with 5.1 per cent of the vote.

This poor result, as well as other disagreements, led to armed hostilities between IMK and other secular Kurdish factions such as Kurdistan Workers Party (KWP) and Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP).

By 1999, the IMK had ceased hostilities, toned down its rhetoric and begun to re-integrate into the political order of Iraqi Kurdistan. However, a number of disillusioned members broke away to form more hard-line factions opposed to peace in the region and keen to continue armed conflict against the more secular factions.

These factions were eventually brought together under the Ansar al-Islam brand by September 2001. It is reported that around this time, and before the 9/11 attacks, the group visited al-Qaeda in Afghanistan to pledge its support and attract seed funding. Soon after,Ansar al-Islam managed to seize control of and govern a number of villages in Northern Iraq, implementing a harsh interpretation of Shariah that included closing down girls schools, beheading prisoners and banning music.

During the late 1990s, al-Qaeda also supported the formation of a Jordanian jihadist faction called Jama’at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad that included another jihadist who previously operated in Afghanistan, namely Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. As well as focusing on overthrowing the regime in Jordan, Zarqawi sought to build local alliances and affiliates since his eventual goal was to spread his message across the Levant.

Shortly after the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, Zarqawi moved to Iraq where he made contact with jihadist actors with a view to transforming his Jordanian jihadist group into a regional network.

Shortly after the invasion of Iraq