be to purge them of their superstitious, feudal and backwards elements. Lineage organizations, secrecy and esoteric practices were all deemed unfit for a new set of “national arts.” What was needed was a set of universal exercises to strengthen the physical and spiritual health of the people so that China could compete as a nation among nations on the global playing field.

Andrew Morris has devoted much time and effort to flushing out the connection between nationalism and the martial arts in this period. Chapter Seven of his monograph Marrow of the Nation gives a good overview of the efforts to modernize and reform the martial arts during the Republic period. A much more detailed discussion of how the efforts of specific groups (including the Jingwu Association and theheavily dependent on both trade and commerce. In fact, Guangdong had been dependent on food imports from at least the early 19th century as so much of its land had been turned over to commercial agriculture (silk, tea, opium, etc.) and handicraft production (iron, salt, paper, porcelain). It did not take long for the traders of Guangzhou to discover that in many respects they had more in common with their fellow merchants in Hong Kong and Vietnam than they did their ostensible political masters in Beijing and Nanjing.

Language also proved to be a challenge for the smooth development of Chinese nationalism. Following Anderson’s expectations “print vernaculars” did develop in southern China during the early 20th century. In Paper Swordsmen John Cristopher Hamm notes that martial arts novels produced