Causes and consequences of chromosome segregation errors in the mouse preimplantation embryo
Cell division is a universal biological process necessary for reproduction, development, cell survival and the maintenance and repair of tissues. Accurate chromosome segregation during mitosis is essential to ensure replicated chromosomes are partitioned equally into daughter cells. Errors in chromosome segregation often result in cells with abnormal numbers of chromosomes, a condition termed aneuploidy, which is associated with impaired cellular health, tumorigenesis, congenital defects and infertility. Counterintuitively, preimplantation embryos from many mammalian species, including humans, often consist of a mixture euploid and aneuploid cells. Such mosaic aneuploidy in embryos is inexorably caused by errors in chromosome segregation during mitotic divisions following fertilization and has been associated with reduced developmental potential in fertility treatments. However, ever since its discovery 25 years ago, how and why mosaic aneuploidy arises in the preimplantation embryo has remained elusive.  To explore the causes and consequences of embryonic chromosome segregation errors, advanced imaging approaches were employed in the mouse preimplantation embryo. Live cell imaging analysis of chromosome segregation dynamics identified lagging anaphase chromosomes as the most prevalent form of chromosome mis-segregation in embryos. Lagging chromosomes frequently result in the encapsulation of single chromosomes into micronuclei, which occur in embryos in vitro and in vivo. Further live imaging and immunofluorescence experiments revealed chromosomes within micronuclei are subject to extensive DNA damage and centromeric identity loss, failing to assemble functional kinetochores and being recurrently mis-segregated during ensuing cell divisions in preimplantation development. To uncover the underlying causes for the increased propensity for chromosome mis-segregation in embryos, live imaging and loss-of-function approaches were used to examine the effectiveness of the mitotic safeguard mechanism, the Spindle Assembly Checkpoint (SAC). These studies demonstrated that the SAC normally functions to prevent segregation errors during preimplantation development but SAC signaling at misaligned chromosomes fails to delay anaphase. Moreover, SAC failure in embryos is most evident during mid-preimplantation development, independent of cell size. Partial inhibition of SAC target, the Anaphase Promoting Complex (APC/C), extended mitosis and reduced chromosome segregation errors in embryos.  These studies have uncovered deficient SAC function during preimplantation development as a major cause for the high incidence of lagging chromosomes in embryos, which result in repeated mis-segregation of single chromosomes in a manner that necessarily causes mosaic aneuploidy. Additionally, this work provides proof-of-principle demonstration that pharmacological modulation of SAC-APC/C signalling can avert chromosome segregation errors in the early embryo. Altogether, these findings present new insights into the causes and nature of chromosome mis-segregation in embryos, providing novel mechanistic explanations for the occurrence of mosaicism that will have substantial implications for the detection and potential therapeutic prevention of aneuploidy in preimplantation embryos.
Preimplantation embryo Mitosis Chromosome segregation Mosaic aneuploidy Lagging chromosomes Micronuclei Spindle Assembly Checkpoint