service. Having been secretly preaching for several years, Muhammad formed the basis of the future Muslim community, after which the mission took on a new form of public proclamation of the divine will (Al-Buti, 1996).

Once the identity is formed and the first group of like-minded people united in a single faith appears, the third circle is formed – jihad by the hand. The purpose of this type of Islamic jihad is to protect the newly formed Islamic society by means of regulating social relations within the Muslim through Shariah. A rather interesting fact is the first perception of Muslim society, the Ummah, which was originally defined not by religious belonging, but by territorial one, as it is evidenced by the Medina Charter (Constitution of Medina). According to itsNow connected to the Harlem River through the Harlem River Ship Canal, Spuyten Duyvil Creek once wrapped around Marble Hill–instead of cutting through it. While Manhattan giveth, The Bronx taketh away, and now Marble Hill is physically attached to the Bronx mainland.

Some of the original masonry arches remain

Constructed from 1837-48, New York’s oldest surviving bridge has carried water from the Croton Aqueduct as well as pedestrians. A renovation in the late 1920s saw many of the bridge’s masonry arches become replaced with a single steel arch. It’s been closed to pedestrians since the 1970s, with an expected reopening later this year.

The Outerbridge Crossing is arguably the most isolated bridge in NYC, as it is at the very Southern tip of New York State. This bridge in fact derives