city of Bolivia, and The City of Four Names, which is home to one of the oldest universities in the Americas. Cal Orcko is a paleontological site, found in the quarry of a cement factory, in the Department of Chuquisaca. Casa de la Libertad, where the
Tourism in Bolivia
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The Cordillera Occidental () is the lowest in elevation of the three branches of the Colombian Andes. The average altitude is and the highest peak is Cerro Tatamá at . The range extends from south to north dividing from the Colombian Massif in Nariño Department, passes north through Cauca, Valle del Cauca, Risaralda, Chocó, and Caldas Departments to the Paramillo Massif in Antioquia and Córdoba Departments. The cordillera is paralleled on the east by the Cauca river. From this massif the range divides further to form the Serranías de Ayapel, San Jerónimo and Abibe. Only to recede into the Caribbean plain and the Sinú River valley. It is a direct continuation of Cordillera Occidental of Ecuador. Geography The western part of the mountain range belongs to the Pacific region of Colombia, with the San Juan River being the main watershed, while the eastern part belongs to the Cauca River basin. The northern and northwestern parts belong to the Atlantic Slope, with the Atrato and Sinú Rivers being the main watersheds. The Cordillera Occidental is separated from the coastal Baudó Mountains by the Atrato River. A number of ecoregions cover the cordillera. The Chocó–Darién moist forests cover the western foothills below 1000 meters elevation. The Northwestern Andean montane forests cover the humid western slopes of the range. The Cauca Valley montane forests cover the eastern slopes. Northern Andean páramo covers the highest elevations. Highest peaks Cerro Tatamá – – Chocó & Risaralda Azufral – – Nariño Farallones de Cali – – Valle del Cauca Farallones del Citará – – Antioquia Páramo de Frontino – – Antioquia Cerro Caramanta – – Antioquia, Caldas & Risaralda Cerro Napi – – Cauca Alto Musinga – – Antioquia Cerro Calima – – Valle del Cauca Cerro Paramillo – – Antioquia Cerro Ventana – – Valle del Cauca & Chocó Protected areas The West Andes have the following nationally protected areas from south to north: PNN Munchique PNN Farallones de Cali PNN Tatamá PNN Las Orquídeas PNN Paramillo Other areas under consideration for national protection include: Serranía del Pinche Serranía de los Paraguas Locally protected areas Yotoco Forest Reserve Bitaco River Forest Reserve Recreation areas Dapa Calima Lake See also Geography of Colombia Andean Region, Colombia Cordillera Central (Colombia) Cordillera Oriental (Colombia) References Mountain ranges of the Andes Occidental Cordilleras
Cordillera Occidental (Colombia)
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The Sierra Nevada del Cocuy Chita or Guican National Natural Park (or Sierra Nevada de Chita or Sierra Nevada de Güicán, is a national park and a series of highlands and glaciated peaks located within the Cordillera Oriental mountain range in the Andes Mountains of Colombia, at its easternmost point. It also corresponds to the highest range of the Eastern Cordillera and holds the biggest glacial mass in South America, north of the Equator. Since 1977, this region is protected within a National Natural Park (NNP-Cocuy) because of its fragile páramos, extraordinary bio-diversity and endemism, and its function as a corridor for migratory species under conditions of climate change. Among the Sierra’s natural attractions are the remaining 18 ice-covered peaks (there were as many as 25 in the recent past), glacial lakes and waterfalls. Geography The Sierra Nevada del Cocuy lies within the Eastern Cordillera of the Colombian Andes, between the governmental jurisdictions of Boyacá and Arauca. The Parque Nacional Natural el Cocuy (PNN El Cocuy) is the official national park in which the entirety of the glaciated peaks and a portion of regional páramo ecosystems are located. The park has an area of 3000 km2, of which 47% is covered by Páramo ecosystems. The Sierra Nevada del Cocuy is also the largest glacial mass in Colombia, and meltwater from this glacier system feed the rivers Arauca, Casanare and Chicamocha, which in turn drain into the Magdalena and Orinoco basins. Considerable portions of the Colombian and Venezuelan populations utilize the hydrologic resources from these basins for agriculture and sustenance. Peaks The Park contains several high peaks, many with permanent snow cover: Pan de Azúcar (5120m), Diamante (4800 m), el Púlpito del Diablo (5100 m), Toti (4800 m), Portales (4800 m), Cóncavo (5200 m), Concavito (5100 m), San Pablines South (5180 m) and North (5200 m), Ritacuba Blanco (5330 m), Picacho (5030 m), Puntiagudo (5200 m), Ritacuba Negro (5300 m), el Castillo (5100 m), peak without name (5000 m), Sirara (5200 m). An 1856 watercolor by Manuel María Paz is an early depiction of the Sierra Nevada del Cocuy in Casanare Province. Geology The Sierra Nevada del Cocuy region corresponds to the highest elevations of the Eastern Cordillera of the Colombian Andes. The geologic origins of this mountain range are complex, but have been hypothesized to be the inversion of a Mesozoic extensional basin which gave way to a sedimentary basin that accumulated sediments for millions of years before its closure in the Paleogene. The inversion and resulting shortening and compression values have been estimated to be in the order of 60 ± 20 km. Additionally, it has been proposed that the relatively high topography of the Eastern Cordillera of the Colombian Andes around these areas is due to flat slab subduction of the Nazca plate under the South American plate for ~7.5 Million years . In general, the geology of the Sierra Nevada del Cocuy consists on sedimentary rocks from the Cretaceous, broadly made up of sequences of quartzites, sandstones
Sierra Nevada del Cocuy
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The geography of South America contains many diverse regions and climates. Geographically, South America is generally considered a continent forming the southern portion of the landmass of the Americas, south and east of the Colombia–Panama border by most authorities, or south and east of the Panama Canal by some. South and North America are sometimes considered a single continent or supercontinent, while constituent regions are infrequently considered subcontinents. South America became attached to North America only recently (geologically speaking) with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama some 3 million years ago, which resulted in the Great American Interchange. The Andes, likewise a comparatively young and seismically restless mountain range, runs down the western edge of the continent; the land to the east of the northern Andes is largely tropical rainforest, the vast Amazon River basin. The continent also contains drier regions such as eastern Patagonia and the extremely arid Atacama Desert. The South American continent also includes various islands, most of which belong to countries on the continent. The Caribbean territories are grouped with North America. The South American nations that border the Caribbean Sea — Colombia and Venezuela —are also known as the Caribbean South America. Topography and geology The geographical structure of South America is deceptively simple for a continent-sized landmass. The continent's topography is often likened to a huge bowl owing to its flat interior almost ringed by tall mountains. With the exception of narrow coastal plains on the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, there are three main topographic features: the Andes, a central lowland, and the extensive Brazilian and Guiana Highlands in the east. The Andes are a Cenozoic mountain range formed (and still forming) Altiplano and a number of major valleys such as the Rio Magdalena. These contain three of the world's highest capitals: Bogotá, Quito and highest of all, La Paz, Bolivia. The southernmost Andes hosts the Southern Patagonian Ice Field are lower and narrower. There are a number of large glaciers in the northern part, but from latitude 19°S to 28°S the climate is so arid that no permanent ice can form even on the highest peaks. Permafrost, however, is widespread in this section of the Altiplano and continuous above . The very fertile soils from the erosion of the Andes formed the basis for the continent's only pre-Columbian state civilizations: those of the Inca Empire and its predecessors (Chavín, Nazca, Mochica, etc.). The area is still a major agricultural region. The Altiplano contains many rare minerals such as copper, tin, mercury ore. The Atacama is mined for its nitrates. Peru east of the Andes is regarded as the most important biodiversity hotspot in the world with its unique forests that form the western edge of the world's largest rainforest, the Amazon rainforest. East of the Andes is a large lowland drained by a small number of rivers, including the two largest in the world by drainage area—the Amazon River and the more southerly Paraná River. The other major river of this central
Geography of South America
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The Sierra de La Culata is a mountain range in the largest massif in Venezuela, the Cordillera de Mérida, which in turn is part of the northern extent of the Cordillera de los Andes (Andes Mountains). The Sierra la Culata includes some of the highest peaks in Venezuela, such as Pico Piedras Blancas, Pico Pan de Azúcar, and Collado del Cóndor. It is located between the states of Mérida and Trujillo. Most of the lagoons are a result of the Mérida glaciation. The Sierra La Culata National Park is a protected area within the range. Gallery See also Merida glaciation Sierra Nevada de Merida External links Schubert, Carlos (1998) "Glaciers of Venezuela" United States Geological Survey (USGS P 1386-I) Mountain ranges of Venezuela Mountain ranges of the Andes Geography of Mérida (state)
Sierra de la Culata