Psychostimulant overdose may cause rhabdomyolysis, hypertensive crisis, malignant hyperthermia, psychosis, hyperkinetic abnormal movements, and seizures. Movement disorders may develop during acute use, chronic drug abuse, or withdrawal, and may present as transient or permanent (19, 26).

Data concerning the use of psychostimulants are not consistent. The European Union (EU) countries report on the use of amphetamines, cocaine, and ecstasy, although the reported data varies largely. High risk of designer drugs to public health has been revealed in the reports of the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), and epidemiological surveys in several populations in Europe and the United States (US) (27–29). In UK, a total of 1613 drug-related deaths were reported at 2012, and there has been a slight increase in mortality rates associated with cocainea modulator for different pshychobiological functions, the toxic effects of MDMA manifest with deficits in those functions, including cognition, mood, and psychomotor skills. Neurotoxicity following MDMA is well established in animal studies showing decrease of SERT and DAT densities, with concomitant increase in extracellular serotonin and dopamine concentration (70, 86). 123Iβ-CIT SPECT imaging of human drug users has demonstrated reduction of SERT binding in the occipital cortex with the same subjects demonstrating decreased blood flow in the thalamic region on pharmacological MRI imaging (87).

Methylphenidate

Methylphenidate is a short-acting amphetamine-like psychostimulant that was introduced for medical use in 1957. It has been used extensively in the treatment of ADHD and adult narcolepsy, and also prescribed for off-label use against depression and weight control. The most frequent adverse events have been