many concluded that “outdoor relief” was leading people to look on welfare as an entitlement and creating a class of permanent dependents. Consequently, the emphasis soon shifted to “indoor relief”—almshouses and workhouses.



Professor West also cites the strong role of private charity, which also was based on tough-love compassion.

After the Revolution and throughout the 19th century, hospitals for the poor, educational institutions, YMCAs, and Salvation Army branches were established in growing numbers all over America by public-spirited citizens. Like the public workhouses, these private charities distinguished between deserving and undeserving poor. Good character, it was thought, would enable most people to become self-sufficient. These agencies tried to build the character of their recipients through education, moral suasion, religious instruction, and work.

Now let’s see what West says about the effectivenessRecording the brain at work: the visible, the readable, and the invisible in electroencephalography.
The electroencephalogram (EEG), the graphic recording of the electric activity of the human brain, kindled far-reaching speculations about the imminent deciphering of mind and brain in the 1930s. Regardless of the thousands of neurons in the human cortex, recording from a person at rest produced a surprisingly regular line oscillating at 10 per second that disappeared at the moment of mental activity. With ever more groups specializing in electroencephalography, however, the deciphering of mind and brain did not materialize but moved further away in the information produced. In the various approaches employed in EEG research, such as the analysis of the graphic code, the search for pathognomic patterns or the imaging of cognitive processing, visualization