BACKGROUND

As a result of the rapidly growing energy needs of modern life, the development of high-performance electrical energy storage devices has gained significant attention. As such, energy storage devices have been employed with and within a variety of electronics and devices. Some such devices are designed to be flexible for increased durability. Thus, the future growth of this technology depends on further improving the performance of energy storage materials and methods, and the development of devices and methods to better integrate technology within the wide array of products.

SUMMARY

The present disclosure provides a solution to the need for higher performance electrical energy storage devices. Provided herein are graphene materials, compositions of matter, fabrication processes, and devices with improved performance. Features of the subject matter described herein provide for high power density and excellent low-temperature performance including, but not limited to, applications for inkjet printing, screen printing, printed circuit boards, radio frequency identification device chips, smart fabrics, conductive coatings, gravure printing, flexographic printing, batteries, supercapacitors, capacitors, electrodes, electromagnetic interference shielding, printed transistors, memory, sensors, membranes, anti-static coatings, and large area heaters. The applications described herein provide for improvements in the areas of electronics and energy storage systems with high storage capabilities, flexibility, and a high cycling capability. Many conventional supercapacitors, capacitors, and other energy storage devices exhibit low energy and power densities and low cycling and capacitive capabilities. While normal electronic devices have seen very rapid progress following Moore's law, electrical energy storage devices have advanced only slightly because of the lack of new materials with high-charge storage capacity.

A first aspect provided herein is a conductive graphene ink comprising: a binder solution comprising: a binder and a first solvent; a reduced graphene oxide dispersion comprising reduced graphene oxide, and a second solvent; a third solvent; a conductive additive; a surfactant; and a defoamer.

Optionally, in some embodiments, at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent comprises water and an organic solvent. Optionally, in some embodiments, the organic solvent comprises ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, cyclohexanone, terpineol, 3-methoxy-3-methyl-1-butanol, 4-hydroxyl-4-methyl-pentan-2-one, methyl isobutyl ketone, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is about 1% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 20%, about 1% to about 30%, about 1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 50%, about 1% to about 60%, about 1% to about 70%, about 1% to about 80%, about 1% to about 99%, about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 10%, about 2% to about 20%, about 2% to about 30%, about 2% to about 40%, about 2% to about 50%, about 2% to about 60%, about 2% to about 70%, about 2% to about 80%, about 2% to about 99%, about 5% to about 10%, about 5% to about 20%, about 5% to about 30%, about 5% to about 40%, about 5% to about 50%, about 5% to about 60%, about 5% to about 70%, about 5% to about 80%, about 5% to about 99%, about 10% to about 20%, about 10% to about 30%, about 10% to about 40%, about 10% to about 50%, about 10% to about 60%, about 10% to about 70%, about 10% to about 80%, about 10% to about 99%, about 20% to about 30%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 50%, about 20% to about 60%, about 20% to about 70%, about 20% to about 80%, about 20% to about 99%, about 30% to about 40%, about 30% to about 50%, about 30% to about 60%, about 30% to about 70%, about 30% to about 80%, about 30% to about 99%, about 40% to about 50%, about 40% to about 60%, about 40% to about 70%, about 40% to about 80%, about 40% to about 99%, about 50% to about 60%, about 50% to about 70%, about 50% to about 80%, about 50% to about 99%, about 60% to about 70%, about 60% to about 80%, about 60% to about 99%, about 70% to about 80%, about 70% to about 99%, or about 80% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, or about 80%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, or about 99%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder solution comprises a binder and a first solvent. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder comprises a polymer. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer comprises a synthetic polymer. Optionally, in some embodiments, the synthetic polymer comprises carboxymethyl cellulose, polyvinylidene fluoride, poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(vinyl pyrrolidone), poly(ethylene oxide), ethyl cellulose, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is a dispersant. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder comprises carboxymethyl cellulose, polyvinylidene fluoride, poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(vinyl pyrrolidone), poly(ethylene oxide), ethyl cellulose, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 2%, about 0.5% to about 5%, about 0.5% to about 10%, about 0.5% to about 20%, about 0.5% to about 30%, about 0.5% to about 40%, about 0.5% to about 50%, about 0.5% to about 70%, about 0.5% to about 90%, about 0.5% to about 99%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 20%, about 1% to about 30%, about 1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 50%, about 1% to about 70%, about 1% to about 90%, about 1% to about 99%, about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 10%, about 2% to about 20%, about 2% to about 30%, about 2% to about 40%, about 2% to about 50%, about 2% to about 70%, about 2% to about 90%, about 2% to about 99%, about 5% to about 10%, about 5% to about 20%, about 5% to about 30%, about 5% to about 40%, about 5% to about 50%, about 5% to about 70%, about 5% to about 90%, about 5% to about 99%, about 10% to about 20%, about 10% to about 30%, about 10% to about 40%, about 10% to about 50%, about 10% to about 70%, about 10% to about 90%, about 10% to about 99%, about 20% to about 30%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 50%, about 20% to about 70%, about 20% to about 90%, about 20% to about 99%, about 30% to about 40%, about 30% to about 50%, about 30% to about 70%, about 30% to about 90%, about 30% to about 99%, about 40% to about 50%, about 40% to about 70%, about 40% to about 90%, about 40% to about 99%, about 50% to about 70%, about 50% to about 90%, about 50% to about 99%, about 70% to about 90%, about 70% to about 99%, or about 90% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 70%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 95%, or about 99%. Alternatively or in combination, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 95%, or about 99%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution is about 0.5% to about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution is at least about 0.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution is at most about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution is about 0.5% to about 0.625%, about 0.5% to about 0.75%, about 0.5% to about 0.875%, about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 1.25%, about 0.5% to about 1.5%, about 0.5% to about 1.75%, about 0.5% to about 2%, about 0.625% to about 0.75%, about 0.625% to about 0.875%, about 0.625% to about 1%, about 0.625% to about 1.25%, about 0.625% to about 1.5%, about 0.625% to about 1.75%, about 0.625% to about 2%, about 0.75% to about 0.875%, about 0.75% to about 1%, about 0.75% to about 1.25%, about 0.75% to about 1.5%, about 0.75% to about 1.75%, about 0.75% to about 2%, about 0.875% to about 1%, about 0.875% to about 1.25%, about 0.875% to about 1.5%, about 0.875% to about 1.75%, about 0.875% to about 2%, about 1% to about 1.25%, about 1% to about 1.5%, about 1% to about 1.75%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1.25% to about 1.5%, about 1.25% to about 1.75%, about 1.25% to about 2%, about 1.5% to about 1.75%, about 1.5% to about 2%, or about 1.75% to about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution is about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, about 0.875%, about 1%, about 1.25%, about 1.5%, about 1.75%, or about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution is at least about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, about 0.875%, about 1%, about 1.25%, about 1.5%, about 1.75%, or about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution is no more than about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, about 0.875%, about 1%, about 1.25%, about 1.5%, about 1.75%, or about 2%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the reduced graphene oxide dispersion comprises reduced graphene oxide (RGO) and a second solvent.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.25% to about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.25%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.25% to about 0.375%, about 0.25% to about 0.5%, about 0.25% to about 0.625%, about 0.25% to about 0.75%, about 0.25% to about 1%, about 0.375% to about 0.5%, about 0.375% to about 0.625%, about 0.375% to about 0.75%, about 0.375% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 0.625%, about 0.5% to about 0.75%, about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.625% to about 0.75%, about 0.625% to about 1%, or about 0.75% to about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.25%, about 0.375%, about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, or about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.25%, about 0.375%, about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, or about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.25%, about 0.375%, about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, or about 1%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is about 3% to about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is at least about 3%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is at most about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is about 3% to about 4%, about 3% to about 5%, about 3% to about 6%, about 3% to about 7%, about 3% to about 8%, about 3% to about 9%, about 3% to about 10%, about 3% to about 11%, about 3% to about 12%, about 4% to about 5%, about 4% to about 6%, about 4% to about 7%, about 4% to about 8%, about 4% to about 9%, about 4% to about 10%, about 4% to about 11%, about 4% to about 12%, about 5% to about 6%, about 5% to about 7%, about 5% to about 8%, about 5% to about 9%, about 5% to about 10%, about 5% to about 11%, about 5% to about 12%, about 6% to about 7%, about 6% to about 8%, about 6% to about 9%, about 6% to about 10%, about 6% to about 11%, about 6% to about 12%, about 7% to about 8%, about 7% to about 9%, about 7% to about 10%, about 7% to about 11%, about 7% to about 12%, about 8% to about 9%, about 8% to about 10%, about 8% to about 11%, about 8% to about 12%, about 9% to about 10%, about 9% to about 11%, about 9% to about 12%, about 10% to about 11%, about 10% to about 12%, or about 11% to about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, about 10%, about 11%, or about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is at least about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, about 10%, about 11%, or about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is no more than about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, about 10%, about 11%, or about 12%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.1% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.1% to about 0.2%, about 0.1% to about 0.5%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 20%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 60%, about 0.1% to about 80%, about 0.1% to about 90%, about 0.1% to about 99%, about 0.2% to about 0.5%, about 0.2% to about 1%, about 0.2% to about 10%, about 0.2% to about 20%, about 0.2% to about 40%, about 0.2% to about 60%, about 0.2% to about 80%, about 0.2% to about 90%, about 0.2% to about 99%, about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 10%, about 0.5% to about 20%, about 0.5% to about 40%, about 0.5% to about 60%, about 0.5% to about 80%, about 0.5% to about 90%, about 0.5% to about 99%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 20%, about 1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 60%, about 1% to about 80%, about 1% to about 90%, about 1% to about 99%, about 10% to about 20%, about 10% to about 40%, about 10% to about 60%, about 10% to about 80%, about 10% to about 90%, about 10% to about 99%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 60%, about 20% to about 80%, about 20% to about 90%, about 20% to about 99%, about 40% to about 60%, about 40% to about 80%, about 40% to about 90%, about 40% to about 99%, about 60% to about 80%, about 60% to about 90%, about 60% to about 99%, about 80% to about 90%, about 80% to about 99%, or about 90% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.1%, about 0.2%, about 0.5%, about 1%, about 10%, about 20%, about 40%, about 60%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.1%, about 0.2%, about 0.5%, about 1%, about 10%, about 20%, about 40%, about 60%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.1%, about 0.2%, about 0.5%, about 1%, about 10%, about 20%, about 40%, about 60%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive additive comprises a carbon-based material. Optionally, in some embodiments, the carbon-based material comprises a paracrystalline carbon. Optionally, in some embodiments, the paracrystalline carbon comprises carbon black, acetylene black, channel black, furnace black, lamp black, thermal black, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive additive comprises silver. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver comprises silver nanoparticles, silver nanorods, silver nanowires, silver nanoflowers, silver nanofibers, silver nanoplatelets, silver nanoribbons, silver nanocubes, silver bipyramids, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is about 2% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 10%, about 2% to about 20%, about 2% to about 30%, about 2% to about 40%, about 2% to about 50%, about 2% to about 60%, about 2% to about 70%, about 2% to about 80%, about 2% to about 90%, about 2% to about 99%, about 5% to about 10%, about 5% to about 20%, about 5% to about 30%, about 5% to about 40%, about 5% to about 50%, about 5% to about 60%, about 5% to about 70%, about 5% to about 80%, about 5% to about 90%, about 5% to about 99%, about 10% to about 20%, about 10% to about 30%, about 10% to about 40%, about 10% to about 50%, about 10% to about 60%, about 10% to about 70%, about 10% to about 80%, about 10% to about 90%, about 10% to about 99%, about 20% to about 30%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 50%, about 20% to about 60%, about 20% to about 70%, about 20% to about 80%, about 20% to about 90%, about 20% to about 99%, about 30% to about 40%, about 30% to about 50%, about 30% to about 60%, about 30% to about 70%, about 30% to about 80%, about 30% to about 90%, about 30% to about 99%, about 40% to about 50%, about 40% to about 60%, about 40% to about 70%, about 40% to about 80%, about 40% to about 90%, about 40% to about 99%, about 50% to about 60%, about 50% to about 70%, about 50% to about 80%, about 50% to about 90%, about 50% to about 99%, about 60% to about 70%, about 60% to about 80%, about 60% to about 90%, about 60% to about 99%, about 70% to about 80%, about 70% to about 90%, about 70% to about 99%, about 80% to about 90%, about 80% to about 99%, or about 90% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%.

Some embodiments further comprise a surfactant. Optionally, in some embodiments, the surfactant comprises an acid, a nonionic surfactant, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the acid comprises perfluorooctanoic acid, perfluorooctane sulfonate, perfluorohexane sulfonic acid, perfluorononanoic acid, perfluorodecanoic acid, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the nonionic surfactant comprises a polyethylene glycol alkyl ether, a octaethylene glycol monododecyl ether, a pentaethylene glycol monododecyl ether, a polypropylene glycol alkyl ether, a glucoside alkyl ether, decyl glucoside, lauryl glucoside, octyl glucoside, a polyethylene glycol octylphenyl ether, dodecyldimethylamine oxide, a polyethylene glycol alkylphenyl ether, a polyethylene glycol octylphenyl ether, Triton X-100, polyethylene glycol alkylphenyl ether, nonoxynol-9, a glycerol alkyl ester polysorbate, sorbitan alkyl ester, polyethoxylated tallow amine, Dynol 604, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, high quantities of water in water-based conductive graphene inks increase the surface tension of the ink. In some applications, such as in inkjet printing, however, a low, controlled surface tension and viscosity is required to maintain consistent jetting through the print head nozzles. Optionally, in some embodiments, the addition of a surfactant reduces the surface tension of an ink because as the surfactant units move to the water/air interface, their relative force of attraction weakens as the non-polar surfactant heads become exposed.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 2%, about 0.5% to about 3%, about 0.5% to about 4%, about 0.5% to about 5%, about 0.5% to about 6%, about 0.5% to about 7%, about 0.5% to about 8%, about 0.5% to about 9%, about 0.5% to about 10%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 3%, about 1% to about 4%, about 1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 6%, about 1% to about 7%, about 1% to about 8%, about 1% to about 9%, about 1% to about 10%, about 2% to about 3%, about 2% to about 4%, about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 6%, about 2% to about 7%, about 2% to about 8%, about 2% to about 9%, about 2% to about 10%, about 3% to about 4%, about 3% to about 5%, about 3% to about 6%, about 3% to about 7%, about 3% to about 8%, about 3% to about 9%, about 3% to about 10%, about 4% to about 5%, about 4% to about 6%, about 4% to about 7%, about 4% to about 8%, about 4% to about 9%, about 4% to about 10%, about 5% to about 6%, about 5% to about 7%, about 5% to about 8%, about 5% to about 9%, about 5% to about 10%, about 6% to about 7%, about 6% to about 8%, about 6% to about 9%, about 6% to about 10%, about 7% to about 8%, about 7% to about 9%, about 7% to about 10%, about 8% to about 9%, about 8% to about 10%, or about 9% to about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%.

Some embodiments further comprise a defoamer, wherein the defoamer comprises an insoluble oil, a silicone, a glycol, a stearate, an organic solvent, Surfynol DF-1100, alkyl polyacrylate, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the insoluble oil comprises mineral oil, vegetable oil, white oil, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silicone comprises polydimethylsiloxane, silicone glycol, a fluorosilicone, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the glycol comprises polyethylene glycol, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the stearate comprises glycol stearate, stearin, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the organic solvent comprises ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, cyclohexanone, terpineol, 3-methoxy-3-methyl-1-butanol, 4-hydroxyl-4-methyl-pentan-2-one, methyl isobutyl ketone, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 2%, about 0.5% to about 3%, about 0.5% to about 4%, about 0.5% to about 5%, about 0.5% to about 6%, about 0.5% to about 7%, about 0.5% to about 8%, about 0.5% to about 9%, about 0.5% to about 10%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 3%, about 1% to about 4%, about 1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 6%, about 1% to about 7%, about 1% to about 8%, about 1% to about 9%, about 1% to about 10%, about 2% to about 3%, about 2% to about 4%, about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 6%, about 2% to about 7%, about 2% to about 8%, about 2% to about 9%, about 2% to about 10%, about 3% to about 4%, about 3% to about 5%, about 3% to about 6%, about 3% to about 7%, about 3% to about 8%, about 3% to about 9%, about 3% to about 10%, about 4% to about 5%, about 4% to about 6%, about 4% to about 7%, about 4% to about 8%, about 4% to about 9%, about 4% to about 10%, about 5% to about 6%, about 5% to about 7%, about 5% to about 8%, about 5% to about 9%, about 5% to about 10%, about 6% to about 7%, about 6% to about 8%, about 6% to about 9%, about 6% to about 10%, about 7% to about 8%, about 7% to about 9%, about 7% to about 10%, about 8% to about 9%, about 8% to about 10%, or about 9% to about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is about 2.5% to about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is at most about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is about 2.5% to about 3.5%, about 2.5% to about 4.5%, about 2.5% to about 5.5%, about 2.5% to about 6.5%, about 2.5% to about 7.5%, about 2.5% to about 8.5%, about 2.5% to about 9.5%, about 2.5% to about 10.5%, about 3.5% to about 4.5%, about 3.5% to about 5.5%, about 3.5% to about 6.5%, about 3.5% to about 7.5%, about 3.5% to about 8.5%, about 3.5% to about 9.5%, about 3.5% to about 10.5%, about 4.5% to about 5.5%, about 4.5% to about 6.5%, about 4.5% to about 7.5%, about 4.5% to about 8.5%, about 4.5% to about 9.5%, about 4.5% to about 10.5%, about 5.5% to about 6.5%, about 5.5% to about 7.5%, about 5.5% to about 8.5%, about 5.5% to about 9.5%, about 5.5% to about 10.5%, about 6.5% to about 7.5%, about 6.5% to about 8.5%, about 6.5% to about 9.5%, about 6.5% to about 10.5%, about 7.5% to about 8.5%, about 7.5% to about 9.5%, about 7.5% to about 10.5%, about 8.5% to about 9.5%, about 8.5% to about 10.5%, or about 9.5% to about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is about 2.5%, about 3.5%, about 4.5%, about 5.5%, about 6.5%, about 7.5%, about 8.5%, about 9.5%, or about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2.5%, about 3.5%, about 4.5%, about 5.5%, about 6.5%, about 7.5%, about 8.5%, about 9.5%, or about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 2.5%, about 3.5%, about 4.5%, about 5.5%, about 6.5%, about 7.5%, about 8.5%, about 9.5%, or about 10.5%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is about 10 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 10 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is at most about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is about 10 centipoise to about 20 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 50 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 100 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 200 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 50 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 100 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 200 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 100 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 200 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 200 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 500 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 500 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 500 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 500 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, or about 5,000 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is about 10 centipoise, about 20 centipoise, about 50 centipoise, about 100 centipoise, about 200 centipoise, about 500 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise, about 5,000 centipoise, or about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 10 centipoise, about 20 centipoise, about 50 centipoise, about 100 centipoise, about 200 centipoise, about 500 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise, about 5,000 centipoise, or about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 10 centipoise, about 20 centipoise, about 50 centipoise, about 100 centipoise, about 200 centipoise, about 500 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise, about 5,000 centipoise, or about 10,000 centipoise.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of at least about 2,300 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of at most about 2,400 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,310 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,320 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,330 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,320 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,330 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,330 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,370 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,370 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,370 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,380 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,380 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, or about 2,390 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of about 2,300 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,390 centipoise, or about 2,400 centipoise.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is at least about 2.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is at most about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3to about 3.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 4.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 5.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 6.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 4.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 5.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 6.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 5.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 6.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 6.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, or about 9.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is at most about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3, about 9.5 g/cm3, or about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of at least about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3, about 9.5 g/cm3, or about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of no more than about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3, about 9.5 g/cm3, or about 10.5 g/cm3.

Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of about 40 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of at least about 40 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of at most about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of about 40 m2/g to about 80 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 120 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 240 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 120 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 240 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 240 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, or about 2,200 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of about 40 m2/g, about 80 m2/g, about 120 m2/g, about 240 m2/g, about 480 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g, about 2,200 m2/g, or about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of at least about 40 m2/g, about 80 m2/g, about 120 m2/g, about 240 m2/g, about 480 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g, about 2,200 m2/g, or about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of no more than about 40 m2/g, about 80 m2/g, about 120 m2/g, about 240 m2/g, about 480 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g, about 2,200 m2/g, or about 2,400 m2/g.

Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of about 400 S/m to about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of at least about 400 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of at most about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of about 400 S/m to about 500 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 600 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 700 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 800 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 600 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 700 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 800 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 700 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 800 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 800 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 900 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 900 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 900 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 900 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 1,000 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 1,000 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 1,000 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 1,200 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 1,200 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, or about 1,400 S/m to about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of about 400 S/m, about 500 S/m, about 600 S/m, about 700 S/m, about 800 S/m, about 900 S/m, about 1,000 S/m, about 1,200 S/m, about 1,400 S/m, or about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of at least about 400 S/m, about 500 S/m, about 600 S/m, about 700 S/m, about 800 S/m, about 900 S/m, about 1,000 S/m, about 1,200 S/m, about 1,400 S/m, or about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of no more than about 400 S/m, about 500 S/m, about 600 S/m, about 700 S/m, about 800 S/m, about 900 S/m, about 1,000 S/m, about 1,200 S/m, about 1,400 S/m, or about 1,600 S/m.

Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of about 2:1 to about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of at least about 2:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of at most about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of about 2:1 to about 4:1, about 2:1 to about 6:1, about 2:1 to about 8:1, about 2:1 to about 10:1, about 2:1 to about 15:1, about 2:1 to about 20:1, about 2:1 to about 25:1, about 2:1 to about 30:1, about 2:1 to about 34:1, about 2:1 to about 40:1, about 4:1 to about 6:1, about 4:1 to about 8:1, about 4:1 to about 10:1, about 4:1 to about 15:1, about 4:1 to about 20:1, about 4:1 to about 25:1, about 4:1 to about 30:1, about 4:1 to about 34:1, about 4:1 to about 40:1, about 6:1 to about 8:1, about 6:1 to about 10:1, about 6:1 to about 15:1, about 6:1 to about 20:1, about 6:1 to about 25:1, about 6:1 to about 30:1, about 6:1 to about 34:1, about 6:1 to about 40:1, about 8:1 to about 10:1, about 8:1 to about 15:1, about 8:1 to about 20:1, about 8:1 to about 25:1, about 8:1 to about 30:1, about 8:1 to about 34:1, about 8:1 to about 40:1, about 10:1 to about 15:1, about 10:1 to about 20:1, about 10:1 to about 25:1, about 10:1 to about 30:1, about 10:1 to about 34:1, about 10:1 to about 40:1, about 15:1 to about 20:1, about 15:1 to about 25:1, about 15:1 to about 30:1, about 15:1 to about 34:1, about 15:1 to about 40:1, about 20:1 to about 25:1, about 20:1 to about 30:1, about 20:1 to about 34:1, about 20:1 to about 40:1, about 25:1 to about 30:1, about 25:1 to about 34:1, about 25:1 to about 40:1, about 30:1 to about 34:1, about 30:1 to about 40:1, or about 34:1 to about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of about 2:1, about 4:1, about 6:1, about 8:1, about 10:1, about 15:1, about 20:1, about 25:1, about 30:1, about 34:1, or about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments, one of the conductivity, the surface area, and the C:O ratio of the conductive graphene ink is measured by methylene blue absorption. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of at least about 2:1, about 4:1, about 6:1, about 8:1, about 10:1, about 15:1, about 20:1, about 25:1, about 30:1, about 34:1, or about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of no more than about 2:1, about 4:1, about 6:1, about 8:1, about 10:1, about 15:1, about 20:1, about 25:1, about 30:1, about 34:1, or about 40:1.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink is a conductive graphene hydrate.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene ink has a resistivity when dry of about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene ink has a resistivity when dry of at least about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene ink has a resistivity when dry of at most about 60 ohms/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene ink has a resistivity when dry of about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 5 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 10 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 5 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 10 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil to about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil to about 5 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil to about 10 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil to about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil to about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil to about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 5 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 10 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil to about 5 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil to about 10 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil to about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil to about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil to about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, about 5 ohms/sq/mil to about 10 ohms/sq/mil, about 5 ohms/sq/mil to about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 5 ohms/sq/mil to about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 5 ohms/sq/mil to about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 5 ohms/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 5 ohms/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, about 10 ohms/sq/mil to about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 10 ohms/sq/mil to about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 10 ohms/sq/mil to about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 10 ohms/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 10 ohms/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, about 20 ohms/sq/mil to about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 20 ohms/sq/mil to about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 20 ohms/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 20 ohms/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, about 30 ohms/sq/mil to about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 30 ohms/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 30 ohms/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, about 40 ohms/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 40 ohms/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, or about 50 ohms/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene ink has a resistivity when dry of about 0.01 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 5 ohms/sq/mil, about 10 ohms/sq/mil, about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 50 ohms/sq/mil, or about 60 ohms/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene ink has a resistivity when dry of at least about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 5 ohm/sq/mil, about 10 ohms/sq/mil, about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 50 ohms/sq/mil, or about 60 ohms/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene ink has a resistivity when dry of at most about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 5 ohms/sq/mil, about 10 ohms/sq/mil, about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 50 ohms/sq/mil, or about 60 ohms/sq/mil.

Another aspect provided herein is a graphene film comprising a substrate and a conductive graphene ink. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink comprises: a binder solution comprising: a binder and a first solvent; an RGO dispersion comprising RGO, and a second solvent; a third solvent; a conductive additive; a surfactant; and a defoamer.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the substrate comprises metal, wood, glass, paper, organic material, cloths, plastics, fiberglass, carbon cloth, carbon fiber, silicon, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent comprises water and an organic solvent. Optionally, in some embodiments, the organic solvent comprises ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, cyclohexanone, terpineol, 3-methoxy-3-methyl-1-butanol, 4-hydroxyl-4-methyl-pentan-2-one, methyl isobutyl ketone, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent comprises water, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, cyclohexanone, terpineol, 3-methoxy-3-methyl-1-butanol, 4-hydroxyl-4-methyl-pentan-2-one, methyl isobutyl ketone, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is about 1% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 20%, about 1% to about 30%, about 1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 50%, about 1% to about 60%, about 1% to about 70%, about 1% to about 80%, about 1% to about 99%, about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 10%, about 2% to about 20%, about 2% to about 30%, about 2% to about 40%, about 2% to about 50%, about 2% to about 60%, about 2% to about 70%, about 2% to about 80%, about 2% to about 99%, about 5% to about 10%, about 5% to about 20%, about 5% to about 30%, about 5% to about 40%, about 5% to about 50%, about 5% to about 60%, about 5% to about 70%, about 5% to about 80%, about 5% to about 99%, about 10% to about 20%, about 10% to about 30%, about 10% to about 40%, about 10% to about 50%, about 10% to about 60%, about 10% to about 70%, about 10% to about 80%, about 10% to about 99%, about 20% to about 30%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 50%, about 20% to about 60%, about 20% to about 70%, about 20% to about 80%, about 20% to about 99%, about 30% to about 40%, about 30% to about 50%, about 30% to about 60%, about 30% to about 70%, about 30% to about 80%, about 30% to about 99%, about 40% to about 50%, about 40% to about 60%, about 40% to about 70%, about 40% to about 80%, about 40% to about 99%, about 50% to about 60%, about 50% to about 70%, about 50% to about 80%, about 50% to about 99%, about 60% to about 70%, about 60% to about 80%, about 60% to about 99%, about 70% to about 80%, about 70% to about 99%, or about 80% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, or about 80%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, or about 99%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder solution comprises a binder and a first solvent. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder comprises a polymer. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer comprises a synthetic polymer. Optionally, in some embodiments, the synthetic polymer comprises carboxymethyl cellulose, polyvinylidene fluoride, poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(vinyl pyrrolidone), poly(ethylene oxide), ethyl cellulose, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is a dispersant.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the second solvent comprises water and an organic solvent. Optionally, in some embodiments, the organic solvent comprises ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, cyclohexanone, terpineol, 3-methoxy-3-methyl-1-butanol, 4-hydroxyl-4-methyl-pentan-2-one, methyl isobutyl ketone, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 2%, about 0.5% to about 5%, about 0.5% to about 10%, about 0.5% to about 20%, about 0.5% to about 30%, about 0.5% to about 40%, about 0.5% to about 50%, about 0.5% to about 70%, about 0.5% to about 90%, about 0.5% to about 99%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 20%, about 1% to about 30%, about 1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 50%, about 1% to about 70%, about 1% to about 90%, about 1% to about 99%, about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 10%, about 2% to about 20%, about 2% to about 30%, about 2% to about 40%, about 2% to about 50%, about 2% to about 70%, about 2% to about 90%, about 2% to about 99%, about 5% to about 10%, about 5% to about 20%, about 5% to about 30%, about 5% to about 40%, about 5% to about 50%, about 5% to about 70%, about 5% to about 90%, about 5% to about 99%, about 10% to about 20%, about 10% to about 30%, about 10% to about 40%, about 10% to about 50%, about 10% to about 70%, about 10% to about 90%, about 10% to about 99%, about 20% to about 30%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 50%, about 20% to about 70%, about 20% to about 90%, about 20% to about 99%, about 30% to about 40%, about 30% to about 50%, about 30% to about 70%, about 30% to about 90%, about 30% to about 99%, about 40% to about 50%, about 40% to about 70%, about 40% to about 90%, about 40% to about 99%, about 50% to about 70%, about 50% to about 90%, about 50% to about 99%, about 70% to about 90%, about 70% to about 99%, or about 90% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 70%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 95%, or about 99%. Alternatively or in combination, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 95%, or about 99%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is about 0.5% to about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is at least about 0.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is at most about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is about 0.5% to about 0.625%, about 0.5% to about 0.75%, about 0.5% to about 0.875%, about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 1.25%, about 0.5% to about 1.5%, about 0.5% to about 1.75%, about 0.5% to about 2%, about 0.625% to about 0.75%, about 0.625% to about 0.875%, about 0.625% to about 1%, about 0.625% to about 1.25%, about 0.625% to about 1.5%, about 0.625% to about 1.75%, about 0.625% to about 2%, about 0.75% to about 0.875%, about 0.75% to about 1%, about 0.75% to about 1.25%, about 0.75% to about 1.5%, about 0.75% to about 1.75%, about 0.75% to about 2%, about 0.875% to about 1%, about 0.875% to about 1.25%, about 0.875% to about 1.5%, about 0.875% to about 1.75%, about 0.875% to about 2%, about 1% to about 1.25%, about 1% to about 1.5%, about 1% to about 1.75%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1.25% to about 1.5%, about 1.25% to about 1.75%, about 1.25% to about 2%, about 1.5% to about 1.75%, about 1.5% to about 2%, or about 1.75% to about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, about 0.875%, about 1%, about 1.25%, about 1.5%, about 1.75%, or about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is at least about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, about 0.875%, about 1%, about 1.25%, about 1.5%, about 1.75%, or about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is no more than about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, about 0.875%, about 1%, about 1.25%, about 1.5%, about 1.75%, or about 2%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the RGO dispersion comprises RGO and a third solvent. Optionally, in some embodiments, the third solvent comprises water and an organic solvent. Optionally, in some embodiments, the organic solvent comprises ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, cyclohexanone, terpineol, 3-methoxy-3-methyl-1-butanol, 4-hydroxyl-4-methyl-pentan-2-one, methyl isobutyl ketone, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.25% to about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.25%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.25% to about 0.375%, about 0.25% to about 0.5%, about 0.25% to about 0.625%, about 0.25% to about 0.75%, about 0.25% to about 1%, about 0.375% to about 0.5%, about 0.375% to about 0.625%, about 0.375% to about 0.75%, about 0.375% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 0.625%, about 0.5% to about 0.75%, about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.625% to about 0.75%, about 0.625% to about 1%, or about 0.75% to about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.25%, about 0.375%, about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, or about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.25%, about 0.375%, about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, or about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.25%, about 0.375%, about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, or about 1%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is about 3% to about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is at least about 3%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is at most about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is about 3% to about 4%, about 3% to about 5%, about 3% to about 6%, about 3% to about 7%, about 3% to about 8%, about 3% to about 9%, about 3% to about 10%, about 3% to about 11%, about 3% to about 12%, about 4% to about 5%, about 4% to about 6%, about 4% to about 7%, about 4% to about 8%, about 4% to about 9%, about 4% to about 10%, about 4% to about 11%, about 4% to about 12%, about 5% to about 6%, about 5% to about 7%, about 5% to about 8%, about 5% to about 9%, about 5% to about 10%, about 5% to about 11%, about 5% to about 12%, about 6% to about 7%, about 6% to about 8%, about 6% to about 9%, about 6% to about 10%, about 6% to about 11%, about 6% to about 12%, about 7% to about 8%, about 7% to about 9%, about 7% to about 10%, about 7% to about 11%, about 7% to about 12%, about 8% to about 9%, about 8% to about 10%, about 8% to about 11%, about 8% to about 12%, about 9% to about 10%, about 9% to about 11%, about 9% to about 12%, about 10% to about 11%, about 10% to about 12%, or about 11% to about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, about 10%, about 11%, or about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is at least about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, about 10%, about 11%, or about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is no more than about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, about 10%, about 11%, or about 12%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.1% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.1% to about 0.2%, about 0.1% to about 0.5%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 20%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 60%, about 0.1% to about 80%, about 0.1% to about 90%, about 0.1% to about 99%, about 0.2% to about 0.5%, about 0.2% to about 1%, about 0.2% to about 10%, about 0.2% to about 20%, about 0.2% to about 40%, about 0.2% to about 60%, about 0.2% to about 80%, about 0.2% to about 90%, about 0.2% to about 99%, about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 10%, about 0.5% to about 20%, about 0.5% to about 40%, about 0.5% to about 60%, about 0.5% to about 80%, about 0.5% to about 90%, about 0.5% to about 99%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 20%, about 1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 60%, about 1% to about 80%, about 1% to about 90%, about 1% to about 99%, about 10% to about 20%, about 10% to about 40%, about 10% to about 60%, about 10% to about 80%, about 10% to about 90%, about 10% to about 99%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 60%, about 20% to about 80%, about 20% to about 90%, about 20% to about 99%, about 40% to about 60%, about 40% to about 80%, about 40% to about 90%, about 40% to about 99%, about 60% to about 80%, about 60% to about 90%, about 60% to about 99%, about 80% to about 90%, about 80% to about 99%, or about 90% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.1%, about 0.2%, about 0.5%, about 1%, about 10%, about 20%, about 40%, about 60%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.1%, about 0.2%, about 0.5%, about 1%, about 10%, about 20%, about 40%, about 60%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.1%, about 0.2%, about 0.5%, about 1%, about 10%, about 20%, about 40%, about 60%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive additive comprises a carbon-based material. Optionally, in some embodiments, the carbon-based material comprises a paracrystalline carbon. Optionally, in some embodiments, the paracrystalline carbon comprises carbon black, acetylene black, channel black, furnace black, lamp black, thermal black, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive additive comprises silver. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver comprises silver nanoparticles, silver nanorods, silver nanowires, silver nanoflowers, silver nanofibers, silver nanoplatelets, silver nanoribbons, silver nanocubes, silver bipyramids, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is about 2% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 10%, about 2% to about 20%, about 2% to about 30%, about 2% to about 40%, about 2% to about 50%, about 2% to about 60%, about 2% to about 70%, about 2% to about 80%, about 2% to about 90%, about 2% to about 99%, about 5% to about 10%, about 5% to about 20%, about 5% to about 30%, about 5% to about 40%, about 5% to about 50%, about 5% to about 60%, about 5% to about 70%, about 5% to about 80%, about 5% to about 90%, about 5% to about 99%, about 10% to about 20%, about 10% to about 30%, about 10% to about 40%, about 10% to about 50%, about 10% to about 60%, about 10% to about 70%, about 10% to about 80%, about 10% to about 90%, about 10% to about 99%, about 20% to about 30%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 50%, about 20% to about 60%, about 20% to about 70%, about 20% to about 80%, about 20% to about 90%, about 20% to about 99%, about 30% to about 40%, about 30% to about 50%, about 30% to about 60%, about 30% to about 70%, about 30% to about 80%, about 30% to about 90%, about 30% to about 99%, about 40% to about 50%, about 40% to about 60%, about 40% to about 70%, about 40% to about 80%, about 40% to about 90%, about 40% to about 99%, about 50% to about 60%, about 50% to about 70%, about 50% to about 80%, about 50% to about 90%, about 50% to about 99%, about 60% to about 70%, about 60% to about 80%, about 60% to about 90%, about 60% to about 99%, about 70% to about 80%, about 70% to about 90%, about 70% to about 99%, about 80% to about 90%, about 80% to about 99%, or about 90% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%.

Some embodiments further comprise a surfactant. Optionally, in some embodiments, the surfactant comprises an acid, a nonionic surfactant, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the acid comprises perfluorooctanoic acid, perfluorooctane sulfonate, perfluorohexane sulfonic acid, perfluorononanoic acid, perfluorodecanoic acid, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the nonionic surfactant comprises a polyethylene glycol alkyl ether, a octaethylene glycol monododecyl ether, a pentaethylene glycol monododecyl ether, a polypropylene glycol alkyl ether, a glucoside alkyl ether, decyl glucoside, lauryl glucoside, octyl glucoside, a polyethylene glycol octylphenyl ether, dodecyldimethylamine oxide, a polyethylene glycol alkylphenyl ether, a polyethylene glycol octylphenyl ether, Triton X-100, polyethylene glycol alkylphenyl ether, nonoxynol-9, a glycerol alkyl ester polysorbate, sorbitan alkyl ester, polyethoxylated tallow amine, Dynol 604, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 2%, about 0.5% to about 3%, about 0.5% to about 4%, about 0.5% to about 5%, about 0.5% to about 6%, about 0.5% to about 7%, about 0.5% to about 8%, about 0.5% to about 9%, about 0.5% to about 10%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 3%, about 1% to about 4%, about 1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 6%, about 1% to about 7%, about 1% to about 8%, about 1% to about 9%, about 1% to about 10%, about 2% to about 3%, about 2% to about 4%, about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 6%, about 2% to about 7%, about 2% to about 8%, about 2% to about 9%, about 2% to about 10%, about 3% to about 4%, about 3% to about 5%, about 3% to about 6%, about 3% to about 7%, about 3% to about 8%, about 3% to about 9%, about 3% to about 10%, about 4% to about 5%, about 4% to about 6%, about 4% to about 7%, about 4% to about 8%, about 4% to about 9%, about 4% to about 10%, about 5% to about 6%, about 5% to about 7%, about 5% to about 8%, about 5% to about 9%, about 5% to about 10%, about 6% to about 7%, about 6% to about 8%, about 6% to about 9%, about 6% to about 10%, about 7% to about 8%, about 7% to about 9%, about 7% to about 10%, about 8% to about 9%, about 8% to about 10%, or about 9% to about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%.

Some embodiments further comprise a defoamer, wherein the defoamer comprises an insoluble oil, a silicone, a glycol, a stearate, an organic solvent, Surfynol DF-1100, alkyl polyacrylate, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the insoluble oil comprises mineral oil, vegetable oil, white oil, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silicone comprises polydimethylsiloxane, silicone glycol, a fluorosilicone, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the glycol comprises polyethylene glycol, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the stearate comprises glycol stearate, stearin, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the organic solvent comprises ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, cyclohexanone, terpineol, 3-methoxy-3-methyl-1-butanol, 4-hydroxyl-4-methyl-pentan-2-one, methyl isobutyl ketone, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 2%, about 0.5% to about 3%, about 0.5% to about 4%, about 0.5% to about 5%, about 0.5% to about 6%, about 0.5% to about 7%, about 0.5% to about 8%, about 0.5% to about 9%, about 0.5% to about 10%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 3%, about 1% to about 4%, about 1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 6%, about 1% to about 7%, about 1% to about 8%, about 1% to about 9%, about 1% to about 10%, about 2% to about 3%, about 2% to about 4%, about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 6%, about 2% to about 7%, about 2% to about 8%, about 2% to about 9%, about 2% to about 10%, about 3% to about 4%, about 3% to about 5%, about 3% to about 6%, about 3% to about 7%, about 3% to about 8%, about 3% to about 9%, about 3% to about 10%, about 4% to about 5%, about 4% to about 6%, about 4% to about 7%, about 4% to about 8%, about 4% to about 9%, about 4% to about 10%, about 5% to about 6%, about 5% to about 7%, about 5% to about 8%, about 5% to about 9%, about 5% to about 10%, about 6% to about 7%, about 6% to about 8%, about 6% to about 9%, about 6% to about 10%, about 7% to about 8%, about 7% to about 9%, about 7% to about 10%, about 8% to about 9%, about 8% to about 10%, or about 9% to about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is about 2.5% to about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is at most about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is about 2.5% to about 3.5%, about 2.5% to about 4.5%, about 2.5% to about 5.5%, about 2.5% to about 6.5%, about 2.5% to about 7.5%, about 2.5% to about 8.5%, about 2.5% to about 9.5%, about 2.5% to about 10.5%, about 3.5% to about 4.5%, about 3.5% to about 5.5%, about 3.5% to about 6.5%, about 3.5% to about 7.5%, about 3.5% to about 8.5%, about 3.5% to about 9.5%, about 3.5% to about 10.5%, about 4.5% to about 5.5%, about 4.5% to about 6.5%, about 4.5% to about 7.5%, about 4.5% to about 8.5%, about 4.5% to about 9.5%, about 4.5% to about 10.5%, about 5.5% to about 6.5%, about 5.5% to about 7.5%, about 5.5% to about 8.5%, about 5.5% to about 9.5%, about 5.5% to about 10.5%, about 6.5% to about 7.5%, about 6.5% to about 8.5%, about 6.5% to about 9.5%, about 6.5% to about 10.5%, about 7.5% to about 8.5%, about 7.5% to about 9.5%, about 7.5% to about 10.5%, about 8.5% to about 9.5%, about 8.5% to about 10.5%, or about 9.5% to about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is about 2.5%, about 3.5%, about 4.5%, about 5.5%, about 6.5%, about 7.5%, about 8.5%, about 9.5%, or about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2.5%, about 3.5%, about 4.5%, about 5.5%, about 6.5%, about 7.5%, about 8.5%, about 9.5%, or about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 2.5%, about 3.5%, about 4.5%, about 5.5%, about 6.5%, about 7.5%, about 8.5%, about 9.5%, or about 10.5%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is about 10 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 10 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is at most about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is about 10 centipoise to about 20 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 50 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 100 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 200 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 50 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 100 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 200 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 100 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 200 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 200 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 500 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 500 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 500 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 500 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, or about 5,000 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is about 10 centipoise, about 20 centipoise, about 50 centipoise, about 100 centipoise, about 200 centipoise, about 500 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise, about 5,000 centipoise, or about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 10 centipoise, about 20 centipoise, about 50 centipoise, about 100 centipoise, about 200 centipoise, about 500 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise, about 5,000 centipoise, or about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 10 centipoise, about 20 centipoise, about 50 centipoise, about 100 centipoise, about 200 centipoise, about 500 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise, about 5,000 centipoise, or about 10,000 centipoise.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of at least about 2,300 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of at most about 2,400 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,310 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,320 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,330 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,320 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,330 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,330 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,370 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,370 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,370 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,380 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,380 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, or about 2,390 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of about 2,300 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,390 centipoise, or about 2,400 centipoise.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is at least about 2.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is at most about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3to about 3.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 4.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 5.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 6.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 4.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 5.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 6.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 5.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 6.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 6.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, or about 9.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is at most about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3, about 9.5 g/cm3, or about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of at least about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3, about 9.5 g/cm3, or about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of no more than about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3, about 9.5 g/cm3, or about 10.5 g/cm3.

Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of about 40 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of at least about 40 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of at most about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of about 40 m2/g to about 80 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 120 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 240 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 120 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 240 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 240 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, or about 2,200 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of about 40 m2/g, about 80 m2/g, about 120 m2/g, about 240 m2/g, about 480 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g, about 2,200 m2/g, or about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of at least about 40 m2/g, about 80 m2/g, about 120 m2/g, about 240 m2/g, about 480 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g, about 2,200 m2/g, or about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of no more than about 40 m2/g, about 80 m2/g, about 120 m2/g, about 240 m2/g, about 480 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g, about 2,200 m2/g, or about 2,400 m2/g.

Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of about 400 S/m to about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of at least about 400 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of at most about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of about 400 S/m to about 500 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 600 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 700 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 800 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 600 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 700 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 800 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 700 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 800 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 800 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 900 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 900 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 900 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 900 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 1,000 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 1,000 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 1,000 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 1,200 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 1,200 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, or about 1,400 S/m to about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of about 400 S/m, about 500 S/m, about 600 S/m, about 700 S/m, about 800 S/m, about 900 S/m, about 1,000 S/m, about 1,200 S/m, about 1,400 S/m, or about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of at least about 400 S/m, about 500 S/m, about 600 S/m, about 700 S/m, about 800 S/m, about 900 S/m, about 1,000 S/m, about 1,200 S/m, about 1,400 S/m, or about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of no more than about 400 S/m, about 500 S/m, about 600 S/m, about 700 S/m, about 800 S/m, about 900 S/m, about 1,000 S/m, about 1,200 S/m, about 1,400 S/m, or about 1,600 S/m.

Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of about 2:1 to about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of at least about 2:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of at most about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of about 2:1 to about 4:1, about 2:1 to about 6:1, about 2:1 to about 8:1, about 2:1 to about 10:1, about 2:1 to about 15:1, about 2:1 to about 20:1, about 2:1 to about 25:1, about 2:1 to about 30:1, about 2:1 to about 34:1, about 2:1 to about 40:1, about 4:1 to about 6:1, about 4:1 to about 8:1, about 4:1 to about 10:1, about 4:1 to about 15:1, about 4:1 to about 20:1, about 4:1 to about 25:1, about 4:1 to about 30:1, about 4:1 to about 34:1, about 4:1 to about 40:1, about 6:1 to about 8:1, about 6:1 to about 10:1, about 6:1 to about 15:1, about 6:1 to about 20:1, about 6:1 to about 25:1, about 6:1 to about 30:1, about 6:1 to about 34:1, about 6:1 to about 40:1, about 8:1 to about 10:1, about 8:1 to about 15:1, about 8:1 to about 20:1, about 8:1 to about 25:1, about 8:1 to about 30:1, about 8:1 to about 34:1, about 8:1 to about 40:1, about 10:1 to about 15:1, about 10:1 to about 20:1, about 10:1 to about 25:1, about 10:1 to about 30:1, about 10:1 to about 34:1, about 10:1 to about 40:1, about 15:1 to about 20:1, about 15:1 to about 25:1, about 15:1 to about 30:1, about 15:1 to about 34:1, about 15:1 to about 40:1, about 20:1 to about 25:1, about 20:1 to about 30:1, about 20:1 to about 34:1, about 20:1 to about 40:1, about 25:1 to about 30:1, about 25:1 to about 34:1, about 25:1 to about 40:1, about 30:1 to about 34:1, about 30:1 to about 40:1, or about 34:1 to about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of about 2:1, about 4:1, about 6:1, about 8:1, about 10:1, about 15:1, about 20:1, about 25:1, about 30:1, about 34:1, or about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments, one of the conductivity, the surface area, and the C:O ratio of the conductive graphene ink is measured by methylene blue absorption. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of at least about 2:1, about 4:1, about 6:1, about 8:1, about 10:1, about 15:1, about 20:1, about 25:1, about 30:1, about 34:1, or about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of no more than about 2:1, about 4:1, about 6:1, about 8:1, about 10:1, about 15:1, about 20:1, about 25:1, about 30:1, about 34:1, or about 40:1.

Optionally, in some embodiments, one of the conductivity, the surface area, and the C:O ratio, of the conductive graphene ink is measured by methylene blue absorption.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink is a conductive graphene hydrate.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 0.2 nanometer to about 40 nanometers. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of at least about 0.2 nanometer. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of at most about 40 nanometers. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 0.2 nanometer to about 0.4 nanometers, about 0.2 nanometer to about 0.8 nanometer, about 0.2 nanometer to about 1 nanometer, about 0.2 nanometer to about 2 nanometers, about 0.2 nanometer to about 5 nanometers, about 0.2 nanometer to about 10 nanometers, about 0.2 nanometer to about 15 nanometers, about 0.2 nanometer to about 20 nanometers, about 0.2 nanometer to about 30 nanometers, about 0.2 nanometer to about 40 nanometers, about 0.4 nanometer to about 0.8 nanometer, about 0.4 nanometer to about 1 nanometer, about 0.4 nanometer to about 2 nanometers, about 0.4 nanometer to about 5 nanometers, about 0.4 nanometer to about 10 nanometers, about 0.4 nanometer to about 15 nanometers, about 0.4 nanometer to about 20 nanometers, about 0.4 nanometer to about 30 nanometers, about 0.4 nanometer to about 40 nanometers, about 0.8 nanometer to about 1 nanometer, about 0.8 nanometer to about 2 nanometers, about 0.8 nanometer to about 5 nanometers, about 0.8 nanometer to about 10 nanometers, about 0.8 nanometer to about 15 nanometers, about 0.8 nanometer to about 20 nanometers, about 0.8 nanometer to about 30 nanometers, about 0.8 nanometer to about 40 nanometers, about 1 nanometer to about 2 nanometers, about 1 nanometer to about 5 nanometers, about 1 nanometer to about 10 nanometers, about 1 nanometer to about 15 nanometers, about 1 nanometer to about 20 nanometers, about 1 nanometer to about 30 nanometers, about 1 nanometer to about 40 nanometers, about 2 nanometers to about 5 nanometers, about 2 nanometers to about 10 nanometers, about 2 nanometers to about 15 nanometers, about 2 nanometers to about 20 nanometers, about 2 nanometers to about 30 nanometers, about 2 nanometers to about 40 nanometers, about 5 nanometers to about 10 nanometers, about 5 nanometers to about 15 nanometers, about 5 nanometers to about 20 nanometers, about 5 nanometers to about 30 nanometers, about 5 nanometers to about 40 nanometers, about 10 nanometers to about 15 nanometers, about 10 nanometers to about 20 nanometers, about 10 nanometers to about 30 nanometers, about 10 nanometers to about 40 nanometers, about 15 nanometers to about 20 nanometers, about 15 nanometers to about 30 nanometers, about 15 nanometers to about 40 nanometers, about 20 nanometers to about 30 nanometers, about 20 nanometers to about 40 nanometers, or about 30 nanometers to about 40 nanometers. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 0.2 nanometer, about 0.4 nanometer, about 0.8 nanometer, about 1 nanometer, about 2 nanometers, about 5 nanometers, about 10 nanometers, about 15 nanometers, about 20 nanometers, about 30 nanometers, or about 40 nanometers. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of at least about 0.2 nanometer, about 0.4 nanometer, about 0.8 nanometer, about 1 nanometer, about 2 nanometers, about 5 nanometers, about 10 nanometers, about 15 nanometers, about 20 nanometers, about 30 nanometers, or about 40 nanometers. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of no more than about 0.2 nanometer, about 0.4 nanometer, about 0.8 nanometer, about 1 nanometer, about 2 nanometers, about 5 nanometers, about 10 nanometers, about 15 nanometers, about 20 nanometers, about 30 nanometers, or about 40 nanometers.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a lateral size of about 0.05 micrometer to about 200 micrometers. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a lateral size of at least about 0.05 micrometer. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a lateral size of at most about 200 micrometers. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a lateral size of about 0.05 micrometer to about 0.1 micrometer, about 0.05 micrometer to about 0.5 micrometer, about 0.05 micrometer to about 1 micrometer, about 0.05 micrometer to about 5 micrometers, about 0.05 micrometer to about 10 micrometers, about 0.05 micrometer to about 50 micrometers, about 0.05 micrometer to about 100 micrometers, about 0.05 micrometer to about 200 micrometers, about 0.1 micrometer to about 0.5 micrometer, about 0.1 micrometer to about 1 micrometer, about 0.1 micrometer to about 5 micrometers, about 0.1 micrometer to about 10 micrometers, about 0.1 micrometer to about 50 micrometers, about 0.1 micrometer to about 100 micrometers, about 0.1 micrometer to about 200 micrometers, about 0.5 micrometer to about 1 micrometer, about 0.5 micrometer to about 5 micrometers, about 0.5 micrometer to about 10 micrometers, about 0.5 micrometer to about 50 micrometers, about 0.5 micrometer to about 100 micrometers, about 0.5 micrometer to about 200 micrometers, about 1 micrometer to about 5 micrometers, about 1 micrometer to about 10 micrometers, about 1 micrometer to about 50 micrometers, about 1 micrometer to about 100 micrometers, about 1 micrometer to about 200 micrometers, about 5 micrometers to about 10 micrometers, about 5 micrometers to about 50 micrometers, about 5 micrometers to about 100 micrometers, about 5 micrometers to about 200 micrometers, about 10 micrometers to about 50 micrometers, about 10 micrometers to about 100 micrometers, about 10 micrometers to about 200 micrometers, about 50 micrometers to about 100 micrometers, about 50 micrometers to about 200 micrometers, or about 100 micrometers to about 200 micrometers. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a lateral size of about 0.05 micrometer, about 0.1 micrometer, about 0.5 micrometer, about 1 micrometer, about 5 micrometers, about 10 micrometers, about 50 micrometers, about 100 micrometers, or about 200 micrometers. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a lateral size of at least about 0.05 micrometer, about 0.1 micrometer, about 0.5 micrometer, about 1 micrometer, about 5 micrometers, about 10 micrometers, about 50 micrometers, about 100 micrometers, or about 200 micrometers. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a lateral size of no more than about 0.05 micrometer, about 0.1 micrometer, about 0.5 micrometer, about 1 micrometer, about 5 micrometers, about 10 micrometers, about 50 micrometers, about 100 micrometers, or about 200 micrometers.

Optionally, in some embodiments the graphene film has a surface area of about 40 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the graphene film has a surface area of at least about 40 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the graphene film has a surface area of at most about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the graphene film has a surface area of about 40 m2/g to about 80 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 120 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 240 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 120 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 240 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 240 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, or about 2,200 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the graphene film has a surface area of about 40 m2/g, about 80 m2/g, about 120 m2/g, about 240 m2/g, about 480 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g, about 2,200 m2/g, or about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the graphene film has a surface area of at least about 40 m2/g, about 80 m2/g, about 120 m2/g, about 240 m2/g, about 480 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g, about 2,200 m2/g, or about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the graphene film has a surface area of no more than about 40 m2/g, about 80 m2/g, about 120 m2/g, about 240 m2/g, about 480 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g, about 2,200 m2/g, or about 2,400 m2/g.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a sheet resistance about 12 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a sheet resistance at least about 12 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a sheet resistance at most about 240 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a sheet resistance about 12 ohms/sq to about 24 ohms/sq, about 12 ohms/sq to about 36 ohms/sq, about 12 ohms/sq to about 48 ohms/sq, about 12 ohms/sq to about 60 ohms/sq, about 12 ohms/sq to about 80 ohms/sq, about 12 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 12 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 12 ohms/sq to about 150 ohms/sq, about 12 ohms/sq to about 175 ohms/sq, about 12 ohms/sq to about 200 ohms/sq, about 12 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq, about 24 ohms/sq to about 36 ohms/sq, about 24 ohms/sq to about 48 ohms/sq, about 24 ohms/sq to about 60 ohms/sq, about 24 ohms/sq to about 80 ohms/sq, about 24 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 24 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 24 ohms/sq to about 150 ohms/sq, about 24 ohms/sq to about 175 ohms/sq, about 24 ohms/sq to about 200 ohms/sq, about 24 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq, about 36 ohms/sq to about 48 ohms/sq, about 36 ohms/sq to about 60 ohms/sq, about 36 ohms/sq to about 80 ohms/sq, about 36 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 36 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 36 ohms/sq to about 150 ohms/sq, about 36 ohms/sq to about 175 ohms/sq, about 36 ohms/sq to about 200 ohms/sq, about 36 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq, about 48 ohms/sq to about 60 ohms/sq, about 48 ohms/sq to about 80 ohms/sq, about 48 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 48 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 48 ohms/sq to about 150 ohms/sq, about 48 ohms/sq to about 175 ohms/sq, about 48 ohms/sq to about 200 ohms/sq, about 48 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq, about 60 ohms/sq to about 80 ohms/sq, about 60 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 60 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 60 ohms/sq to about 150 ohms/sq, about 60 ohms/sq to about 175 ohms/sq, about 60 ohms/sq to about 200 ohms/sq, about 60 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq to about 150 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq to about 175 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq to about 200 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq, about 100 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 100 ohms/sq to about 150 ohms/sq, about 100 ohms/sq to about 175 ohms/sq, about 100 ohms/sq to about 200 ohms/sq, about 100 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq to about 150 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq to about 175 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq to about 200 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq, about 150 ohms/sq to about 175 ohms/sq, about 150 ohms/sq to about 200 ohms/sq, about 150 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq, about 175 ohms/sq to about 200 ohms/sq, about 175 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq, or about 200 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a sheet resistance about 12 ohms/sq, about 24 ohms/sq, about 36 ohms/sq, about 48 ohms/sq, about 60 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq, about 100 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq, about 150 ohms/sq, about 175 ohms/sq, about 200 ohms/sq, or about 240 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a sheet resistance at least about 12 ohms/sq, about 24 ohms/sq, about 36 ohms/sq, about 48 ohms/sq, about 60 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq, about 100 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq, about 150 ohms/sq, about 175 ohms/sq, about 200 ohms/sq, or about 240 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a sheet resistance no more than about 12 ohms/sq, about 24 ohms/sq, about 36 ohms/sq, about 48 ohms/sq, about 60 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq, about 100 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq, about 150 ohms/sq, about 175 ohms/sq, about 200 ohms/sq, or about 240 ohms/sq.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 5 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of about 50 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 5 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of at least about 50 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 5 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of at most about 240 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 5 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of about 50 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq to about 90 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq to about 150 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq to about 180 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq to about 210 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq to about 90 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq to about 150 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq to about 180 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq to about 210 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq to about 150 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq to about 180 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq to about 210 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq to about 150 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq to about 180 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq to about 210 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq, about 150 ohms/sq to about 180 ohms/sq, about 150 ohms/sq to about 210 ohms/sq, about 150 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq, about 180 ohms/sq to about 210 ohms/sq, about 180 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq, or about 210 ohms/sq to about 240 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 5 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of about 50 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq, about 150 ohms/sq, about 180 ohms/sq, about 210 ohms/sq, or about 240 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 5 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of at least about 50 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq, about 150 ohms/sq, about 180 ohms/sq, about 210 ohms/sq, or about 240 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 5 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of no more than about 50 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq, about 150 ohms/sq, about 180 ohms/sq, about 210 ohms/sq, or about 240 ohms/sq.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 15 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of about 25 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 15 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of at least about 25 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 15 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of at most about 120 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 15 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of about 25 ohms/sq to about 35 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 45 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 55 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 80 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 90 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 45 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 55 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 80 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 90 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 55 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 80 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 90 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 55 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, about 55 ohms/sq to about 80 ohms/sq, about 55 ohms/sq to about 90 ohms/sq, about 55 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 55 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq to about 80 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq to about 90 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq to about 90 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, or about 100 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 15 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of about 25 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq, about 55 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq, about 100 ohms/sq, or about 120 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 15 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of at least about 25 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq, about 55 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq, about 100 ohms/sq, or about 120 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 15 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of no more than about 25 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq, about 55 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq, about 100 ohms/sq, or about 120 ohms/sq.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 30 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of about 15 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 30 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of at least about 15 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 30 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of at most about 70 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 30 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of about 15 ohms/sq to about 20 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq to about 25 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq to about 30 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq to about 35 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq to about 40 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq to about 45 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq to about 55 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq to about 60 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq to about 65 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq to about 25 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq to about 30 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq to about 35 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq to about 40 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq to about 45 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq to about 55 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq to about 60 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq to about 65 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 30 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 35 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 40 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 45 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 55 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 60 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 65 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, about 30 ohms/sq to about 35 ohms/sq, about 30 ohms/sq to about 40 ohms/sq, about 30 ohms/sq to about 45 ohms/sq, about 30 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq, about 30 ohms/sq to about 55 ohms/sq, about 30 ohms/sq to about 60 ohms/sq, about 30 ohms/sq to about 65 ohms/sq, about 30 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 40 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 45 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 55 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 60 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 65 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq to about 45 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq to about 55 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq to about 60 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq to about 65 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 55 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 60 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 65 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq to about 55 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq to about 60 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq to about 65 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, about 55 ohms/sq to about 60 ohms/sq, about 55 ohms/sq to about 65 ohms/sq, about 55 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, about 60 ohms/sq to about 65 ohms/sq, about 60 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, or about 65 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 30 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of about 15 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq, about 30 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq, about 55 ohms/sq, about 60 ohms/sq, about 65 ohms/sq, or about 70 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 30 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of at least about 15 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq, about 30 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq, about 55 ohms/sq, about 60 ohms/sq, about 65 ohms/sq, or about 70 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 30 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of no more than about 15 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq, about 30 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq, about 55 ohms/sq, about 60 ohms/sq, about 65 ohms/sq, or about 70 ohms/sq.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 40 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of about 12 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 40 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of at least about 12 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 40 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of at most about 50 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 40 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of about 12 ohms/sq to about 15 ohms/sq, about 12 ohms/sq to about 20 ohms/sq, about 12 ohms/sq to about 25 ohms/sq, about 12 ohms/sq to about 30 ohms/sq, about 12 ohms/sq to about 35 ohms/sq, about 12 ohms/sq to about 40 ohms/sq, about 12 ohms/sq to about 45 ohms/sq, about 12 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq to about 20 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq to about 25 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq to about 30 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq to about 35 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq to about 40 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq to about 45 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq to about 25 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq to about 30 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq to about 35 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq to about 40 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq to about 45 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 30 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 35 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 40 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 45 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq, about 30 ohms/sq to about 35 ohms/sq, about 30 ohms/sq to about 40 ohms/sq, about 30 ohms/sq to about 45 ohms/sq, about 30 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 40 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 45 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq to about 45 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq, or about 45 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 40 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of about 12 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq, about 30 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq, or about 50 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 40 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of at least about 12 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq, about 30 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq, or about 50 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a thickness of about 40 micrometers and has a sheet resistance of no more than about 12 ohms/sq, about 15 ohms/sq, about 20 ohms/sq, about 25 ohms/sq, about 30 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq, or about 50 ohms/sq.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder comprises polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), wherein the solvent comprises N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), and wherein the graphene film has a thickness of about 200 micrometers, the graphene film has a sheet resistance of about 35 ohms/sq to about 140 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, wherein the binder comprises PVDF, wherein the solvent comprises NMP, and wherein the graphene film has a thickness of about 200 micrometers, the graphene film has a sheet resistance of at least about 35 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, wherein the binder comprises PVDF, wherein the solvent comprises NMP, and wherein the graphene film has a thickness of about 200 micrometers, the graphene film has a sheet resistance of at most about 140 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, wherein the binder comprises PVDF, wherein the solvent comprises NMP, and wherein the graphene film has a thickness of about 200 micrometers, the graphene film has a sheet resistance of about 35 ohms/sq to about 40 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 45 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 80 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 90 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 110 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 130 ohms/sq, about 35 ohms/sq to about 140 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq to about 45 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq to about 80 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq to about 90 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq to about 110 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq to about 130 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq to about 140 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 50 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 80 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 90 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 110 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 130 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq to about 140 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq to about 70 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq to about 80 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq to about 90 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq to about 110 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq to about 130 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq to about 140 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq to about 80 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq to about 90 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq to about 110 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq to about 130 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq to about 140 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq to about 90 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq to about 110 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq to about 130 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq to about 140 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq to about 100 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq to about 110 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq to about 130 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq to about 140 ohms/sq, about 100 ohms/sq to about 110 ohms/sq, about 100 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 100 ohms/sq to about 130 ohms/sq, about 100 ohms/sq to about 140 ohms/sq, about 110 ohms/sq to about 120 ohms/sq, about 110 ohms/sq to about 130 ohms/sq, about 110 ohms/sq to about 140 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq to about 130 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq to about 140 ohms/sq, or about 130 ohms/sq to about 140 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, wherein the binder comprises PVDF, wherein the solvent comprises NMP, and wherein the graphene film has a thickness of about 200 micrometers, the graphene film has a sheet resistance of about 35 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq, about 100 ohms/sq, about 110 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq, about 130 ohms/sq, or about 140 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, wherein the binder comprises PVDF, wherein the solvent comprises NMP, and wherein the graphene film has a thickness of about 200 micrometers, the graphene film has a sheet resistance of at least about 35 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq, about 100 ohms/sq, about 110 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq, about 130 ohms/sq, or about 140 ohms/sq. Optionally, in some embodiments, wherein the binder comprises PVDF, wherein the solvent comprises NMP, and wherein the graphene film has a thickness of about 200 micrometers, the graphene film has a sheet resistance of no more than about 35 ohms/sq, about 40 ohms/sq, about 45 ohms/sq, about 50 ohms/sq, about 70 ohms/sq, about 80 ohms/sq, about 90 ohms/sq, about 100 ohms/sq, about 110 ohms/sq, about 120 ohms/sq, about 130 ohms/sq, or about 140 ohms/sq.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a resistivity of about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a resistivity of at least about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a resistivity of at most about 60 ohm/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a resistivity of about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 5 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 10 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 5 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 10 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohm/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil to about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil to about 5 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil to about 10 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil to about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil to about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil to about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohm/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 5 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 10 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil to about 5 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil to about 10 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil to about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil to about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil to about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, about 5 ohms/sq/mil to about 10 ohms/sq/mil, about 5 ohms/sq/mil to about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 5 ohms/sq/mil to about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 5 ohms/sq/mil to about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 5 ohms/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 5 ohms/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, about 10 ohms/sq/mil to about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 10 ohms/sq/mil to about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 10 ohms/sq/mil to about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 10 ohms/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 10 ohms/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, about 20 ohms/sq/mil to about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 20 ohms/sq/mil to about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 20 ohms/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 20 ohms/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, about 30 ohms/sq/mil to about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 30 ohms/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 30 ohms/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, about 40 ohms/sq/mil to about 50 ohms/sq/mil, about 40 ohms/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil, or about 50 ohms/sq/mil to about 60 ohms/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a resistivity of about 0.01 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 5 ohms/sq/mil, about 10 ohms/sq/mil, about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 50 ohms/sq/mil, or about 60 ohms/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a resistivity of at least about 0.01 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 5 ohms/sq/mil, about 10 ohms/sq/mil, about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 50 ohms/sq/mil, or about 60 ohms/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the graphene film has a resistivity of at most about 0.01 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.05 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.1 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 5 ohms/sq/mil, about 10 ohms/sq/mil, about 20 ohms/sq/mil, about 30 ohms/sq/mil, about 40 ohms/sq/mil, about 50 ohms/sq/mil, or about 60 ohms/sq/mil.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene film changes while bent by about 0.2% to about 0.8%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene film changes while bent by at least about 0.2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene film changes while bent by at most about 0.8%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene film changes while bent by about 0.2% to about 0.3%, about 0.2% to about 0.4%, about 0.2% to about 0.5%, about 0.2% to about 0.6%, about 0.2% to about 0.7%, about 0.2% to about 0.8%, about 0.3% to about 0.4%, about 0.3% to about 0.5%, about 0.3% to about 0.6%, about 0.3% to about 0.7%, about 0.3% to about 0.8%, about 0.4% to about 0.5%, about 0.4% to about 0.6%, about 0.4% to about 0.7%, about 0.4% to about 0.8%, about 0.5% to about 0.6%, about 0.5% to about 0.7%, about 0.5% to about 0.8%, about 0.6% to about 0.7%, about 0.6% to about 0.8%, or about 0.7% to about 0.8%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene film changes while bent by about 0.2%, about 0.3%, about 0.4%, about 0.5%, about 0.6%, about 0.7%, or about 0.8%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene film changes while bent by at least about 0.2%, about 0.3%, about 0.4%, about 0.5%, about 0.6%, about 0.7%, or about 0.8%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene film changes while bent by no more than about 0.2%, about 0.3%, about 0.4%, about 0.5%, about 0.6%, about 0.7%, or about 0.8%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene film changes while twisted in a spiral with a bending degree of about 18 by about 0.7% to about 3.2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene film changes while twisted in a spiral with a bending degree of about 18 by at least about 0.7%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene film changes while twisted in a spiral with a bending degree of about 18 by at most about 3.2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene film changes while twisted in a spiral with a bending degree of about 18 by about 0.7% to about 0.9%, about 0.7% to about 1.2%, about 0.7% to about 1.5%, about 0.7% to about 1.8%, about 0.7% to about 2.1%, about 0.7% to about 2.4%, about 0.7% to about 2.7%, about 0.7% to about 3%, about 0.7% to about 3.2%, about 0.9% to about 1.2%, about 0.9% to about 1.5%, about 0.9% to about 1.8%, about 0.9% to about 2.1%, about 0.9% to about 2.4%, about 0.9% to about 2.7%, about 0.9% to about 3%, about 0.9% to about 3.2%, about 1.2% to about 1.5%, about 1.2% to about 1.8%, about 1.2% to about 2.1%, about 1.2% to about 2.4%, about 1.2% to about 2.7%, about 1.2% to about 3%, about 1.2% to about 3.2%, about 1.5% to about 1.8%, about 1.5% to about 2.1%, about 1.5% to about 2.4%, about 1.5% to about 2.7%, about 1.5% to about 3%, about 1.5% to about 3.2%, about 1.8% to about 2.1%, about 1.8% to about 2.4%, about 1.8% to about 2.7%, about 1.8% to about 3%, about 1.8% to about 3.2%, about 2.1% to about 2.4%, about 2.1% to about 2.7%, about 2.1% to about 3%, about 2.1% to about 3.2%, about 2.4% to about 2.7%, about 2.4% to about 3%, about 2.4% to about 3.2%, about 2.7% to about 3%, about 2.7% to about 3.2%, or about 3% to about 3.2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene film changes while twisted in a spiral with a bending degree of about 18 by about 0.7%, about 0.9%, about 1.2%, about 1.5%, about 1.8%, about 2.1%, about 2.4%, about 2.7%, about 3%, or about 3.2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene film changes while twisted in a spiral with a bending degree of about 18 by at least about 0.7%, about 0.9%, about 1.2%, about 1.5%, about 1.8%, about 2.1%, about 2.4%, about 2.7%, about 3%, or about 3.2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene film changes while twisted in a spiral with a bending degree of about 18 by no more than about 0.7%, about 0.9%, about 1.2%, about 1.5%, about 1.8%, about 2.1%, about 2.4%, about 2.7%, about 3%, or about 3.2%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, bending the graphene film at an angle of about 180 degrees and at a concave radius of about 2 millimeters changes the resistance of the graphene film by about 0.05% to about 0.2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, bending the graphene film at an angle of about 180 degrees and at a concave radius of about 2 millimeters changes the resistance of the graphene film by at least about 0.05%. Optionally, in some embodiments, bending the graphene film at an angle of about 180 degrees and at a concave radius of about 2 millimeters changes the resistance of the graphene film by at most about 0.2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, bending the graphene film at an angle of about 180 degrees and at a concave radius of about 2 millimeters changes the resistance of the graphene film by about 0.05% to about 0.0625%, about 0.05% to about 0.075%, about 0.05% to about 0.1%, about 0.05% to about 0.1125%, about 0.05% to about 0.125%, about 0.05% to about 0.1375%, about 0.05% to about 0.15%, about 0.05% to about 0.1625%, about 0.05% to about 0.175%, about 0.05% to about 0.1875%, about 0.05% to about 0.2%, about 0.0625% to about 0.075%, about 0.0625% to about 0.1%, about 0.0625% to about 0.1125%, about 0.0625% to about 0.125%, about 0.0625% to about 0.1375%, about 0.0625% to about 0.15%, about 0.0625% to about 0.1625%, about 0.0625% to about 0.175%, about 0.0625% to about 0.1875%, about 0.0625% to about 0.2%, about 0.075% to about 0.1%, about 0.075% to about 0.1125%, about 0.075% to about 0.125%, about 0.075% to about 0.1375%, about 0.075% to about 0.15%, about 0.075% to about 0.1625%, about 0.075% to about 0.175%, about 0.075% to about 0.1875%, about 0.075% to about 0.2%, about 0.1% to about 0.1125%, about 0.1% to about 0.125%, about 0.1% to about 0.1375%, about 0.1% to about 0.15%, about 0.1% to about 0.1625%, about 0.1% to about 0.175%, about 0.1% to about 0.1875%, about 0.1% to about 0.2%, about 0.1125% to about 0.125%, about 0.1125% to about 0.1375%, about 0.1125% to about 0.15%, about 0.1125% to about 0.1625%, about 0.1125% to about 0.175%, about 0.1125% to about 0.1875%, about 0.1125% to about 0.2%, about 0.125% to about 0.1375%, about 0.125% to about 0.15%, about 0.125% to about 0.1625%, about 0.125% to about 0.175%, about 0.125% to about 0.1875%, about 0.125% to about 0.2%, about 0.1375% to about 0.15%, about 0.1375% to about 0.1625%, about 0.1375% to about 0.175%, about 0.1375% to about 0.1875%, about 0.1375% to about 0.2%, about 0.15% to about 0.1625%, about 0.15% to about 0.175%, about 0.15% to about 0.1875%, about 0.15% to about 0.2%, about 0.1625% to about 0.175%, about 0.1625% to about 0.1875%, about 0.1625% to about 0.2%, about 0.175% to about 0.1875%, about 0.175% to about 0.2%, or about 0.1875% to about 0.2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, bending the graphene film at an angle of about 180 degrees and at a concave radius of about 2 millimeters changes the resistance of the graphene film by about 0.05%, about 0.0625%, about 0.075%, about 0.1%, about 0.1125%, about 0.125%, about 0.1375%, about 0.15%, about 0.1625%, about 0.175%, about 0.1875%, or about 0.2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, bending the graphene film at an angle of about 180 degrees and at a concave radius of about 2 millimeters changes the resistance of the graphene film by at least about 0.05%, about 0.0625%, about 0.075%, about 0.1%, about 0.1125%, about 0.125%, about 0.1375%, about 0.15%, about 0.1625%, about 0.175%, about 0.1875%, or about 0.2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, bending the graphene film at an angle of about 180 degrees and at a concave radius of about 2 millimeters changes the resistance of the graphene film by no more than about 0.05%, about 0.0625%, about 0.075%, about 0.1%, about 0.1125%, about 0.125%, about 0.1375%, about 0.15%, about 0.1625%, about 0.175%, about 0.1875%, or about 0.2%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, bending the graphene film at an angle of about 180 degrees and at a convex radius of about 1.75 millimeters changes the resistance of the graphene film by about 0.2% to about 1.25%. Optionally, in some embodiments, bending the graphene film at an angle of about 180 degrees and at a convex radius of about 1.75 millimeters changes the resistance of the graphene film by at least about 0.2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, bending the graphene film at an angle of about 180 degrees and at a convex radius of about 1.75 millimeters changes the resistance of the graphene film by at most about 1.25%. Optionally, in some embodiments, bending the graphene film at an angle of about 180 degrees and at a convex radius of about 1.75 millimeters changes the resistance of the graphene film by about 0.375% to about 0.5%, about 0.375% to about 0.625%, about 0.375% to about 0.75%, about 0.375% to about 0.875%, about 0.375% to about 1%, about 0.375% to about 1.125%, about 0.375% to about 1.25%, about 0.375% to about 0.2%, about 0.5% to about 0.625%, about 0.5% to about 0.75%, about 0.5% to about 0.875%, about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 1.125%, about 0.5% to about 1.25%, about 0.5% to about 0.2%, about 0.625% to about 0.75%, about 0.625% to about 0.875%, about 0.625% to about 1%, about 0.625% to about 1.125%, about 0.625% to about 1.25%, about 0.625% to about 0.2%, about 0.75% to about 0.875%, about 0.75% to about 1%, about 0.75% to about 1.125%, about 0.75% to about 1.25%, about 0.75% to about 0.2%, about 0.875% to about 1%, about 0.875% to about 1.125%, about 0.875% to about 1.25%, about 0.875% to about 0.2%, about 1% to about 1.125%, about 1% to about 1.25%, about 1% to about 0.2%, about 1.125% to about 1.25%, about 1.125% to about 0.2%, or about 1.25% to about 0.2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, bending the graphene film at an angle of about 180 degrees and at a convex radius of about 1.75 millimeters changes the resistance of the graphene film by about 0.375%, about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, about 0.875%, about 1%, about 1.125%, or about 1.25%. Optionally, in some embodiments, bending the graphene film at an angle of about 180 degrees and at a convex radius of about 1.75 millimeters changes the resistance of the graphene film by at least about 0.375%, about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, about 0.875%, about 1%, about 1.125%, or about 1.25%. Optionally, in some embodiments, bending the graphene film at an angle of about 180 degrees and at a convex radius of about 1.75 millimeters changes the resistance of the graphene film by no more than about 0.375%, about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, about 0.875%, about 1%, about 1.125%, or about 1.25%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 500 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by about 0.8% to about 2.6%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 500 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by at least about 0.8%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 500 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by at most about 2.6%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 500 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by about 0.8% to about 1%, about 0.8% to about 1.2%, about 0.8% to about 1.4%, about 0.8% to about 1.6%, about 0.8% to about 1.8%, about 0.8% to about 2%, about 0.8% to about 2.2%, about 0.8% to about 2.4%, about 0.8% to about 2.6%, about 1% to about 1.2%, about 1% to about 1.4%, about 1% to about 1.6%, about 1% to about 1.8%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 2.2%, about 1% to about 2.4%, about 1% to about 2.6%, about 1.2% to about 1.4%, about 1.2% to about 1.6%, about 1.2% to about 1.8%, about 1.2% to about 2%, about 1.2% to about 2.2%, about 1.2% to about 2.4%, about 1.2% to about 2.6%, about 1.4% to about 1.6%, about 1.4% to about 1.8%, about 1.4% to about 2%, about 1.4% to about 2.2%, about 1.4% to about 2.4%, about 1.4% to about 2.6%, about 1.6% to about 1.8%, about 1.6% to about 2%, about 1.6% to about 2.2%, about 1.6% to about 2.4%, about 1.6% to about 2.6%, about 1.8% to about 2%, about 1.8% to about 2.2%, about 1.8% to about 2.4%, about 1.8% to about 2.6%, about 2% to about 2.2%, about 2% to about 2.4%, about 2% to about 2.6%, about 2.2% to about 2.4%, about 2.2% to about 2.6%, or about 2.4% to about 2.6%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 500 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by about 0.8%, about 1%, about 1.2%, about 1.4%, about 1.6%, about 1.8%, about 2%, about 2.2%, about 2.4%, or about 2.6%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 500 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by at least about 0.8%, about 1%, about 1.2%, about 1.4%, about 1.6%, about 1.8%, about 2%, about 2.2%, about 2.4%, or about 2.6%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 500 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by no more than about 0.8%, about 1%, about 1.2%, about 1.4%, about 1.6%, about 1.8%, about 2%, about 2.2%, about 2.4%, or about 2.6%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 1,000 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by about 0.8% to about 2.6%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 1,000 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by at least about 0.8%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 1,000 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by at most about 2.6%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 1,000 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by about 0.8% to about 1%, about 0.8% to about 1.2%, about 0.8% to about 1.4%, about 0.8% to about 1.6%, about 0.8% to about 1.8%, about 0.8% to about 2%, about 0.8% to about 2.2%, about 0.8% to about 2.4%, about 0.8% to about 2.6%, about 1% to about 1.2%, about 1% to about 1.4%, about 1% to about 1.6%, about 1% to about 1.8%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 2.2%, about 1% to about 2.4%, about 1% to about 2.6%, about 1.2% to about 1.4%, about 1.2% to about 1.6%, about 1.2% to about 1.8%, about 1.2% to about 2%, about 1.2% to about 2.2%, about 1.2% to about 2.4%, about 1.2% to about 2.6%, about 1.4% to about 1.6%, about 1.4% to about 1.8%, about 1.4% to about 2%, about 1.4% to about 2.2%, about 1.4% to about 2.4%, about 1.4% to about 2.6%, about 1.6% to about 1.8%, about 1.6% to about 2%, about 1.6% to about 2.2%, about 1.6% to about 2.4%, about 1.6% to about 2.6%, about 1.8% to about 2%, about 1.8% to about 2.2%, about 1.8% to about 2.4%, about 1.8% to about 2.6%, about 2% to about 2.2%, about 2% to about 2.4%, about 2% to about 2.6%, about 2.2% to about 2.4%, about 2.2% to about 2.6%, or about 2.4% to about 2.6%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 1,000 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by about 0.8%, about 1%, about 1.2%, about 1.4%, about 1.6%, about 1.8%, about 2%, about 2.2%, about 2.4%, or about 2.6%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 1,000 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by at least about 0.8%, about 1%, about 1.2%, about 1.4%, about 1.6%, about 1.8%, about 2%, about 2.2%, about 2.4%, or about 2.6%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 1,000 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by no more than about 0.8%, about 1%, about 1.2%, about 1.4%, about 1.6%, about 1.8%, about 2%, about 2.2%, about 2.4%, or about 2.6%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 2,000 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by about 0.8% to about 2.6%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 2,000 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by at least about 0.8%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 2,000 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by at most about 2.6%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 2,000 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by about 0.8% to about 1%, about 0.8% to about 1.2%, about 0.8% to about 1.4%, about 0.8% to about 1.6%, about 0.8% to about 1.8%, about 0.8% to about 2%, about 0.8% to about 2.2%, about 0.8% to about 2.4%, about 0.8% to about 2.6%, about 1% to about 1.2%, about 1% to about 1.4%, about 1% to about 1.6%, about 1% to about 1.8%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 2.2%, about 1% to about 2.4%, about 1% to about 2.6%, about 1.2% to about 1.4%, about 1.2% to about 1.6%, about 1.2% to about 1.8%, about 1.2% to about 2%, about 1.2% to about 2.2%, about 1.2% to about 2.4%, about 1.2% to about 2.6%, about 1.4% to about 1.6%, about 1.4% to about 1.8%, about 1.4% to about 2%, about 1.4% to about 2.2%, about 1.4% to about 2.4%, about 1.4% to about 2.6%, about 1.6% to about 1.8%, about 1.6% to about 2%, about 1.6% to about 2.2%, about 1.6% to about 2.4%, about 1.6% to about 2.6%, about 1.8% to about 2%, about 1.8% to about 2.2%, about 1.8% to about 2.4%, about 1.8% to about 2.6%, about 2% to about 2.2%, about 2% to about 2.4%, about 2% to about 2.6%, about 2.2% to about 2.4%, about 2.2% to about 2.6%, or about 2.4% to about 2.6%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 2,000 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by about 0.8%, about 1%, about 1.2%, about 1.4%, about 1.6%, about 1.8%, about 2%, about 2.2%, about 2.4%, or about 2.6%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 2,000 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by at least about 0.8%, about 1%, about 1.2%, about 1.4%, about 1.6%, about 1.8%, about 2%, about 2.2%, about 2.4%, or about 2.6%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the resistance of the graphene changes after about 2,000 cycles of bending at a bending radius of about 10 millimeters by no more than about 0.8%, about 1%, about 1.2%, about 1.4%, about 1.6%, about 1.8%, about 2%, about 2.2%, about 2.4%, or about 2.6%.

Another aspect provided herein is a method of forming a conductive graphene ink comprising: forming a binder solution comprising: heating a first solvent, adding a binder to the first solvent, mixing the binder and the first solvent, and cooling the binder and the first solvent; forming an RGO dispersion comprising a second solvent and RGO; and forming a graphene solution comprising the binder solution, the reduced graphene dispersion a third solvent, a conductive additive, a surfactant, a defoamer; and mixing the graphene solution to form a conductive graphene ink.

Optionally, in some embodiments, at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent comprises water and an organic solvent. Optionally, in some embodiments, the organic solvent comprises ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, NMP, cyclohexanone, terpineol, 3-methoxy-3-methyl-1-butanol, 4-hydroxyl-4-methyl-pentan-2-one, methyl isobutyl ketone, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent comprises water, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, NMP, cyclohexanone, terpineol, 3-methoxy-3-methyl-1-butanol, 4-hydroxyl-4-methyl-pentan-2-one, methyl isobutyl ketone, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is about 1% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 20%, about 1% to about 30%, about 1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 50%, about 1% to about 60%, about 1% to about 70%, about 1% to about 80%, about 1% to about 99%, about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 10%, about 2% to about 20%, about 2% to about 30%, about 2% to about 40%, about 2% to about 50%, about 2% to about 60%, about 2% to about 70%, about 2% to about 80%, about 2% to about 99%, about 5% to about 10%, about 5% to about 20%, about 5% to about 30%, about 5% to about 40%, about 5% to about 50%, about 5% to about 60%, about 5% to about 70%, about 5% to about 80%, about 5% to about 99%, about 10% to about 20%, about 10% to about 30%, about 10% to about 40%, about 10% to about 50%, about 10% to about 60%, about 10% to about 70%, about 10% to about 80%, about 10% to about 99%, about 20% to about 30%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 50%, about 20% to about 60%, about 20% to about 70%, about 20% to about 80%, about 20% to about 99%, about 30% to about 40%, about 30% to about 50%, about 30% to about 60%, about 30% to about 70%, about 30% to about 80%, about 30% to about 99%, about 40% to about 50%, about 40% to about 60%, about 40% to about 70%, about 40% to about 80%, about 40% to about 99%, about 50% to about 60%, about 50% to about 70%, about 50% to about 80%, about 50% to about 99%, about 60% to about 70%, about 60% to about 80%, about 60% to about 99%, about 70% to about 80%, about 70% to about 99%, or about 80% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, or about 80%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, or about 99%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder solution comprises a binder and a first solvent. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder comprises a polymer. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer comprises a synthetic polymer. Optionally, in some embodiments, the synthetic polymer comprises carboxymethyl cellulose, PVDF, poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(vinyl pyrrolidone), poly(ethylene oxide), ethyl cellulose, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is a dispersant.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 2%, about 0.5% to about 5%, about 0.5% to about 10%, about 0.5% to about 20%, about 0.5% to about 30%, about 0.5% to about 40%, about 0.5% to about 50%, about 0.5% to about 70%, about 0.5% to about 90%, about 0.5% to about 99%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 20%, about 1% to about 30%, about 1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 50%, about 1% to about 70%, about 1% to about 90%, about 1% to about 99%, about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 10%, about 2% to about 20%, about 2% to about 30%, about 2% to about 40%, about 2% to about 50%, about 2% to about 70%, about 2% to about 90%, about 2% to about 99%, about 5% to about 10%, about 5% to about 20%, about 5% to about 30%, about 5% to about 40%, about 5% to about 50%, about 5% to about 70%, about 5% to about 90%, about 5% to about 99%, about 10% to about 20%, about 10% to about 30%, about 10% to about 40%, about 10% to about 50%, about 10% to about 70%, about 10% to about 90%, about 10% to about 99%, about 20% to about 30%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 50%, about 20% to about 70%, about 20% to about 90%, about 20% to about 99%, about 30% to about 40%, about 30% to about 50%, about 30% to about 70%, about 30% to about 90%, about 30% to about 99%, about 40% to about 50%, about 40% to about 70%, about 40% to about 90%, about 40% to about 99%, about 50% to about 70%, about 50% to about 90%, about 50% to about 99%, about 70% to about 90%, about 70% to about 99%, or about 90% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 70%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 95%, or about 99%. Alternatively or in combination, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 95%, or about 99%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is about 0.5% to about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is at least about 0.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is at most about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is about 0.5% to about 0.625%, about 0.5% to about 0.75%, about 0.5% to about 0.875%, about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 1.25%, about 0.5% to about 1.5%, about 0.5% to about 1.75%, about 0.5% to about 2%, about 0.625% to about 0.75%, about 0.625% to about 0.875%, about 0.625% to about 1%, about 0.625% to about 1.25%, about 0.625% to about 1.5%, about 0.625% to about 1.75%, about 0.625% to about 2%, about 0.75% to about 0.875%, about 0.75% to about 1%, about 0.75% to about 1.25%, about 0.75% to about 1.5%, about 0.75% to about 1.75%, about 0.75% to about 2%, about 0.875% to about 1%, about 0.875% to about 1.25%, about 0.875% to about 1.5%, about 0.875% to about 1.75%, about 0.875% to about 2%, about 1% to about 1.25%, about 1% to about 1.5%, about 1% to about 1.75%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1.25% to about 1.5%, about 1.25% to about 1.75%, about 1.25% to about 2%, about 1.5% to about 1.75%, about 1.5% to about 2%, or about 1.75% to about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, about 0.875%, about 1%, about 1.25%, about 1.5%, about 1.75%, or about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is at least about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, about 0.875%, about 1%, about 1.25%, about 1.5%, about 1.75%, or about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is no more than about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, about 0.875%, about 1%, about 1.25%, about 1.5%, about 1.75%, or about 2%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.25% to about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.25%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.25% to about 0.375%, about 0.25% to about 0.5%, about 0.25% to about 0.625%, about 0.25% to about 0.75%, about 0.25% to about 1%, about 0.375% to about 0.5%, about 0.375% to about 0.625%, about 0.375% to about 0.75%, about 0.375% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 0.625%, about 0.5% to about 0.75%, about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.625% to about 0.75%, about 0.625% to about 1%, or about 0.75% to about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.25%, about 0.375%, about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, or about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.25%, about 0.375%, about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, or about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.25%, about 0.375%, about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, or about 1%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is about 3% to about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is at least about 3%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is at most about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is about 3% to about 4%, about 3% to about 5%, about 3% to about 6%, about 3% to about 7%, about 3% to about 8%, about 3% to about 9%, about 3% to about 10%, about 3% to about 11%, about 3% to about 12%, about 4% to about 5%, about 4% to about 6%, about 4% to about 7%, about 4% to about 8%, about 4% to about 9%, about 4% to about 10%, about 4% to about 11%, about 4% to about 12%, about 5% to about 6%, about 5% to about 7%, about 5% to about 8%, about 5% to about 9%, about 5% to about 10%, about 5% to about 11%, about 5% to about 12%, about 6% to about 7%, about 6% to about 8%, about 6% to about 9%, about 6% to about 10%, about 6% to about 11%, about 6% to about 12%, about 7% to about 8%, about 7% to about 9%, about 7% to about 10%, about 7% to about 11%, about 7% to about 12%, about 8% to about 9%, about 8% to about 10%, about 8% to about 11%, about 8% to about 12%, about 9% to about 10%, about 9% to about 11%, about 9% to about 12%, about 10% to about 11%, about 10% to about 12%, or about 11% to about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, about 10%, about 11%, or about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is at least about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, about 10%, about 11%, or about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is no more than about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, about 10%, about 11%, or about 12%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.1% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.1% to about 0.2%, about 0.1% to about 0.5%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 20%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 60%, about 0.1% to about 80%, about 0.1% to about 90%, about 0.1% to about 99%, about 0.2% to about 0.5%, about 0.2% to about 1%, about 0.2% to about 10%, about 0.2% to about 20%, about 0.2% to about 40%, about 0.2% to about 60%, about 0.2% to about 80%, about 0.2% to about 90%, about 0.2% to about 99%, about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 10%, about 0.5% to about 20%, about 0.5% to about 40%, about 0.5% to about 60%, about 0.5% to about 80%, about 0.5% to about 90%, about 0.5% to about 99%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 20%, about 1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 60%, about 1% to about 80%, about 1% to about 90%, about 1% to about 99%, about 10% to about 20%, about 10% to about 40%, about 10% to about 60%, about 10% to about 80%, about 10% to about 90%, about 10% to about 99%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 60%, about 20% to about 80%, about 20% to about 90%, about 20% to about 99%, about 40% to about 60%, about 40% to about 80%, about 40% to about 90%, about 40% to about 99%, about 60% to about 80%, about 60% to about 90%, about 60% to about 99%, about 80% to about 90%, about 80% to about 99%, or about 90% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.1%, about 0.2%, about 0.5%, about 1%, about 10%, about 20%, about 40%, about 60%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.1%, about 0.2%, about 0.5%, about 1%, about 10%, about 20%, about 40%, about 60%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.1%, about 0.2%, about 0.5%, about 1%, about 10%, about 20%, about 40%, about 60%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive additive comprises a carbon-based material. Optionally, in some embodiments, the carbon-based material comprises a paracrystalline carbon. Optionally, in some embodiments, the paracrystalline carbon comprises carbon black, acetylene black, channel black, furnace black, lamp black, thermal black, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive additive comprises silver. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver comprises silver nanoparticles, silver nanorods, silver nanowires, silver nanoflowers, silver nanofibers, silver nanoplatelets, silver nanoribbons, silver nanocubes, silver bipyramids, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is about 2% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 10%, about 2% to about 20%, about 2% to about 30%, about 2% to about 40%, about 2% to about 50%, about 2% to about 60%, about 2% to about 70%, about 2% to about 80%, about 2% to about 90%, about 2% to about 99%, about 5% to about 10%, about 5% to about 20%, about 5% to about 30%, about 5% to about 40%, about 5% to about 50%, about 5% to about 60%, about 5% to about 70%, about 5% to about 80%, about 5% to about 90%, about 5% to about 99%, about 10% to about 20%, about 10% to about 30%, about 10% to about 40%, about 10% to about 50%, about 10% to about 60%, about 10% to about 70%, about 10% to about 80%, about 10% to about 90%, about 10% to about 99%, about 20% to about 30%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 50%, about 20% to about 60%, about 20% to about 70%, about 20% to about 80%, about 20% to about 90%, about 20% to about 99%, about 30% to about 40%, about 30% to about 50%, about 30% to about 60%, about 30% to about 70%, about 30% to about 80%, about 30% to about 90%, about 30% to about 99%, about 40% to about 50%, about 40% to about 60%, about 40% to about 70%, about 40% to about 80%, about 40% to about 90%, about 40% to about 99%, about 50% to about 60%, about 50% to about 70%, about 50% to about 80%, about 50% to about 90%, about 50% to about 99%, about 60% to about 70%, about 60% to about 80%, about 60% to about 90%, about 60% to about 99%, about 70% to about 80%, about 70% to about 90%, about 70% to about 99%, about 80% to about 90%, about 80% to about 99%, or about 90% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%.

Some embodiments further comprise a surfactant. Optionally, in some embodiments, the surfactant comprises an acid, a nonionic surfactant, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the acid comprises perfluorooctanoic acid, perfluorooctane sulfonate, perfluorohexane sulfonic acid, perfluorononanoic acid, perfluorodecanoic acid, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the nonionic surfactant comprises a polyethylene glycol alkyl ether, a octaethylene glycol monododecyl ether, a pentaethylene glycol monododecyl ether, a polypropylene glycol alkyl ether, a glucoside alkyl ether, decyl glucoside, lauryl glucoside, octyl glucoside, a polyethylene glycol octylphenyl ether, dodecyldimethylamine oxide, a polyethylene glycol alkylphenyl ether, a polyethylene glycol octylphenyl ether, Triton X-100, polyethylene glycol alkylphenyl ether, nonoxynol-9, a glycerol alkyl ester polysorbate, sorbitan alkyl ester, polyethoxylated tallow amine, Dynol 604, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 2%, about 0.5% to about 3%, about 0.5% to about 4%, about 0.5% to about 5%, about 0.5% to about 6%, about 0.5% to about 7%, about 0.5% to about 8%, about 0.5% to about 9%, about 0.5% to about 10%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 3%, about 1% to about 4%, about 1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 6%, about 1% to about 7%, about 1% to about 8%, about 1% to about 9%, about 1% to about 10%, about 2% to about 3%, about 2% to about 4%, about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 6%, about 2% to about 7%, about 2% to about 8%, about 2% to about 9%, about 2% to about 10%, about 3% to about 4%, about 3% to about 5%, about 3% to about 6%, about 3% to about 7%, about 3% to about 8%, about 3% to about 9%, about 3% to about 10%, about 4% to about 5%, about 4% to about 6%, about 4% to about 7%, about 4% to about 8%, about 4% to about 9%, about 4% to about 10%, about 5% to about 6%, about 5% to about 7%, about 5% to about 8%, about 5% to about 9%, about 5% to about 10%, about 6% to about 7%, about 6% to about 8%, about 6% to about 9%, about 6% to about 10%, about 7% to about 8%, about 7% to about 9%, about 7% to about 10%, about 8% to about 9%, about 8% to about 10%, or about 9% to about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%.

Some embodiments further comprise a defoamer, wherein the defoamer comprises an insoluble oil, a silicone, a glycol, a stearate, an organic solvent, Surfynol DF-1100, alkyl polyacrylate, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the insoluble oil comprises mineral oil, vegetable oil, white oil, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silicone comprises polydimethylsiloxane, silicone glycol, a fluorosilicone, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the glycol comprises polyethylene glycol, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the stearate comprises glycol stearate, stearin, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the organic solvent comprises ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, NMP, cyclohexanone, terpineol, 3-methoxy-3-methyl-1-butanol, 4-hydroxyl-4-methyl-pentan-2-one, methyl isobutyl ketone, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 2%, about 0.5% to about 3%, about 0.5% to about 4%, about 0.5% to about 5%, about 0.5% to about 6%, about 0.5% to about 7%, about 0.5% to about 8%, about 0.5% to about 9%, about 0.5% to about 10%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 3%, about 1% to about 4%, about 1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 6%, about 1% to about 7%, about 1% to about 8%, about 1% to about 9%, about 1% to about 10%, about 2% to about 3%, about 2% to about 4%, about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 6%, about 2% to about 7%, about 2% to about 8%, about 2% to about 9%, about 2% to about 10%, about 3% to about 4%, about 3% to about 5%, about 3% to about 6%, about 3% to about 7%, about 3% to about 8%, about 3% to about 9%, about 3% to about 10%, about 4% to about 5%, about 4% to about 6%, about 4% to about 7%, about 4% to about 8%, about 4% to about 9%, about 4% to about 10%, about 5% to about 6%, about 5% to about 7%, about 5% to about 8%, about 5% to about 9%, about 5% to about 10%, about 6% to about 7%, about 6% to about 8%, about 6% to about 9%, about 6% to about 10%, about 7% to about 8%, about 7% to about 9%, about 7% to about 10%, about 8% to about 9%, about 8% to about 10%, or about 9% to about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is about 2.5% to about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is at most about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is about 2.5% to about 3.5%, about 2.5% to about 4.5%, about 2.5% to about 5.5%, about 2.5% to about 6.5%, about 2.5% to about 7.5%, about 2.5% to about 8.5%, about 2.5% to about 9.5%, about 2.5% to about 10.5%, about 3.5% to about 4.5%, about 3.5% to about 5.5%, about 3.5% to about 6.5%, about 3.5% to about 7.5%, about 3.5% to about 8.5%, about 3.5% to about 9.5%, about 3.5% to about 10.5%, about 4.5% to about 5.5%, about 4.5% to about 6.5%, about 4.5% to about 7.5%, about 4.5% to about 8.5%, about 4.5% to about 9.5%, about 4.5% to about 10.5%, about 5.5% to about 6.5%, about 5.5% to about 7.5%, about 5.5% to about 8.5%, about 5.5% to about 9.5%, about 5.5% to about 10.5%, about 6.5% to about 7.5%, about 6.5% to about 8.5%, about 6.5% to about 9.5%, about 6.5% to about 10.5%, about 7.5% to about 8.5%, about 7.5% to about 9.5%, about 7.5% to about 10.5%, about 8.5% to about 9.5%, about 8.5% to about 10.5%, or about 9.5% to about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is about 2.5%, about 3.5%, about 4.5%, about 5.5%, about 6.5%, about 7.5%, about 8.5%, about 9.5%, or about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2.5%, about 3.5%, about 4.5%, about 5.5%, about 6.5%, about 7.5%, about 8.5%, about 9.5%, or about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 2.5%, about 3.5%, about 4.5%, about 5.5%, about 6.5%, about 7.5%, about 8.5%, about 9.5%, or about 10.5%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solvent is heated to a temperature of about 35° C. to about 125° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solvent is heated to a temperature of at least about 35° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solvent is heated to a temperature of at most about 125° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solvent is heated to a temperature of about 35° C. to about 40° C., about 35° C. to about 50° C., about 35° C. to about 60° C., about 35° C. to about 70° C., about 35° C. to about 80° C., about 35° C. to about 90° C., about 35° C. to about 100° C., about 35° C. to about 125° C., about 40° C. to about 50° C., about 40° C. to about 60° C., about 40° C. to about 70° C., about 40° C. to about 80° C., about 40° C. to about 90° C., about 40° C. to about 100° C., about 40° C. to about 125° C., about 50° C. to about 60° C., about 50° C. to about 70° C., about 50° C. to about 80° C., about 50° C. to about 90° C., about 50° C. to about 100° C., about 50° C. to about 125° C., about 60° C. to about 70° C., about 60° C. to about 80° C., about 60° C. to about 90° C., about 60° C. to about 100° C., about 60° C. to about 125° C., about 70° C. to about 80° C., about 70° C. to about 90° C., about 70° C. to about 100° C., about 70° C. to about 125° C., about 80° C. to about 90° C., about 80° C. to about 100° C., about 80° C. to about 125° C., about 90° C. to about 100° C., about 90° C. to about 125° C., or about 100° C. to about 125° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solvent is heated to a temperature of about 35° C., about 40° C., about 50° C., about 60° C., about 70° C., about 80° C., about 90° C., about 100° C., or about 125° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solvent is heated to a temperature of at least about 35° C., about 40° C., about 50° C., about 60° C., about 70° C., about 80° C., about 90° C., about 100° C., or about 125° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solvent is heated to a temperature of no more than about 35° C., about 40° C., about 50° C., about 60° C., about 70° C., about 80° C., about 90° C., about 100° C., or about 125° C.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the process of adding a binder to the first solvent and the process of mixing the binder and the first solvent are preformed simultaneously.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is added to the first solvent over a period of time of about 45 minutes to about 240 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is added to the first solvent over a period of time of at least about 45 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is added to the first solvent over a period of time of at most about 240 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is added to the first solvent over a period of time of about 45 minutes to about 60 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 150 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 180 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 210 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 240 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 150 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 180 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 210 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 240 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 150 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 180 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 210 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 240 minutes, about 120 minutes to about 150 minutes, about 120 minutes to about 180 minutes, about 120 minutes to about 210 minutes, about 120 minutes to about 240 minutes, about 150 minutes to about 180 minutes, about 150 minutes to about 210 minutes, about 150 minutes to about 240 minutes, about 180 minutes to about 210 minutes, about 180 minutes to about 240 minutes, or about 210 minutes to about 240 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is added to the first solvent over a period of time of about 45 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 90 minutes, about 120 minutes, about 150 minutes, about 180 minutes, about 210 minutes, or about 240 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is added to the first solvent over a period of time of at least about 45 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 90 minutes, about 120 minutes, about 150 minutes, about 180 minutes, about 210 minutes, or about 240 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is added to the first solvent over a period of time of no more than about 45 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 90 minutes, about 120 minutes, about 150 minutes, about 180 minutes, about 210 minutes, or about 240 minutes.

Optionally, in some embodiments, after the binder is fully added to the first solvent, the binder and the first solvent are mixed for a period of time of about 7 minutes to about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, after the binder is fully added to the first solvent, the binder and the first solvent are mixed for a period of time of at least about 7 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, after the binder is fully added to the first solvent, the binder and the first solvent are mixed for a period of time of at most about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, after the binder is fully added to the first solvent, the binder and the first solvent are mixed for a period of time of about 7 minutes to about 9 minutes, about 7 minutes to about 11 minutes, about 7 minutes to about 13 minutes, about 7 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 7 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 7 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 7 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 9 minutes to about 11 minutes, about 9 minutes to about 13 minutes, about 9 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 9 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 9 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 9 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 11 minutes to about 13 minutes, about 11 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 11 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 11 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 11 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 13 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 13 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 13 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 13 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 15 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 15 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 15 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 30 minutes, or about 25 minutes to about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, after the binder is fully added to the first solvent, the binder and the first solvent are mixed for a period of time of about 7 minutes, about 9 minutes, about 11 minutes, about 13 minutes, about 15 minutes, about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, or about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, after the binder is fully added to the first solvent, the binder and the first solvent are mixed for a period of time of at least about 7 minutes, about 9 minutes, about 11 minutes, about 13 minutes, about 15 minutes, about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, or about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, after the binder is fully added to the first solvent, the binder and the first solvent are mixed for a period of time of no more than about 7 minutes, about 9 minutes, about 11 minutes, about 13 minutes, about 15 minutes, about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, or about 30 minutes.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the mixing of the binder solution, the first solvent, the conductive additive, and the RGO dispersion is performed by a second mechanical mixer.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the mixing of the binder and the first solvent is performed by a first mechanical mixer.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a stirring speed of about 15 rpm to about 125 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a stirring speed of at least about 15 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a stirring speed of at most about 125 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a stirring speed of about 15 rpm to about 20 rpm, about 15 rpm to about 25 rpm, about 15 rpm to about 30 rpm, about 15 rpm to about 40 rpm, about 15 rpm to about 50 rpm, about 15 rpm to about 75 rpm, about 15 rpm to about 100 rpm, about 15 rpm to about 125 rpm, about 20 rpm to about 25 rpm, about 20 rpm to about 30 rpm, about 20 rpm to about 40 rpm, about 20 rpm to about 50 rpm, about 20 rpm to about 75 rpm, about 20 rpm to about 100 rpm, about 20 rpm to about 125 rpm, about 25 rpm to about 30 rpm, about 25 rpm to about 40 rpm, about 25 rpm to about 50 rpm, about 25 rpm to about 75 rpm, about 25 rpm to about 100 rpm, about 25 rpm to about 125 rpm, about 30 rpm to about 40 rpm, about 30 rpm to about 50 rpm, about 30 rpm to about 75 rpm, about 30 rpm to about 100 rpm, about 30 rpm to about 125 rpm, about 40 rpm to about 50 rpm, about 40 rpm to about 75 rpm, about 40 rpm to about 100 rpm, about 40 rpm to about 125 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 75 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 100 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 125 rpm, about 75 rpm to about 100 rpm, about 75 rpm to about 125 rpm, or about 100 rpm to about 125 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a stirring speed of about 15 rpm, about 20 rpm, about 25 rpm, about 30 rpm, about 40 rpm, about 50 rpm, about 75 rpm, about 100 rpm, or about 125 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a stirring speed of at least about 15 rpm, about 20 rpm, about 25 rpm, about 30 rpm, about 40 rpm, about 50 rpm, about 75 rpm, about 100 rpm, or about 125 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a stirring speed of no more than about 15 rpm, about 20 rpm, about 25 rpm, about 30 rpm, about 40 rpm, about 50 rpm, about 75 rpm, about 100 rpm, or about 125 rpm.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a dispersing speed of about 50 rpm to about 4,500 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a dispersing speed of at least about 50 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a dispersing speed of at most about 4,500 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a dispersing speed of about 50 rpm to about 100 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 200 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 500 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 1,000 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 1,500 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 2,000 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 2,500 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 200 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 1,000 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 1,500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 2,000 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 2,500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 500 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 1,000 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 1,500 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 2,000 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 2,500 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 500 rpm to about 1,000 rpm, about 500 rpm to about 1,500 rpm, about 500 rpm to about 2,000 rpm, about 500 rpm to about 2,500 rpm, about 500 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 500 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 500 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 500 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 1,000 rpm to about 1,500 rpm, about 1,000 rpm to about 2,000 rpm, about 1,000 rpm to about 2,500 rpm, about 1,000 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 1,000 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 1,000 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 1,000 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 2,000 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 2,500 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm to about 2,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 2,000 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 2,000 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 2,500 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 2,500 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 2,500 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 2,500 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 3,000 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 3,000 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 3,000 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 3,500 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 3,500 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, or about 4,000 rpm to about 4,500 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a dispersing speed of about 50 rpm, about 100 rpm, about 200 rpm, about 500 rpm, about 1,000 rpm, about 1,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm, about 2,500 rpm, about 3,000 rpm, about 3,500 rpm, about 4,000 rpm, about 4,500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 200 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 1,000 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 1,500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 2,000 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 2,500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 4,500 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a dispersing speed of at least about 50 rpm, about 100 rpm, about 200 rpm, about 500 rpm, about 1,000 rpm, about 1,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm, about 2,500 rpm, about 3,000 rpm, about 3,500 rpm, about 4,000 rpm, or about 4,500 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a dispersing speed of no more than about 50 rpm, about 100 rpm, about 200 rpm, about 500 rpm, about 1,000 rpm, about 1,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm, about 2,500 rpm, about 3,000 rpm, about 3,500 rpm, about 4,000 rpm, or about 4,500 rpm.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution under a vacuum degree, and wherein the vacuum degree is equal to the ambient pressure.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution under a vacuum degree, and wherein the vacuum degree is about −0.05 MPa to about −0.2 MPa. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution under a vacuum degree, and wherein the vacuum degree is at least about −0.05 MPa. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution under a vacuum degree, and wherein the vacuum degree is at most about −0.2 MPa. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution under a vacuum degree, and wherein the vacuum degree is about −0.05 MPa to about −0.0625 MPa, about −0.05 MPa to about −0.0875 MPa, about −0.05 MPa to about −0.1 MPa, about −0.05 MPa to about −0.1125 MPa, about −0.05 MPa to about −0.125 MPa, about −0.05 MPa to about −0.1375 MPa, about −0.05 MPa to about −0.15 MPa, about −0.05 MPa to about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.05 MPa to about −0.1875 MPa, about −0.05 MPa to about −0.2 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa to about −0.0875 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa to about −0.1 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa to about −0.1125 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa to about −0.125 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa to about −0.1375 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa to about −0.15 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa to about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa to about −0.1875 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa to about −0.2 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa to about −0.1 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa to about −0.1125 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa to about −0.125 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa to about −0.1375 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa to about −0.15 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa to about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa to about −0.1875 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa to about −0.2 MPa, about −0.1 MPa to about −0.1125 MPa, about −0.1 MPa to about −0.125 MPa, about −0.1 MPa to about −0.1375 MPa, about −0.1 MPa to about −0.15 MPa, about −0.1 MPa to about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.1 MPa to about −0.1875 MPa, about −0.1 MPa to about −0.2 MPa, about −0.1125 MPa to about −0.125 MPa, about −0.1125 MPa to about −0.1375 MPa, about −0.1125 MPa to about −0.15 MPa, about −0.1125 MPa to about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.1125 MPa to about −0.1875 MPa, about −0.1125 MPa to about −0.2 MPa, about −0.125 MPa to about −0.1375 MPa, about −0.125 MPa to about −0.15 MPa, about −0.125 MPa to about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.125 MPa to about −0.1875 MPa, about −0.125 MPa to about −0.2 MPa, about −0.1375 MPa to about −0.15 MPa, about −0.1375 MPa to about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.1375 MPa to about −0.1875 MPa, about −0.1375 MPa to about −0.2 MPa, about −0.15 MPa to about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.15 MPa to about −0.1875 MPa, about −0.15 MPa to about −0.2 MPa, about −0.1625 MPa to about −0.1875 MPa, about −0.1625 MPa to about −0.2 MPa, or about −0.1875 MPa to about −0.2 MPa. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution under a vacuum degree, and wherein the vacuum degree is about −0.05 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa, about −0.1 MPa, about −0.1125 MPa, about −0.125 MPa, about −0.1375 MPa, about −0.15 MPa, about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.1875 MPa, or about −0.2 MPa. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution under a vacuum degree, and wherein the vacuum degree is at least about −0.05 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa, about −0.1 MPa, about −0.1125 MPa, about −0.125 MPa, about −0.1375 MPa, about −0.15 MPa, about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.1875 MPa, or about −0.2 MPa. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution under a vacuum degree, and wherein the vacuum degree is no more than about −0.05 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa, about −0.1 MPa, about −0.1125 MPa, about −0.125 MPa, about −0.1375 MPa, about −0.15 MPa, about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.1875 MPa, or about −0.2 MPa.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution during one or more intervals, wherein each interval comprises a period of time of about 0.5 minute to about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution during one or more intervals, wherein each interval comprises a period of time of at least about 0.5 minute. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution during one or more intervals, wherein each interval comprises a period of time of at most about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution during one or more intervals, wherein each interval comprises a period of time of about 0.5 minute to about 1 minute, about 0.5 minute to about 2 minutes, about 0.5 minute to about 3 minutes, about 0.5 minute to about 4 minutes, about 0.5 minute to about 5 minutes, about 0.5 minute to about 10 minutes, about 0.5 minute to about 15 minutes, about 0.5 minute to about 20 minutes, about 0.5 minute to about 25 minutes, about 0.5 minute to about 30 minutes, about 1 minute to about 2 minutes, about 1 minute to about 3 minutes, about 1 minute to about 4 minutes, about 1 minute to about 5 minutes, about 1 minute to about 10 minutes, about 1 minute to about 15 minutes, about 1 minute to about 20 minutes, about 1 minute to about 25 minutes, about 1 minute to about 30 minutes, about 2 minutes to about 3 minutes, about 2 minutes to about 4 minutes, about 2 minutes to about 5 minutes, about 2 minutes to about 10 minutes, about 2 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 2 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 2 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 2 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 3 minutes to about 4 minutes, about 3 minutes to about 5 minutes, about 3 minutes to about 10 minutes, about 3 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 3 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 3 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 3 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 4 minutes to about 5 minutes, about 4 minutes to about 10 minutes, about 4 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 4 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 4 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 4 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes, about 5 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 5 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 5 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 5 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 10 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 10 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 10 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 10 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 15 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 15 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 15 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 30 minutes, or about 25 minutes to about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution during one or more intervals, wherein each interval comprises a period of time of about 0.5 minute, about 1 minute, about 2 minutes, about 3 minutes, about 4 minutes, about 5 minutes, about 10 minutes, about 15 minutes, about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, or about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution during one or more intervals, wherein each interval comprises a period of time of at least about 0.5 minute, about 1 minute, about 2 minutes, about 3 minutes, about 4 minutes, about 5 minutes, about 10 minutes, about 15 minutes, about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, or about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution during one or more intervals, wherein each interval comprises a period of time of no more than about 0.5 minute, about 1 minute, about 2 minutes, about 3 minutes, about 4 minutes, about 5 minutes, about 10 minutes, about 15 minutes, about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, or about 30 minutes.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the number of intervals is about 1 to about 60. Optionally, in some embodiments, the number of intervals is at least about 1. Optionally, in some embodiments, the number of intervals is at most about 60. Optionally, in some embodiments, the number of intervals is about 1 to about 2, about 1 to about 5, about 1 to about 10, about 1 to about 20, about 1 to about 30, about 1 to about 40, about 1 to about 50, about 1 to about 60, about 2 to about 5, about 2 to about 10, about 2 to about 20, about 2 to about 30, about 2 to about 40, about 2 to about 50, about 2 to about 60, about 5 to about 10, about 5 to about 20, about 5 to about 30, about 5 to about 40, about 5 to about 50, about 5 to about 60, about 10 to about 20, about 10 to about 30, about 10 to about 40, about 10 to about 50, about 10 to about 60, about 20 to about 30, about 20 to about 40, about 20 to about 50, about 20 to about 60, about 30 to about 40, about 30 to about 50, about 30 to about 60, about 40 to about 50, about 40 to about 60, or about 50 to about 60. Optionally, in some embodiments, the number of intervals is about 1, about 2, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, or about 60. Optionally, in some embodiments, the number of intervals is at least about 1, about 2, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, or about 60. Optionally, in some embodiments, the number of intervals is no more than about 1, about 2, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, or about 60.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the RGO dispersion is added after the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, or the fifteenth interval, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a first interval is about 5 minutes, and wherein the stirring speed is about 30 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a second interval is about 5 minutes, and wherein the stirring speed is about 50 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a third interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 75 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 100 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a fourth interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 75 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 300 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a fifth interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 75 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 500 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a sixth interval is about 1 minute, and wherein the stirring speed is about 30 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a seventh interval is about 1 minute, wherein the stirring speed is about 100 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 50 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of an eighth interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 75 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 500 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a ninth interval is about 10 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 75 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 1,000 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a tenth interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 75 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 3,000 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of an eleventh interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 30 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 100 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a twelfth interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 50 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 500 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a thirteenth interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 750 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 1,000 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a fourteenth interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 750 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 3,000 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a fifteenth interval is about 30 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 750 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 3,000 rpm.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder and the first solvent are cooled to a temperature of about 10° C. to about 40° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder and the first solvent are cooled to a temperature of at least about 10° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder and the first solvent are cooled to a temperature of at most about 40° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder and the first solvent are cooled to a temperature of about 10° C. to about 15° C., about 10° C. to about 20° C., about 10° C. to about 25° C., about 10° C. to about 30° C., about 10° C. to about 35° C., about 10° C. to about 40° C., about 15° C. to about 20° C., about 15° C. to about 25° C., about 15° C. to about 30° C., about 15° C. to about 35° C., about 15° C. to about 40° C., about 20° C. to about 25° C., about 20° C. to about 30° C., about 20° C. to about 35° C., about 20° C. to about 40° C., about 25° C. to about 30° C., about 25° C. to about 35° C., about 25° C. to about 40° C., about 30° C. to about 35° C., about 30° C. to about 40° C., or about 35° C. to about 40° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder and the first solvent are cooled to a temperature of about 10° C., about 15° C., about 20° C., about 25° C., about 30° C., about 35° C., or about 40° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder and the first solvent are cooled to a temperature of at least about 10° C., about 15° C., about 20° C., about 25° C., about 30° C., about 35° C., or about 40° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder and the first solvent are cooled to a temperature of no more than about 10° C., about 15° C., about 20° C., about 25° C., about 30° C., about 35° C., or about 40° C.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is about 10 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 10 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is at most about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is about 10 centipoise to about 20 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 50 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 100 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 200 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 50 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 100 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 200 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 100 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 200 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 200 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 500 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 500 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 500 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 500 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, or about 5,000 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is about 10 centipoise, about 20 centipoise, about 50 centipoise, about 100 centipoise, about 200 centipoise, about 500 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise, about 5,000 centipoise, or about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 10 centipoise, about 20 centipoise, about 50 centipoise, about 100 centipoise, about 200 centipoise, about 500 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise, about 5,000 centipoise, or about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 10 centipoise, about 20 centipoise, about 50 centipoise, about 100 centipoise, about 200 centipoise, about 500 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise, about 5,000 centipoise, or about 10,000 centipoise.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of at least about 2,300 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of at most about 2,400 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,310 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,320 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,330 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,320 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,330 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,330 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,370 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,370 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,370 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,380 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,380 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, or about 2,390 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of about 2,300 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,390 centipoise, or about 2,400 centipoise.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content of the conductive graphene ink is about 2.5% to about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content of the conductive graphene ink is at most about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content of the conductive graphene ink is about 2.5% to about 3.5%, about 2.5% to about 4.5%, about 2.5% to about 5.5%, about 2.5% to about 6.5%, about 2.5% to about 7.5%, about 2.5% to about 8.5%, about 2.5% to about 9.5%, about 2.5% to about 10.5%, about 3.5% to about 4.5%, about 3.5% to about 5.5%, about 3.5% to about 6.5%, about 3.5% to about 7.5%, about 3.5% to about 8.5%, about 3.5% to about 9.5%, about 3.5% to about 10.5%, about 4.5% to about 5.5%, about 4.5% to about 6.5%, about 4.5% to about 7.5%, about 4.5% to about 8.5%, about 4.5% to about 9.5%, about 4.5% to about 10.5%, about 5.5% to about 6.5%, about 5.5% to about 7.5%, about 5.5% to about 8.5%, about 5.5% to about 9.5%, about 5.5% to about 10.5%, about 6.5% to about 7.5%, about 6.5% to about 8.5%, about 6.5% to about 9.5%, about 6.5% to about 10.5%, about 7.5% to about 8.5%, about 7.5% to about 9.5%, about 7.5% to about 10.5%, about 8.5% to about 9.5%, about 8.5% to about 10.5%, or about 9.5% to about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content of the conductive graphene ink is about 2.5%, about 3.5%, about 4.5%, about 5.5%, about 6.5%, about 7.5%, about 8.5%, about 9.5%, or about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2.5%, about 3.5%, about 4.5%, about 5.5%, about 6.5%, about 7.5%, about 8.5%, about 9.5%, or about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content of the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 2.5%, about 3.5%, about 4.5%, about 5.5%, about 6.5%, about 7.5%, about 8.5%, about 9.5%, or about 10.5%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is at least about 2.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is at most about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3to about 3.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 4.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 5.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 6.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 4.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 5.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 6.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 5.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 6.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 6.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, or about 9.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is at most about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3, about 9.5 g/cm3, or about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of at least about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3, about 9.5 g/cm3, or about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of no more than about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3, about 9.5 g/cm3, or about 10.5 g/cm3.

Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of about 40 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of at least about 40 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of at most about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of about 40 m2/g to about 80 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 120 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 240 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 120 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 240 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 240 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, or about 2,200 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of about 40 m2/g, about 80 m2/g, about 120 m2/g, about 240 m2/g, about 480 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g, about 2,200 m2/g, or about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of at least about 40 m2/g, about 80 m2/g, about 120 m2/g, about 240 m2/g, about 480 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g, about 2,200 m2/g, or about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of no more than about 40 m2/g, about 80 m2/g, about 120 m2/g, about 240 m2/g, about 480 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g, about 2,200 m2/g, or about 2,400 m2/g.

Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of about 400 S/m to about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of at least about 400 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of at most about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of about 400 S/m to about 500 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 600 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 700 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 800 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 600 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 700 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 800 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 700 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 800 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 800 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 900 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 900 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 900 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 900 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 1,000 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 1,000 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 1,000 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 1,200 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 1,200 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, or about 1,400 S/m to about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of about 400 S/m, about 500 S/m, about 600 S/m, about 700 S/m, about 800 S/m, about 900 S/m, about 1,000 S/m, about 1,200 S/m, about 1,400 S/m, or about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of at least about 400 S/m, about 500 S/m, about 600 S/m, about 700 S/m, about 800 S/m, about 900 S/m, about 1,000 S/m, about 1,200 S/m, about 1,400 S/m, or about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of no more than about 400 S/m, about 500 S/m, about 600 S/m, about 700 S/m, about 800 S/m, about 900 S/m, about 1,000 S/m, about 1,200 S/m, about 1,400 S/m, or about 1,600 S/m.

Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of about 2:1 to about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of at least about 2:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of at most about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of about 2:1 to about 4:1, about 2:1 to about 6:1, about 2:1 to about 8:1, about 2:1 to about 10:1, about 2:1 to about 15:1, about 2:1 to about 20:1, about 2:1 to about 25:1, about 2:1 to about 30:1, about 2:1 to about 34:1, about 2:1 to about 40:1, about 4:1 to about 6:1, about 4:1 to about 8:1, about 4:1 to about 10:1, about 4:1 to about 15:1, about 4:1 to about 20:1, about 4:1 to about 25:1, about 4:1 to about 30:1, about 4:1 to about 34:1, about 4:1 to about 40:1, about 6:1 to about 8:1, about 6:1 to about 10:1, about 6:1 to about 15:1, about 6:1 to about 20:1, about 6:1 to about 25:1, about 6:1 to about 30:1, about 6:1 to about 34:1, about 6:1 to about 40:1, about 8:1 to about 10:1, about 8:1 to about 15:1, about 8:1 to about 20:1, about 8:1 to about 25:1, about 8:1 to about 30:1, about 8:1 to about 34:1, about 8:1 to about 40:1, about 10:1 to about 15:1, about 10:1 to about 20:1, about 10:1 to about 25:1, about 10:1 to about 30:1, about 10:1 to about 34:1, about 10:1 to about 40:1, about 15:1 to about 20:1, about 15:1 to about 25:1, about 15:1 to about 30:1, about 15:1 to about 34:1, about 15:1 to about 40:1, about 20:1 to about 25:1, about 20:1 to about 30:1, about 20:1 to about 34:1, about 20:1 to about 40:1, about 25:1 to about 30:1, about 25:1 to about 34:1, about 25:1 to about 40:1, about 30:1 to about 34:1, about 30:1 to about 40:1, or about 34:1 to about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of about 2:1, about 4:1, about 6:1, about 8:1, about 10:1, about 15:1, about 20:1, about 25:1, about 30:1, about 34:1, or about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments, one of the conductivity, the surface area, and the C:O ratio of the conductive graphene ink is measured by methylene blue absorption. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of at least about 2:1, about 4:1, about 6:1, about 8:1, about 10:1, about 15:1, about 20:1, about 25:1, about 30:1, about 34:1, or about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of no more than about 2:1, about 4:1, about 6:1, about 8:1, about 10:1, about 15:1, about 20:1, about 25:1, about 30:1, about 34:1, or about 40:1.

Optionally, in some embodiments, one of the conductivity, the surface area, and the C:O ratio, of the conductive graphene ink is measured by methylene blue absorption.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink is a conductive graphene hydrate.

Another aspect provided herein is a method of forming a graphene film comprising, forming a conductive graphene ink; coating a substrate with the conductive graphene ink to form a coating of the conductive graphene ink on the substrate.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the thickness of the coating of the conductive graphene ink is about 0.05 micrometer to about 200 micrometers. Optionally, in some embodiments, the thickness of the coating of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.05 micrometers. Optionally, in some embodiments, the thickness of the coating of the conductive graphene ink is at most about 200 micrometers. Optionally, in some embodiments, the thickness of the coating of the conductive graphene ink is about 0.05 micrometers to about 0.1 micrometer, about 0.05 micrometer to about 0.5 micrometer, about 0.05 micrometer to about 1 micrometer, about 0.05 micrometer to about 10 micrometers, about 0.05 micrometer to about 50 micrometers, about 0.05 micrometer to about 100 micrometers, about 0.05 micrometer to about 150 micrometers, about 0.05 micrometer to about 200 micrometers, about 0.1 micrometer to about 0.5 micrometer, about 0.1 micrometer to about 1 micrometer, about 0.1 micrometer to about 10 micrometers, about 0.1 micrometer to about 50 micrometers, about 0.1 micrometer to about 100 micrometers, about 0.1 micrometer to about 150 micrometers, about 0.1 micrometer to about 200 micrometers, about 0.5 micrometer to about 1 micrometer, about 0.5 micrometer to about 10 micrometers, about 0.5 micrometer to about 50 micrometers, about 0.5 micrometer to about 100 micrometers, about 0.5 micrometer to about 150 micrometers, about 0.5 micrometer to about 200 micrometers, about 1 micrometer to about 10 micrometers, about 1 micrometer to about 50 micrometers, about 1 micrometer to about 100 micrometers, about 1 micrometer to about 150 micrometers, about 1 micrometer to about 200 micrometers, about 10 micrometers to about 50 micrometers, about 10 micrometers to about 100 micrometers, about 10 micrometers to about 150 micrometers, about 10 micrometers to about 200 micrometers, about 50 micrometers to about 100 micrometers, about 50 micrometers to about 150 micrometers, about 50 micrometers to about 200 micrometers, about 100 micrometers to about 150 micrometers, about 100 micrometers to about 200 micrometers, or about 150 micrometers to about 200 micrometers. Optionally, in some embodiments, the thickness of the coating of the conductive graphene ink is about 0.05 micrometer, about 0.1 micrometer, about 0.5 micrometer, about 1 micrometer, about 10 micrometers, about 50 micrometers, about 100 micrometers, about 150 micrometers, or about 200 micrometers. Optionally, in some embodiments, the thickness of the coating of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.05 micrometer, about 0.1 micrometer, about 0.5 micrometer, about 1 micrometer, about 10 micrometers, about 50 micrometers, about 100 micrometers, about 150 micrometers, or about 200 micrometers. Optionally, in some embodiments, the thickness of the coating of the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.05 micrometer, about 0.1 micrometer, about 0.5 micrometer, about 1 micrometer, about 10 micrometers, about 50 micrometers, about 100 micrometers, about 150 micrometers, or about 200 micrometers.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the substrate comprises metal, plastic, paper, wood, silicon, metal, glass, fiberglass, carbon fiber, ceramics, fabric, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the coating of the substrate with a conductive graphene ink is performed by hand. Optionally, in some embodiments, the coating of the substrate with a conductive graphene ink is performed with a brush. Optionally, in some embodiments, the coating of the substrate with a conductive graphene ink is performed by a doctor blade. Optionally, in some embodiments, the coating of the substrate with a conductive graphene ink is performed by a screen printer. Optionally, in some embodiments, the coating of the substrate with a conductive graphene ink is performed by a roll-to-roll process.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the process of forming a conductive graphene ink comprises: forming a binder solution comprising: heating a first solvent, adding a binder to the first solvent, mixing the binder and the first solvent, and cooling the binder and the first solvent; forming a RGO dispersion comprising a second solvent and RGO; and forming a graphene solution comprising the binder solution, the reduced graphene dispersion a third solvent, a conductive additive, a surfactant, a defoamer; and mixing the graphene solution to form a conductive graphene ink.

Optionally, in some embodiments, at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent comprises water and an organic solvent. Optionally, in some embodiments, the organic solvent comprises ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, NMP, cyclohexanone, terpineol, 3-methoxy-3-methyl-1-butanol, 4-hydroxyl-4-methyl-pentan-2-one, methyl isobutyl ketone, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent comprises water, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, NMP, cyclohexanone, terpineol, 3-methoxy-3-methyl-1-butanol, 4-hydroxyl-4-methyl-pentan-2-one, methyl isobutyl ketone, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is about 1% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 20%, about 1% to about 30%, about 1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 50%, about 1% to about 60%, about 1% to about 70%, about 1% to about 80%, about 1% to about 99%, about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 10%, about 2% to about 20%, about 2% to about 30%, about 2% to about 40%, about 2% to about 50%, about 2% to about 60%, about 2% to about 70%, about 2% to about 80%, about 2% to about 99%, about 5% to about 10%, about 5% to about 20%, about 5% to about 30%, about 5% to about 40%, about 5% to about 50%, about 5% to about 60%, about 5% to about 70%, about 5% to about 80%, about 5% to about 99%, about 10% to about 20%, about 10% to about 30%, about 10% to about 40%, about 10% to about 50%, about 10% to about 60%, about 10% to about 70%, about 10% to about 80%, about 10% to about 99%, about 20% to about 30%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 50%, about 20% to about 60%, about 20% to about 70%, about 20% to about 80%, about 20% to about 99%, about 30% to about 40%, about 30% to about 50%, about 30% to about 60%, about 30% to about 70%, about 30% to about 80%, about 30% to about 99%, about 40% to about 50%, about 40% to about 60%, about 40% to about 70%, about 40% to about 80%, about 40% to about 99%, about 50% to about 60%, about 50% to about 70%, about 50% to about 80%, about 50% to about 99%, about 60% to about 70%, about 60% to about 80%, about 60% to about 99%, about 70% to about 80%, about 70% to about 99%, or about 80% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, or about 80%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of at least one of the first solvent, the second solvent, and the third solvent in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, or about 99%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder solution comprises a binder and a first solvent. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder comprises a polymer. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer comprises a synthetic polymer. Optionally, in some embodiments, the synthetic polymer comprises carboxymethyl cellulose, PVDF, poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(vinyl pyrrolidone), poly(ethylene oxide), ethyl cellulose, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is a dispersant.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solvent comprises water, an organic solvent, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the organic solvent comprises: ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, NMP, cyclohexanone, terpineol, 3-methoxy-3-methyl-1-butanol, 4-hydroxyl-4-methyl-pentan-2-one, methyl isobutyl ketone, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 2%, about 0.5% to about 5%, about 0.5% to about 10%, about 0.5% to about 20%, about 0.5% to about 30%, about 0.5% to about 40%, about 0.5% to about 50%, about 0.5% to about 70%, about 0.5% to about 90%, about 0.5% to about 99%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 20%, about 1% to about 30%, about 1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 50%, about 1% to about 70%, about 1% to about 90%, about 1% to about 99%, about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 10%, about 2% to about 20%, about 2% to about 30%, about 2% to about 40%, about 2% to about 50%, about 2% to about 70%, about 2% to about 90%, about 2% to about 99%, about 5% to about 10%, about 5% to about 20%, about 5% to about 30%, about 5% to about 40%, about 5% to about 50%, about 5% to about 70%, about 5% to about 90%, about 5% to about 99%, about 10% to about 20%, about 10% to about 30%, about 10% to about 40%, about 10% to about 50%, about 10% to about 70%, about 10% to about 90%, about 10% to about 99%, about 20% to about 30%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 50%, about 20% to about 70%, about 20% to about 90%, about 20% to about 99%, about 30% to about 40%, about 30% to about 50%, about 30% to about 70%, about 30% to about 90%, about 30% to about 99%, about 40% to about 50%, about 40% to about 70%, about 40% to about 90%, about 40% to about 99%, about 50% to about 70%, about 50% to about 90%, about 50% to about 99%, about 70% to about 90%, about 70% to about 99%, or about 90% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 70%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 95%, or about 99%. Alternatively or in combination, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the binder solution in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 95%, or about 99%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is about 0.5% to about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is at least about 0.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is at most about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is about 0.5% to about 0.625%, about 0.5% to about 0.75%, about 0.5% to about 0.875%, about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 1.25%, about 0.5% to about 1.5%, about 0.5% to about 1.75%, about 0.5% to about 2%, about 0.625% to about 0.75%, about 0.625% to about 0.875%, about 0.625% to about 1%, about 0.625% to about 1.25%, about 0.625% to about 1.5%, about 0.625% to about 1.75%, about 0.625% to about 2%, about 0.75% to about 0.875%, about 0.75% to about 1%, about 0.75% to about 1.25%, about 0.75% to about 1.5%, about 0.75% to about 1.75%, about 0.75% to about 2%, about 0.875% to about 1%, about 0.875% to about 1.25%, about 0.875% to about 1.5%, about 0.875% to about 1.75%, about 0.875% to about 2%, about 1% to about 1.25%, about 1% to about 1.5%, about 1% to about 1.75%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1.25% to about 1.5%, about 1.25% to about 1.75%, about 1.25% to about 2%, about 1.5% to about 1.75%, about 1.5% to about 2%, or about 1.75% to about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, about 0.875%, about 1%, about 1.25%, about 1.5%, about 1.75%, or about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is at least about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, about 0.875%, about 1%, about 1.25%, about 1.5%, about 1.75%, or about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the binder solution by mass is no more than about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, about 0.875%, about 1%, about 1.25%, about 1.5%, about 1.75%, or about 2%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the RGO dispersion comprises RGO and a second solvent.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the second solvent comprises water, an organic solvent, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the organic solvent comprises: ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, NMP, cyclohexanone, terpineol, 3-methoxy-3-methyl-1-butanol, 4-hydroxyl-4-methyl-pentan-2-one, methyl isobutyl ketone, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.25% to about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.25%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.25% to about 0.375%, about 0.25% to about 0.5%, about 0.25% to about 0.625%, about 0.25% to about 0.75%, about 0.25% to about 1%, about 0.375% to about 0.5%, about 0.375% to about 0.625%, about 0.375% to about 0.75%, about 0.375% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 0.625%, about 0.5% to about 0.75%, about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.625% to about 0.75%, about 0.625% to about 1%, or about 0.75% to about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.25%, about 0.375%, about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, or about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.25%, about 0.375%, about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, or about 1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO dispersion in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.25%, about 0.375%, about 0.5%, about 0.625%, about 0.75%, or about 1%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is about 3% to about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is at least about 3%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is at most about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is about 3% to about 4%, about 3% to about 5%, about 3% to about 6%, about 3% to about 7%, about 3% to about 8%, about 3% to about 9%, about 3% to about 10%, about 3% to about 11%, about 3% to about 12%, about 4% to about 5%, about 4% to about 6%, about 4% to about 7%, about 4% to about 8%, about 4% to about 9%, about 4% to about 10%, about 4% to about 11%, about 4% to about 12%, about 5% to about 6%, about 5% to about 7%, about 5% to about 8%, about 5% to about 9%, about 5% to about 10%, about 5% to about 11%, about 5% to about 12%, about 6% to about 7%, about 6% to about 8%, about 6% to about 9%, about 6% to about 10%, about 6% to about 11%, about 6% to about 12%, about 7% to about 8%, about 7% to about 9%, about 7% to about 10%, about 7% to about 11%, about 7% to about 12%, about 8% to about 9%, about 8% to about 10%, about 8% to about 11%, about 8% to about 12%, about 9% to about 10%, about 9% to about 11%, about 9% to about 12%, about 10% to about 11%, about 10% to about 12%, or about 11% to about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, about 10%, about 11%, or about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is at least about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, about 10%, about 11%, or about 12%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration by mass of the RGO in the RGO dispersion is no more than about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, about 10%, about 11%, or about 12%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.1% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.1%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.1% to about 0.2%, about 0.1% to about 0.5%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 20%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 60%, about 0.1% to about 80%, about 0.1% to about 90%, about 0.1% to about 99%, about 0.2% to about 0.5%, about 0.2% to about 1%, about 0.2% to about 10%, about 0.2% to about 20%, about 0.2% to about 40%, about 0.2% to about 60%, about 0.2% to about 80%, about 0.2% to about 90%, about 0.2% to about 99%, about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 10%, about 0.5% to about 20%, about 0.5% to about 40%, about 0.5% to about 60%, about 0.5% to about 80%, about 0.5% to about 90%, about 0.5% to about 99%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 20%, about 1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 60%, about 1% to about 80%, about 1% to about 90%, about 1% to about 99%, about 10% to about 20%, about 10% to about 40%, about 10% to about 60%, about 10% to about 80%, about 10% to about 90%, about 10% to about 99%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 60%, about 20% to about 80%, about 20% to about 90%, about 20% to about 99%, about 40% to about 60%, about 40% to about 80%, about 40% to about 90%, about 40% to about 99%, about 60% to about 80%, about 60% to about 90%, about 60% to about 99%, about 80% to about 90%, about 80% to about 99%, or about 90% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.1%, about 0.2%, about 0.5%, about 1%, about 10%, about 20%, about 40%, about 60%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.1%, about 0.2%, about 0.5%, about 1%, about 10%, about 20%, about 40%, about 60%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the RGO in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.1%, about 0.2%, about 0.5%, about 1%, about 10%, about 20%, about 40%, about 60%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive additive comprises a carbon-based material. Optionally, in some embodiments, the carbon-based material comprises a paracrystalline carbon. Optionally, in some embodiments, the paracrystalline carbon comprises carbon black, acetylene black, channel black, furnace black, lamp black, thermal black, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive additive comprises silver. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver comprises silver nanoparticles, silver nanorods, silver nanowires, silver nanoflowers, silver nanofibers, silver nanoplatelets, silver nanoribbons, silver nanocubes, silver bipyramids, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is about 2% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 10%, about 2% to about 20%, about 2% to about 30%, about 2% to about 40%, about 2% to about 50%, about 2% to about 60%, about 2% to about 70%, about 2% to about 80%, about 2% to about 90%, about 2% to about 99%, about 5% to about 10%, about 5% to about 20%, about 5% to about 30%, about 5% to about 40%, about 5% to about 50%, about 5% to about 60%, about 5% to about 70%, about 5% to about 80%, about 5% to about 90%, about 5% to about 99%, about 10% to about 20%, about 10% to about 30%, about 10% to about 40%, about 10% to about 50%, about 10% to about 60%, about 10% to about 70%, about 10% to about 80%, about 10% to about 90%, about 10% to about 99%, about 20% to about 30%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 50%, about 20% to about 60%, about 20% to about 70%, about 20% to about 80%, about 20% to about 90%, about 20% to about 99%, about 30% to about 40%, about 30% to about 50%, about 30% to about 60%, about 30% to about 70%, about 30% to about 80%, about 30% to about 90%, about 30% to about 99%, about 40% to about 50%, about 40% to about 60%, about 40% to about 70%, about 40% to about 80%, about 40% to about 90%, about 40% to about 99%, about 50% to about 60%, about 50% to about 70%, about 50% to about 80%, about 50% to about 90%, about 50% to about 99%, about 60% to about 70%, about 60% to about 80%, about 60% to about 90%, about 60% to about 99%, about 70% to about 80%, about 70% to about 90%, about 70% to about 99%, about 80% to about 90%, about 80% to about 99%, or about 90% to about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the conductive additive in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99%.

Some embodiments further comprise a surfactant. Optionally, in some embodiments, the surfactant comprises an acid, a nonionic surfactant, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the acid comprises perfluorooctanoic acid, perfluorooctane sulfonate, perfluorohexane sulfonic acid, perfluorononanoic acid, perfluorodecanoic acid, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the nonionic surfactant comprises a polyethylene glycol alkyl ether, a octaethylene glycol monododecyl ether, a pentaethylene glycol monododecyl ether, a polypropylene glycol alkyl ether, a glucoside alkyl ether, decyl glucoside, lauryl glucoside, octyl glucoside, a polyethylene glycol octylphenyl ether, dodecyldimethylamine oxide, a polyethylene glycol alkylphenyl ether, a polyethylene glycol octylphenyl ether, Triton X-100, polyethylene glycol alkylphenyl ether, nonoxynol-9, a glycerol alkyl ester polysorbate, sorbitan alkyl ester, polyethoxylated tallow amine, Dynol 604, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 2%, about 0.5% to about 3%, about 0.5% to about 4%, about 0.5% to about 5%, about 0.5% to about 6%, about 0.5% to about 7%, about 0.5% to about 8%, about 0.5% to about 9%, about 0.5% to about 10%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 3%, about 1% to about 4%, about 1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 6%, about 1% to about 7%, about 1% to about 8%, about 1% to about 9%, about 1% to about 10%, about 2% to about 3%, about 2% to about 4%, about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 6%, about 2% to about 7%, about 2% to about 8%, about 2% to about 9%, about 2% to about 10%, about 3% to about 4%, about 3% to about 5%, about 3% to about 6%, about 3% to about 7%, about 3% to about 8%, about 3% to about 9%, about 3% to about 10%, about 4% to about 5%, about 4% to about 6%, about 4% to about 7%, about 4% to about 8%, about 4% to about 9%, about 4% to about 10%, about 5% to about 6%, about 5% to about 7%, about 5% to about 8%, about 5% to about 9%, about 5% to about 10%, about 6% to about 7%, about 6% to about 8%, about 6% to about 9%, about 6% to about 10%, about 7% to about 8%, about 7% to about 9%, about 7% to about 10%, about 8% to about 9%, about 8% to about 10%, or about 9% to about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the surfactant in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%.

Some embodiments further comprise a defoamer, wherein the defoamer comprises an insoluble oil, a silicone, a glycol, a stearate, an organic solvent, Surfynol DF-1100, alkyl polyacrylate, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the insoluble oil comprises mineral oil, vegetable oil, white oil, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silicone comprises polydimethylsiloxane, silicone glycol, a fluorosilicone, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the glycol comprises polyethylene glycol, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the stearate comprises glycol stearate, stearin, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the organic solvent comprises ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, NMP, cyclohexanone, terpineol, 3-methoxy-3-methyl-1-butanol, 4-hydroxyl-4-methyl-pentan-2-one, methyl isobutyl ketone, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is at most about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5% to about 1%, about 0.5% to about 2%, about 0.5% to about 3%, about 0.5% to about 4%, about 0.5% to about 5%, about 0.5% to about 6%, about 0.5% to about 7%, about 0.5% to about 8%, about 0.5% to about 9%, about 0.5% to about 10%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 3%, about 1% to about 4%, about 1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 6%, about 1% to about 7%, about 1% to about 8%, about 1% to about 9%, about 1% to about 10%, about 2% to about 3%, about 2% to about 4%, about 2% to about 5%, about 2% to about 6%, about 2% to about 7%, about 2% to about 8%, about 2% to about 9%, about 2% to about 10%, about 3% to about 4%, about 3% to about 5%, about 3% to about 6%, about 3% to about 7%, about 3% to about 8%, about 3% to about 9%, about 3% to about 10%, about 4% to about 5%, about 4% to about 6%, about 4% to about 7%, about 4% to about 8%, about 4% to about 9%, about 4% to about 10%, about 5% to about 6%, about 5% to about 7%, about 5% to about 8%, about 5% to about 9%, about 5% to about 10%, about 6% to about 7%, about 6% to about 8%, about 6% to about 9%, about 6% to about 10%, about 7% to about 8%, about 7% to about 9%, about 7% to about 10%, about 8% to about 9%, about 8% to about 10%, or about 9% to about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is at least about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%. Optionally, in some embodiments, a percentage by mass of the defoamer in the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 0.5%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is about 2.5% to about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is at most about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is about 2.5% to about 3.5%, about 2.5% to about 4.5%, about 2.5% to about 5.5%, about 2.5% to about 6.5%, about 2.5% to about 7.5%, about 2.5% to about 8.5%, about 2.5% to about 9.5%, about 2.5% to about 10.5%, about 3.5% to about 4.5%, about 3.5% to about 5.5%, about 3.5% to about 6.5%, about 3.5% to about 7.5%, about 3.5% to about 8.5%, about 3.5% to about 9.5%, about 3.5% to about 10.5%, about 4.5% to about 5.5%, about 4.5% to about 6.5%, about 4.5% to about 7.5%, about 4.5% to about 8.5%, about 4.5% to about 9.5%, about 4.5% to about 10.5%, about 5.5% to about 6.5%, about 5.5% to about 7.5%, about 5.5% to about 8.5%, about 5.5% to about 9.5%, about 5.5% to about 10.5%, about 6.5% to about 7.5%, about 6.5% to about 8.5%, about 6.5% to about 9.5%, about 6.5% to about 10.5%, about 7.5% to about 8.5%, about 7.5% to about 9.5%, about 7.5% to about 10.5%, about 8.5% to about 9.5%, about 8.5% to about 10.5%, or about 9.5% to about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is about 2.5%, about 3.5%, about 4.5%, about 5.5%, about 6.5%, about 7.5%, about 8.5%, about 9.5%, or about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2.5%, about 3.5%, about 4.5%, about 5.5%, about 6.5%, about 7.5%, about 8.5%, about 9.5%, or about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content by mass of the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 2.5%, about 3.5%, about 4.5%, about 5.5%, about 6.5%, about 7.5%, about 8.5%, about 9.5%, or about 10.5%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solvent is heated to a temperature of about 35° C. to about 125° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solvent is heated to a temperature of at least about 35° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solvent is heated to a temperature of at most about 125° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solvent is heated to a temperature of about 35° C. to about 40° C., about 35° C. to about 50° C., about 35° C. to about 60° C., about 35° C. to about 70° C., about 35° C. to about 80° C., about 35° C. to about 90° C., about 35° C. to about 100° C., about 35° C. to about 125° C., about 40° C. to about 50° C., about 40° C. to about 60° C., about 40° C. to about 70° C., about 40° C. to about 80° C., about 40° C. to about 90° C., about 40° C. to about 100° C., about 40° C. to about 125° C., about 50° C. to about 60° C., about 50° C. to about 70° C., about 50° C. to about 80° C., about 50° C. to about 90° C., about 50° C. to about 100° C., about 50° C. to about 125° C., about 60° C. to about 70° C., about 60° C. to about 80° C., about 60° C. to about 90° C., about 60° C. to about 100° C., about 60° C. to about 125° C., about 70° C. to about 80° C., about 70° C. to about 90° C., about 70° C. to about 100° C., about 70° C. to about 125° C., about 80° C. to about 90° C., about 80° C. to about 100° C., about 80° C. to about 125° C., about 90° C. to about 100° C., about 90° C. to about 125° C., or about 100° C. to about 125° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solvent is heated to a temperature of about 35° C., about 40° C., about 50° C., about 60° C., about 70° C., about 80° C., about 90° C., about 100° C., or about 125° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solvent is heated to a temperature of at least about 35° C., about 40° C., about 50° C., about 60° C., about 70° C., about 80° C., about 90° C., about 100° C., or about 125° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solvent is heated to a temperature of no more than about 35° C., about 40° C., about 50° C., about 60° C., about 70° C., about 80° C., about 90° C., about 100° C., or about 125° C.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the process of adding a binder to the first solvent and the process of mixing the binder and the first solvent are preformed simultaneously.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is added to the first solvent over a period of time of about 45 minutes to about 240 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is added to the first solvent over a period of time of at least about 45 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is added to the first solvent over a period of time of at most about 240 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is added to the first solvent over a period of time of about 45 minutes to about 60 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 150 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 180 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 210 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 240 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 150 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 180 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 210 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 240 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 150 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 180 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 210 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 240 minutes, about 120 minutes to about 150 minutes, about 120 minutes to about 180 minutes, about 120 minutes to about 210 minutes, about 120 minutes to about 240 minutes, about 150 minutes to about 180 minutes, about 150 minutes to about 210 minutes, about 150 minutes to about 240 minutes, about 180 minutes to about 210 minutes, about 180 minutes to about 240 minutes, or about 210 minutes to about 240 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is added to the first solvent over a period of time of about 45 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 90 minutes, about 120 minutes, about 150 minutes, about 180 minutes, about 210 minutes, or about 240 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is added to the first solvent over a period of time of at least about 45 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 90 minutes, about 120 minutes, about 150 minutes, about 180 minutes, about 210 minutes, or about 240 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is added to the first solvent over a period of time of no more than about 45 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 90 minutes, about 120 minutes, about 150 minutes, about 180 minutes, about 210 minutes, or about 240 minutes.

Optionally, in some embodiments, after the binder is fully added to the first solvent, the binder and the first solvent are mixed for a period of time of about 7 minutes to about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, after the binder is fully added to the first solvent, the binder and the first solvent are mixed for a period of time of at least about 7 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, after the binder is fully added to the first solvent, the binder and the first solvent are mixed for a period of time of at most about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, after the binder is fully added to the first solvent, the binder and the first solvent are mixed for a period of time of about 7 minutes to about 9 minutes, about 7 minutes to about 11 minutes, about 7 minutes to about 13 minutes, about 7 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 7 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 7 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 7 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 9 minutes to about 11 minutes, about 9 minutes to about 13 minutes, about 9 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 9 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 9 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 9 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 11 minutes to about 13 minutes, about 11 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 11 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 11 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 11 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 13 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 13 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 13 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 13 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 15 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 15 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 15 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 30 minutes, or about 25 minutes to about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, after the binder is fully added to the first solvent, the binder and the first solvent are mixed for a period of time of about 7 minutes, about 9 minutes, about 11 minutes, about 13 minutes, about 15 minutes, about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, or about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, after the binder is fully added to the first solvent, the binder and the first solvent are mixed for a period of time of at least about 7 minutes, about 9 minutes, about 11 minutes, about 13 minutes, about 15 minutes, about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, or about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, after the binder is fully added to the first solvent, the binder and the first solvent are mixed for a period of time of no more than about 7 minutes, about 9 minutes, about 11 minutes, about 13 minutes, about 15 minutes, about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, or about 30 minutes.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the mixing of the binder solution, the binder solution, the reduced graphene dispersion, the third solvent, the conductive additive, a surfactant, and the defoamer is performed by a first mechanical mixer. Optionally, in some embodiments, the mixing of the binder and the first solvent is performed by a second mechanical mixer.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a stirring speed of about 15 rpm to about 125 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a stirring speed of at least about 15 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a stirring speed of at most about 125 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a stirring speed of about 15 rpm to about 20 rpm, about 15 rpm to about 25 rpm, about 15 rpm to about 30 rpm, about 15 rpm to about 40 rpm, about 15 rpm to about 50 rpm, about 15 rpm to about 75 rpm, about 15 rpm to about 100 rpm, about 15 rpm to about 125 rpm, about 20 rpm to about 25 rpm, about 20 rpm to about 30 rpm, about 20 rpm to about 40 rpm, about 20 rpm to about 50 rpm, about 20 rpm to about 75 rpm, about 20 rpm to about 100 rpm, about 20 rpm to about 125 rpm, about 25 rpm to about 30 rpm, about 25 rpm to about 40 rpm, about 25 rpm to about 50 rpm, about 25 rpm to about 75 rpm, about 25 rpm to about 100 rpm, about 25 rpm to about 125 rpm, about 30 rpm to about 40 rpm, about 30 rpm to about 50 rpm, about 30 rpm to about 75 rpm, about 30 rpm to about 100 rpm, about 30 rpm to about 125 rpm, about 40 rpm to about 50 rpm, about 40 rpm to about 75 rpm, about 40 rpm to about 100 rpm, about 40 rpm to about 125 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 75 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 100 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 125 rpm, about 75 rpm to about 100 rpm, about 75 rpm to about 125 rpm, or about 100 rpm to about 125 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a stirring speed of about 15 rpm, about 20 rpm, about 25 rpm, about 30 rpm, about 40 rpm, about 50 rpm, about 75 rpm, about 100 rpm, or about 125 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a stirring speed of at least about 15 rpm, about 20 rpm, about 25 rpm, about 30 rpm, about 40 rpm, about 50 rpm, about 75 rpm, about 100 rpm, or about 125 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a stirring speed of no more than about 15 rpm, about 20 rpm, about 25 rpm, about 30 rpm, about 40 rpm, about 50 rpm, about 75 rpm, about 100 rpm, or about 125 rpm.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a dispersing speed of about 50 rpm to about 4,500 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a dispersing speed of at least about 50 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a dispersing speed of at most about 4,500 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a dispersing speed of about 50 rpm to about 100 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 200 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 500 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 1,000 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 1,500 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 2,000 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 2,500 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 50 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 200 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 1,000 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 1,500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 2,000 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 2,500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 500 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 1,000 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 1,500 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 2,000 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 2,500 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 500 rpm to about 1,000 rpm, about 500 rpm to about 1,500 rpm, about 500 rpm to about 2,000 rpm, about 500 rpm to about 2,500 rpm, about 500 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 500 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 500 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 500 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 1,000 rpm to about 1,500 rpm, about 1,000 rpm to about 2,000 rpm, about 1,000 rpm to about 2,500 rpm, about 1,000 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 1,000 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 1,000 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 1,000 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 2,000 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 2,500 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm to about 2,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 2,000 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 2,000 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 2,500 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 2,500 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 2,500 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 2,500 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 3,000 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 3,000 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 3,000 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 3,500 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 3,500 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, or about 4,000 rpm to about 4,500 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a dispersing speed of about 50 rpm, about 100 rpm, about 200 rpm, about 500 rpm, about 1,000 rpm, about 1,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm, about 2,500 rpm, about 3,000 rpm, about 3,500 rpm, about 4,000 rpm, about 4,500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 200 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 1,000 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 1,500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 2,000 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 2,500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 4,500 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a dispersing speed of at least about 50 rpm, about 100 rpm, about 200 rpm, about 500 rpm, about 1,000 rpm, about 1,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm, about 2,500 rpm, about 3,000 rpm, about 3,500 rpm, about 4,000 rpm, or about 4,500 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution at a dispersing speed of no more than about 50 rpm, about 100 rpm, about 200 rpm, about 500 rpm, about 1,000 rpm, about 1,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm, about 2,500 rpm, about 3,000 rpm, about 3,500 rpm, about 4,000 rpm, or about 4,500 rpm.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes graphene solution under a vacuum degree, and wherein the vacuum degree is equal to the ambient pressure.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes graphene solution under a vacuum degree, and wherein the vacuum degree is about −0.05 MPa to about −0.2 MPa. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes graphene solution under a vacuum degree, and wherein the vacuum degree is at least about −0.05 MPa. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes graphene solution under a vacuum degree, and wherein the vacuum degree is at most about −0.2 MPa. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes graphene solution under a vacuum degree, and wherein the vacuum degree is about −0.05 MPa to about −0.0625 MPa, about −0.05 MPa to about −0.0875 MPa, about −0.05 MPa to about −0.1 MPa, about −0.05 MPa to about −0.1125 MPa, about −0.05 MPa to about −0.125 MPa, about −0.05 MPa to about −0.1375 MPa, about −0.05 MPa to about −0.15 MPa, about −0.05 MPa to about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.05 MPa to about −0.1875 MPa, about −0.05 MPa to about −0.2 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa to about −0.0875 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa to about −0.1 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa to about −0.1125 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa to about −0.125 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa to about −0.1375 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa to about −0.15 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa to about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa to about −0.1875 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa to about −0.2 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa to about −0.1 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa to about −0.1125 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa to about −0.125 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa to about −0.1375 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa to about −0.15 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa to about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa to about −0.1875 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa to about −0.2 MPa, about −0.1 MPa to about −0.1125 MPa, about −0.1 MPa to about −0.125 MPa, about −0.1 MPa to about −0.1375 MPa, about −0.1 MPa to about −0.15 MPa, about −0.1 MPa to about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.1 MPa to about −0.1875 MPa, about −0.1 MPa to about −0.2 MPa, about −0.1125 MPa to about −0.125 MPa, about −0.1125 MPa to about −0.1375 MPa, about −0.1125 MPa to about −0.15 MPa, about −0.1125 MPa to about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.1125 MPa to about −0.1875 MPa, about −0.1125 MPa to about −0.2 MPa, about −0.125 MPa to about −0.1375 MPa, about −0.125 MPa to about −0.15 MPa, about −0.125 MPa to about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.125 MPa to about −0.1875 MPa, about −0.125 MPa to about −0.2 MPa, about −0.1375 MPa to about −0.15 MPa, about −0.1375 MPa to about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.1375 MPa to about −0.1875 MPa, about −0.1375 MPa to about −0.2 MPa, about −0.15 MPa to about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.15 MPa to about −0.1875 MPa, about −0.15 MPa to about −0.2 MPa, about −0.1625 MPa to about −0.1875 MPa, about −0.1625 MPa to about −0.2 MPa, or about −0.1875 MPa to about −0.2 MPa. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes graphene solution under a vacuum degree, and wherein the vacuum degree is about −0.05 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa, about −0.1 MPa, about −0.1125 MPa, about −0.125 MPa, about −0.1375 MPa, about −0.15 MPa, about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.1875 MPa, or about −0.2 MPa. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes graphene solution under a vacuum degree, and wherein the vacuum degree is at least about −0.05 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa, about −0.1 MPa, about −0.1125 MPa, about −0.125 MPa, about −0.1375 MPa, about −0.15 MPa, about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.1875 MPa, or about −0.2 MPa. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes graphene solution under a vacuum degree, and wherein the vacuum degree is no more than about −0.05 MPa, about −0.0625 MPa, about −0.0875 MPa, about −0.1 MPa, about −0.1125 MPa, about −0.125 MPa, about −0.1375 MPa, about −0.15 MPa, about −0.1625 MPa, about −0.1875 MPa, or about −0.2 MPa.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution during one or more intervals, wherein each interval comprises a period of time of about 0.5 minute to about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution during one or more intervals, wherein each interval comprises a period of time of at least about 0.5 minute. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution during one or more intervals, wherein each interval comprises a period of time of at most about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution during one or more intervals, wherein each interval comprises a period of time of about 0.5 minute to about 1 minute, about 0.5 minute to about 2 minutes, about 0.5 minute to about 3 minutes, about 0.5 minute to about 4 minutes, about 0.5 minute to about 5 minutes, about 0.5 minute to about 10 minutes, about 0.5 minute to about 15 minutes, about 0.5 minute to about 20 minutes, about 0.5 minute to about 25 minutes, about 0.5 minute to about 30 minutes, about 1 minute to about 2 minutes, about 1 minute to about 3 minutes, about 1 minute to about 4 minutes, about 1 minute to about 5 minutes, about 1 minute to about 10 minutes, about 1 minute to about 15 minutes, about 1 minute to about 20 minutes, about 1 minute to about 25 minutes, about 1 minute to about 30 minutes, about 2 minutes to about 3 minutes, about 2 minutes to about 4 minutes, about 2 minutes to about 5 minutes, about 2 minutes to about 10 minutes, about 2 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 2 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 2 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 2 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 3 minutes to about 4 minutes, about 3 minutes to about 5 minutes, about 3 minutes to about 10 minutes, about 3 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 3 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 3 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 3 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 4 minutes to about 5 minutes, about 4 minutes to about 10 minutes, about 4 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 4 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 4 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 4 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes, about 5 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 5 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 5 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 5 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 10 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 10 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 10 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 10 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 15 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 15 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 15 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 30 minutes, or about 25 minutes to about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution during one or more intervals, wherein each interval comprises a period of time of about 0.5 minute, about 1 minute, about 2 minutes, about 3 minutes, about 4 minutes, about 5 minutes, about 10 minutes, about 15 minutes, about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, or about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution during one or more intervals, wherein each interval comprises a period of time of at least about 0.5 minute, about 1 minute, about 2 minutes, about 3 minutes, about 4 minutes, about 5 minutes, about 10 minutes, about 15 minutes, about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, or about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second mechanical mixer mixes the graphene solution during one or more intervals, wherein each interval comprises a period of time of no more than about 0.5 minute, about 1 minute, about 2 minutes, about 3 minutes, about 4 minutes, about 5 minutes, about 10 minutes, about 15 minutes, about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, or about 30 minutes.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the number of intervals is about 1 to about 60. Optionally, in some embodiments, the number of intervals is at least about 1. Optionally, in some embodiments, the number of intervals is at most about 60. Optionally, in some embodiments, the number of intervals is about 1 to about 2, about 1 to about 5, about 1 to about 10, about 1 to about 20, about 1 to about 30, about 1 to about 40, about 1 to about 50, about 1 to about 60, about 2 to about 5, about 2 to about 10, about 2 to about 20, about 2 to about 30, about 2 to about 40, about 2 to about 50, about 2 to about 60, about 5 to about 10, about 5 to about 20, about 5 to about 30, about 5 to about 40, about 5 to about 50, about 5 to about 60, about 10 to about 20, about 10 to about 30, about 10 to about 40, about 10 to about 50, about 10 to about 60, about 20 to about 30, about 20 to about 40, about 20 to about 50, about 20 to about 60, about 30 to about 40, about 30 to about 50, about 30 to about 60, about 40 to about 50, about 40 to about 60, or about 50 to about 60. Optionally, in some embodiments, the number of intervals is about 1, about 2, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, or about 60. Optionally, in some embodiments, the number of intervals is at least about 1, about 2, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, or about 60. Optionally, in some embodiments, the number of intervals is no more than about 1, about 2, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, or about 60.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the RGO dispersion is added after the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, or the fifteenth interval, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a first interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 30 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a second interval is about 5 minutes, and wherein the stirring speed is about 50 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a third interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 75 rpm, wherein the dispersing speed is about 100 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a fourth interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 75 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 300 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a fifth interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 75 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 500 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a sixth interval is about 1 minute, and wherein the stirring speed is about 30 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a seventh interval is about 1 minute, wherein the stirring speed is about 100 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 50 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of an eighth interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 75 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 500 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a ninth interval is about 10 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 75 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 1,000 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a tenth interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 75 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 3,000 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of an eleventh interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 30 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 100 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a twelfth interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 50 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 500 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a thirteenth interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 750 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 1,000 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a fourteenth interval is about 5 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 750 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 3,000 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, a period of time of a fifteenth interval is about 30 minutes, wherein the stirring speed is about 750 rpm, and wherein the dispersing speed is about 3,000 rpm.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder and the first solvent are cooled to a temperature of about 10° C. to about 40° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder and the first solvent are cooled to a temperature of at least about 10° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder and the first solvent are cooled to a temperature of at most about 40° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder and the first solvent are cooled to a temperature of about 10° C. to about 15° C., about 10° C. to about 20° C., about 10° C. to about 25° C., about 10° C. to about 30° C., about 10° C. to about 35° C., about 10° C. to about 40° C., about 15° C. to about 20° C., about 15° C. to about 25° C., about 15° C. to about 30° C., about 15° C. to about 35° C., about 15° C. to about 40° C., about 20° C. to about 25° C., about 20° C. to about 30° C., about 20° C. to about 35° C., about 20° C. to about 40° C., about 25° C. to about 30° C., about 25° C. to about 35° C., about 25° C. to about 40° C., about 30° C. to about 35° C., about 30° C. to about 40° C., or about 35° C. to about 40° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder and the first solvent are cooled to a temperature of about 10° C., about 15° C., about 20° C., about 25° C., about 30° C., about 35° C., or about 40° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder and the first solvent are cooled to a temperature of at least about 10° C., about 15° C., about 20° C., about 25° C., about 30° C., about 35° C., or about 40° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder and the first are cooled to a temperature of no more than about 10° C., about 15° C., about 20° C., about 25° C., about 30° C., about 35° C., or about 40° C.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is about 10 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 10 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is at most about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is about 10 centipoise to about 20 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 50 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 100 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 200 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 10 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 50 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 100 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 200 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 20 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 100 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 200 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 50 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 200 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 100 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 500 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 200 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 500 centipoise to about 1,000 centipoise, about 500 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 500 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 500 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise to about 2,000 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise to about 5,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise, or about 5,000 centipoise to about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is about 10 centipoise, about 20 centipoise, about 50 centipoise, about 100 centipoise, about 200 centipoise, about 500 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise, about 5,000 centipoise, or about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 10 centipoise, about 20 centipoise, about 50 centipoise, about 100 centipoise, about 200 centipoise, about 500 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise, about 5,000 centipoise, or about 10,000 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 10 centipoise, about 20 centipoise, about 50 centipoise, about 100 centipoise, about 200 centipoise, about 500 centipoise, about 1,000 centipoise, about 2,000 centipoise, about 5,000 centipoise, or about 10,000 centipoise.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of at least about 2,300 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of at most about 2,400 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,310 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,320 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,330 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,300 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,320 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,330 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,330 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise to about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,370 centipoise to about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,370 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,370 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, about 2,380 centipoise to about 2,390 centipoise, about 2,380 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise, or about 2,390 centipoise to about 2,400 centipoise. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive graphene ink has a viscosity of about 2,300 centipoise, about 2,310 centipoise, about 2,320 centipoise, about 2,330 centipoise, about 2,340 centipoise, about 2,350 centipoise, about 2,360 centipoise, about 2,370 centipoise, about 2,380 centipoise, about 2,390 centipoise, or about 2,400 centipoise.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content of the conductive graphene ink is about 2.5% to about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content of the conductive graphene ink is at most about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content of the conductive graphene ink is about 2.5% to about 3.5%, about 2.5% to about 4.5%, about 2.5% to about 5.5%, about 2.5% to about 6.5%, about 2.5% to about 7.5%, about 2.5% to about 8.5%, about 2.5% to about 9.5%, about 2.5% to about 10.5%, about 3.5% to about 4.5%, about 3.5% to about 5.5%, about 3.5% to about 6.5%, about 3.5% to about 7.5%, about 3.5% to about 8.5%, about 3.5% to about 9.5%, about 3.5% to about 10.5%, about 4.5% to about 5.5%, about 4.5% to about 6.5%, about 4.5% to about 7.5%, about 4.5% to about 8.5%, about 4.5% to about 9.5%, about 4.5% to about 10.5%, about 5.5% to about 6.5%, about 5.5% to about 7.5%, about 5.5% to about 8.5%, about 5.5% to about 9.5%, about 5.5% to about 10.5%, about 6.5% to about 7.5%, about 6.5% to about 8.5%, about 6.5% to about 9.5%, about 6.5% to about 10.5%, about 7.5% to about 8.5%, about 7.5% to about 9.5%, about 7.5% to about 10.5%, about 8.5% to about 9.5%, about 8.5% to about 10.5%, or about 9.5% to about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content of the conductive graphene ink is about 2.5%, about 3.5%, about 4.5%, about 5.5%, about 6.5%, about 7.5%, about 8.5%, about 9.5%, or about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content of the conductive graphene ink is at least about 2.5%, about 3.5%, about 4.5%, about 5.5%, about 6.5%, about 7.5%, about 8.5%, about 9.5%, or about 10.5%. Optionally, in some embodiments, the solid matter content of the conductive graphene ink is no more than about 2.5%, about 3.5%, about 4.5%, about 5.5%, about 6.5%, about 7.5%, about 8.5%, about 9.5%, or about 10.5%.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is at least about 2.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is at most about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3to about 3.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 4.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 5.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 6.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 2.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 4.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 5.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 6.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 5.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 6.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 6.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3to about 7.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3to about 8.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3to about 9.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3, or about 9.5 g/cm3to about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is at most about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3, about 9.5 g/cm3, or about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of at least about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3, about 9.5 g/cm3, or about 10.5 g/cm3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the density of the conductive graphene ink at a temperature of no more than about 20° C. is about 2.5 g/cm3, about 3.5 g/cm3, about 4.5 g/cm3, about 5.5 g/cm3, about 6.5 g/cm3, about 7.5 g/cm3, about 8.5 g/cm3, about 9.5 g/cm3, or about 10.5 g/cm3.

Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of about 40 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of at least about 40 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of at most about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of about 40 m2/g to about 80 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 120 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 240 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 40 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 120 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 240 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 80 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 240 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 120 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 480 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 240 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 1,000 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 480 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g to about 1,800 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g to about 2,200 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g, or about 2,200 m2/g to about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of about 40 m2/g, about 80 m2/g, about 120 m2/g, about 240 m2/g, about 480 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g, about 2,200 m2/g, or about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of at least about 40 m2/g, about 80 m2/g, about 120 m2/g, about 240 m2/g, about 480 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g, about 2,200 m2/g, or about 2,400 m2/g. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a surface area of no more than about 40 m2/g, about 80 m2/g, about 120 m2/g, about 240 m2/g, about 480 m2/g, about 1,000 m2/g, about 1,400 m2/g, about 1,800 m2/g, about 2,200 m2/g, or about 2,400 m2/g.

Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of about 400 S/m to about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of at least about 400 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of at most about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of about 400 S/m to about 500 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 600 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 700 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 800 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 400 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 600 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 700 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 800 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 500 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 700 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 800 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 600 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 800 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 700 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 900 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 800 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 900 S/m to about 1,000 S/m, about 900 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 900 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 900 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 1,000 S/m to about 1,200 S/m, about 1,000 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 1,000 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, about 1,200 S/m to about 1,400 S/m, about 1,200 S/m to about 1,600 S/m, or about 1,400 S/m to about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of about 400 S/m, about 500 S/m, about 600 S/m, about 700 S/m, about 800 S/m, about 900 S/m, about 1,000 S/m, about 1,200 S/m, about 1,400 S/m, or about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of at least about 400 S/m, about 500 S/m, about 600 S/m, about 700 S/m, about 800 S/m, about 900 S/m, about 1,000 S/m, about 1,200 S/m, about 1,400 S/m, or about 1,600 S/m. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a conductivity of no more than about 400 S/m, about 500 S/m, about 600 S/m, about 700 S/m, about 800 S/m, about 900 S/m, about 1,000 S/m, about 1,200 S/m, about 1,400 S/m, or about 1,600 S/m.

Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of about 2:1 to about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of at least about 2:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of at most about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of about 2:1 to about 4:1, about 2:1 to about 6:1, about 2:1 to about 8:1, about 2:1 to about 10:1, about 2:1 to about 15:1, about 2:1 to about 20:1, about 2:1 to about 25:1, about 2:1 to about 30:1, about 2:1 to about 34:1, about 2:1 to about 40:1, about 4:1 to about 6:1, about 4:1 to about 8:1, about 4:1 to about 10:1, about 4:1 to about 15:1, about 4:1 to about 20:1, about 4:1 to about 25:1, about 4:1 to about 30:1, about 4:1 to about 34:1, about 4:1 to about 40:1, about 6:1 to about 8:1, about 6:1 to about 10:1, about 6:1 to about 15:1, about 6:1 to about 20:1, about 6:1 to about 25:1, about 6:1 to about 30:1, about 6:1 to about 34:1, about 6:1 to about 40:1, about 8:1 to about 10:1, about 8:1 to about 15:1, about 8:1 to about 20:1, about 8:1 to about 25:1, about 8:1 to about 30:1, about 8:1 to about 34:1, about 8:1 to about 40:1, about 10:1 to about 15:1, about 10:1 to about 20:1, about 10:1 to about 25:1, about 10:1 to about 30:1, about 10:1 to about 34:1, about 10:1 to about 40:1, about 15:1 to about 20:1, about 15:1 to about 25:1, about 15:1 to about 30:1, about 15:1 to about 34:1, about 15:1 to about 40:1, about 20:1 to about 25:1, about 20:1 to about 30:1, about 20:1 to about 34:1, about 20:1 to about 40:1, about 25:1 to about 30:1, about 25:1 to about 34:1, about 25:1 to about 40:1, about 30:1 to about 34:1, about 30:1 to about 40:1, or about 34:1 to about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of about 2:1, about 4:1, about 6:1, about 8:1, about 10:1, about 15:1, about 20:1, about 25:1, about 30:1, about 34:1, or about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments, one of the conductivity, the surface area, and the C:O ratio of the conductive graphene ink is measured by methylene blue absorption. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of at least about 2:1, about 4:1, about 6:1, about 8:1, about 10:1, about 15:1, about 20:1, about 25:1, about 30:1, about 34:1, or about 40:1. Optionally, in some embodiments the conductive graphene ink has a C:O mass ratio of no more than about 2:1, about 4:1, about 6:1, about 8:1, about 10:1, about 15:1, about 20:1, about 25:1, about 30:1, about 34:1, or about 40:1.

Another aspect provided herein is a method of forming silver nanowires comprising: heating a secondary solvent; adding a catalyst solution and a polymer solution to the secondary solvent to form a first solution; injecting a silver-based solution into the first solution to form a second solution; centrifuging the second solution; and washing the second solution with a washing solution to extract the silver nanowires. Alternatively, in some embodiments, the methods herein are configured form at least one of a silver nanoparticle, a silver nanorod, a silver nanoflower, a silver nanofiber, a silver nanoplatelet, a silver nanoribbon, a silver nanocube, a silver bipyramid. In some embodiments, the silver nanowires are configured to be used in a conductive silver-based ink. Alternatively, in some embodiments, the silver nanowires are configured to be used as a conductive additive in a conductive graphene ink.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent comprises a glycol. Optionally, in some embodiments the glycol comprises ethylene glycol, polyethylene glycol 200, polyethylene glycol 400, propylene glycol, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer solution comprises a polymer comprising polyvinyl pyrrolidone, sodium dodecyl sulfonate, vitamin B2, poly(vinyl alcohol), dextrin, poly(methyl vinyl ether), or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer has a molecular weight of about 10,000 to about 40,000. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer has a molecular weight of at least about 10,000. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer has a molecular weight of at most about 40,000. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer has a molecular weight of about 10,000 to about 12,500, about 10,000 to about 15,000, about 10,000 to about 17,500, about 10,000 to about 20,000, about 10,000 to about 22,500, about 10,000 to about 25,000, about 10,000 to about 27,500, about 10,000 to about 30,000, about 10,000 to about 35,000, about 10,000 to about 40,000, about 12,500 to about 15,000, about 12,500 to about 17,500, about 12,500 to about 20,000, about 12,500 to about 22,500, about 12,500 to about 25,000, about 12,500 to about 27,500, about 12,500 to about 30,000, about 12,500 to about 35,000, about 12,500 to about 40,000, about 15,000 to about 17,500, about 15,000 to about 20,000, about 15,000 to about 22,500, about 15,000 to about 25,000, about 15,000 to about 27,500, about 15,000 to about 30,000, about 15,000 to about 35,000, about 15,000 to about 40,000, about 17,500 to about 20,000, about 17,500 to about 22,500, about 17,500 to about 25,000, about 17,500 to about 27,500, about 17,500 to about 30,000, about 17,500 to about 35,000, about 17,500 to about 40,000, about 20,000 to about 22,500, about 20,000 to about 25,000, about 20,000 to about 27,500, about 20,000 to about 30,000, about 20,000 to about 35,000, about 20,000 to about 40,000, about 22,500 to about 25,000, about 22,500 to about 27,500, about 22,500 to about 30,000, about 22,500 to about 35,000, about 22,500 to about 40,000, about 25,000 to about 27,500, about 25,000 to about 30,000, about 25,000 to about 35,000, about 25,000 to about 40,000, about 27,500 to about 30,000, about 27,500 to about 35,000, about 27,500 to about 40,000, about 30,000 to about 35,000, about 30,000 to about 40,000, or about 35,000 to about 40,000. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer has a molecular weight of about 10,000, about 12,500, about 15,000, about 17,500, about 20,000, about 22,500, about 25,000, about 27,500, about 30,000, about 35,000, or about 40,000. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer has a molecular weight of at least about 10,000, about 12,500, about 15,000, about 17,500, about 20,000, about 22,500, about 25,000, about 27,500, about 30,000, about 35,000, or about 40,000. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer has a molecular weight of no more than about 10,000, about 12,500, about 15,000, about 17,500, about 20,000, about 22,500, about 25,000, about 27,500, about 30,000, about 35,000, or about 40,000.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer solution has a concentration of about 0.075 M to about 0.25 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer solution has a concentration of at least about 0.075 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer solution has a concentration of at most about 0.25 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer solution has a concentration of about 0.075 M to about 0.1 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.125 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.15 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.175 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.225 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.125 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.15 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.175 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.225 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.15 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.175 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.225 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.175 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.225 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.225 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.225 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.25 M, or about 0.225 M to about 0.25 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer solution has a concentration of about 0.075 M, about 0.1 M, about 0.125 M, about 0.15 M, about 0.175 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.225 M, or about 0.25 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer solution has a concentration of at least about 0.075 M, about 0.1 M, about 0.125 M, about 0.15 M, about 0.175 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.225 M, or about 0.25 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer solution has a concentration of no more than about 0.075 M, about 0.1 M, about 0.125 M, about 0.15 M, about 0.175 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.225 M, or about 0.25 M.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated to a temperature of about 75° C. to about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated to a temperature of at least about 75° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated to a temperature of at most about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated to a temperature of about 75° C. to about 100° C., about 75° C. to about 125° C., about 75° C. to about 150° C., about 75° C. to about 175° C., about 75° C. to about 200° C., about 75° C. to about 225° C., about 75° C. to about 250° C., about 75° C. to about 275° C., about 75° C. to about 300° C., about 100° C. to about 125° C., about 100° C. to about 150° C., about 100° C. to about 175° C., about 100° C. to about 200° C., about 100° C. to about 225° C., about 100° C. to about 250° C., about 100° C. to about 275° C., about 100° C. to about 300° C., about 125° C. to about 150° C., about 125° C. to about 175° C., about 125° C. to about 200° C., about 125° C. to about 225° C., about 125° C. to about 250° C., about 125° C. to about 275° C., about 125° C. to about 300° C., about 150° C. to about 175° C., about 150° C. to about 200° C., about 150° C. to about 225° C., about 150° C. to about 250° C., about 150° C. to about 275° C., about 150° C. to about 300° C., about 175° C. to about 200° C., about 175° C. to about 225° C., about 175° C. to about 250° C., about 175° C. to about 275° C., about 175° C. to about 300° C., about 200° C. to about 225° C., about 200° C. to about 250° C., about 200° C. to about 275° C., about 200° C. to about 300° C., about 225° C. to about 250° C., about 225° C. to about 275° C., about 225° C. to about 300° C., about 250° C. to about 275° C., about 250° C. to about 300° C., or about 275° C. to about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated to a temperature of about 75° C., about 100° C., about 125° C., about 150° C., about 175° C., about 200° C., about 225° C., about 250° C., about 275° C., or about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated to a temperature of at least about 75° C., about 100° C., about 125° C., about 150° C., about 175° C., about 200° C., about 225° C., about 250° C., about 275° C., or about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated to a temperature of no more than about 75° C., about 100° C., about 125° C., about 150° C., about 175° C., about 200° C., about 225° C., about 250° C., about 275° C., or about 300° C.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated for a period of time of about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated for a period of time of at least about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated for a period of time of at most about 120 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated for a period of time of about 30 minutes to about 40 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 50 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 60 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 50 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 60 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 60 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 70 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 70 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 70 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 70 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 70 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 80 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 80 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 80 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 80 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 100 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 100 minutes to about 120 minutes, or about 110 minutes to about 120 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated for a period of time of about 30 minutes, about 40 minutes, about 50 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 70 minutes, about 80 minutes, about 90 minutes, about 100 minutes, about 110 minutes, or about 120 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated for a period of time of at least about 30 minutes, about 40 minutes, about 50 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 70 minutes, about 80 minutes, about 90 minutes, about 100 minutes, about 110 minutes, or about 120 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated for a period of time of no more than about 30 minutes, about 40 minutes, about 50 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 70 minutes, about 80 minutes, about 90 minutes, about 100 minutes, about 110 minutes, or about 120 minutes.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is stirred while being heated. Optionally, in some embodiments, the stirring is performed by a magnetic stir bar.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the stirring is performed at a rate of about 100 rpm to about 400 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the stirring is performed at a rate of at least about 100 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the stirring is performed at a rate of at most about 400 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the stirring is performed at a rate of about 100 rpm to about 125 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 150 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 175 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 200 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 225 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 250 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 275 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 300 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 350 rpm, about 100 rpm to about 400 rpm, about 125 rpm to about 150 rpm, about 125 rpm to about 175 rpm, about 125 rpm to about 200 rpm, about 125 rpm to about 225 rpm, about 125 rpm to about 250 rpm, about 125 rpm to about 275 rpm, about 125 rpm to about 300 rpm, about 125 rpm to about 350 rpm, about 125 rpm to about 400 rpm, about 150 rpm to about 175 rpm, about 150 rpm to about 200 rpm, about 150 rpm to about 225 rpm, about 150 rpm to about 250 rpm, about 150 rpm to about 275 rpm, about 150 rpm to about 300 rpm, about 150 rpm to about 350 rpm, about 150 rpm to about 400 rpm, about 175 rpm to about 200 rpm, about 175 rpm to about 225 rpm, about 175 rpm to about 250 rpm, about 175 rpm to about 275 rpm, about 175 rpm to about 300 rpm, about 175 rpm to about 350 rpm, about 175 rpm to about 400 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 225 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 250 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 275 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 300 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 350 rpm, about 200 rpm to about 400 rpm, about 225 rpm to about 250 rpm, about 225 rpm to about 275 rpm, about 225 rpm to about 300 rpm, about 225 rpm to about 350 rpm, about 225 rpm to about 400 rpm, about 250 rpm to about 275 rpm, about 250 rpm to about 300 rpm, about 250 rpm to about 350 rpm, about 250 rpm to about 400 rpm, about 275 rpm to about 300 rpm, about 275 rpm to about 350 rpm, about 275 rpm to about 400 rpm, about 300 rpm to about 350 rpm, about 300 rpm to about 400 rpm, or about 350 rpm to about 400 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the stirring is performed at a rate of about 100 rpm, about 125 rpm, about 150 rpm, about 175 rpm, about 200 rpm, about 225 rpm, about 250 rpm, about 275 rpm, about 300 rpm, about 350 rpm, or about 400 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the stirring is performed at a rate of at least about 100 rpm, about 125 rpm, about 150 rpm, about 175 rpm, about 200 rpm, about 225 rpm, about 250 rpm, about 275 rpm, about 300 rpm, about 350 rpm, or about 400 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the stirring is performed at a rate of no more than about 100 rpm, about 125 rpm, about 150 rpm, about 175 rpm, about 200 rpm, about 225 rpm, about 250 rpm, about 275 rpm, about 300 rpm, about 350 rpm, or about 400 rpm.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the catalyst solution comprises a catalyst comprising a chloride. Optionally, in some embodiments, the catalyst solution comprises a catalyst comprising CuCl2, CuCl, NaCl, PtCl2, AgCl, FeCl2, FeCl3, tetrapropylammonium chloride, tetrapropylammonium bromide, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the catalyst solution has a concentration of about 2 mM to about 8 mM. Optionally, in some embodiments, the catalyst solution has a concentration of at least about 2 mM. Optionally, in some embodiments, the catalyst solution has a concentration of at most about 8 mM. Optionally, in some embodiments, the catalyst solution has a concentration of about 2 mM to about 2.5 mM, about 2 mM to about 3 mM, about 2 mM to about 3.5 mM, about 2 mM to about 4 mM, about 2 mM to about 4.5 mM, about 2 mM to about 5 mM, about 2 mM to about 5.5 mM, about 2 mM to about 6 mM, about 2 mM to about 6.5 mM, about 2 mM to about 7 mM, about 2 mM to about 8 mM, about 2.5 mM to about 3 mM, about 2.5 mM to about 3.5 mM, about 2.5 mM to about 4 mM, about 2.5 mM to about 4.5 mM, about 2.5 mM to about 5 mM, about 2.5 mM to about 5.5 mM, about 2.5 mM to about 6 mM, about 2.5 mM to about 6.5 mM, about 2.5 mM to about 7 mM, about 2.5 mM to about 8 mM, about 3 mM to about 3.5 mM, about 3 mM to about 4 mM, about 3 mM to about 4.5 mM, about 3 mM to about 5 mM, about 3 mM to about 5.5 mM, about 3 mM to about 6 mM, about 3 mM to about 6.5 mM, about 3 mM to about 7 mM, about 3 mM to about 8 mM, about 3.5 mM to about 4 mM, about 3.5 mM to about 4.5 mM, about 3.5 mM to about 5 mM, about 3.5 mM to about 5.5 mM, about 3.5 mM to about 6 mM, about 3.5 mM to about 6.5 mM, about 3.5 mM to about 7 mM, about 3.5 mM to about 8 mM, about 4 mM to about 4.5 mM, about 4 mM to about 5 mM, about 4 mM to about 5.5 mM, about 4 mM to about 6 mM, about 4 mM to about 6.5 mM, about 4 mM to about 7 mM, about 4 mM to about 8 mM, about 4.5 mM to about 5 mM, about 4.5 mM to about 5.5 mM, about 4.5 mM to about 6 mM, about 4.5 mM to about 6.5 mM, about 4.5 mM to about 7 mM, about 4.5 mM to about 8 mM, about 5 mM to about 5.5 mM, about 5 mM to about 6 mM, about 5 mM to about 6.5 mM, about 5 mM to about 7 mM, about 5 mM to about 8 mM, about 5.5 mM to about 6 mM, about 5.5 mM to about 6.5 mM, about 5.5 mM to about 7 mM, about 5.5 mM to about 8 mM, about 6 mM to about 6.5 mM, about 6 mM to about 7 mM, about 6 mM to about 8 mM, about 6.5 mM to about 7 mM, about 6.5 mM to about 8 mM, or about 7 mM to about 8 mM. Optionally, in some embodiments, the catalyst solution has a concentration of about 2 mM, about 2.5 mM, about 3 mM, about 3.5 mM, about 4 mM, about 4.5 mM, about 5 mM, about 5.5 mM, about 6 mM, about 6.5 mM, about 7 mM, or about 8 mM. Optionally, in some embodiments, the catalyst solution has a concentration of at least about 2 mM, about 2.5 mM, about 3 mM, about 3.5 mM, about 4 mM, about 4.5 mM, about 5 mM, about 5.5 mM, about 6 mM, about 6.5 mM, about 7 mM, or about 8 mM. Optionally, in some embodiments, the catalyst solution has a concentration of no more than about 2 mM, about 2.5 mM, about 3 mM, about 3.5 mM, about 4 mM, about 4.5 mM, about 5 mM, about 5.5 mM, about 6 mM, about 6.5 mM, about 7 mM, or about 8 mM.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the catalyst solution by a factor of about 75 to about 250. Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the catalyst solution by a factor of at least about 75. Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the catalyst solution by a factor of at most about 250. Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the catalyst solution by a factor of about 75 to about 100, about 75 to about 125, about 75 to about 150, about 75 to about 175, about 75 to about 200, about 75 to about 225, about 75 to about 250, about 100 to about 125, about 100 to about 150, about 100 to about 175, about 100 to about 200, about 100 to about 225, about 100 to about 250, about 125 to about 150, about 125 to about 175, about 125 to about 200, about 125 to about 225, about 125 to about 250, about 150 to about 175, about 150 to about 200, about 150 to about 225, about 150 to about 250, about 175 to about 200, about 175 to about 225, about 175 to about 250, about 200 to about 225, about 200 to about 250, or about 225 to about 250. Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the catalyst solution by a factor of about 75, about 100, about 125, about 150, about 175, about 200, about 225, or about 250. Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the catalyst solution by a factor of at least about 75, about 100, about 125, about 150, about 175, about 200, about 225, or about 250. Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the catalyst solution by a factor of no more than about 75, about 100, about 125, about 150, about 175, about 200, about 225, or about 250.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the polymer solution by a factor of about 1.5 to about 6.5. Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the polymer solution by a factor of at least about 1.5. Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the polymer solution by a factor of at most about 6.5. Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the polymer solution by a factor of about 1.5 to about 2, about 1.5 to about 2.5, about 1.5 to about 3, about 1.5 to about 3.5, about 1.5 to about 4, about 1.5 to about 4.5, about 1.5 to about 5, about 1.5 to about 5.5, about 1.5 to about 6, about 1.5 to about 6.5, about 2 to about 2.5, about 2 to about 3, about 2 to about 3.5, about 2 to about 4, about 2 to about 4.5, about 2 to about 5, about 2 to about 5.5, about 2 to about 6, about 2 to about 6.5, about 2.5 to about 3, about 2.5 to about 3.5, about 2.5 to about 4, about 2.5 to about 4.5, about 2.5 to about 5, about 2.5 to about 5.5, about 2.5 to about 6, about 2.5 to about 6.5, about 3 to about 3.5, about 3 to about 4, about 3 to about 4.5, about 3 to about 5, about 3 to about 5.5, about 3 to about 6, about 3 to about 6.5, about 3.5 to about 4, about 3.5 to about 4.5, about 3.5 to about 5, about 3.5 to about 5.5, about 3.5 to about 6, about 3.5 to about 6.5, about 4 to about 4.5, about 4 to about 5, about 4 to about 5.5, about 4 to about 6, about 4 to about 6.5, about 4.5 to about 5, about 4.5 to about 5.5, about 4.5 to about 6, about 4.5 to about 6.5, about 5 to about 5.5, about 5 to about 6, about 5 to about 6.5, about 5.5 to about 6, about 5.5 to about 6.5, or about 6 to about 6.5. Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the polymer solution by a factor of about 1.5, about 2, about 2.5, about 3, about 3.5, about 4, about 4.5, about 5, about 5.5, about 6, or about 6.5. Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the polymer solution by a factor of at least about 1.5, about 2, about 2.5, about 3, about 3.5, about 4, about 4.5, about 5, about 5.5, about 6, or about 6.5. Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the polymer solution by a factor of no more than about 1.5, about 2, about 2.5, about 3, about 3.5, about 4, about 4.5, about 5, about 5.5, about 6, or about 6.5.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution comprises a silver-based material comprising AgNO3. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution has a concentration of about 0.05 M to about 0.2 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution has a concentration of at least about 0.05 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution has a concentration of at most about 0.2 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution has a concentration of about 0.05 M to about 0.075 M, about 0.05 M to about 0.1 M, about 0.05 M to about 0.125 M, about 0.05 M to about 0.15 M, about 0.05 M to about 0.175 M, about 0.05 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.1 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.125 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.15 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.175 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.125 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.15 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.175 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.15 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.175 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.175 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.2 M, or about 0.175 M to about 0.2 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution has a concentration of about 0.05 M, about 0.075 M, about 0.1 M, about 0.125 M, about 0.15 M, about 0.175 M, or about 0.2 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution has a concentration of at least about 0.05 M, about 0.075 M, about 0.1 M, about 0.125 M, about 0.15 M, about 0.175 M, or about 0.2 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution has a concentration of no more than about 0.05 M, about 0.075 M, about 0.1 M, about 0.125 M, about 0.15 M, about 0.175 M, or about 0.2 M.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the silver-based solution by a factor of about 1.5 to about 6.5. Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the silver-based solution by a factor of at least about 1.5. Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the silver-based solution by a factor of at most about 6.5. Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the silver-based solution by a factor of about 1.5 to about 2, about 1.5 to about 2.5, about 1.5 to about 3, about 1.5 to about 3.5, about 1.5 to about 4, about 1.5 to about 4.5, about 1.5 to about 5, about 1.5 to about 5.5, about 1.5 to about 6, about 1.5 to about 6.5, about 2 to about 2.5, about 2 to about 3, about 2 to about 3.5, about 2 to about 4, about 2 to about 4.5, about 2 to about 5, about 2 to about 5.5, about 2 to about 6, about 2 to about 6.5, about 2.5 to about 3, about 2.5 to about 3.5, about 2.5 to about 4, about 2.5 to about 4.5, about 2.5 to about 5, about 2.5 to about 5.5, about 2.5 to about 6, about 2.5 to about 6.5, about 3 to about 3.5, about 3 to about 4, about 3 to about 4.5, about 3 to about 5, about 3 to about 5.5, about 3 to about 6, about 3 to about 6.5, about 3.5 to about 4, about 3.5 to about 4.5, about 3.5 to about 5, about 3.5 to about 5.5, about 3.5 to about 6, about 3.5 to about 6.5, about 4 to about 4.5, about 4 to about 5, about 4 to about 5.5, about 4 to about 6, about 4 to about 6.5, about 4.5 to about 5, about 4.5 to about 5.5, about 4.5 to about 6, about 4.5 to about 6.5, about 5 to about 5.5, about 5 to about 6, about 5 to about 6.5, about 5.5 to about 6, about 5.5 to about 6.5, or about 6 to about 6.5. Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the silver-based solution by a factor of about 1.5, about 2, about 2.5, about 3, about 3.5, about 4, about 4.5, about 5, about 5.5, about 6, or about 6.5. Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the silver-based solution by a factor of at least about 1.5, about 2, about 2.5, about 3, about 3.5, about 4, about 4.5, about 5, about 5.5, about 6, or about 6.5. Optionally, in some embodiments, the volume of the secondary solvent is greater than the volume of the silver-based solution by a factor of no more than about 1.5, about 2, about 2.5, about 3, about 3.5, about 4, about 4.5, about 5, about 5.5, about 6, or about 6.5.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution is injected into the first solution over a period of time of about 1 second to about 900 seconds. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution is injected into the first solution over a period of time of at least about 1 second. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution is injected into the first solution over a period of time of at most about 900 seconds. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution is injected into the first solution over a period of time of about 1 second to about 2 seconds, about 1 second to about 5 seconds, about 1 second to about 10 seconds, about 1 second to about 50 seconds, about 1 second to about 100 seconds, about 1 second to about 200 seconds, about 1 second to about 300 seconds, about 1 second to about 400 seconds, about 1 second to about 600 seconds, about 1 second to about 800 seconds, about 1 second to about 900 seconds, about 2 seconds to about 5 seconds, about 2 seconds to about 10 seconds, about 2 seconds to about 50 seconds, about 2 seconds to about 100 seconds, about 2 seconds to about 200 seconds, about 2 seconds to about 300 seconds, about 2 seconds to about 400 seconds, about 2 seconds to about 600 seconds, about 2 seconds to about 800 seconds, about 2 seconds to about 900 seconds, about 5 seconds to about 10 seconds, about 5 seconds to about 50 seconds, about 5 seconds to about 100 seconds, about 5 seconds to about 200 seconds, about 5 seconds to about 300 seconds, about 5 seconds to about 400 seconds, about 5 seconds to about 600 seconds, about 5 seconds to about 800 seconds, about 5 seconds to about 900 seconds, about 10 seconds to about 50 seconds, about 10 seconds to about 100 seconds, about 10 seconds to about 200 seconds, about 10 seconds to about 300 seconds, about 10 seconds to about 400 seconds, about 10 seconds to about 600 seconds, about 10 seconds to about 800 seconds, about 10 seconds to about 900 seconds, about 50 seconds to about 100 seconds, about 50 seconds to about 200 seconds, about 50 seconds to about 300 seconds, about 50 seconds to about 400 seconds, about 50 seconds to about 600 seconds, about 50 seconds to about 800 seconds, about 50 seconds to about 900 seconds, about 100 seconds to about 200 seconds, about 100 seconds to about 300 seconds, about 100 seconds to about 400 seconds, about 100 seconds to about 600 seconds, about 100 seconds to about 800 seconds, about 100 seconds to about 900 seconds, about 200 seconds to about 300 seconds, about 200 seconds to about 400 seconds, about 200 seconds to about 600 seconds, about 200 seconds to about 800 seconds, about 200 seconds to about 900 seconds, about 300 seconds to about 400 seconds, about 300 seconds to about 600 seconds, about 300 seconds to about 800 seconds, about 300 seconds to about 900 seconds, about 400 seconds to about 600 seconds, about 400 seconds to about 800 seconds, about 400 seconds to about 900 seconds, about 600 seconds to about 800 seconds, about 600 seconds to about 900 seconds, or about 800 seconds to about 900 seconds. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution is injected into the first solution over a period of time of about 1 second, about 2 seconds, about 5 seconds, about 10 seconds, about 50 seconds, about 100 seconds, about 200 seconds, about 300 seconds, about 400 seconds, about 600 seconds, about 800 seconds, or about 900 seconds. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution is injected into the first solution over a period of time of at least about 1 second, about 2 seconds, about 5 seconds, about 10 seconds, about 50 seconds, about 100 seconds, about 200 seconds, about 300 seconds, about 400 seconds, about 600 seconds, about 800 seconds, or about 900 seconds. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution is injected into the first solution over a period of time of no more than about 1 second, about 2 seconds, about 5 seconds, about 10 seconds, about 50 seconds, about 100 seconds, about 200 seconds, about 300 seconds, about 400 seconds, about 600 seconds, about 800 seconds, or about 900 seconds.

Some embodiments further comprise heating the second solution before the process of centrifuging the second solution.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the heating of the second solution occurs over a period of time of about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the heating of the second solution occurs over a period of time of at least about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the heating of the second solution occurs over a period of time of at most about 120 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the heating of the second solution occurs over a period of time of about 30 minutes to about 40 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 50 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 60 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 50 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 60 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 60 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 70 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 70 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 70 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 70 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 70 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 80 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 80 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 80 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 80 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 100 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 100 minutes to about 120 minutes, or about 110 minutes to about 120 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the heating of the second solution occurs over a period of time of about 30 minutes, about 40 minutes, about 50 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 70 minutes, about 80 minutes, about 90 minutes, about 100 minutes, about 110 minutes, or about 120 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the heating of the second solution occurs over a period of time of at least about 30 minutes, about 40 minutes, about 50 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 70 minutes, about 80 minutes, about 90 minutes, about 100 minutes, about 110 minutes, or about 120 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the heating of the second solution occurs over a period of time of no more than about 30 minutes, about 40 minutes, about 50 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 70 minutes, about 80 minutes, about 90 minutes, about 100 minutes, about 110 minutes, or about 120 minutes.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the centrifuging occurs at a speed of about 1,500 rpm to about 6,000 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the centrifuging occurs at a speed of at least about 1,500 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the centrifuging occurs at a speed of at most about 6,000 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the centrifuging occurs at a speed of about 1,500 rpm to about 2,000 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 2,500 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 5,000 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 5,500 rpm, about 1,500 rpm to about 6,000 rpm, about 2,000 rpm to about 2,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 2,000 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 2,000 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm to about 5,000 rpm, about 2,000 rpm to about 5,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm to about 6,000 rpm, about 2,500 rpm to about 3,000 rpm, about 2,500 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 2,500 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 2,500 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 2,500 rpm to about 5,000 rpm, about 2,500 rpm to about 5,500 rpm, about 2,500 rpm to about 6,000 rpm, about 3,000 rpm to about 3,500 rpm, about 3,000 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 3,000 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 3,000 rpm to about 5,000 rpm, about 3,000 rpm to about 5,500 rpm, about 3,000 rpm to about 6,000 rpm, about 3,500 rpm to about 4,000 rpm, about 3,500 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 3,500 rpm to about 5,000 rpm, about 3,500 rpm to about 5,500 rpm, about 3,500 rpm to about 6,000 rpm, about 4,000 rpm to about 4,500 rpm, about 4,000 rpm to about 5,000 rpm, about 4,000 rpm to about 5,500 rpm, about 4,000 rpm to about 6,000 rpm, about 4,500 rpm to about 5,000 rpm, about 4,500 rpm to about 5,500 rpm, about 4,500 rpm to about 6,000 rpm, about 5,000 rpm to about 5,500 rpm, about 5,000 rpm to about 6,000 rpm, or about 5,500 rpm to about 6,000 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the centrifuging occurs at a speed of about 1,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm, about 2,500 rpm, about 3,000 rpm, about 3,500 rpm, about 4,000 rpm, about 4,500 rpm, about 5,000 rpm, about 5,500 rpm, or about 6,000 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the centrifuging occurs at a speed of at least about 1,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm, about 2,500 rpm, about 3,000 rpm, about 3,500 rpm, about 4,000 rpm, about 4,500 rpm, about 5,000 rpm, about 5,500 rpm, or about 6,000 rpm. Optionally, in some embodiments, the centrifuging occurs at a speed of no more than about 1,500 rpm, about 2,000 rpm, about 2,500 rpm, about 3,000 rpm, about 3,500 rpm, about 4,000 rpm, about 4,500 rpm, about 5,000 rpm, about 5,500 rpm, or about 6,000 rpm.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the centrifuging occurs over a period of time of about 10 minutes to about 40 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the centrifuging occurs over a period of time of at least about 10 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the centrifuging occurs over a period of time of at most about 40 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the centrifuging occurs over a period of time of about 10 minutes to about 15 minutes, about 10 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 10 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 10 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 10 minutes to about 35 minutes, about 10 minutes to about 40 minutes, about 15 minutes to about 20 minutes, about 15 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 15 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 15 minutes to about 35 minutes, about 15 minutes to about 40 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 35 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 40 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 35 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 40 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 35 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 40 minutes, or about 35 minutes to about 40 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the centrifuging occurs over a period of time of about 10 minutes, about 15 minutes, about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, about 30 minutes, about 35 minutes, or about 40 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the centrifuging occurs over a period of time of at least about 10 minutes, about 15 minutes, about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, about 30 minutes, about 35 minutes, or about 40 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the centrifuging occurs over a period of time of no more than about 10 minutes, about 15 minutes, about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, about 30 minutes, about 35 minutes, or about 40 minutes.

Some embodiments further comprise cooling the second solution before the process of centrifuging the second solution. Optionally, in some embodiments, the second solution is cooled to room temperature. Optionally, in some embodiments, the washing solution comprises ethanol, acetone, water, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, washing the second solution comprises a plurality of washing cycles comprising about two cycles to about six cycles. Optionally, in some embodiments, washing the second solution comprises a plurality of washing cycles comprising at least about two cycles. Optionally, in some embodiments, washing the second solution comprises a plurality of washing cycles comprising at most about six cycles. Optionally, in some embodiments, washing the second solution comprises a plurality of washing cycles comprising about two cycles to about three cycles, about two cycles to about four cycles, about two cycles to about five cycles, about two cycles to about six cycles, about three cycles to about four cycles, about three cycles to about five cycles, about three cycles to about six cycles, about four cycles to about five cycles, about four cycles to about six cycles, or about five cycles to about six cycles. Optionally, in some embodiments, washing the second solution comprises a plurality of washing cycles comprising about two cycles, about three cycles, about four cycles, about five cycles, or about six cycles. Optionally, in some embodiments, washing the second solution comprises a plurality of washing cycles comprising at least about two cycles, about three cycles, about four cycles, about five cycles, or about six cycles. Optionally, in some embodiments, washing the second solution comprises a plurality of washing cycles comprising no more than about two cycles, about three cycles, about four cycles, about five cycles, or about six cycles.

Some embodiments further comprise dispersing the silver nanowires in a dispersing solution. Optionally, in some embodiments, the dispersing solution comprises ethanol, acetone, and water, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the method is performed in open air. Optionally, in some embodiments, the method is performed in a solvothermal chamber. Optionally, in some embodiments, the method is performed under high pressure.

Another aspect provided herein is a method of forming silver nanoparticles comprising: forming a first solution comprising a silver based solution, a secondary solvent, and a polymer solution to form a first solution; stirring the first solution; heating the first solution; cooling the first solution; centrifuging the first solution; and washing the first solution. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is cooled to ambient temperature. Alternatively, in some embodiments, the methods herein are configured form at least one of a silver nanoparticle, a silver nanorod, a silver nanoflower, a silver nanofiber, a silver nanoplatelet, a silver nanoribbon, a silver nanocube, a silver bipyramid. In some embodiments, the silver nanowires are configured to be used in a conductive silver-based ink. Alternatively, in some embodiments, the silver nanowires are configured to be used as a conductive additive in a conductive graphene ink.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is washed with water, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, NMP, cyclohexanone, terpineol, 3-methoxy-3-methyl-1-butanol, 4-hydroxyl-4-methyl-pentan-2-one, methyl isobutyl ketone, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the method further comprises redispersing the first solution. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is redispersed in water. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is washed 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more times. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is washed at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 times.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent comprises a glycol. Optionally, in some embodiments the glycol comprises ethylene glycol, polyethylene glycol 200, polyethylene glycol 400, propylene glycol, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer solution comprises a synthetic polymer. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer solution comprises carboxymethyl cellulose, PVDF, poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(vinyl pyrrolidone), poly(ethylene oxide), ethyl cellulose, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is a dispersant. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder comprises carboxymethyl cellulose, PVDF, poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(vinyl pyrrolidone), poly(ethylene oxide), ethyl cellulose, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is heated to a temperature of about 50° C. to about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is heated to a temperature of at least about 50° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is heated to a temperature of at most about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is heated to a temperature of about 50° C. to about 75° C., about 50° C. to about 100° C., about 50° C. to about 125° C., about 50° C. to about 150° C., about 50° C. to about 175° C., about 50° C. to about 200° C., about 50° C. to about 225° C., about 50° C. to about 250° C., about 50° C. to about 275° C., about 50° C. to about 300° C., about 75° C. to about 100° C., about 75° C. to about 125° C., about 75° C. to about 150° C., about 75° C. to about 175° C., about 75° C. to about 200° C., about 75° C. to about 225° C., about 75° C. to about 250° C., about 75° C. to about 275° C., about 75° C. to about 300° C., about 100° C. to about 125° C., about 100° C. to about 150° C., about 100° C. to about 175° C., about 100° C. to about 200° C., about 100° C. to about 225° C., about 100° C. to about 250° C., about 100° C. to about 275° C., about 100° C. to about 300° C., about 125° C. to about 150° C., about 125° C. to about 175° C., about 125° C. to about 200° C., about 125° C. to about 225° C., about 125° C. to about 250° C., about 125° C. to about 275° C., about 125° C. to about 300° C., about 150° C. to about 175° C., about 150° C. to about 200° C., about 150° C. to about 225° C., about 150° C. to about 250° C., about 150° C. to about 275° C., about 150° C. to about 300° C., about 175° C. to about 200° C., about 175° C. to about 225° C., about 175° C. to about 250° C., about 175° C. to about 275° C., about 175° C. to about 300° C., about 200° C. to about 225° C., about 200° C. to about 250° C., about 200° C. to about 275° C., about 200° C. to about 300° C., about 225° C. to about 250° C., about 225° C. to about 275° C., about 225° C. to about 300° C., about 250° C. to about 275° C., about 250° C. to about 300° C., or about 275° C. to about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is heated to a temperature of about 50° C., about 75° C., about 100° C., about 125° C., about 150° C., about 175° C., about 200° C., about 225° C., about 250° C., about 275° C., or about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is heated to a temperature of at least about 50° C., about 75° C., about 100° C., about 125° C., about 150° C., about 175° C., about 200° C., about 225° C., about 250° C., about 275° C., or about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is heated to a temperature of at most about 50° C., about 75° C., about 100° C., about 125° C., about 150° C., about 175° C., about 200° C., about 225° C., about 250° C., about 275° C., or about 300° C.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is heated for a period of time of about 20 minutes to about 90 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is heated for a period of time of at least about 20 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is heated for a period of time of at most about 90 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is heated for a period of time of about 20 minutes to about 25 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 35 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 40 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 45 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 50 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 60 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 20 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 30 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 35 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 40 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 45 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 50 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 60 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 35 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 40 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 45 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 50 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 60 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 35 minutes to about 40 minutes, about 35 minutes to about 45 minutes, about 35 minutes to about 50 minutes, about 35 minutes to about 60 minutes, about 35 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 35 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 35 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 45 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 50 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 60 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 50 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 60 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 60 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 70 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 70 minutes to about 90 minutes, or about 80 minutes to about 90 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is heated for a period of time of at least about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, about 30 minutes, about 35 minutes, about 40 minutes, about 45 minutes, about 50 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 70 minutes, about 80 minutes, or about 90 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is heated for a period of time of about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, about 30 minutes, about 35 minutes, about 40 minutes, about 45 minutes, about 50 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 70 minutes, about 80 minutes, or about 90 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is heated for a period of time of at most about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, about 30 minutes, about 35 minutes, about 40 minutes, about 45 minutes, about 50 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 70 minutes, about 80 minutes, or about 90 minutes.

Optionally, in some embodiments a volume of the secondary solvent is greater than a volume of at least one of the silver-based solution and the polymer solution by a factor of about 1.01:1 to about 3.5:1. Optionally, in some embodiments a volume of the secondary solvent is greater than a volume of at least one of the silver-based solution and the polymer solution by a factor of at least about 1.01:1. Optionally, in some embodiments a volume of the secondary solvent is greater than a volume of at least one of the silver-based solution and the polymer solution by a factor of at most about 3.5:1. Optionally, in some embodiments a volume of the secondary solvent is greater than a volume of at least one of the silver-based solution and the polymer solution by a factor of about 1.01:1 to about 1.05:1, about 1.01:1 to about 1.1:1, about 1.01:1 to about 1.25:1, about 1.01:1 to about 1.5:1, about 1.01:1 to about 1.75:1, about 1.01:1 to about 2:1, about 1.01:1 to about 2.25:1, about 1.01:1 to about 2.5:1, about 1.01:1 to about 2.75:1, about 1.01:1 to about 3:1, about 1.01:1 to about 3.5:1, about 1.05:1 to about 1.1:1, about 1.05:1 to about 1.25:1, about 1.05:1 to about 1.5:1, about 1.05:1 to about 1.75:1, about 1.05:1 to about 2:1, about 1.05:1 to about 2.25:1, about 1.05:1 to about 2.5:1, about 1.05:1 to about 2.75:1, about 1.05:1 to about 3:1, about 1.05:1 to about 3.5:1, about 1.1:1 to about 1.25:1, about 1.1:1 to about 1.5:1, about 1.1:1 to about 1.75:1, about 1.1:1 to about 2:1, about 1.1:1 to about 2.25:1, about 1.1:1 to about 2.5:1, about 1.1:1 to about 2.75:1, about 1.1:1 to about 3:1, about 1.1:1 to about 3.5:1, about 1.25:1 to about 1.5:1, about 1.25:1 to about 1.75:1, about 1.25:1 to about 2:1, about 1.25:1 to about 2.25:1, about 1.25:1 to about 2.5:1, about 1.25:1 to about 2.75:1, about 1.25:1 to about 3:1, about 1.25:1 to about 3.5:1, about 1.5:1 to about 1.75:1, about 1.5:1 to about 2:1, about 1.5:1 to about 2.25:1, about 1.5:1 to about 2.5:1, about 1.5:1 to about 2.75:1, about 1.5:1 to about 3:1, about 1.5:1 to about 3.5:1, about 1.75:1 to about 2:1, about 1.75:1 to about 2.25:1, about 1.75:1 to about 2.5:1, about 1.75:1 to about 2.75:1, about 1.75:1 to about 3:1, about 1.75:1 to about 3.5:1, about 2:1 to about 2.25:1, about 2:1 to about 2.5:1, about 2:1 to about 2.75:1, about 2:1 to about 3:1, about 2:1 to about 3.5:1, about 2.25:1 to about 2.5:1, about 2.25:1 to about 2.75:1, about 2.25:1 to about 3:1, about 2.25:1 to about 3.5:1, about 2.5:1 to about 2.75:1, about 2.5:1 to about 3:1, about 2.5:1 to about 3.5:1, about 2.75:1 to about 3:1, about 2.75:1 to about 3.5:1, or about 3:1 to about 3.5:1. Optionally, in some embodiments a volume of the secondary solvent is greater than a volume of at least one of the silver-based solution and the polymer solution by a factor of about 1.01:1, about 1.05:1, about 1.1:1, about 1.25:1, about 1.5:1, about 1.75:1, about 2:1, about 2.25:1, about 2.5:1, about 2.75:1, about 3:1, or about 3.5:1. Optionally, in some embodiments a volume of the secondary solvent is greater than a volume of at least one of the silver-based solution and the polymer solution by a factor of at least about 1.01:1, about 1.05:1, about 1.1:1, about 1.25:1, about 1.5:1, about 1.75:1, about 2:1, about 2.25:1, about 2.5:1, about 2.75:1, about 3:1, or about 3.5:1. Optionally, in some embodiments a volume of the secondary solvent is greater than a volume of at least one of the silver-based solution and the polymer solution by a factor of at most about 1.01:1, about 1.05:1, about 1.1:1, about 1.25:1, about 1.5:1, about 1.75:1, about 2:1, about 2.25:1, about 2.5:1, about 2.75:1, about 3:1, or about 3.5:1.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution comprises a silver-based material comprising AgNO3. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the silver-based solution is about 0.125 M to about 0.5 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the silver-based solution is at least about 0.125 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the silver-based solution is at most about 0.5 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the silver-based solution is about 0.125 M to about 0.15 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.175 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.225 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.175 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.225 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.225 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.225 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.225 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.225 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.225 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.225 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.225 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.225 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.35 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.35 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.35 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.4 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.4 M to about 0.5 M, or about 0.45 M to about 0.5 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the silver-based solution is about 0.125 M, about 0.15 M, about 0.175 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.225 M, about 0.25 M, about 0.3 M, about 0.35 M, about 0.4 M, about 0.45 M, or about 0.5 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the silver-based solution is at least about 0.125 M, about 0.15 M, about 0.175 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.225 M, about 0.25 M, about 0.3 M, about 0.35 M, about 0.4 M, about 0.45 M, or about 0.5 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the silver-based solution is at most about 0.125 M, about 0.15 M, about 0.175 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.225 M, about 0.25 M, about 0.3 M, about 0.35 M, about 0.4 M, about 0.45 M, or about 0.5 M.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the polymer solution is about 0.025 M to about 0.6 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the polymer solution is at least about 0.025 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the polymer solution is at most about 0.6 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the polymer solution is about 0.025 M to about 0.05 M, about 0.025 M to about 0.075 M, about 0.025 M to about 0.1 M, about 0.025 M to about 0.15 M, about 0.025 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.025 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.025 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.025 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.025 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.025 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.025 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.05 M to about 0.075 M, about 0.05 M to about 0.1 M, about 0.05 M to about 0.15 M, about 0.05 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.05 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.05 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.05 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.05 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.05 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.05 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.1 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.15 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.075 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.15 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.35 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.35 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.35 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.4 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.4 M to about 0.6 M, or about 0.5 M to about 0.6 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the polymer solution is about 0.025 M, about 0.05 M, about 0.075 M, about 0.1 M, about 0.15 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.25 M, about 0.3 M, about 0.35 M, about 0.4 M, about 0.5 M, or about 0.6 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the polymer solution is at least about 0.025 M, about 0.05 M, about 0.075 M, about 0.1 M, about 0.15 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.25 M, about 0.3 M, about 0.35 M, about 0.4 M, about 0.5 M, or about 0.6 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the polymer solution is at most about 0.025 M, about 0.05 M, about 0.075 M, about 0.1 M, about 0.15 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.25 M, about 0.3 M, about 0.35 M, about 0.4 M, about 0.5 M, or about 0.6 M.

Another aspect provided herein is a method of forming silver nanoparticles comprising: heating a secondary solvent; adding a silver-based solution and a polymer solution to the secondary solvent to form a first solution; stirring the first solution; heating the first solution; and washing the first solution. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution and the polymer solution are added simultaneously to the secondary solvent. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution and the polymer solution are added by a two-channel syringe to the secondary solvent. Alternatively, in some embodiments, the methods herein are configured form at least one of a silver nanowire, a silver nanorod, a silver nanoflower, a silver nanofiber, a silver nanoplatelet, a silver nanoribbon, a silver nanocube, a silver bipyramid. In some embodiments, the silver nanowires are configured to be used in a conductive silver-based ink. Alternatively, in some embodiments, the silver nanowires are configured to be used as a conductive additive in a conductive graphene ink.

Optionally, in some embodiments, adding the silver-based solution and the polymer solution to the secondary solvent to form the first solution and stirring the first solution are performed simultaneously. Optionally, in some embodiments, the method further comprises redispersing the first solution. Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is redispersed in water.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent comprises a glycol. Optionally, in some embodiments the glycol comprises ethylene glycol, polyethylene glycol 200, polyethylene glycol 400, propylene glycol, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer solution comprises a polymer. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer solution comprises a synthetic polymer. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer solution comprises carboxymethyl cellulose, PVDF, poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(vinyl pyrrolidone), poly(ethylene oxide), ethyl cellulose, or any combination thereof. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder is a dispersant. Optionally, in some embodiments, the binder comprises carboxymethyl cellulose, PVDF, poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(vinyl pyrrolidone), poly(ethylene oxide), ethyl cellulose, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer has a molecular weight of about 10,000 to about 40,000. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer has a molecular weight of at least about 10,000. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer has a molecular weight of at most about 40,000. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer has a molecular weight of about 10,000 to about 12,500, about 10,000 to about 15,000, about 10,000 to about 17,500, about 10,000 to about 20,000, about 10,000 to about 22,500, about 10,000 to about 25,000, about 10,000 to about 27,500, about 10,000 to about 30,000, about 10,000 to about 35,000, about 10,000 to about 40,000, about 12,500 to about 15,000, about 12,500 to about 17,500, about 12,500 to about 20,000, about 12,500 to about 22,500, about 12,500 to about 25,000, about 12,500 to about 27,500, about 12,500 to about 30,000, about 12,500 to about 35,000, about 12,500 to about 40,000, about 15,000 to about 17,500, about 15,000 to about 20,000, about 15,000 to about 22,500, about 15,000 to about 25,000, about 15,000 to about 27,500, about 15,000 to about 30,000, about 15,000 to about 35,000, about 15,000 to about 40,000, about 17,500 to about 20,000, about 17,500 to about 22,500, about 17,500 to about 25,000, about 17,500 to about 27,500, about 17,500 to about 30,000, about 17,500 to about 35,000, about 17,500 to about 40,000, about 20,000 to about 22,500, about 20,000 to about 25,000, about 20,000 to about 27,500, about 20,000 to about 30,000, about 20,000 to about 35,000, about 20,000 to about 40,000, about 22,500 to about 25,000, about 22,500 to about 27,500, about 22,500 to about 30,000, about 22,500 to about 35,000, about 22,500 to about 40,000, about 25,000 to about 27,500, about 25,000 to about 30,000, about 25,000 to about 35,000, about 25,000 to about 40,000, about 27,500 to about 30,000, about 27,500 to about 35,000, about 27,500 to about 40,000, about 30,000 to about 35,000, about 30,000 to about 40,000, or about 35,000 to about 40,000. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer has a molecular weight of about 10,000, about 12,500, about 15,000, about 17,500, about 20,000, about 22,500, about 25,000, about 27,500, about 30,000, about 35,000, or about 40,000. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer has a molecular weight of at least about 10,000, about 12,500, about 15,000, about 17,500, about 20,000, about 22,500, about 25,000, about 27,500, about 30,000, about 35,000, or about 40,000. Optionally, in some embodiments, the polymer has a molecular weight of no more than about 10,000, about 12,500, about 15,000, about 17,500, about 20,000, about 22,500, about 25,000, about 27,500, about 30,000, about 35,000, or about 40,000.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated to a temperature of about 80° C. to about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated to a temperature of at least about 80° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated to a temperature of at most about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated to a temperature of about 80° C. to about 90° C., about 80° C. to about 100° C., about 80° C. to about 120° C., about 80° C. to about 140° C., about 80° C. to about 160° C., about 80° C. to about 180° C., about 80° C. to about 200° C., about 80° C. to about 250° C., about 80° C. to about 300° C., about 90° C. to about 100° C., about 90° C. to about 120° C., about 90° C. to about 140° C., about 90° C. to about 160° C., about 90° C. to about 180° C., about 90° C. to about 200° C., about 90° C. to about 250° C., about 90° C. to about 300° C., about 100° C. to about 120° C., about 100° C. to about 140° C., about 100° C. to about 160° C., about 100° C. to about 180° C., about 100° C. to about 200° C., about 100° C. to about 250° C., about 100° C. to about 300° C., about 120° C. to about 140° C., about 120° C. to about 160° C., about 120° C. to about 180° C., about 120° C. to about 200° C., about 120° C. to about 250° C., about 120° C. to about 300° C., about 140° C. to about 160° C., about 140° C. to about 180° C., about 140° C. to about 200° C., about 140° C. to about 250° C., about 140° C. to about 300° C., about 160° C. to about 180° C., about 160° C. to about 200° C., about 160° C. to about 250° C., about 160° C. to about 300° C., about 180° C. to about 200° C., about 180° C. to about 250° C., about 180° C. to about 300° C., about 200° C. to about 250° C., about 200° C. to about 300° C., or about 250° C. to about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated to a temperature of about 80° C., about 90° C., about 100° C., about 120° C., about 140° C., about 160° C., about 180° C., about 200° C., about 250° C., or about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated to a temperature of at least about 80° C., about 90° C., about 100° C., about 120° C., about 140° C., about 160° C., about 180° C., about 200° C., about 250° C., or about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated to a temperature of at most about 80° C., about 90° C., about 100° C., about 120° C., about 140° C., about 160° C., about 180° C., about 200° C., about 250° C., or about 300° C.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated for a period of time of about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated for a period of time of at least about 30 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated for a period of time of at most about 120 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated for a period of time of about 30 minutes to about 40 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 50 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 60 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 50 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 60 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 40 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 60 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 50 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 70 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 60 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 70 minutes to about 80 minutes, about 70 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 70 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 70 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 70 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 80 minutes to about 90 minutes, about 80 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 80 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 80 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 90 minutes to about 120 minutes, about 100 minutes to about 110 minutes, about 100 minutes to about 120 minutes, or about 110 minutes to about 120 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated for a period of time of about 30 minutes, about 40 minutes, about 50 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 70 minutes, about 80 minutes, about 90 minutes, about 100 minutes, about 110 minutes, or about 120 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated for a period of time of at least about 30 minutes, about 40 minutes, about 50 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 70 minutes, about 80 minutes, about 90 minutes, about 100 minutes, about 110 minutes, or about 120 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, the secondary solvent is heated for a period of time of at most about 30 minutes, about 40 minutes, about 50 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 70 minutes, about 80 minutes, about 90 minutes, about 100 minutes, about 110 minutes, or about 120 minutes.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution and the polymer solution are added to the secondary solvent at a rate of about 2 mL/min to about 40 mL/min. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution and the polymer solution are added to the secondary solvent at a rate of at least about 2 mL/min. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution and the polymer solution are added to the secondary solvent at a rate of at most about 40 mL/min. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution and the polymer solution are added to the secondary solvent at a rate of about 2 mL/min to about 4 mL/min, about 2 mL/min to about 6 mL/min, about 2 mL/min to about 8 mL/min, about 2 mL/min to about 10 mL/min, about 2 mL/min to about 15 mL/min, about 2 mL/min to about 20 mL/min, about 2 mL/min to about 25 mL/min, about 2 mL/min to about 30 mL/min, about 2 mL/min to about 35 mL/min, about 2 mL/min to about 40 mL/min, about 4 mL/min to about 6 mL/min, about 4 mL/min to about 8 mL/min, about 4 mL/min to about 10 mL/min, about 4 mL/min to about 15 mL/min, about 4 mL/min to about 20 mL/min, about 4 mL/min to about 25 mL/min, about 4 mL/min to about 30 mL/min, about 4 mL/min to about 35 mL/min, about 4 mL/min to about 40 mL/min, about 6 mL/min to about 8 mL/min, about 6 mL/min to about 10 mL/min, about 6 mL/min to about 15 mL/min, about 6 mL/min to about 20 mL/min, about 6 mL/min to about 25 mL/min, about 6 mL/min to about 30 mL/min, about 6 mL/min to about 35 mL/min, about 6 mL/min to about 40 mL/min, about 8 mL/min to about 10 mL/min, about 8 mL/min to about 15 mL/min, about 8 mL/min to about 20 mL/min, about 8 mL/min to about 25 mL/min, about 8 mL/min to about 30 mL/min, about 8 mL/min to about 35 mL/min, about 8 mL/min to about 40 mL/min, about 10 mL/min to about 15 mL/min, about 10 mL/min to about 20 mL/min, about 10 mL/min to about 25 mL/min, about 10 mL/min to about 30 mL/min, about 10 mL/min to about 35 mL/min, about 10 mL/min to about 40 mL/min, about 15 mL/min to about 20 mL/min, about 15 mL/min to about 25 mL/min, about 15 mL/min to about 30 mL/min, about 15 mL/min to about 35 mL/min, about 15 mL/min to about 40 mL/min, about 20 mL/min to about 25 mL/min, about 20 mL/min to about 30 mL/min, about 20 mL/min to about 35 mL/min, about 20 mL/min to about 40 mL/min, about 25 mL/min to about 30 mL/min, about 25 mL/min to about 35 mL/min, about 25 mL/min to about 40 mL/min, about 30 mL/min to about 35 mL/min, about 30 mL/min to about 40 mL/min, or about 35 mL/min to about 40 mL/min. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution and the polymer solution are added to the secondary solvent at a rate of about 2 mL/min, about 4 mL/min, about 6 mL/min, about 8 mL/min, about 10 mL/min, about 15 mL/min, about 20 mL/min, about 25 mL/min, about 30 mL/min, about 35 mL/min, or about 40 mL/min. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution and the polymer solution are added to the secondary solvent at a rate of at least about 2 mL/min, about 4 mL/min, about 6 mL/min, about 8 mL/min, about 10 mL/min, about 15 mL/min, about 20 mL/min, about 25 mL/min, about 30 mL/min, about 35 mL/min, or about 40 mL/min. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution and the polymer solution are added to the secondary solvent at a rate of at most about 2 mL/min, about 4 mL/min, about 6 mL/min, about 8 mL/min, about 10 mL/min, about 15 mL/min, about 20 mL/min, about 25 mL/min, about 30 mL/min, about 35 mL/min, or about 40 mL/min.

Optionally, in some embodiments, heating the first solution is performed at a temperature of about 50° C. to about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, heating the first solution is performed at a temperature of at least about 50° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, heating the first solution is performed at a temperature of at most about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, heating the first solution is performed at a temperature of about 50° C. to about 60° C., about 50° C. to about 80° C., about 50° C. to about 100° C., about 50° C. to about 120° C., about 50° C. to about 140° C., about 50° C. to about 160° C., about 50° C. to about 180° C., about 50° C. to about 200° C., about 50° C. to about 250° C., about 50° C. to about 300° C., about 60° C. to about 80° C., about 60° C. to about 100° C., about 60° C. to about 120° C., about 60° C. to about 140° C., about 60° C. to about 160° C., about 60° C. to about 180° C., about 60° C. to about 200° C., about 60° C. to about 250° C., about 60° C. to about 300° C., about 80° C. to about 100° C., about 80° C. to about 120° C., about 80° C. to about 140° C., about 80° C. to about 160° C., about 80° C. to about 180° C., about 80° C. to about 200° C., about 80° C. to about 250° C., about 80° C. to about 300° C., about 100° C. to about 120° C., about 100° C. to about 140° C., about 100° C. to about 160° C., about 100° C. to about 180° C., about 100° C. to about 200° C., about 100° C. to about 250° C., about 100° C. to about 300° C., about 120° C. to about 140° C., about 120° C. to about 160° C., about 120° C. to about 180° C., about 120° C. to about 200° C., about 120° C. to about 250° C., about 120° C. to about 300° C., about 140° C. to about 160° C., about 140° C. to about 180° C., about 140° C. to about 200° C., about 140° C. to about 250° C., about 140° C. to about 300° C., about 160° C. to about 180° C., about 160° C. to about 200° C., about 160° C. to about 250° C., about 160° C. to about 300° C., about 180° C. to about 200° C., about 180° C. to about 250° C., about 180° C. to about 300° C., about 200° C. to about 250° C., about 200° C. to about 300° C., or about 250° C. to about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, heating the first solution is performed at a temperature of about 50° C., about 60° C., about 80° C., about 100° C., about 120° C., about 140° C., about 160° C., about 180° C., about 200° C., about 250° C., or about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, heating the first solution is performed at a temperature of at most about 50° C., about 60° C., about 80° C., about 100° C., about 120° C., about 140° C., about 160° C., about 180° C., about 200° C., about 250° C., or about 300° C. Optionally, in some embodiments, heating the first solution is performed at a temperature of at least about 50° C., about 60° C., about 80° C., about 100° C., about 120° C., about 140° C., about 160° C., about 180° C., about 200° C., about 250° C., or about 300° C.

Optionally, in some embodiments, heating the first solution is performed for a period of time of about 25 minutes to about 100 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, heating the first solution is performed for a period of time of at least about 25 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, heating the first solution is performed for a period of time of at most about 100 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, heating the first solution is performed for a period of time of about 25 minutes to about 35 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 45 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 55 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 65 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 75 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 85 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 95 minutes, about 25 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 35 minutes to about 45 minutes, about 35 minutes to about 55 minutes, about 35 minutes to about 65 minutes, about 35 minutes to about 75 minutes, about 35 minutes to about 85 minutes, about 35 minutes to about 95 minutes, about 35 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 55 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 65 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 75 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 85 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 95 minutes, about 45 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 55 minutes to about 65 minutes, about 55 minutes to about 75 minutes, about 55 minutes to about 85 minutes, about 55 minutes to about 95 minutes, about 55 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 65 minutes to about 75 minutes, about 65 minutes to about 85 minutes, about 65 minutes to about 95 minutes, about 65 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 75 minutes to about 85 minutes, about 75 minutes to about 95 minutes, about 75 minutes to about 100 minutes, about 85 minutes to about 95 minutes, about 85 minutes to about 100 minutes, or about 95 minutes to about 100 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, heating the first solution is performed for a period of time of about 25 minutes, about 35 minutes, about 45 minutes, about 55 minutes, about 65 minutes, about 75 minutes, about 85 minutes, about 95 minutes, or about 100 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, heating the first solution is performed for a period of time of at least about 25 minutes, about 35 minutes, about 45 minutes, about 55 minutes, about 65 minutes, about 75 minutes, about 85 minutes, about 95 minutes, or about 100 minutes. Optionally, in some embodiments, heating the first solution is performed for a period of time of at most about 25 minutes, about 35 minutes, about 45 minutes, about 55 minutes, about 65 minutes, about 75 minutes, about 85 minutes, about 95 minutes, or about 100 minutes.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the first solution is washed in ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, NMP, cyclohexanone, terpineol, 3-methoxy-3-methyl-1-butanol, 4-hydroxyl-4-methyl-pentan-2-one, methyl isobutyl ketone, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments a volume of the secondary solvent is greater than a volume of at least one of the silver-based solution and the polymer solution by a factor of about 1.01:1 to about 3.5:1. Optionally, in some embodiments a volume of the secondary solvent is greater than a volume of at least one of the silver-based solution and the polymer solution by a factor of at least about 1.01:1. Optionally, in some embodiments a volume of the secondary solvent is greater than a volume of at least one of the silver-based solution and the polymer solution by a factor of at most about 3.5:1. Optionally, in some embodiments a volume of the secondary solvent is greater than a volume of at least one of the silver-based solution and the polymer solution by a factor of about 1.01:1 to about 1.05:1, about 1.01:1 to about 1.1:1, about 1.01:1 to about 1.25:1, about 1.01:1 to about 1.5:1, about 1.01:1 to about 1.75:1, about 1.01:1 to about 2:1, about 1.01:1 to about 2.25:1, about 1.01:1 to about 2.5:1, about 1.01:1 to about 2.75:1, about 1.01:1 to about 3:1, about 1.01:1 to about 3.5:1, about 1.05:1 to about 1.1:1, about 1.05:1 to about 1.25:1, about 1.05:1 to about 1.5:1, about 1.05:1 to about 1.75:1, about 1.05:1 to about 2:1, about 1.05:1 to about 2.25:1, about 1.05:1 to about 2.5:1, about 1.05:1 to about 2.75:1, about 1.05:1 to about 3:1, about 1.05:1 to about 3.5:1, about 1.1:1 to about 1.25:1, about 1.1:1 to about 1.5:1, about 1.1:1 to about 1.75:1, about 1.1:1 to about 2:1, about 1.1:1 to about 2.25:1, about 1.1:1 to about 2.5:1, about 1.1:1 to about 2.75:1, about 1.1:1 to about 3:1, about 1.1:1 to about 3.5:1, about 1.25:1 to about 1.5:1, about 1.25:1 to about 1.75:1, about 1.25:1 to about 2:1, about 1.25:1 to about 2.25:1, about 1.25:1 to about 2.5:1, about 1.25:1 to about 2.75:1, about 1.25:1 to about 3:1, about 1.25:1 to about 3.5:1, about 1.5:1 to about 1.75:1, about 1.5:1 to about 2:1, about 1.5:1 to about 2.25:1, about 1.5:1 to about 2.5:1, about 1.5:1 to about 2.75:1, about 1.5:1 to about 3:1, about 1.5:1 to about 3.5:1, about 1.75:1 to about 2:1, about 1.75:1 to about 2.25:1, about 1.75:1 to about 2.5:1, about 1.75:1 to about 2.75:1, about 1.75:1 to about 3:1, about 1.75:1 to about 3.5:1, about 2:1 to about 2.25:1, about 2:1 to about 2.5:1, about 2:1 to about 2.75:1, about 2:1 to about 3:1, about 2:1 to about 3.5:1, about 2.25:1 to about 2.5:1, about 2.25:1 to about 2.75:1, about 2.25:1 to about 3:1, about 2.25:1 to about 3.5:1, about 2.5:1 to about 2.75:1, about 2.5:1 to about 3:1, about 2.5:1 to about 3.5:1, about 2.75:1 to about 3:1, about 2.75:1 to about 3.5:1, or about 3:1 to about 3.5:1. Optionally, in some embodiments a volume of the secondary solvent is greater than a volume of at least one of the silver-based solution and the polymer solution by a factor of about 1.01:1, about 1.05:1, about 1.1:1, about 1.25:1, about 1.5:1, about 1.75:1, about 2:1, about 2.25:1, about 2.5:1, about 2.75:1, about 3:1, or about 3.5:1. Optionally, in some embodiments a volume of the secondary solvent is greater than a volume of at least one of the silver-based solution and the polymer solution by a factor of at least about 1.01:1, about 1.05:1, about 1.1:1, about 1.25:1, about 1.5:1, about 1.75:1, about 2:1, about 2.25:1, about 2.5:1, about 2.75:1, about 3:1, or about 3.5:1. Optionally, in some embodiments a volume of the secondary solvent is greater than a volume of at least one of the silver-based solution and the polymer solution by a factor of at most about 1.01:1, about 1.05:1, about 1.1:1, about 1.25:1, about 1.5:1, about 1.75:1, about 2:1, about 2.25:1, about 2.5:1, about 2.75:1, about 3:1, or about 3.5:1.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based solution comprises a silver-based material comprising AgNO3. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the silver-based solution is about 0.125 M to about 0.5 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the silver-based solution is at least about 0.125 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the silver-based solution is at most about 0.5 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the silver-based solution is about 0.125 M to about 0.15 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.175 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.225 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.125 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.175 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.225 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.225 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.175 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.225 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.225 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.225 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.225 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.225 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.225 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.225 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.35 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.35 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.35 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.4 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.4 M to about 0.5 M, or about 0.45 M to about 0.5 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the silver-based solution is about 0.125 M, about 0.15 M, about 0.175 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.225 M, about 0.25 M, about 0.3 M, about 0.35 M, about 0.4 M, about 0.45 M, or about 0.5 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the silver-based solution is at most about 0.125 M, about 0.15 M, about 0.175 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.225 M, about 0.25 M, about 0.3 M, about 0.35 M, about 0.4 M, about 0.45 M, or about 0.5 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the silver-based solution is at least about 0.125 M, about 0.15 M, about 0.175 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.225 M, about 0.25 M, about 0.3 M, about 0.35 M, about 0.4 M, about 0.45 M, or about 0.5 M.

Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the polymer solution is about 0.15 M to about 0.7 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the polymer solution is at least about 0.15 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the polymer solution is at most about 0.7 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the polymer solution is about 0.15 M to about 0.2 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.55 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.15 M to about 0.7 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.25 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.55 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.2 M to about 0.7 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.55 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.25 M to about 0.7 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.35 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.55 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.3 M to about 0.7 M, about 0.35 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.35 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.35 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.35 M to about 0.55 M, about 0.35 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.35 M to about 0.7 M, about 0.4 M to about 0.45 M, about 0.4 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.4 M to about 0.55 M, about 0.4 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.4 M to about 0.7 M, about 0.45 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.45 M to about 0.55 M, about 0.45 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.45 M to about 0.7 M, about 0.5 M to about 0.55 M, about 0.5 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.5 M to about 0.7 M, about 0.55 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.55 M to about 0.7 M, or about 0.6 M to about 0.7 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the polymer solution is about 0.15 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.25 M, about 0.3 M, about 0.35 M, about 0.4 M, about 0.45 M, about 0.5 M, about 0.55 M, about 0.6 M, or about 0.7 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the polymer solution is at least about 0.15 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.25 M, about 0.3 M, about 0.35 M, about 0.4 M, about 0.45 M, about 0.5 M, about 0.55 M, about 0.6 M, or about 0.7 M. Optionally, in some embodiments, a concentration of the polymer solution is at most about 0.15 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.25 M, about 0.3 M, about 0.35 M, about 0.4 M, about 0.45 M, about 0.5 M, about 0.55 M, about 0.6 M, or about 0.7 M.

Another aspect provided herein is a conductive silver-based film comprising a substrate and a conductive silver-based ink. Optionally, in some embodiments, the silver-based ink comprises silver nanoparticles, silver nanorods, silver nanowires, silver nanoflowers, silver nanofibers, silver nanoplatelets, silver nanoribbons, silver nanocubes, silver bipyramids, or any combination thereof.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive silver-based ink comprises silver nanowires, wherein the conductive silver-based film has a sheet resistance of about 0.3 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.8 ohms/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive silver-based ink comprises silver nanowires, wherein the conductive silver-based film has a sheet resistance of at least about 0.3 ohm/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive silver-based ink comprises silver nanowires, wherein the conductive silver-based film has a sheet resistance of at most about 1.8 ohms/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive silver-based ink comprises silver nanowires, wherein the conductive silver-based film has a sheet resistance of about 0.3 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.4 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.3 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.3 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.6 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.3 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.7 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.3 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.8 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.3 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.9 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.3 ohm/sq/mil to about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.3 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.2 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.3 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.4 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.3 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.6 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.3 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.8 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.4 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.4 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.6 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.4 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.7 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.4 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.8 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.4 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.9 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.4 ohm/sq/mil to about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.4 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.2 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.4 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.4 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.4 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.6 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.4 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.8 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.6 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.7 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.8 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.9 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.2 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.4 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.6 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.8 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.6 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.7 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.6 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.8 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.6 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.9 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.6 ohm/sq/mil to about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.6 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.2 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.6 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.4 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.6 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.6 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.6 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.8 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.7 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.8 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.7 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.9 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.7 ohm/sq/mil to about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.7 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.2 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.7 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.4 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.7 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.6 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.7 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.8 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.8 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.9 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.8 ohm/sq/mil to about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.8 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.2 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.8 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.4 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.8 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.6 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.8 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.8 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.9 ohm/sq/mil to about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.9 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.2 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.9 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.4 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.9 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.6 ohms/sq/mil, about 0.9 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.8 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.2 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.4 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.6 ohms/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil to about 1.8 ohms/sq/mil, about 1.2 ohms/sq/mil to about 1.4 ohms/sq/mil, about 1.2 ohms/sq/mil to about 1.6 ohms/sq/mil, about 1.2 ohms/sq/mil to about 1.8 ohms/sq/mil, about 1.4 ohms/sq/mil to about 1.6 ohms/sq/mil, about 1.4 ohms/sq/mil to about 1.8 ohms/sq/mil, or about 1.6 ohms/sq/mil to about 1.8 ohms/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive silver-based ink comprises silver nanowires, wherein the conductive silver-based film has a sheet resistance of about 0.3 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.4 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.6 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.7 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.8 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.9 ohm/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 1.2 ohms/sq/mil, about 1.4 ohms/sq/mil, about 1.6 ohms/sq/mil, or about 1.8 ohms/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive silver-based ink comprises silver nanowires, wherein the conductive silver-based film has a sheet resistance of at least about 0.3 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.4 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.6 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.7 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.8 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.9 ohm/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 1.2 ohms/sq/mil, about 1.4 ohms/sq/mil, about 1.6 ohms/sq/mil, or about 1.8 ohms/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive silver-based ink comprises silver nanowires, wherein the conductive silver-based film has a sheet resistance of at most about 0.3 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.4 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.5 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.6 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.7 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.8 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.9 ohm/sq/mil, about 1 ohm/sq/mil, about 1.2 ohms/sq/mil, about 1.4 ohms/sq/mil, about 1.6 ohms/sq/mil, or about 1.8 ohms/sq/mil.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive silver-based ink comprises silver nanoparticles, wherein the conductive silver-based film has a sheet resistance of about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.04 ohm/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive silver-based ink comprises silver nanoparticles, wherein the conductive silver-based film has a sheet resistance of at least about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive silver-based ink comprises silver nanoparticles, wherein the conductive silver-based film has a sheet resistance of at most about 0.04 ohm/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive silver-based ink comprises silver nanoparticles, wherein the conductive silver-based film has a sheet resistance of about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.011 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.012 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.014 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.016 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.018 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.02 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.025 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.03 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.035 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.04 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.011 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.012 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.011 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.014 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.011 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.016 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.011 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.018 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.011 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.02 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.011 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.025 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.011 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.03 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.011 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.035 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.011 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.04 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.012 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.014 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.012 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.016 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.012 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.018 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.012 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.02 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.012 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.025 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.012 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.03 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.012 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.035 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.012 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.04 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.014 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.016 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.014 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.018 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.014 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.02 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.014 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.025 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.014 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.03 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.014 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.035 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.014 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.04 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.016 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.018 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.016 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.02 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.016 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.025 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.016 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.03 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.016 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.035 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.016 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.04 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.018 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.02 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.018 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.025 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.018 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.03 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.018 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.035 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.018 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.04 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.02 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.025 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.02 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.03 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.02 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.035 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.02 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.04 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.025 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.03 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.025 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.035 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.025 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.04 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.03 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.035 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.03 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.04 ohm/sq/mil, or about 0.035 ohm/sq/mil to about 0.04 ohm/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive silver-based ink comprises silver nanoparticles, wherein the conductive silver-based film has a sheet resistance of about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.011 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.012 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.014 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.016 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.018 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.02 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.025 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.03 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.035 ohm/sq/mil, or about 0.04 ohm/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive silver-based ink comprises silver nanoparticles, wherein the conductive silver-based film has a sheet resistance of at least about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.011 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.012 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.014 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.016 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.018 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.02 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.025 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.03 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.035 ohm/sq/mil, or about 0.04 ohm/sq/mil. Optionally, in some embodiments, the conductive silver-based ink comprises silver nanoparticles, wherein the conductive silver-based film has a sheet resistance of at most about 0.01 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.011 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.012 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.014 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.016 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.018 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.02 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.025 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.03 ohm/sq/mil, about 0.035 ohm/sq/mil, or about 0.04 ohm/sq/mil.

Optionally, in some embodiments, the substrate comprises metal, wood, glass, paper, organic material, cloths, plastics, fiberglass, carbon cloth, carbon fiber, silicon, or any combination thereof.

Other goals and advantages of the embodiments described herein will be further appreciated and understood when considered in conjunction with the following description and accompanying drawings. While the following description may contain specific details describing particular embodiments described herein, this should not be construed as limitations to the scope of the embodiments described herein but rather as an exemplification of preferable embodiments. For each embodiment described herein, many variations are possible as suggested herein that are known to those of ordinary skill in the art. A variety of changes and modifications may be made within the scope of the embodiments described herein without departing from the spirit thereof.

