returned similar conclusions and will be referred to collectively in the following. In the early aftermath of the attack, higher levels of early PTSR in parents predicted significantly higher frequency of GP visits in both mothers and fathers. In contrast, higher level of PTSR in their children did not. In the delayed aftermath, different patterns of primary healthcare consumption in mothers and fathers emerged. In mothers, higher levels of their own early PTSR predicted a significantly increased frequency of GP visits, while higher levels of their children's early PTSR predicted the reverse. In fathers, no significant association between frequency of GP visits in the delayed aftermath and early levels of PTSR was found. Instead, lower age, lower education and non-Norwegian origin were significantly associated with increased frequency oftime of Wave 1 may not accurately represent the level of distress experienced throughout the early time period. Moreover, parent and child PTSR were measured on the same scale. However, as the scale was originally developed for investigations of adolescent samples, it has not been validated in adult populations.

In this study, the Utøya terrorist attack serves as a model for parent traumatization through indirect exposure to life threat to a child. The terrorist attack occurred within a limited time and space and the survivors were fairly homogenously exposed to the terrorist threat. Furthermore, none of the parents were in the proximity of the island at the time of attack nor were they threatened by the perpetrator. Thus, all parents were exposed to the terrorist threat exclusively through learning