Indian-administered Kashmir and then in the rest of the country. The dramatic terror attacks in Mumbai in 2008 starkly exposed Indian vulnerabilities to terrorism and accelerated counterterrorism cooperation with Israel, which has faced similar attacks for decades. Although the sources and rationales for terrorist attacks against the two countries differ widely, similarities in the conduct of such operations coupled with the so-called Islamist inspiration for such attacks have led to the perception that both India and Israel face very similar, if not identical, threats.

Similar Israeli and Indian stances on the NPT have further spurred cooperation. Both are nuclear powers who have defied the international system by not signing the NPT. The difference is that India suffered for its defiance; it faced international sanctions on the import of dual-usetechnology until the U.S.-India nuclear deal, signed in 2005 and ratified by the U.S. Congress in October 2008, lifted the ban on nuclear trade with India. Israel, because of its special relationship with the United States, largely escaped unscathed, except for occasional verbal condemnation by its adversaries. New Delhi has, reportedly, been importing dual-use technology clandestinely from Israel since the 1990s to sustain its missile program, despite sanctions.

For many years, India favored a subtle relationship with Israel. Historically committed to the Palestinian cause, India couldn’t risk damaging its ties to the Arab world. With Arab front-line states, like Egypt and Jordan, embarking on full diplomatic relations with Israel, it made no sense for India to feel ambivalent about its relationship with Tel Aviv. It also soon became clear