Effets préventifs et thérapeutiques des polyphénols dans un modèle in vitro et in vivo de maladie inflammatoire de l’intestin : caractérisation des polyphénols de la pelure de pomme et de la canneberge par spectrométrie de masse
The intestinal mucosa is exposed to oxidizing agents from the ingestion of modified foods, immuno-inflammatory cells and intestinal flora. Diet high in fruits and vegetables may reduce oxidative stress and inflammation via several mechanisms. These beneficial effects may be due to their high polyphenol content. The first aims for my PhD was to define the nature of polyphenols extracted from dried apple peels (DAPP) and to determine their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential in the intestine. Caco-2/15 cells were used to study the role of DAPP preventive actions against oxidative stress (OxS) and inflammation induced by iron-ascorbate (Fe/Asc) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), respectively. The combination of HPLC with fluorescence detection, HPLC-ESI-MS TOF and UPLC-ESI-MS/MS QQQ allowed us to characterize the phenolic compounds present in the DAPP (phenolic acids, flavonols glycosides, flavan-3-ols, procyanidins). The addition of Fe/Asc to Caco-2/15 cells induced OxS as demonstrated by the rise in malondialdehyde, depletion of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and alterations in the activity of endogenous antioxidants (SOD, GPx, G-Red). However, preincubation with DAPP prevented Fe/Asc-mediated lipid peroxidation and counteracted LPS-mediated inflammation as evidenced by the down-regulation of cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6), and prostaglandin E2. The mechanisms of action triggered by DAPP induced also a down-regulation of cyclooxygenase-2 and nuclear factor-kB, respectively. These actions were accompanied by the induction of Nrf2 (orchestrating cellular antioxidant defenses and maintaining redox homeostasis), and PGC-1α (the “master controller” of mitochondrial biogenesis). Our findings provide evidence of the capacity of DAPP to reduce OxS and inflammation, two pivotal processes involved in inflammatory bowel diseases.  The cranberry fruit has been reported to have high antioxidant effectiveness that is potentially linked to its richness in diversified polyphenolic content. Therefore, the second objective was to compare the results for apple to those for the cranberry. More specifically, the aim of this study was to determine the role of cranberry polyphenolic fractions in oxidative stress, inflammation and mitochondrial functions using intestinal Caco-2/15 cells. The second aim of this work was to determine the polyphenolic species that were responsible for the observed biological activity. The combination of HPLC and UPLC-TDQ techniques allowed us to characterize the profile of low, medium and high molecular weight polyphenolic compounds in cranberry extracts. The medium molecular weight fraction was enriched with flavonoids and procyanidin dimers whereas procyanidin oligomers (degree of polymerization > 4) were the dominant class of polyphenols in the high molecular weight fraction. Pre-incubation of Caco-2/15 cells with these cranberry extracts prevented Fer/Asc-mediated lipid peroxidation and counteracted LPS-mediated inflammation as evidenced by the decrease in pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6), cyclooxygenase-2 and prostaglandin E2. Cranberry polyphenols fractions limited both NF-B activation and Nrf2 down-regulation. Consistently, cranberry procyanidins alleviated oxidative stress-dependent mitochondrial dysfunctions as showed by the rise in ATP production and the up-regulation of Bcl-2, as well as the decline of protein expression of cytochrome C and apoptotic inducing factor. These mitochondrial effects were associated with a significant stimulation of PGC1α, a central inducing factor of mitochondrial biogenesis and transcriptional co-activator of numerous downstream mediators. Finally, cranberry procyanidins forestalled the effect of Fer/Asc on the protein expression of mitochondrial transcription factors (mtTFA, mtTFB1, mtTFB2). The analysis of different pathways, including absorption and transport of polyphenol species revealed which species in the three cranberry fractions have been responsible for the antioxidant activity observed. Especially, the identification of flavan-3-ols and A-type procyanidins in mitochondria suggested that these polyphenol species were responsible for the antioxidant activity in this organelle. Our findings provide evidence for the capacity of cranberry polyphenols to reduce intestinal oxidative stress and inflammation while improving mitochondrial dysfunction.  Subsequently, we evaluated the preventive and therapeutic aspects of DAPP polyphenols on intestinal inflammation while elucidating the underlying mechanisms and clinical benefits. Induction of intestinal inflammation in the C57BL6 mice was performed by oral administration of the inflammatory agent DSS (Dextran Sodium Sulfate, 2.5% for 10 days). Physiological and supraphysiological doses of DAPP (200 and 400 mg/ kg/day, respectively) were administered by gavage for 10 days pre- and during-DSS. DSS caused weight loss, shortening of the colon, dystrophic detachment of the epithelium, erosion and infiltration of mono- and polymorphonuclear cells in the colon. Additionally, the DSS induced an increase in lipid peroxidation, a down-regulation of antioxidant enzymes, a rise in MPO and COX-2 expression, and PGE2 production. However, the DAPP corrected or at least alleviated most of these abnormalities in preventive and therapeutic situations, in addition to lowering protein expression of NF-kB and inflammatory cytokines (TNF-a and IL-6) while stimulating antioxidant transcription factors (Nrf2, PGC1α). The supraphysiological dose of DAPP in therapeutic situation has corrected mitochondrial dysfunction, as evidenced by the raised ADP/ATP ratio, reduced apoptosis (Cyt C and AIF) and the DNA repair enzyme (OGG1) that eliminated DNA damage, caused by oxidative stress, thereby preventing the initiation of the ROS vicious cycle. The relative abundance of colitogenic bacteria was slightly decreased in DAPP-treated mice compared to DSS-induced colitis group. Conclusions: Polyphenols of DAPP exhibit a powerful anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory power in the intestine. Their actions are associated with the regulation of cellular signaling pathways and changes in microbiota composition. Therefore, preventive and therapeutic effects of DAPP may be clinically feasible in individuals with intestinal disorders such as colonic cancer.
Inflammatory bowel disease Oxidative stress Inflammation Transcription factor Mass spectrometry Microbiota