Again, Saskia Sassen provides insight: The enforcement of national borders contributes to the existence of a large number of countries in the form of a periphery and the designation of its workers as a labor reserve for global capital. Border enforcement is a mechanism facilitating the extraction of cheap labor by assigning criminal 28 Martin, Philip. 2005. "Mexico-US Migration." In NAFTA Revisited: Achievements and Challenges, eds., Gary Clyde Hufabuer and Jeffrey J. School. Institute for International Economics, pp.441-66. 29 Sager, Alexander. 2011. "Immigration and Class." In La communauté politique en question. Regards croisés sur l'immigration, la citoyenneté, la diversité et le pouvoir, Eds. Micheline Labelle, Jocelyne Couture and Frank Remiggi. Montreal, QC: UQAM Press, pp.29-46. THE IMPLICATIONS OF MIGRATION THEORY FOR DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE 67 GLOBAL JUSTICE : THEORYin search of work. Female migrants confront a host of special challenges. Immigrant women frequently suffer discrimination on the grounds of race and gender and face serious disadvantages in the labor market.32 The anthropologist Rhacel Salazar Parreñas studies how patriarchy shapes global institutions, including migration law, economic practices, and the norms that regulate women's behaviour. Gender ideology, in her view, is implicit in neoliberal economic globalization which "relies on the construction of women as secondary wage earners."33 She rejects simple economic narratives that see women's entrance into the international workforce as a path to securing a 30 Sassen, Saskia. 1990. The Mobility of Labor and Capital. Cambridge University Press 31 Hing, Bill Ong. 2009. "Institutional Racism, ICE Raids, and Immigration Reform." University of San Francisco Law Review, 44(1):