1-49. 32 Castles, Stephen and Mark J. Miller. 2009. The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, Fourth Edition. New York, NY: The Guilford Press, p.236; Lutz, Helma. 2010. "Gender in the Migratory Process." Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 36(1): 1647-1663. 33 Rhacel Salazar Parrenas. 2008. The Force of Domesticity. New York University Press, p. 42 ALEX SAGER 68 GLOBAL JUSTICE : THEORY PRACTICE RHETORIC (5) 2012 disposable income that reduces their dependence on men. Instead, she writes: the gender reconstitution prompted by the migration of women is from the outset ideologically stalled by the fact that their economic independence relies on the maintenance of their femininity, which they perform as submissive entertainers in a nightclub in Japan, as caregivers in a hospital orprivate home in Israel, or even as nimble-fingered assembly-lined workers in a factory in Dubai."34 Women everywhere in the world perform a disproportionate share of the reproductive labour, even in households where both spouses have similar jobs. Structural adjustment programs and austerity measures in the Philippines and other countries have diverted funds away from state sponsored welfare programs. The Philippines spends much of its tax revenue paying off the interest on international loans. At the same time, decline in real wages and cutbacks to public services in industrialized countries lead to more women in the workforce forced to hire full-time caregivers for their children.35 This creates "global care chains". Affluent women hire women from abroad to care for their families. These domestic workers may leave their own children